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HANDBOOK 

OF 

CONSTRUCTION COST 



WORKS OF HALBERT P. GILLETTE 
AND RICHARD T. DANA 



Handbook of Construction Cost. 

By Halhert P. Gillette 
1733 pages, illustrated, 4^ x 7 in., flexible binding 

Handbook of Mechanical and Electrical Cost Data. 
By Halhert P. Gillette and Richard T. Dana. 
1750 pages, illustrated, 4^ x 7 in., flexible binding 
Handbook of Cost Data, hy Gillette. 

A reference book giving methods of construction and actual 
costs of materials and labor on numerous civil engineering 

1878 pages, illustrated, flexible binding, 4^^ x 7 in. 

Handbook of Construction Equipment. 
By Richard T. Dana. 
^i'^^f,^.®* prices, shipping weights, capacities, outputs, etc., 
oi all kmds of construction machinery. 

Second edition, 850 pages, flexible binding, 4^ x 7 in. 

Handbook of Rock Excavation; Methods and Cost hv 
Gillette. 

840 pages, 184 illustrations, flexible binding, 4^^ x 7 in. 
Earthwork and Its Cost, hy Gillette. 

Third edition, 1362 pages, illustrated, flexible binding, 4>^ x 

Handbook of Clearing and Grubbing; Methods and 
Cost, hy Gillette. 

240 pages, 67 illustrations, 4^ x 7 in. 

'Construction Cost Keeping and Management. } 

I By Halhert P. Gillette and Richard T. Dana. J 

f A treatise for civil engineers and contractors. J 

572 pages, 264 illustrations, cloth, 6 x 9 in. / 

Concrete Construction; Methods and Cost. 

By Halhert P. Gillette and Charles S. Hill. 

A treatise on concrete and reinforced concrete structures of 
every kind. 

700 pages, 306 illustrations, cloth, 6 x 9 in. 
The Trackman's Helper. 

By Richard T. Dana and A. F. Trimble. 
400 pages, cloth, 4}4 x 6^i,in. 

Note: For full descriptions of these books see the advertising 
pages at the end of this volume. 



HANDBOOK OF 
CONSTRUCTION COST 



BY 

HALBERT POWERS GILLETTE 

EDITOR of' engineering AND CONTRACTING, MEMBER AMERICAN SOCIETY OP 

CIVIL ENGINEERS, AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERS, WESTERN SOCIETY 

OF ENGINEERS 



First Edition 



McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, Inc. 
NEW YORK: 370 SEVENTH AVENUE 

LONDON: 6 & 8 BOUVERIE ST., E. C. 4 

1922 






Copyright, 1922, by the 
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. 



x3-^^^^^ 



THE MAPLE PRESS - YORK PA 



NOV 28 '22 



©CIA 6 020 83 






0- 
c^. PREFACE 

^^ Seventeen years ago the first edition of my Handbook of Cost Data was 
published; the second edition was published twelve years ago and has not been 
revised. When the question arose as to whether I should revise the Handbook 
of Cost Data now or produce an entirely new book on construction costs, I 
chose the latter alternative, for the following reasons: 

Nearly three-fourths of the costs given in the Handbook of Cost Data are 
still applicable although published more than twelve years ago. This may 
surprise many people, for cost data are commonly supposed to be ephemeral. 
But, as stated in the prefaces to the Handbook of Cost Data and to the 
Handbook of Mechanical and Electrical Cost Data, unit costs can be so stated 
as to be applicable for a century or more, provided the methods of construction 
have not changed. If the number of hours of labor of each class and the 
number of units of materials are given for each unit of construction, then 
present rates of wages and present prices of materials can be applied to the old 
data, and the present cost of construction deduced. 

Because of this fact I decided not to revise the Handbook of Cost Data for 
a few years longer, but to produce a new companion book under the title of 
Handbook of Construction Cost, thus preserving fully 1,800 pages of usable 
cost data in the old book, and adding thereto 1,700 pages in this new book. 
The owners of the old handbook will thus find no duplication of data in this 
new handbook and will not be put to the expense of buying a two volume 
revised edition. 

The World War caused a great rise in prices and wages. So important did 
it become to know approximately what future price and wage levels would be 
that I decided to make a very thorough study of the factors that affect price 
and wage levels. This study was rewarded by the deduction first of a price 
level formula, and later of a wage level formula, both of which are discussed at 
some length in this book, where they are shown to be in agreement with the 
facts for so many years as to leave no doubt as to their substantial accuracy. 

Several political economists had previously announced composite price and 
wage formulas, which purported to give a weighted average of commodity 
and security prices and of wages. My engineering training enabled me to 
discern that since the wage level curve had risen almost uniformly for a century, 
whereas the commodity price level curve had oscillated, no formula giving a 
composite of wages and prices would be of any value, even if it could be 
leduced. Accordingly, I devoted myself to deducing two distinct formulas, 
ine for commodity price levels and one for wage levels. The first of these 
^as published in Engineering and Contracting, April 7, 1920, and the second 
.ugust 3, 1921, together with the proof of their substantial accuracy. 

For compiling data for this book I am greatly indebted to James M. 

Ingsley. 

Halbert p. Gillette. 
Chicago, 

Sept, 1, 1922. 

V 



Il 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I 

Pages 

Engineeeing Economics 1-33 

Definition of Engineering, Imperfect Cost Data, 1; Prices and Costs, 
Usefulness of Old Cost Data, 2; Efficiency as Affecting Costs, General 
Features of Engineering Economics, 3; Making Rapid and Reliable 
Preliminary Estimates of Cost, 6; Cost Estimating, 12; A Complete 
Cost Estimate, 18; Factors a Contractor Should Consider in Esti- 
mating, 25; Economic Considerations in Municipal Engineering 
Designs, 29. 

CHAPTER II 

Prices and Wages 34-138 

Past and Future Wage Levels, Price Indexes, 34; The Author's For- 
mula for Commodity Price Levels, 35; Productive Efficiency, 40; The 
Efficiency of Miners, 41; Agricultural Efficiency, 44; Efficiency of 
Manufacturing Workers, 45; Productive Efficiency per Capita, 46; 
General Principles of Price Indexes, 61; Index Prices of Wholesale 
Commodities, 65; Prices of Important Commodities Used in Con- 
struction, 68; Cast Iron Water Pipe Prices, 77; Prices of Steel and 
Iron Pipe, 84; Prices of Reinforcing Bars, 88; Structural Shapes, 89; 
Brick and Cement, 90; Vitrified Pipe, 91 ; Metals and Metal Products, 
94; Structural Steel, 104; Method of Obtaining Average Increase 
in Prices of Building Materials, 106; Determination of Unit Prices 
for Valuation of Plant, 107; Past and Future Wage Levels, 113; The 
Author's Wage Level Formula, 118; Wages in Building Trades, 
Wages of Common Labor on Construction Work, 124; Wages on 
Highway Work, Wages Paid Railroad Workers, 126; Rental Prices 
for Construction Equipment, 132; Rental Charges for Grading 
Equipment, 138. 

CHAPTER III 

Iauling . 139-179 

Cost of Maintaining City Owned Teams, 139; Depreciation in Value 
on Horses, 141; Health Efficiency of Horses, Hauling Material with 
Mules, 144; Number of Wagons Required for Hauling from Steam 
Shovels, Average Loads in Team Hauling on Country Highways, 
145; Cost of Hauling with Teams, 146; Motor Trucking, 147; 
Horse Trucking, 148; Comparative Costs of Hauling with Steam 
Tractor and Teams, 158; Mules vs. Steam Tractor for Road Work, 
159; Economics and Costs of Motor Truck Operation, 160; Opera- 
ting Costs of Motor Truck Delivering Sand and Gravel, 169; Cost 
of Hauling with Motor Trucks, 170; Trailers for Use with Con- 
tractor's Motor Trucks, 171; Operating Costs of Motor Trucks, 
Cost of Hauling Stone with Traction Engine and Stone Spreading 
Cars, 174; Cost of Industrial Railway in Road Building, 177; 
Portable Railways for Hauling Materials for Road Construction, 178. 

vii 



viii CONTENTS 

CHAPTER IV 

Pages 

Excavation Economics 180-207 

Rating Table for Excavation with Pick and Shovel, 180; Application 
of Eflaciency Engineering to Shoveling, 183; Economic Choice of 
Shovels for Construction Work, 192; Application of Scientific 
Management to Trenching, 194; Keeping Cost of Earthwork, 198; 
Analysis of Costs of Steam Shovel Work, 199. 

CHAPTER V 

CONCKETE CONSTEUCTION 208-235 

Value of Determining Void Percentages for Coarse Aggregate for 
Concrete, 208; Diagram for Cost of Placing Steel Reinforcement, 
212; Cost of Cement Bags, Cleaning Cement Sacks with Blower, 
Cost of Manufacture of Sand Cement, 214; Heating Concrete in the 
Drum with an Oil Burner, 215; Additional Cost of Treating Concrete 
in the Winter, 216; Method for Testing the Strength of Concrete 
Floor Slab, 217; Operating Cost of a Concrete Mixer Reduced by 
Electric Motor, Operation of Pneumatic Mixers, 218.; Placing Con- 
crete by Compressed Air Method, 220; Labor Saving Equipment for 
Depositing Concrete, 221; Labor Costs on Foundation Work 
Using Portable Plant, 223 ; Wear of Pipe and Conveyors for Concrete 
Material, 224; Depositing Concrete on Bags under Water, 225; 
Labor Cost on Forms, 226; Design and Costs of Sliding Forms, 
227; Movable Wall Forms, 230; Comparative Costs of Finishing 
Concrete Surfaces by Various Methods, 232; Cost of Waterproofing 
Concrete, 234. 

CHAPTER VI 

Dams, Reservoirs and Standpipes 236-317 

Cost of Storage Reservoirs, 236; Cost per Acre-foot of Large Storage 
Dams, 237; Cost of Reservoirs, Estimates of Dams, 242; Cost of 
Cyclopean Masonry, 246; Gravity Type Mixer Operation, 247; 
Cost of Arched Masonry Dam, Cost of Multiple-arch Curved Dam, 
249; Cost of East Park Dam, 251; Cost of Stony River Hollow 
Concrete Dam, 253; Cost of Concrete Core Wall, 255; Cost of 
Constructing Small Concrete Dam, 258; Cost of Small Concrete 
Dam Built with Unskilled Labor, 259; Dimensions of Reservoirs for 
Economical Design, 260; Cost of Open Concrete Reservoir, 261 ; Cost 
of Covered Concrete Reservoir, 262; Cost of Small Reinforced Con- 
crete Reservoirs, 263; Cost of Concrete-lined Oil-storage Reservoirs, 
265; Cost of Reinforced Concrete Cisterns, 267; Cost of Under- 
ground Concrete Cisterns, 269 ; Labor Required on Concrete Cisterns, 
273; Cost of Concrete Reservoirs at Brockton, Mass., 275; Cost 
of Grouting Dam Foundations, 281; Costs of Groined Arch Roof 
for Minneapolis Reservoir, 282; Cost of Wooden Form Work for 
Groined Arch Reservoir, 283 ; Cost of Lining a Brick Lined Reservoir 
with Concrete, 289; Cost of Renewing Wooden Roof of Reservoir, 
291; Cost of Concrete Wave Protection for Earth Dams, 292; 
Cost of Concrete Water Tower, 300; Reinforced Concrete Water 
Tower Construction, 304; Cost of 300,000 Gal. Reinforced Concrete 
Standpipe, 310; Cost of Steel Standpipes, 311; Cost and Weight of 



CONTENTS ix 

Pages 
Steel Water Tank of 350,000 Gal. Capacity, 312; Cost of 30,000 
Gal. Wooden Gravity Sprinkler Tank, 314; Life of Wooden Water 
Tanks, 315; Condition of Steel Water Tank- After 30 Years Service, 
316; Data on Life of Iron Water Tank, 317. 

CHAPTER VII 

Water Works 318-432 

Construction and Operating Costs of Water Works, 318; Required 

Sizes of Filters, 322; Waterworks Data for Small Towns and Villages, 

324; Cost and Operating Data for Small Waterworks, 329; Percent 

of Waterworks Plant Charged to Fire Protection, 340 ; Subdivision of 

Cost of Waterworks, 343; Cost of High Pressure Fire System, 347; 

Cost of Setting Water Meters, 350; Number of Meters Read per Day 

per Man, 354; Cost of Meter Reading, 355; Cost of Meter Repairs, 

356; Cost of a Water Leakage Survey, 357; Cost of Concrete Siphons, 

364; Cost of Concrete Aqueduct Sections, 369; Cost of Inverted * 

Steel Siphon, 371 ; Data on Steel Pipe, 375 ; Maintenance of Steel Pipe, 

377; Cost per Foot of Cast Iron Pipe, 380; Machine Trenching, 381; 

Saving Effected by Using Pipe Laying Machinery, 386; Estimating 

Water-main Extension Costs, 388; Cost of Laying Cast Iron Water 

Pipe, 389; Construction Costs of High Pressure Fire Mains, 399; 

OL Cost of Pipe Joints, 402 ; Cost of Repairing Fire Hydrants by Welding, 

^L^ 404; Cost of Pipe Bending by Machine, 405; Cost of Laying Screwed 

^^h Pipe, 406; Cost of Incasing Steel Pipe with Concrete, 407; Cost 

^^B of Wood Stave Pipe, 409; Cost of Repairing Wood Stave Pipe, 

^^m 428 ; Life of Service Pipes, 424 ; Methods and Costs of Thawing Water 

^^B Mains, Cost of Cleaning Water Mains, 425; Relative Merits and 

^^ Costs of Dug and Driven Wells, 429; Costs of Water Supply Wells, 

432. 

CHAPTER VIII 

Water Treatment Plants 433-508 

Cost of Liquid Chloride Treatment of Water, 433 ; Cost of Electrolitic 
Chlorine, 434; Operating Costs of Ultra-violet Sterilization Plants, 
Copper Sulphate Treatment for Algae, 436; Comparative Costs of 
Coagulation, 439; Economic Size of Sand Filter Beds, 440; Cost 
per Million Gallons of Constructing and Operating Slow and Rapid 
Sand Water Filtration Plants, 441; Cost of Water Purification 
Plants, 447; Construction and Operation of Filters of the Pressure 
Type, 461; Labor Costs of Constructing Filtration Plant, 463; Costs 
of Concrete Construction in Water Filtration Plant, 481; Cost of 
Rebuilding Filter Beds, 485; Copper Sulphate Treatment of Filter 
Water, 487; Operating Costs of Filtration Plants, 489; Cleaning Sand 
in Filters, 498; Cost of Cleaning Settling Tanks, 503. 

CHAPTER IX 

Irrigation 508-616 

Cost of Irrigation Works per Acre Supplied, 508; Cost of Reporting 
on an Irrigation Project, 511; Cost of Constructing Irrigation 

1 Works, 514; Size and Cost of Organization for Operating Irrigation 
Systems, 515; Economic Water Conduit Location, 516; Cost Curves 
Used for Location of Catskill Aqueduct, 521 ; Scarifier Used to Loosen 



X CONTENTS 

Pages 
Dirt for Irrigation Ditches, 524; Cost of Enlargement of Irrigation 
Canal, 525; Cost of Concrete Lining of Irrigation Canals, 531; Cost 
of Cleaning Irrigation Ditches, 546; Cost of Pipes for Farm Irrigation, 
551; Cost of Manufacturing Concrete Pipe, 557; Annual Cost of 
Wooden Pipes and Flumes, 559; Cost of High Flume Trestle, 561; 
Cost of Repairing Leaky Wooden Flume, 562 ; Comparison of Wood 
and Concrete for Irrigation Structures, 564; Life of Irrigation Struc- 
tures, 570; Cost of Concrete Drops, 575; Cost of Reinforced Concrete 
Check Delivery Structure, 578; Cost of Spray Irrigation, 587; 
Selection, Installation and Cost of Small Pumping Plants for 
Irrigation, 593; First Cost, and Cost of Operation of Irrigation 
Pumping Plants, 610; Cost of Small Earth Reservoirs as an Adjunct 
to Irrigation Pumping Plants, 613; Cost of Wells and Well Drilling 
Equipment, 614. 

CHAPTER X 

Land Drainage 616-664 

The Elements of Costs of Drainage Systems, Types of Equipment 
Best Adapted to Land Drainage, 616; Costs of Dredge Excavation of 
Drainage Ditches, 617; Cost of Dredging Main Canals, 622; Cost of 
Operating Wheel Type Excavators in Drainage Ditching, 623 ; Cost 
of Straddle Ditch Excavators Work, 625 ; Drag Line Excavators on 
Ditch Work, 627; Cost of Ditch Excavation with Dynamite, 630; 
Cost of Maiijtaining Drainage Ditches, 632; Cost and Profits from 
Tile Underdrains, 633; Cost of 35 Miles of Tile Drains, 636; Centrif- 
ugal Pumping Plants for Drainage, 652 ; Comparative Economy of 
Steam and Electric Pumping Plants for Drainage, 656. 

CHAPTER XI 

Sewers 665-752 

Cost of Shallow Sewer Trenching with Sewer Excavator, 665 ; Cost of 
Deep Sewer Trenching with Carson Machine, 668; Cost of Deep 
Trenching, 671; Progress and Distribution of Time of Force on 
Sewer Trenching by Machine, 673; Cost of Excavating Trench in 
Granite, 675; Average Cost of Sewers, Washington, D. C, 676; 
Cost of Sewer Construction, 678; Cost of Pipe Sewers in Water 
Bearing Sand, 687; Cost of Constructing a Small Submerged Sewer 
Outfall, 694; Cost of Concrete Sewer Pipe, 700; Labor Costs on 
Concrete Sewers, 701; Cost of 6 Ft. Storm Sewer, 704; Cost of a 
Large Concrete Sewer, 706; Labor Cost of 8 Ft. Concrete Sewer, 716; 
Cost of Mixing and Placing Concrete by Hand for a 4 Ft. Circular 
Sewer, 719; Cost of Reinforced Concrete Pipe Sewers, 720; Cost of 
Tile and of Concrete Sewer, 722; Bricklaying Costs for Brick Sewers, 
724; Labor Cost of Concrete and Brick Sewer Construction, 726; 
Cost of Large Brick and Concrete Sewers, 737; Cost of Operation of 
Sewer Cleaner, 746; Valuation and Depreciation of Sewers, 748 

CHAPTER XII 

Sewage Treatment 753-808 

Cost of Sewage Treatment Plants, 753; Cost of Constructing 
and Operating Trickling Filters, 763; Cost of Ashes for Filtering 



CONTENTS xi 

Pages 
Material in Contact Beds, 770; Cost of Sewage Treatment Works, 
772; Cost of Earthwork, Concrete, Filter Media and Drains of 
Sewage Treatment Plant, 776; Cost Estimates for Intercepting Sewer 
and Treatment Plant, 777; Activated Sludge Plant, 779; Activated 
Sludge Power Costs, 781; Comparative Cost of Construction and 
Operation of Activated Sludge and Imhoff Tank-trickling Filtering 
Processes of Sewage Treatment, 784; Cost of Sludge Removal, Cost of 
Pressing Sewage Sludge, 793; Cost of Cleaning Sewer Catchbasins, 
805. 

CHAPTER XIII 

Garbage Disposal 8091-850 

Cost of Collecting, Hauling and Transporting Municipal Refuse, 
809; Cost of Motor Truck Operation for Refuse Collection, 813; 
Cost of Collection and Removal of City Wastes, 817; Economic 
Methods of Waste Disposal for Various Sized Cities, 821; Cost of 
Garbage Disposal by Incineration, Reduction and Feeding to 
Swine, 823; Operation of Garbage Piggery, 833; Cost and Operating 
Data of High-temperature Refuse Incinerators, 838; Cost of Collect- 
ing and Incinerating Garbage, 843; Annual Operating Record of 
Refuse Disposal of Palo Alto, Calif., 845; Cost of Operating Destruc- 
tor with Steam Utilization, 846; Comparative Operating Costs of the 
Chicago and Cleveland Reduction Plants, .848; Cost of Garbage 
Collection and Reduction at Cleveland, O., 850. 

CHAPTER XIV 

Street Sprinkling, Cleaning and Snow Removal 851-889 

Time Studies and Factors and Standards for Street Cleaning in 
Chicago, 851; Street Cleaning Costs at Houston, Texas, 856; 
Street Cleaning Practice in Cities of from 50,000 to 100,000 Popu- 
lation, 859; Cost of Street Cleaning at St. Paul by Patrol System, 
862; Motor Driven Sqeegees for Street Cleaning, 863; Cost of 
Cleaning with Vacuum Cleaners, Cost with Machine Flushers, 
864; Principles Developed for Flushing Streets, 868; Cost of Street 
Flushing at Chicago, 872; Cost of Motor Flushers 873; Trolley 
Flushers, 875; Street Sprinkling, 876; Calcium Chloride as a Dust 
Preventative, 877; Snow Removal, 879; Operating Cost of Cater- 
pillar Tractor in Snow Removal Work, Cost of Snow Removal with 
Rotary Plow, 885; Cost of Loading Snow by Steam Shovel, 886; 
Motor Trucks for Snow Removal, 887; Costs of Breaking Country 
Roads with Snow Rollers, 889. 

CHAPTER XV 

Roads and Pavements 890-1026 

Estimating the Cost of Paved Surfaces for Highway Improvement, 
890; Cost of Maintenance of Road Building Outfits, Depreciation 
Charges on Road Building Equipment, 893; Costs of Grading in 
Earth Road Construction, 895; Costs on Street Grading With a 
Steam Shovel, 897; Methods and Costs of Constructing Three 
Sections of Sand-clay Road, 898; Macadam Road Construction Using 



xii CONTENTS 

Pages 
Industrial Railway for Hauling, 903 ; Cost of Constructing Macadam 
Pavement, 904; Effect of Length of Haul on Cost of Surfacing 
Macadam and Gravel Roads, 905; Costs of Operating Steam and 
Gasoline Road Rollers, 908; Cost of Renewing Surface of Old 
Macadam, 909; Cost of Maintenance of Macadam with Roller and 
Scarifier, 910; Cost of Boulevard Oiling, 914; Cost of Asphaltic 
Macadam Construction, 917; Using Asphalt Mixer in Constructing 
Asphaltic Concrete Surface, 921; Cost of Removing Old Asphaltic 
Macadam Road Surface, Reworking the Old Material and Relaying, 
925; Cost of Mixing Bituminous Materials by Machine and by 
Hand, 928; Cost of Plant and Equipment for Building Bituminous 
Roads, 933; Cost of Asphalt Block Pavement, 936; Cost of Sheet 
Asphalt Pavement, 940; Cost of Asphalt Paving Repairs, 948; Cost of 
Operating Municipal Asphalt Plant, 950; Cost of Brick Paved Roads, 
957; Labor Cost of Monolithic Brick Pavement, 958; Cost of Brick 
Pavements, 959; Cost of Grouting Brick Pavement, 962; Cost 
of Cleaning Old Paving Brick, 966; Cost of Concrete Road, 970; 
Crew Organization for Concrete Pavement Work, 975; Concrete 
Delivered Wet by Motor Trucks, 983; Cost of Concrete Road with 
Bituminous Wearing Surface, 987; Organization and Output of 
Gang Laying Concrete Base for Asphalt Pavement, 993; Canvas 
Covering for Concrete Road Construction, 997 ; Cost of Redressing 
Granite Blocks, 998; Cost of Grouting Granite Block Pavement, 
999; Cost of Wood Block Pavement, 1001; Operating Costs of 
Tractor, Trucks and Sand Screen and Loader in Road Maintenance, 
1004; Cost of Cutting Pavements with Pneumatic Machine, 1007; 
Cost of Resurfacing Macadam Walks, 1008; Cost of Cement Tile 
Sidewalk, 1010; Cost of Grading and Constructing Sidewalks, 1013; 
Cost of Cutting Edge of Concrete Walk, 1019; Cost of Raising 
Sunken Concrete Walk, 1020; Cost of Laying Granite Curb, 1024; 
Cost of Cobble Lined Gutter, 1025. 

CHAPTER XVI 

Highway Bridges and Culverts 1027-1110 

Economic Highway Bridges and Culverts, 1027; Curves for Esti- 
mating Steel Bridge Quantities, 1031; Cost of Substructure of 
Double-leaf Trunnion Bascule Bridge, 1034; Cost of Abutment 
Masonry and Slope Paving for Highway Bridge Foundations, 1053 ; 
Cost of Dismantling and Old Highway Bridge and Erecting New 
Truss and Girder Spans, 1056; Cost of Erecting St. Paul State Aid 
Bridge, 1058; Cost of Steel Highway Bridge, 1064; Unit Costs of 
Constructing Plate-girder Bridges with Concrete Substructures, 
1066; Cost of Jacketing Underwater Portions of a Bridge Sub- ^ 
structure with Concrete, 1069; Relative Economy of Slab, through 
Girder and Deck Girder Types of Concrete Bridges, 1071; Cost of 
113 Ft. Reinforced Concrete Girder Bridge, 1072; Cost of Concrete 
Viaduct, 1086; Economic Height Limit of Retaining Wall, 1091; 
Economic Panel Length for Bridge Floors of Concrete Slabs on 
Steel Beams, 1096; The Economic Design of Culverts for Various 
Depths of Fill, 1099; Cost of Concrete Arch and Pipe Culverts 



CONTENTS, xiii 

Pages 

Using Collapsible Steel Forms, 1101; Cost of Reinforced Concrete 
Box Culvert; 1102; Cost of Concrete Culverts, 1103; Construction 
Cost of 5 Ft. Combination Corrugated Pipe and Concrete Culvert, 
1106; Cost of Reinforced Concrete and Vitrified Pipe Culvert, 1107; 
Weight of Steel Sheeting for Round or Box Cofferdams, 1109. 

'chapter xyii 

Railway Bridges 1111-1165 

• Deduction of a New Rational Formula for the Economic Length 
of Each of a Series of Bridge Spans, 1111; A Comparison of Carbon 
Steel and High-alloy Steels for Bridges, 1119; Formula for Erection 
of a Bridge Superstructure, 1127; Cost of Concrete Abutments and 
Pedestals on Track Elevation Work, 1128; Labor Cost of Piers and 
Abutments for Viaduct, 1131; Cost of Cofferdam for a Small Bridge 
Pier, 1133; Erection Costs of a Double-track Railway Bridge, 1135; 
Cost of Converting a Pin-connected Bridge into a Riveted Structure, 
Cost of a Cable Lift Drawbridge, 1153; Cost of Erecting Structural 
Steel for Manhattan Elevated Railway Improvements, 1156; Cost of 
Reinforcing a Steel Bridge with Concrete, 1158; Cost of Con- 
structing Three Single-track Concrete Arch Bridges, 1160; Cost of 
Concreting Bridges, 1163. 

CHAPTER XVIII 

Steam Railways 1166-1260 

Approximate Cost of Rapid Transit Lines, 1166; Economic Weights 
of Rail, 1168; Equation of Track Values for Equalizing Lengths of 
Sections for Maintenance Work, 1171; Cost of Railway Track 
Reconstruction, 1172; Prices Used in the Valuation of Railways in 
Nebraska, 1173; New York, New Haven and Hartford R.R., 1184; 
Cost of Grading, 1185; Cost of Raising Embankment and Filling 
Trestles Using Steam Shovel, 1193; Costs of Railway Ditching by 
Various Methods, 1195; Cost of Steam Shovel Work Loading into 
Cars for Ballasting and Grading, 1196; Cost of Unloading, Spacing 
and Renewing Ties, 1199; Amounts of Creosote and Zinc Chloride 
for Cross Ties, 1201; Most Economical Tie for Different Conditions 
of Track and Traffic, 1202; Organization for and Progress of Laying 
Rail with Locomotive Cranes, 1206 ; Cost of Unloading Railway Rails, 
1207; Loading Rails, 1210; Cost of Tracklaying with Tracklaying 
Machine, 1212; Grading and Tracklaying with a Ditcher, 1218; 
Cost of Making 2 In. Lift on Main Line, 1219; Cost of Renewing 
Rail, 1220; Time Tests in Laying Rail, 1221; Unit Costs for Railway 
Switches, 1224; Cost of Maintaining Anchored and Unanchored 
Track, 1227; Labor Saving Devices in Maintenance of Way Work, 
1229; Labor Saving Equipment Employed in Track Maintenance, 
1231; Cost of Cleaning Weeds and Grass from Track, 1233; Records 
of Work in Surfacing and Smoothing Track, 1234; Cost of Turn- 
tables, 1238; Cost of Railroad Signal Protection, 1241; Cost of 
Changing 17 Miles of Railroad Track from Narrow Gage to Standard 
Gage, 1247; Life and Cost of Timber Snowsheds, Cost of Locomotive 
Repairs, Renewals and Depreciation, 1251; Life of Railway Rolling 



xiv ' CONTENTS 

Pages 
Stock, 1252; Cost of Locomotives and Freight Cars, 1253; Life and 
Maintenance of Freight Cars, 1255; Cost of Water Softening for 
Railroads, 1258. 

CHAPTER XIX 

Small Tunnels 1261-1367 

Costs of 20 Tunnels, 1261; Labor Costs of ^ Constructing Six Small 
Tunnels and Shafts in Earth and Rock, 1280; Cost of Tunnel for 
Hydro-electric Development, 1290; Cost of Driving 8,700 Ft. 
Tunnel by Station Men, 1295; Cost of Cross Cutting, 1296; Cost ■ 
of a 10 X 12 Ft. Tunnel, 1302; Organization and Progress in Driving 
a 7 X 12 Ft. Drift, in Hard Gneiss, 1305; Cost of Small Tunnel for 
Sewer in Very Hard Rock, Cost of One-man-per-heading Tunnel 
Driven Through Shale, 1306; Cost of Constructing Brick Sewer in 
Tunnel Under Compressed Air, 1307; Cost of Water Works Tunnels 
through Waban Hill, Newton, Mass., 1310; Organization and 
Progress of St. Louis Water Works Tunnel, 1324; Cost of Tunnel 
No. 7 of the Los Angeles Aqueduct, 1327 ; Cost of Tunnel in Clay for 
Sewer Outlet, 1335; Cost of Brick Lined Tunnel for 36 In. Water 
Main, 1341; Cost of Water Pipe Tunnel, 1346; Cost of Two Tunnels 
in. Rock under the Erie Canal for the Buffalo Water Works, 1350; 
Comparative Cost of Constructing Concrete Lining Using Gravity 
Chute and Steam Mixer, 1356; Cost of Lining Water Supply Tunnel 
with Pneumatic Mixer, 1359; Overbreakage in Catskill Aqueduct 
Tunnels, 1360; Cost of Excess Yardage in Tunnels, Depth and 
Number of Drill Holes in Tunnels, 1362; Comparative Drilling 
Speeds at 24 Tunnels, 1364; Cost of Repairs of Drills Employed in 
Tunneling, 1366; Advantage of Adequate Ventilation in Tunnel 
Work, 1367. 

CHAPTER XX 

Large Tunnels 1368-1427 

Cost of Beckwith Pass Tunnel of Western Pacific Railway, 1368; 
Mount Royal Tunnel, Methods and Progress, 1370; Cost of Tunnel 
of the Canadian Pacific Railway, 1377; Cost of St. Paul Pass Tunnel, 
1386; Cost of Land Sections of Penn. Railroad North River Tunnels 
at New York, 1391; Cost of Tunneling in Soft Earth Using Poling 
Board Method and Hydraulic Roof Shields, 1392; Cost of Tunnel 
Lining by Compressed Air Mixing and Placing, 1396; Lining Mount 
Royal Tunnel by Pneumatic Mixer, 1399; Output of Special Car 
Plant with Pneumatic Mixer Outfit for Lining Railroad Tunnel. 
1403 ; " Organization and Output in Lining Tunnel with Pneumatic 
Mixer, 1406; Relining Brick Lined Tunnel with Steam Jetted 
Concrete, 1408; Cost Data on Lining Tunnels with Brick and 
Concrete and Brick, 1409; Economy Effected by Rogers Pass Tunnel, 
1424; Reference to Subaqueous Shield Driven Tunnel Costs, 1427. 

CHAPTER XXI 

Bank and Shore Protection 1428-1468 

Costs of Brush Mattresses, 1428; Cost of Plank Mattresses, 1441; 
Comparative Costs of Board Mat and Brush Mattresses for Rivef: 



f 



CONTENTS XV 

Pages 
Bank Protection, Cost of Concrete Paved Bank Revetment, 1443; 
Concrete Slab for Bank Protection, 1446; Cost of Riprapping 
Embankment with Wire Bags, 1448; Cost of Rebuilding Jetties, 
1449; Cost of Repointing Sea Wall with Cement Gun, 1454; Cost of 
Unloading Stone for Rubble Mound Breakwater, 1457; Method of 
Making Rapid Estimates for Crib Pier and Breakwater Construction, 
1458; Types of Breakwater Construction and Their Cost, 1462; Cost 
of Sea Wall for Land Reclamation at New Orleans, 1466. 

CHAPTER XXII 

Docks and Wharves 1469-1509 

Costs of Various Types of Freight Handling Wharves, 1469 ; Costs of 
Terminal Piers at Norfolk, Va., 1472; Costs of Steamship Piers at 
Philadelphia, Pa., 1477; Life, Maintenance and Cost of Pile Piers 
with Timber and Concrete Decks, 1481; Reinforced Concrete 
Wharf, 1485; Cost of Cellular Concrete Superstructures for Timber 
Piers, 1490; Cost of a Timber Pleasure Pier on Pile Bents, 1491; 
Cost of Driving Sheet and Bearing Piles and Placing Concrete for 
Ore Dock at Duluth, 1494; Cost of Driving Piles with a Gasoline 
Engine, 1498; Durability of Untreated Piling above Mean Low 
Water, 1503 ; Life of Creosoted Piles, Cost of Driving Piles for 
the Panama-Pacific Exposition, 1504; High Records of Pile Driving, 
1505; Cost of Cutting off Submerged Piles, 1506; Cost of Making 
and Sinking Premoulded Concreted Piles, 1507; Cost of Cutting 
off Concrete Piles, 1509. 

CHAPTER XXIII 

Building Construction % . . . . 1510-1615 

Rapid Methods of Estimating Costs of Buildings, 1510; Estimating 
Data, 1515; Component Costs of Building Construction, 1518; Cost 
of College Buildings from 1851 to 1916, 1520; Cost of Seven School 
Buildings at Pittsburgh, Pa., 1521; Costs of School Buildings, 
Costs of Warehouses at Navy Yards, 1522; Costs of Twenty-two 
Hospital Buildings, 1523; Cost of Fireproof Loft Building, 1524; 
Cost of Railway Buildings of Concrete and Brick, 1525; Cost per 
Square Foot of Buildings, Panama-Pacific Exposition, Cost of a 
Cotton Storage Shed, Cost of Building Materials, (1921) 1526; 
Comparative Costs of Small Houses for 1914, 1920 and 1921, 1530; 
Cost Estimating for Reinforced Concrete Buildings, 1533; Cost 
of Reinforced Concrete Power House, 1546; Cost of Constructing a 
Reinforced Concrete Storehouse, 1547; Cost of Concrete in Car 
Houses and Substation, 1549; Labor Cost of Placing Concrete with 
Tower and Chutes, 1556; Cost of Placing Concrete and Installing 
Equipment, 1557; Cost of Mixing and Placing Concrete by Hand, 
1559; Cost of Stucco Finish for Concrete House, 1560; Economics 
of Concrete Columns, Units Costs of Brick and Concrete Buildings, 
1561; Costs of a Reinforced Concrete and Brick Car Storage House, 
1565 ; Estimating Brick Work, 1568; Costs of Masonry and Carpenter 
Work for a Church Building, 1570; Cost of Carpenter Work on a 
Frame Residence, Labor on Different Types of Work in Constructing 
Frame Houses, 1574; Unit Hour Basis for Estimating Carpenter 
Work, 1575; Relative Cost Types of Deep -Foundations, 1576; 



xvi CONTENTS 

Pages 
Cost of Caisson Foundation for Building, 1579 ; A Comparison of the 
Cost of Concrete and Wood Piling, 1581; Output of Steam Pile 
Drivers on Foundations, Cost of Pedestal Concrete Piles, 1583; 
Cost of a Damp-proof Timber Floor, 1585; Cost of Resurfacing Con- 
crete Floors, 1588; Labor Cost of Laying Concrete Basement Floor, 
1589; Cost of Concrete Power House Floors, 1590; Cost of Lathing 
and Plastering, Cost of Laying Composition and Gravel Roofs, 
1594; Formulas for Weights of Steel Roof Trusses, 1596; Cost of 
Private Fire Protection Installations for Industrial Plants, 1601; 
Data on Erection of Cantonment Buildings, 1603; Cost of Con- 
structing a Camp to Accommodate Forty Laborers, 1604; Data on 
Erection of Steel Work for Shops, 1607; Cost of Erecting a Large 
Steel Dome, Cost of Erecting Steel Work for Armory, 1608; Cost 
of Manufacturing Concrete Roof Tile, 1610; Cost of Concrete Block 
Manufacture, 1611 ; Costs of Upkeep and Repairs on Large Building, 
1612; Depreciation of Office Buildings, 1615. 

CHAPTER XXIV 

Engineering, Surveying and Overhead Costs 1616-1661 

Schedule of Charges for Engineering Services, 1616; Engineers' 
Schedule of Fees, 1618; Cost of Engineering and Inspection on 
Street and Sewer Construction, 1619; Cost of Engineering on 
Sewage Disposal Plant, Cost of Engineering Supervision in Road 
Work, 1620; Engineering Cost of County Road and Bridge Work, 
1622; Cost of Engineering, Ohio, Highway Department, Maine 
Highway Work, Division of Costs of $18,000,000 Worth of High- 
ways, 1623 ; Cost of Engineering on a Million Dollar Road Project, 
Cost of Measuring Base Lines, 1625; Cost of Surveys for Federal 
Aid Roads Project in Kansas, 1626; Cost of Road Surveys, 1630; 
Methods and Costs of Some Extensive Railroad Surveys, 1631; Cost 
of Location Survey for Short Railway Line, 1637; Cost of Relocation 
Survey of Underground Pipe Lines, 1639; Methods of Making 
Topographical Surveys and Their Cost, 1640; Cost of Stadia Surveys 
of Floodcontrol Basin, 1651; Topographic Surveys, 1654; "Financial 
Costs," Frequently Underestimated, 1657; Analysis of Overhead 
Costs of Contractor from Five-year Records, 1659; Fixed Plant 
Charges, Operating Expense, 1660; Schedule of Contractors* Fees 
on Government Work, 1661. 

CHAPTER XXV 

Miscellaneous Costs 1662-1721 

Cost of Bath House, Chicago, 1662; Cost of Reinforced Concrete 
Stadium, 1663; Cost of Reinforced Concrete Sand Bin, 1665; Cost of 
Concreting Swimming Pool, 1666; Cost of Concrete Work on 
Small Tanks, 1671; Cost of Encasing Steel Structures in Concrete 
to Prevent Corrosion, 1672; Cost of Cofferdams at St. Mary's Falls 
Canal, 1675; Cost of Steel Cofferdam of the Pocket Type, 1680; 
Annual Cost of Creosoted Wood Structures, 1683; Costs of Treating 
Seasoned and Unseasoned Ties, 1684; Operating Cost of Open-tank 
Creosoting Plant, 1686; Cost of Creosoting Car Sills and Roofing, 



CONTENTS xvii 

Pages 
Cost of Treating Sheet Piles, 1687; Costs of Wood Fence Posts, 
1688 ; Cost of Wood and Concrete Guard Rails, 1691 ; Cost of Washed 
Sand and Gravel, 1693; Cost of Excavating Aggregates for Road 
Work with Drag Line, 1695; Cost of Crushing Rock, 1698; Cost of 
Unloading Crushed Rock from Cars with Slip-scraper, 1699; Cost 
of Handling Stone from Cars by Various Methods, 1700 ; Cost of 
Loading Gravel by Mechanical Loaders and by Hand, 1701; Ration 
List for Construction Camps, 1702 ; Cost of Reforesting, 1704 ; Costs 
of Wood and Steel Trestles for Stocking Ore, 1706; Cost of Canti- 
lever Concrete Retaining Wall, 1708; Cost of Oxy-acetylene 
Welding, 1711; Diagram for Computing Paint Values, 1712; Tests 
of Applying Paint by Machine and by Hand, 1714; Cost of Painting 
Bridges, 1716; Cost of Wrecking Exposition Buildings, 1717; 
Comparative Cost of Wood and Coal for Construction Plant Fuel, 
1720. 
Index 1723 



HANDBOOK OF 
CONSTRUCTION COST 



CHAPTER I 
ENGINEERING ECONOMICS 

This chapter takes up briefly some of the principles and applications of 
engineering economics. Further matter on this subject is given in Section I 
of the "Handbook of Cost Data" by Gillette, which contains 112 pages 
dealing with the principles of engineering economics and cost keeping; and 
Chapter I of the "Handbook of Mechanical and Electrical Cost Data" by 
Gillette and Dana, which contains 81 pages on general economic principles. 
"Construction Cost Keeping and Management" by Gillette and Dana deals 
at greater length with the particular phases of engineering economics indicated 
by the book'^ title. 

Engineering is the systematic application of science to problems of economic 
production and service. The engineer's ultimate aim, therefore, is to effect 
a desired result at a minimum cost and maximum profit. To this end, where 
it is feasible, the engineer should formulate a unit cost equation in which all 
dependent variables and constants are included, and he should then solve for a 
minimum unit cost. But whether he is able to employ this ideal method or 
, must use cruder methods, he must eventually express all the items in terms of 
[ money. 

Put differently, every economic problem resolves itself into the determina- 
j tion of quantities to which unit prices are applied. No economic problem 
[ can be solved merely by the use of qualitative terms ; yet many a poor reasoner 
i attempts to solve the most complex of economic problems without the use of 
[a single item to which a definite cost is assignable. Volubility is vainly 
[ made to serve instead of valuation. 

Imperfect Cost Data. — The term data is coming more and more to designate 
[statistical facts rather than qualitative facts. Cost data are obviously 
I essential in solving economic problems. Yet there still exists a prejudice 
I against published cost data. If, however, each engineer were to rely solely 
Ion cost data gathered by his own meager pickings from his own little crab- 
l apple tree of experience, economic progress would be decidedly restricted. 
I Accordingly each year witnesses more complete and detailed publication of 
I costs in most lines of engineering work. It is true that many of the cost data 
I are incomplete, or insufficiently explained, and are therefore apt to be mis- 
I leading. It is also true that a man entirely inexperienced in the use of cost 
Idata may misinterpret even the most complete data. But neither the defici- 
|ences in published data nor defective reasoning in their application should 

1 



2 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

serve as an argument for restricting the publication of such information. 
In spite of the risk of misuse, "a half-loaf is better than none." Moreover 
a half-loaf of knowledge on a given subject is almost universally the precursor 
of a full loaf. 

Prices and Costs. — Price is the quantity of money exchanged for property 
or service. Cost is usually, but not necessarily, expressed in terms of money, 
and, when so expressed, means the money outlay and debits incurred in 
securing property or service. Cost may also be expressed, at least partly, 
in terms of hours or days of labor required to produce a given commodity or 
service. But as materials that have been purchased usually enter into the 
cost of a product, and as the labor upon those materials is often unascertain- 
able, the known labor-cost of product is rarely all the cost. The labor- 
cost of a product may be given in hours or days of labor expended upon it. 
The materials-cost of a product may likewise be expressed in units of each 
kind of materials used. 

Although the money-cost of reproducing a given product or service vary 
with current prices and current wage rates, the labor-costs and the materials- 
costs of the given product may remain the sanie in different localities and in 
the same locality at different times. Indeed, unless methods of construction 
or machines change, the average labor-cost and materials-cost per unit of pro- 
ducts or service may remain practically unchanged for a generation. When 
this is the case the present cost of reproducing a given product is ascertain- 
able by multiplying the old labor-cost and material-cost by the present rates of 
wages and present prices of materials. In other words old money-costs can 
often be converted into present money-costs by the use of a little knowledge 
of prices, wages and arithmetic. 

The Usefulness of Old Cost Data. — Obvious as all that has just been said 
may appear, nevertheless there continues to be some criticism of "old" 
cost data. It is clear, however, that part of this criticism springs from failure 
to distinguish between prices and costs. Part of the criticism springs from 
belief in a false generalization which usually takes some such form as this: 
*' Modern progress is so rapid that cost data ten years old are inapplicable." 
We are rather proud of our industrial progress, and our pride has perhaps 
concealed from us how slow that progress really is. In Chapter II it is shown 
that during the years 1900 to 1919 there was practically no increase in per 
capita productivity in America. Prior to 1900 the annual increase had 
averaged about 1.5 per cent for 40 years. Surely this is not startlingly 
great industrial progress even at the best period. In the face of such facts 
what becomes of any sweeping assertion that modern progress makes useless 
all cost data that are ten years old? 

When a generalization is shown to be false, it is not only natural but proper 
to narrow it so as to make it convey truth of a more limited sort. Hence the 
attempt may be made "to qualify the generalization by confining it to the 
construction field. At first sight it does look plausible to say that construc- 
tion methods and machines are revolutionized every ten years or so; but a 
little study of engineering literature shows that even this qualified generaliza- 
tion needs further qualification. There are countless instances of present use 
of very ancient tools and methods in construction work. The pick, the 
shovel, the cart, the wheelbarrow, the saw, the adz, the ax, the hammer, the 
block and tackle, the inclined plane, the lever and an almost endless list of 
primative tools still find an economic use, and most of them probably always 
will find such use. 



ENGINEERING ECONOMICS 3 

The introduction of the method of chuting concrete, and of suitable new 
devices for chuting it long distances, is scarcely a decade old. But concrete 
is still handled in ways and by devices that are several decades old. Are we 
not apt to be so blinded by the latest devices as to ignore the fact that many of 
the oldest still have special fields of usefulness? A study of engineering litera- 
ture convinces me that we are. Mere age, therefore, is not a sound reason 
for not studying old cost data. Frequently the best articles on methods and 
costs of construction of a given kind are the articles published 20 years or 
more ago. 

Often an old article fails to give rates of wages, but gives the unit cost of 
labor. In such cases, the reader may still find the old data useful if he knows 
approximately the prevailing rates of wages at the time the old data were 
gathered. Accordingly I have left unchanged in every case, the rates of 
wages that were actually paid, so that the reader can, by searching this book 
and the Handbook of Cost Data, acquire a knowledge of what were the pre- 
vailing wages for different kinds of labor at different times and places. In 
order further to increase the reader's knowledge of wage rates, I have madp a 
study of "wage indexes" for the past 80 years. This study, together with a 
formula for "wage levels," will be found in Chapter II. 

For a similar reason I have also given prices of materials and "commodity 
price levels," together with a formula for "price levels." 

Efficiency as Affecting Costs. — During periods of rapidly rising wage rates, 
employees tend to become less efficient. This springs from the fact that 
employers are bidding for employees to such an extent that employees take 
advantage of conditions. Hence, during the recent war there was a falling 
off in labor efficiency. But labor efficiency has returned again to normal. It 
follows that costs of work done during the years 1916 to 1920 inclusive are 
not so reliable as prior thereto, because of the unknown extent to which labor 
efficiency was below normal during those five years. 

Engineering Economics. — The following reprint in Engineering and 
Contracting, May 30, 1917, is from a series of lectures delivered before 
the students of the School of Engineering, University of Kansas, by J. A. 
L. Waddell. 

General Features of Engineering Economics. — When determining, from the 
standpoint of economy, which is the best of a number of proposed construc- 
tions or machines, one should compute for each case the four following quanti- 
ties, and their sums: 

A. The annual expense for operation. 

B. The average annual cost of repairs. 

C. The average annual cost of renewals. 

D. The annual interest on the money invested. 

That one for which this sum is least is tlie most economic of all the proposed 
constructions or machines; but this statement is truly correct only when the 
costs of operation, repairs, and renewals are averaged over a long term of 
years; or else, for a comparatively short period of time, when the conditions 
in respect to wear and deterioration at the end of that period are practically 
the same for all cases. 

The principal economic investigation that occurs in engineering practice 
is that of determining the financial excellence of a proposed enterprise. It 
consists in showing by proper calculations its first cost, the probable total 
annual expense of maintenance, repairs, operation, and interest, the advisable 



4 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

allowance for deterioration or ultimate replacement, the probable gross 
income, and the resulting net income that can be used in paying dividends 
on the stock or other profits to the promoters. Whether any proposed enter- 
prise, after being thus figured, will prove profitable will depend greatly on the 
state of the money market, the size of the project, the probabilities of future 
changes in governing conditions, and the personal equation of the investor. 
Generally speaking, if the computed net annual profits on the total cost of 
the investment (over and above all expenses of every kind, including main- 
tenance, repairs, operation, sinking fund, and interest on all borrowed capital) 
do not exceed 5 per cent of the said total cost, the project is not attractive; 
if it be as high as 10 per cent, the enterprise is deemed ordinarily good; and if 
it be 15 per cent or more the scheme is termed "gilt-edged." Small projects 
necessitate greater probable percentages of net earnings than do large ones; 
and any possibility of a future reduction of income will call for a high estimate 
of net earning capacity. Finally, the measure of individual greed on the part 
of the investor will be found to be an important factor in the determination 
of the attractiveness of any suggested enterprise. . 

Such investigations as the economics of an important project should gener- 
ally be entrusted only to engineers experienced in the line of activity to which 
the said project properly belongs; for if they be left to inexperienced investi- 
gators, it is more than likely that mistakes will be made and money lost in 
consequence. The professional men who generally do such work are the 
independent consulting engineers ; certain specialists retained on salary solely 
for this purpose by important organizations, such as railroad companies; 
and engineers who are regularly in the employ of large banking houses. The 
work involved is of such importance that it usually commands large compen- 
sation — as, indeed, it should; because to do it effectively demands not only 
long experience but also good judgment and a vast amount of mental labor, 
both in order to make oneself capable in general and so as to con- 
sider thoroughly all the points embraced by the special .problem in hand. 

This fundamental economic problem is often one of extreme complica- 
tion, involving, perhaps, a determination of the character of the pro- 
posed improvement, a choice of sites or routes, a selection of uses, a con- 
sideration of aesthetics, an option on type or style of construction, a question 
of ultimate durability, a study of greatest possible convenience, a prevision 
of serious opposition, a prognostication of future conditions, an anticipation 
of prospective structural modifications, and a safe estimate of cost. 



General Features of Economics of Design and Construction 

Anticipating the Future. — In all engineering work of both designing and 
construction, true economy necessitates a thorough consideration of future 
requirements and possible eventualities, also a provision for meeting the 
same. For instance, in designing a structure one should consider possible 
future additions of loading and how to accommodate them; and in construc- 
tion one should anticipate delays, floods, storms, and other possible difficulties, 
and should prepare his programme so as to meet them effectively and without 
any unnecessary expenditure of time, labor, or money. Foresight of this 
kind is an important element of success in the career of every engineer. 

Systemization. — Quoting from the speaker's treatise on " Bridge Engineer- 
ing," " The systemization of all that one does in connection with his profes- 




ENGINEERING ECONOMICS 5 

sional work is one of the most important steps that can be taken towards tlie 
attainment of success." Moreover, it is one of the fundamental elements 
of economics in all lines of work. 

Time Versus Material. — Some designers in their endeavor to save a small 
amount of material expend a large amount of time, not only of their own but 
also of other people's, which time when properly evaluated is often greatly 
in excess of the cost of the material saved. Such economy as this is false; 
and its practice is unscientific. 

Labor Versus Material. — Similarly some designers in an endeavor to cut 
down quantities in their structures increase the labor thereon to such an 
extent that the material saved is worth only a small portion of the value of the 
extra labor expended. For instance, if one were to make a small pier hollow, 
the concrete thus saved would not be worth anything hke as much as the 
cost of the forms required to construct the hollow space. 

Recording Diagrams. — The study of economics is greatly facilitated by the 
use of diagrams that record quantities of materials, costs of construction, 
times of operation, etc., for varying conditions. In general, it may be stated 
that American engineers do not use graphics for studying economics to the 
extent which is advisable; and that in this they might learn something from 
their European brethren. 

Economics of Mental Effort. — Almost nothing concerning this important 
subject is taught in our technical schools; and but little is known about it by 
practicing engineers. To be a truly successful engineer, one has need to study 
deeply the matter of how best and most economically to utilize his mental 
forces; how to accomplish the greatest amount of work with the smallest 
expenditure of effort; how many hours of work per day for long-continued 
labor will effect the largest accomplishment; to what extent men in various 
lines of activity should take vacations, and how these should be spent; 
what are the effects upon one's working capacity from the use of liquor and 
tobacco in both small and large quantities, etc. All these are economic 
questions of great importance; and they need to be given proper attention 
by every engineer who aspires to efficiency in both himself and his employes. 

Again, the development of the faculty of concentration is an economic 
consideration of much importance. 

Economics in Office Practice. — There are many conditions in ordinary office 
practice that are susceptible of considerable improvement from the economic 
point of view — ^for instance, unnecessary conversation, useless duplication 
of labor, and lack of proper checking; but this matter is too complicated and 
lengthy to warrant more than mere mention in a lecture of this kind. 

Economics of Manufacture. — This is a subject of such complication and 
extent that it can merely be mentioned here; for upon it a large treatise 
might readily be written. It will suffice to say that the prime requisites are 
the prompt furnishing at all times of materials and tools; the keeping on 
hand of spare parts of machinery which are liable to breakage or wear; the 
proper upkeep of all machinery and apparatus ; the systematic arrangement for 
carrying work through the shops, preferably always in one direction; the 
avoidance of duplication of labor; the prevention of errors, and the speed, 
correction of those which unavoidably occur; the development of individual 
efficiency in all employes; the maintenance of a contented spirit among the 
workmen; and the constant and intelligent supervision of all work. 

Economics of Construction. — This subject like the one last discussed is of 
great complication, and in general principles the two have much in common. 



6 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

For instance, there should be prepared for each piece of construction an 
elaborate programme, indicating the various steps to be taken and how the 
work should be carried out. Diagrams in this connection are most useful. 
Again, there should be prepared a time-schedule for the completion of the 
various divisions of the work; and this should invariably be lived up to when 
it is possible. 

There should be a pre-arranged schedule for the furnishing of all materials 
and supplies; adequate means for the transportation thereof should be pro- 
vided; the workmen should be well housed and fed; and should be made com- 
fortable and contented ; disagreements between heads of departments should 
be prevented; all possible difficulties should be anticipated, and means should 
be at hand to meet and overcome them; ample funds should be provided 
for paying promptly all bills for labor and materials; liquor should be kept 
away from the workmen ; and strike organizers and other troublesome people 
should be run off the job. 

All these matters are directly concerned with the economics of construction. 

Labor. — The scientific handling of labor is an economic prolem of the 
utmost importance, and a treatise could well be written on the subject. The 
principal desideratum is to keep the workmen well, happy, and contented; and 
the best ways to do this are to treat them kindly, make them comfortable, 
feed and house them well, amuse them in their spare time, don't work them 
too long hours, pay them by piece-work when practicable, listen patiently to 
their complaints, right their wrongs, see that they are well taken care of 
when they are ill or injured, and evolve, if possible, some feasible method of 
sharing profits with them. On the other hand, though, drive them hard and 
continuously during working hours, insist upon their putting in overtime 
when the conditions truly require it, discharge instantly all insubordinate or 
otherwise troublesome men, dispense quietly with the services of all shirk- 
ers, and insist that everybody put forth his best and most intelligent effort 
to effect the maximum of accomplishment in the minimum of time. 

Waste. — In all lines of activity the avoidance of waste or extravagance and 
the utilization of by-products are today burning questions; and upon their 
proper solution by American scientists will depend greatly the success of 
our country in its commercial struggle with the nations of Europe and Asia. 
This statement is just as true concerning engineering as it is of any other 
activity ; and it is encouraging to see that a number of our leading technical 
institutions are inaugurating research departments for the furtherance of this 
object. 

Efficiency Experts. — A very new type of specialist in engineering is the 
efficiency expert — the man who takes hold of moribund factories and other 
decaying enterprises, studies them thoroughly so as to determine the raison 
d'etre for their decline, evolves the proper remedies for their troubles, puts 
them again upon their feet, and starts them upon the high road to success. It 
is mainly in little matters, apparently of small importance, that such concerns 
fail; and it requires a high development of unusual talent in an engineer to 
become a truly successful efficiency expert. Such work as his no one can deny 
being "engineering economics" in the truest sense of the term; and the 
specialty is surely destined to become more and more popular and important 
as the years pass by. 

The Art of Making Rapid and Reliable Preliminary Estimates of Cost. — 
Allen Hazen gives the following in Engineering and Contracting, March 18, 
1914. Estimating the cost of constructing proposed or existing structures 




ENGINEERING ECONOMICS 7 

rapidly and surely is an art. It is a valuable art and deserves cultivation. 
The success of many undertaKings depends upon its use. Some men have 
the knack of estimating; others can never learn it. But good methods are 
essential and these can be studied and perfected and applied to special 
problems. 

Estimates made for different purposes, are prepared in quite different ways 
according to circumstances. They may be conveniently classified under three 
headings : 

(1) Preliminary estimates, being estimates made in advance of the prepara- 
tion of detailed plans and specifications for the purpose of discussing a project 
for deciding as to its adoption, and for making the necessary financial arrange- 
ments for carrying it out. 

(2) Detailed estimates, being estimates based upon detailed plans for 
the execution of the work, and usually made shortly before bids are asked for 
the particular work covered, or in advance of undertaking to carry it out by 
day labor. 

(3) Final estimates, being the estimates to the contractor at contract 
prices for the actual work done. The term " final estimate " may also properly 
be applied to a statement of the cost of a completed work based upon actual 
expenditures made for carrying it out. 

That which follows relates only to preliminary estimates. 

Preliminary estimates are made much more frequently than others because 
only a fraction of the projects for which estimates are made are carried out. 
Less precision is expected in preliminary estimates than in detailed or final 
estimates, but on the other hand all reasonably attainable accuracy is desirable, 
for many important matters depend upon it. The decision as to which of two 
or more alternate projects is to be adopted frequently turns upon the pre- 
liminary estimates of the respective costs. The decision as to whether or 
not to undertake a certain enterprise usually turns upon the preliminary 
estimate of the cost of the work. A certain degree of reliability is, therefore, 
essential in preliminary estimates. On the other hand, prelimifiary estimates 
must be made for many enterprises that will never be carried out, and it is 
necessary that they should be made rapidly and without undue expense to the 
client. 

Basis for Preliminary Estimates. — There is only one real reliable basis for 
preliminary estimates. It is, the consideration of final estimates of work 
previously carried out, of a character and magnitude as nearly as may be 
similar to that of the proposed work. The more nearly the work represented 
by these final estimates approaches in all the conditions that for which esti- 
mates are being made, the more reliable, in general, are the preliminary 
estimates based upon it; and the more numerous and greater the points of 
divergence, the less reliable is the basis and the greater is the probable error 
in the resulting preliminary estimate. 

Estimates in Valuation Proceedings. — When a property such as a water 
works property is to be valued for the purpose of sale, it is common for 
engineers to make estimates of the cost of reproduction for the structures. 
These estimates may be in the nature of final estimates when the structures 
were recently completed and the actual costs are shown by records. They 
may be in the nature of detailed estimates when full plans and quantity schedule 
are available. More often they are in the nature of preliminary estimates 
because such detailed information and cost are not available. Preliminary 
estimates made in this way are commonly subject to comparison with like 



8 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

estimates made by engineers representing the other party to the transaction, 
and it is frequently necessary to harmonize such estimates by arbitration or 
otherwise. If they are presented as evidence in court the engineers who 
made them must support them through a searching cross-examination. The 
criticism of preliminary estimates made in this way is likely to be more search- 
ing than that of estimates made in the ordinary course of business, where the 
estimates are made for the purpose of construction and comparison only. 
For this reason the experience gained in valuing properties for the purpose 
of sale and in condemnation cases is more useful than any other experience 
that an engineer can have in training him in the first elements of sound proce- 
dure in making preliminary estimates. 

Methods of Comparison. — The problem presented in making preliminary 
estimates is this: given the final estimates of a certain number of works, more 
or less comparable to the one proposed, and a general outline of the works for 
which an estimate is to be made to find the probable fair reasonable cost of 
construction of the proposed works. The general procedure is to find the 
elements of cost in the work that is to be carried out, and the actual cost of 
those elements in the works for which final estimates are available, and to 
apply the latter to the former. In doing this all known differences that would 
affect, to an important extent, the probable cost of the work, must be taken 
into account and allowed for to the best of the estimator's ability. 

Basis of Estimate. — An estimate may be said to be low, fair, or liberal, 
according to the methods used in making it. A fair estimate may be defined 
as one such that with the work carried out in a business-like way under average 
conditions, there is somewhat more than an even chance that the work could 
be completed within the estimate. In the case of structures of types that 
have been built frequently, and of which the elements of cost have been well 
determined, experience indicates that it is possible in most cases to approxi- 
mate, in preliminary estimates, the cost of new structures within 10 per cent 
of the actual cost. With such structures a fair estimate would be somewhere 
between the most probable cost and 10 per cent more than this, or, in a general 
way, 5 per cent above the most probable cost. With an estimate made in 
this way, it should be possible to keep the actual cost of construction within 
the estimate three times out of four, and this is figuring as closely as an engineer 
can be expected to do. 

In the case of structures of greater novelty, or structures involving unde- 
termined underground conditions, greater fiuctuations must be anticipated 
and the above-mentioned percentages should be increased. 

Erroneous Methods of Reaching Estimates. — In a valuation proceeding, it 
is frequently surprising that reputable engineers will present on different 
sides, estimates differing so much for the same item. These differences must 
frequently grow out of the use of erroneous methods of procedure by the 
respective engineers. It may be well, therefore, to consider some of the com- 
monest methods that are erroneous, and to point out the reasons why they 
should not be used. 

The Contract Price Method. — The columns of the technical journals contain 
a record of the prices at which many contracts are awarded. By going 
through these columns and selecting the low bids and applying them to 
the proposed work, an estimate may be prepared which will probably be 
much below a fair estimate for the work. Among the reasons that it would 
probably be low are the following: 

First, many of the low bidders have underestimated the difficulties to the 




i 



ENGINEERING ECONOMICS 9 

workj and their bid are really too low. That is, they are not sufficient properly 
to carry out the work and make a fair profit. The contractor may not be able 
to complete the work under the contract and additional expense to the owner 
will have to be met. 

Second, in applying the bid prices, or contract prices to new work, it is 
very easy to overlook entirely some items in the work. A price that relates 
to a part of the work may be taken as applying to the whole of it through 
ignorance or failure to make a fair and full comparison. 

Third, the schedule of quantities prepared by the engineer for use in the 
specifications on which bids were obtained may be inaccurate and may not 
correspond with the final quantities when the work is completed. 

Fourth, the items of extra work growing out of conditions that either were 
not anticipated, or that were intentionally excluded from the contract by the 
engineer as a matter of policy, are overlooked and ignored. 

For these and similar reasons, estimates prepared from contract prices 
or from low bids reported are almost invariably too low and frequently 
may be too low by a very large percentage. An estimate made in this way 
Is a low estimate. The figures may be arranged to make a very convincing 
showing in support of it, but it remains notwithstanding a low estimate. 

Estimates Based on Averages. — In many municipal and corporate reports one 
may find records of the monies actually expended in carrying out certain 
developments. It is easy to find such records and to compile them and to 
deduce from them a figure which may be used as representing the probable 
cost of a proposed work of similar character. Some works represented by 
such figures may have been done in an efficient an economical manner, and 
the figures so obtained may be reliable and proper ones for use. Frequently, 
some or all of the work taken for use in this way was done under conditions 
that were not efficient, and the cost of doing it may include other items than 
those relating to the construction work. It is easy to select data in this way 
to back up a high estimate, and to make a showing that is convincing to those 
not familiar with the methods. 

A Fair Basis of Estimate. — A fair basis of estimate does not exclude either 
of the above methods, but will take into account data secured under either for 
what it is worth, and will make allowances for the conditions, or supposed 
conditions, under which the bids were received, or the work was done. A fair 
basis of estimate will also give much greater weight to final estimates of work 
as comparable as may be to the work that is proposed where the work was 
done under conditions known to be careful and economical. The engineer 
in making such estimates will naturally and rightly give greatest attention to 
work done under his own direction, and will give second place to work done by 
his friends and acquaintances with which he is reasonably familiar as to condi- 
tions met and methods used in the construction. 

The Weighted Price Method. — The number of different kinds of work for 
which unit prices may be obtained is very great. If an effort is made to keep 
track of the amount of work of each kind, and to estimate the amount of it 
in the proposed work, the schedule will be too complicated and the labor of 
applying the figures will be unduly increased. Moreover, if the schedule used 
for comparison is too complicated, some items are sure to be overlooked, with 
the result that too low a final figure will be reached. In order to prevent 
both of these conditions it is frequently best, in preparing preliminary esti- 
mates, to take only a limited number of the main items of work that are 
involved in the kind of construction that is contemplated, and to weight the 



10 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

unit prices for them in such a way that they will include the whole cost of all 
the incidental items naturally associated with them. 

In proceeding in this way one selects first the items that are to be used. 
These items should be so selected as to include directly the major part of the 
work. The final estimates that are to be used as a basis are then taken for 
analysis. The whole cost of the work represented by each is then distributed 
among selected items. Considerable judgment is required in the distribution 
and each part of the construction should be included with the item to which it 
is most nearly related. The most important point is that every dollar spent 
should be charged under some one of the selected headings. 

The sum of the costs reached in this way, divided by the quantities in the 
final estimate, gives new unit prices which are weighted to include all the 
minor items. Applying these unit prices to the main items of the proposed 
work gives a basis for preliminary estimate. 

As illustrations of these methods, take the case of pipe-laying. The trench- 
ing, the lead, the cast iron pipe, the teaming and incidental expenses may all 
be represented by separate items in the final estimate that serves as a basis. 
These can obviously be consolidated into a single item per lineal foot of pipe 
of a given sizei- In this process the price for pipe is weighted to include the 
other expenses that naturally go with it. The process may be carried further 
and the pipe still further loaded to include the gates, the hydrants and all 
auxiliary structures. 

In a similar way the cost of the reinforcing and of the forms for concrete 
construction first stated as separate items, may be consolidated, and all the 
different classes of concrete may be brought into one so that a unit price for 
masonry includes reinforcing and forms, and all the appurtenances that go 
with the masonry structures. 

In estimating the cost of sand filters the writer has for years divided the 
whole cost of the construction into four parts, as follows: 

(1) Excavation and earth work. 

(2) Masonry. 

(3) Filtering materials. 

(4) Piping and auxiliaries. 

The cost of each plant built worked out in this way on a uniform basis 
affords a basis for rapid and accurate comparisons, and allows the data to be 
applied in making preliminary estimates for new work where the prime condi- 
tions of construction are known with comparatively little chance of large error. 

Weighted unit prices of this kind must be carefully obtained and can only be 
used with caution. The amount of weighting must always be kept clearly in 
mind by those who use them. When properly deduced and used, they afford 
an extremely useful and rapid method of approximating the cost of many 
structures. 

The Ratio Method. — There are many cases where the system of weighted 
unit prices cannot be used because the schedules in the final estimates that 
serve as a base are in such form that unit prices cannot be deduced from them. 
For example, there are many cases where the amount and character of work 
are known and the total cost of the work is known, but there is no way of 
sub-dividing it between the different items. To compare the costs of different 
pieces of work with each other, and to get a basis for estimating the probable 
cost of other similar work is then much more difficult. 

A method of reaching an approximate and useful solution of this problem 




ENGINEERING ECONOMICS 11 

Is one which may be called the ratio method. A schedule is made of a limited 
number of items of work which represent the greater part of the construction 
in the several cases. A simple schedule of unit prices is then formed, cor- 
responding to the units. One fixed price is assumed for each kind of work. 
The price assumed should be a reasonable one, and as nearly as is known an aver- 
age one, but precision is not to be expected and a round figure may always be 
used. The amount of work under each item in each job is ascertained and the 
assumed prices are applied to them. The sum of the amounts for each job 
represents what that job would have cost at the assumed prices. A compari- 
son between the actual cost and the cost at the assumed prices gives an 
idea of the relative economy of the work. It may be found, for example, 
that one piece of work cost 20 per cent more than the amount obtained by 
applying the assumed prices; another piece of work cost 12 per cent more 
and a third, 7 per cent less. When the records of a number of known pieces 
of work are conipared in this way it furnishes a basis for making a preliminary 
estimate for work of the same class. In doing this the quantities for the pro- 
posed work are ascertained, the base prices are applied to them and a ratio 
by which the sum so reached is to be increased or diminished is ascertained 
by consideration of the ratios actually found to have been obtained in the 
jobs for which cost records are at hand. 

In arriving at the ratio to be used, the engineer will compare, perhaps in his 
mind and without written schedules, the ease or difficulty of the proposed 
work as compared, with the ease or difficulty of the various works which 
served as a base; will take into account differences in labor conditions, in 
freights and deliveries ; will take into account the known or assumed efficiency 
or lack of efficiency in the execution of the several pieces of work from which 
his basic data were derived, and will reach an estimate of the addition or 
subtraction to be made to or from the base price in each case. 

This method is commonly combined with the preceding. That is to say, 
the base prices are usually loaded prices. 

This method affords a convenient and efficient method of comparing the 
relative costs of different works where the loaded unit price method cannot be 
applied and in experienced hands it affords a rapid and reliable method of 
making preliminary estimates upon many classes of structures. 

Extra Cost of Novel Designs. — Work on novel designs commonly costs 
more than work following standard designs. This is true even when well 
tried methods are first introduced in new places. Such work may be too small 
to attract bidders from a distance. The unit cost will then overrun antici- 
pated prices. An under estimate of cost is frequently made on work because 
the estimator fails to realize what a great effect familiarity with the methods 
of performing work has upon the cost. To realize this, one has but to think of 
the difference between present methods and costs of building tunnels and sub- 
ways and deep foundations, and the methods and costs of only 15 or 20 years 
ago. Not only is the risk which the contractor takes now less, but methods 
which have been thoroughly tried out are at his disposal as well as experienced 
foremen and laborers to do the work more economically. For a structure of 
new or novel design much caution in using prices that may be standard on 
other kinds of work must be used. 

Small Jobs Cost More in Proportion than Large Ones. — Another common 
cause of under estimating costs is the use of figures on large pieces of work for 
estimating small work. The engineer often overlooks the large cost of over- 
head charges, the waste of labor and the cost of plant caused by organizing a 



12 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

force to perform a small piece of work. He too often forgets that for small 
work the work must be done by less efficient methods or the cost of plant 
prohibits the use of expensive machines. Perhaps the most common case of 
such underestimating is where the job, although a large one in the aggregate, 
consists of many small pieces of work of widely varied character. Such a 
job is troublesome and costly for the contractor and the experienced man 
knows it and puts in a corresponding bid. 

It must be remembered that bids follow the law of supply and demand; 
that general slackness in construction work calls out bidders and low prices. 
The condition of the money market, the cost of materials and the general 
opinion of the condition of contract work are of course matters of much impor- 
tance. It seems scarcely necessary to say that the engineer should know 
where and how the contractor is to obtain his materials and have a fairly 
definite idea of the cost either in dollars and cents or as a comparative figure to 
other work. 

The engineer in estimating should try to look at the work from the stand- 
point of the contractor, should try to remember that no work runs as smoothly 
along as the contractor wishes, that labor conditions and other matters often 
spoil the best laid plans. He should endeavor to keep in mind the various 
work he has watched or performed and the numerous times when unexpected 
conditions added largely to the cost. 

Generally speaking, estimates on proposed work by men of limited expe- 
rience are too low, yet it is not unusual for an engineer to be so impressed 
with the difficulty oi a piece of work that he overestimates the actual cost 
and it is more common to find that he has overestimated the bids of the 
contractors. 

It is of much value to have two methods of arriving at estimates. If an 
independent check method can be made even though a rough one, a failure 
of the two results to agree often leads to the discovery of serious errors in the 
application of one or the other method. 

Conditions of Success in Estimating. — One of the first requisites for success- 
ful estimating is a fair and unprejudiced, and moderately pessimistic mind. 
The estimator must be alert for new and cheaper processes and methods, and 
conservatively sceptical concerning their merits. Moreover a successful 
estimator must have had experience in actual construction. As a general 
rule an engineer should not make an estimate for a structure that he would not 
know how to build. 

Next, as a requisite to successful estimating, may be mentioned a broad 
basis of cost records of actual work, more or less similar to that for which 
estimates are to be made. A good and safe method of using the cost data 
and adjusting it for application to new conditions is equally important. 
And, finally, the estimator must have the will to refuse to make estimates 
for work that he does not understand. 

Cost Estimating; A Discussion of Principles with Actual Estimates for 
Contract Work. — Engineering and Contracting, July 14, 1909, publishes the 
following by J. B. Balcomb : 

General Principles 

Engineers rarely make a success of cost estimating. The same may be 
said of architects, contractors and others, to all of whom a reliable estimate 
is of the greatest importance. Many even go so far as to assert that it is 



ENGINEERING ECONOMICS 13 

not possible to do it satisfactorily. Yet it must needs be done, therefore the 
ability may be attained to do it; provided always, that it is undertaken with a 
complete understanding, not alone of its importance, but of its requirements 
and limitations as well. 

Certain characteristics are essential: A man must be, (a) a logical thinker, 
(b) a constructive organizer; he must have, (a) an analytical mind, (b) an 
active imagination, well under the control of reason; he must acquire, (a) the 
habit of forming definite judgments and conclusions, (b) the practice of 
systematizing on paper. 

In addition to these, it is imperative to have had shop or field experience, 
preferably both, and to have accumulated systematic notes and records of 
cost. A technical education is of advantage and some designing experience 
is helpful. 

If one is to follow estimating professionally, as an architect, estimator or 
consulting engineer, his practical experience should be broad and diver- 
sified. While on field work he should have studied methods and collaborated 
cost data; both for future use in estimating, and as a guide in using information 
compiled by others. 

In such records, it is not sufficient that quantities of work and their cost 
be given: he should note the rate of wages, the quality of work, the class of 
labor, the conditions regarding weather and the arrival of supplies and 
materials, as well as special conditions either favorable or unfavorable; so 
that in using this data he may be able to form a rational judgment as to how 
nearly other work, the cost of which he is called upon to estimate, will be 
controlled by like conditions. 

As an illustration, let us assume that one is recording data on excavation. 
In such case it would be well to make note of how the work was done; whether 
with (a) steam shovel, (b) locomotive crane, (c) teams and wheelers, (d) 
teams and slips, or, (e) men with picks and shovels; whether the hauling 
was done with (a) locomotive and flat cars, (b) dinkies and dump cars, (c) 
teams and patent dumpers, (d) horses with carts, or, (e) men with wheel- 
barrows; and whether it was loosened by (a) men with picks, (b) teams with 
plows or rooters, or (c) blasting with dynamite or giant powder. 

It is also necessary to give: (a; character of excavated material, (b) depth 
of cut and height of fill, (c) length of haul, (d) condition of roads or tracks, and 
(e) special features which either facilitated or hindered progress. 

If the excavation is in rock, there will be, in addition, (a) method of drilling, 
(b) method of blasting, (c) method of loading and unloading. 

There are other combinations than those suggested, but these cover the 
usual methods of handling earth. While no other form of construction is 
susceptible of being handled in so many different ways, yet this serves admir- 
ably to illustrate how meagre are the usual cost data as given in the period- 
icals or technical papers. To say that an excavation cost 40 cts. per cu. yd. 
means absolutely nothing, for it might have cost anywhere from 5 cts. to $5, 
and the work still have been handled to the best advantage. What is neces- 
sary, is not that we should know one or two but all of the above conditions. 

When one is making up an estimate, he should know the relative cost of 
different methods of operation under like conditions. Then it is possible to 
select the most economical method, and having determined this, to estimate 
with a fair degree of probability the cost of the proposed work. To illustrate, 
where the haul is very short and the excavation shallow, buck scrapers or 
road graders are often used, while with longer haul and a deeper cut it is 



14 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

advantageous to use elevating graders and patent dumpers. In this latter 
case, teams with wheel or drag scrapers may be better, especially if the soil is 
sandy, stony or filled with roots. A locomotive crane presupposes a railroad 
track and a comparatively short haul, whereas a steam shovel may be used 
with an engine and cars, where a railroad track is used and the haul is long, or 
with teams and either dump wagons or scrapers. If the job is large, so that 
the unit cost of organizing the force and moving the plant is small, it is a safe 
rule to avoid manual labor wherever possible. The work is always recorded 
in cubic yards, preferably of excavation rather than of fill. This one kind of 
construction will serve to illustrate the others, the chief requisite being that all 
conditions affecting the cost be explicitly stated. 

It has been said that the wise business man never ventures on a course of 
action without first submitting it to a detailed analysis on paper: certain it is 
that the wise estimator never prepares a bid without doing so. This of 
course does not apply to dwellings or other structures where the firm has 
already completed one or more similar buildings under like conditions. In 
other words, a detailed and itemized estimate is never presumed to be under- 
taken where identical cost data is available; cases of identical construction, 
however, occur far less frequently than is generally supposed. 

In order to approximate actual costs, it is imperative for an estimator to 
outline a complete and rational plan of operation, while making an estimate. 
He should definitely formulate the requirements as to both equipment 
and men — how much and what kinds of machinery, how many superin- 
tendents, engineers, foremen, timekeepers, clerks, mechanics and laborers. 
In thus mentally organizing his force, he should estimate the size and makeup 
of each gang, and the time required for different portions of the work. These 
should be correlated as to their necessary sequence, both as regards the 
disposition of the working force, and the plant employed on each. That 
he may thus plan the work in detail, an estimator must have had actual field 
experience, the broader the better; a portion of the time, preferably, spending 
his own money. Few estimators, even of those who are without this expe- 
rience, will question its advantage. 

Although his plan may never be carried out, it is worth while to have it 
typewritten as a guide while making the estimate. Further, it will be helpful 
should he be called on to superintend the work or as a means of defending 
his estimate, in case of excessive costs. 

It is of especial importance that an estimate be localized — adapted to the 
particular work in hand and none other — suiting the existing conditions 
only, because made for them. When another estimate is needed, even for 
similar work, take this one to pieces and build it up again in accordance with 
the new requirements and the new conditions. If a job is of sufficient impor- 
tance to demand an estimate, it is worth a new analysis, an individual synthe- 
sis. This does not mean that the estimate shall be elaborate; if the work 
is simple, make the estimate so, but make it definite and detailed. 

The chief items of the usual estimate consist of quotations on material and 
freight rates from the factory to the work — the theoretical cost of materials 
at the job. Before the true cost of materials is determined, allowance must 
be made for: (a) delays in shipment, (b; delays in transportation, (c) switching 
and demurrage charges, (d) unloading and storage, (e) hauling and reloading 
one or more times, (f) shortage and broken material, (g) wrong shipments 
and reordering. 

Even then, this is but the beginning of an estimate, and the least diflScult part 



ENGINEERING ECONOMICS 15 

Frequently sub-contractors are asked for bids, with a view to sub-letting 
portions of the work, or as a check on the company's own estimate. It is 
often well to make it serve both purposes, for in many cases small contractors 
can handle specialized portions of the work for less money than large 
contractors. 

Next to cost records on work practically identical, a man's own experience, 
properly classified and tabulated, is the most reliable asset of an estimator. 
In nearly all cases, however, this must be supplemented in order to cover the 
required field; even specialists finding a diversified knowledge none too broad 
to embrace the different forms of construction which will at times enter their 
work. 

Since it is manifestly impossible for a man to have had experience in all 
lines of construction, even in all phases he may be called on to estimate, it 
becomes necessary to use published data to some extent. Books like Gillettes' 
*' Handbook of Cost Data" are very helpful. Many valuable data are pub- 
lished in the technical journals, although few engineers classify and index 
them convenient for reference. General conceptions may be formed by 
noting contract prices, although this is of less value than would at first appear, 
owing partly to unbalanced bids, but mainly because one knows nothing of the 
specifications and local conditions. 

Test pits are of great value in estimating the cost of excavation work and the 
necessary depths for foundations. The difficulty being that owners, to whom 
the work legitimately belongs, will seldom incur the necessary expense; 
and contractors usually prefer to "make a guess at it" rather than spend 
money for some one else to profit by. It would often be ultimate economy 
for owners to show the actual conditions underground rather than let bidders 
take chances, for the "gambler's chance" means high bidding or unsatis- 
factory work. 

Where a considerable portion of any work is new to a bidding firm, or where 
its personnel is limited in numbers or experience, a consulting engineer, 
architect or construction superintendent is frequently called in consultation. 
This is a commendable practice and could more often be followed to advan- 
tage. The chief difficulty is that architects usually estimate by the cubic foot 
of building or square foot of floor area, thus making an approximation on the 
assumption of average conditions; construction superintendents have a 
better knowledge of methods than of costs, so can ordinarily give only general 
ideas; and comparatively few engineers have systematic cost records at their 
command. The present growing interest in this, the engineer's weakest 
point, promises to be of great economic advantage to the building public, and 
is an opportunity which should be embraced by all engineers who wish to see 
our profession occupy the preeminent position which rightfully belongs to it, 
as a result of the marvelous achievements which it has accomplished. 

Main Featukes of Estimating 

Materials. — In estimating the cost of machinery, materials and supplies, it 
is customary to ask for quotations; giving general requirements, approximate 
date of delivery and point of shipment. Only reliable dealers and manufac- 
turers should be asked to quote. If freight rates are not included with the 
quotations, they should be secured from transportation companies. 

These two items form an important, but by far the easiest, part of an esti- 
mate. Exclusive of a firm's reputation for fair dealing and prompt pay- 



16 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

ment, any other company can secure as favorable figures; consequently, can 
bid equally low, so far as these items are concerned. The opportunity for 
difference in the bids of two contractors must lie in some place other than the 
cost of materials and the transportation charges. Usually it is to be found 
in the estimate of labor or in the question of profits. 

Existing Conditions. — Aside from making a guess at the labor cost, which 
is by no means uncommon, the matter most often overlooked or ignored is 
that of existing conditions; natural, economic and legal. In forming a 
judgment regarding natural conditions, the following matters should receive 
due consideration: (a) amount and frequency of precipitation, (b) amount 
of surface water, (c) character of drainage, (d) depth to permanent water 
level, (e) kind of soil, (f) size and depths of excavations, (g) disposition of 
excavated material, (h) length of time pits will remain open, (i) amount of 
shoring and sheeting required, (j) effect of climate on materials, (k) effect of 
climate on plant, (1) effect of climate on labor. 

While many of these conditions will be passed over as similar to those on 
work already done, and eliminated by the use of cost sheets on such work, 
it is well for an estimator to have such a list before him. On important 
work, each item should be given at least casual thought, considering fully such 
as are especially pertinent. The wide variations in these matters between 
different localities, states and countries, make their consideration imperative 
where close estimating is desired. 

Of but little less importance are the economic conditions, regarding dealers 
and manufacturers, common carriers, and both skilled and common labor. 
The difference in service rendered by the same firm or individual in 1892 and 
the hard times immediately following was very great. Even more marked was 
the difference between the years immediately preceding and succeeding the 
Wall street panic of October, 1907, with its resulting aftermath. This should 
especially be borne in mind regarding the quantity and quality of labor per- 
formed both by mechanics and laborers, and the compensation paid therefor. 
Under this head should be considered the question of commissary and trans- 
portation facilities for the force employed, although it is also considered 
under the headings of plant and labor. 

In this connection, the legal requirements should not be overlooked. This 
is of especial importance in large cities where the obligations imposed are often 
onerous to say the least. Such matters as not blocking street traffic, keeping 
the sidewalk clear, supporting adjacent buildings, the many police regula- 
tions, as well as the difficulties of not transporting materials, not forgetting 
the rules of labor unions, are matters which often wipe out the profit and leave 
a large deficit, when not duly considered in the estimate. 

Even in rural communities, there are still the state laws regarding liabilities 
of employers, mechanic's liens, the collection of money due a contractor, and 
others, either favorable or unfavorable, which should have due weight in 
raising or lowering one's bid, before the final estimate is complete. 

It is essential to go over the proposed contract carefully, noting the time 
limit and any burdensome clauses it may contain. Sometimes these may be 
altered before the bid is submitted, by using tact and diplomacy; if not, 
proper allowance can be made for them in the estimate. 

Contractor's Plant. — The question of plant equipment with which to com- 
plete the work according to contract, in case one is the successful bidder, is of 
far reaching importance. It is an unfortunate custom among engineers 
and contractors to add a lump sum or a percentage for cost of plant, supplies 



ENGINEERING ECONOMICS 17 

and maintenance. One might almost as well add a percentage to cover the 
labor cost, after computing the cost of materials. 

The only reliable way is to estimate the cost of plant for each proposed work, 
considering separately the requirements of each class of construction covered 
by the specifications. In order to do this, the estimator must outline a 
complete and rational plan for carrying on the work, as before suggested. 
Having outlined a plan, he is in position to determine with a fair degree of 
accuracy, the necessary plant, as well as the cost of supplies and maintenance. 
These latter will depend mainly on three things: (a) condition of plant, (b) 
character of work, (c) character of labor employed in operating it. In judg- 
ing of these, the estimator should consider climatic conditions, facilities for 
repairs, and the company's attitude toward plant enlargement. 

In addition to the tools and machinery with which to do the work, various 
temporary buildings ought to come under the head of plant equipment. 
These should embrace construction offices, commissary buildings, sheds 
and buildings for storage purposes, and such other structures as may be re- 
quired by the plan of operation. 

Labor Cost. — The most difficult, and at the same time most vital element of 
an estimate, is the labor cost. In order to make a fair approximation, one 
needs extensive records obtained by a wide and varied personal experience. 

The first thing to be considered is the character, and perhaps personnel, 
of the staff; in other words, the efficiency of the superintendence. Where it is 
impossible to determine this with a fair degree of accuracy, it necessarily 
follows that the estimate of labor cost is an approximation only. Next after 
the general manager of the company, the superintendent will be the main 
factor in the success or failure of the work. While it is impossible to reduce 
such matters to mathematical formulas, an illustration by way of percentages 
will help to emphasize the need of forming a correct judgment on this point. 
Suppose a percentage of efficiency, giving what might be termed inherent 
values, is ascribed as follows: 

Illustration Illustration 

No. 1 No. 2 

Per cent. Per cent. 

General Manager 100 70 

Superintendent 90 80 

Foremen 80 90 

Laborers 70 100 

At first glance one would assume that each is an 85 per cent organization, 
taking an average of the different values. This conclusion embraces two 
errors: first, the percentage value of each grade is affected by the one next 
above (a gOod foreman will increase the efficiency of men, a poor one will 
decrease it; likewise with the superintendent and foremen); second, the effi- 
ciency of the organization is the product, not the average of the different 
values. With a reasonable correction for the first, these would read: 

Illustration Illustration 

No. 1 No. 2 

Per cent. Per cent. 

General Manager 100 70 

Superintendent 95 75 

Foremen 87>^ 82^ 

Laborers. 79 91 

Taking their products, we have, 

Illustration No. 1.: 1 X 0.95 X 0.875 X 0.79 = 66 per cent organization. 
Illustration No. 2: 0.70 X 0.75 X 0.825 X 0.91 = 39 per cent organization. 
2 



18 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

These illustrations serve merely to emphasize in a concrete way the impor- 
tance of good superintendence, and are in no sense suggested as a practical 
method of arriving at the labor cost. In failing to estimate correctly the 
human element, especially "the man at the top," more than in all other 
factors combined, is to be found the reason why careful estimates so often 
fail utterly to agree with actual costs. 

Following superintendence, the next matter to be considered is the quality 
and quantity of labor. Skilled and unskilled labor should be considered 
separately. 

Superintendence, nationality, quarters and climate are the leading factors 
In forming an organization, and those which most largely affect the labor cost. 
The first of these is of prime importance and is usually greatly underesti- 
mated. For real economy in handling men and work, a good man is preferable 
to a poor one, although he demand twice the salary. It is safe to allow liberal 
salaries in estimating the cost of superintendence. The best contractors 
seldom permit the question of salary to stand in the way of retaining a really 
efficient superintendent or foreman. 

The effect of commissary, climate and local conditions, as before mentioned, 
must be kept in mind. The proximity of saloons and dens of vice have a very 
noticeable effect, at times increasing the labor cost 10 to 25 per cent. 

After determining the main features of labor cost, the experienced man 
knows that numerous items in addition will come to light during actual 
construction. These are almost impossible to compute previously, except 
by giving careful thought to every detail, as suggested above. Frequently a 
percentage is added to cover these contingencies; this is commendable, if each 
form of construction is considered on its merits, and the percentages varied 
according to the elements of uncertainty involved. The following are some 
of the more obvious of these features: 

The commissary, which may prove either a debit or a credit, depending on its 
purpose and management. 

Sanitation, including potable water, closets, sewers, drains and baths, and is 
always a debit. 

Medical attendance, which usually produces a debit on small works and a 
credit on large ones. 

Labor insurance, which is always a cost item, directly or indirectly. 

Labor agency, which should produce a credit, if undertaken. 

Walking delegates, each to be considered on his individual merits if known, 
otherwise on his reputation. 

A Complete Cost Estimate 

Losses and Margins of Safety. — In addition to, and supplementing the 
outline given in the previous sections, a series of items too often overlooked 
consists of what may be called losses and margins of safety. Among these 
may be mentioned: (a) lost and broken material, (b) delay in arrival of mate- 
rials, (c) rehandling materials, (d) storage of materials, (e) cost of organizing 
the force. 

The first item can best be offset by percentages on the labor and material 
cost, each class of work being considered separately. Regarding the second, 
it is often best to allow the salary and traveling expenses of a good man (on 
large works, two or more) to follow up shipments and see that they arrive on 
time. The unavoidable delay and consequent expense still remaining will be 



I 



mOINEERING ECONOMICS 10 

Included in the percentage added for general expenses. The rehandling 
and storage of materials can be estimated only in conjunction with the plan of 
operation as outlined by the estimator; depending largely on local conditions 
as to space, buildings and character of the materials. The cost of necessary 
sheds and buildings will have been allowed for under plant. 

The last item will depend largely on the nature of the work, condition of the 
labor market, character of the laborers, and maximum number employed. 
Other conditions being equal, it will be nearly a fixed cost, proportional to the 
maximum working force: the total amount being affected but slightly by 
the length of time required to complete the job. 

Profits. — What constitutes a legitimate profit is an indeterminate proposi- 
tion, since the number of correct answers is unlimited. A fair profit on one 
class of work is evident injustice on another. There should be a greater 
percentage on labor than on machinery; also, a varying per cent on the 
different classes of labor and the different kinds of machinery. A competent 
estimator never allows as great a percentage on a single unit that costs a 
large sum as on a multitude of small items aggregating the same amount; 
since the latter would be purchased from various manufacturers and dealers 
and cost much more to handle and install. 

The adaptability of the company's plant to proposed work justly weighs 
somewhat in the element of risk and uncertainty; consequently, it helps 
determine the profit desired. A further factor is the proportion of the work 
of which the company makes a specialty. It is evident that a specialty- can be 
handled more economically than general work; yet in so far as it may approach 
a monopoly, there is a desire for proportionately larger profits. 

The aggregate of profit is also determined somewhat by the number and 
magnitude of contracts on hand; bidding always being higher by a company 
pretty well loaded up with contracts, and having most of its trained force 
already in the field. The final element entering into the estimate of profit is 
the policy of the company — a large amount of work at a low rate, or a few 
contracts at handsome figures. 

Tabulation of Results. — Where a complete estimate is desired, the entire 
work should be divided into items or classes, each as separate and complete 
as possible. It is convenient to have a column for each of the following: 
(a) quotations on materials, (b) freight on same, (c) drayage of same, (d) 
estimated labor cost, (e) total for material and labor. 

Instead of estimating the plant for each item, a better plan is to consider a 
group of items together; under each group allowing for: (a) repairs and 
maintenance, (b) supplies, (c) safety margins, (d) profits. 

From the plan of operation, already alluded to, the cost of superintendence 
may now be computed ; and than a lump sum or percentage added for general 
and office expense. This latter will be estimated from the company's monthly 
expense account, the amount of present and prospective business, and the 
past experience of the company. 

The cost of surveys and expense incurred in the drafting room should be 
included in the general expense, unless these items are to be estimated sepa- 
rately. If the bid is to be by unit costs: the superintendence and surveying 
should be distributed proportionally to the labor cost; drafting, general and 
office expense, proportionally to the cost of both labor and materials. 

With the estimate complete, it devolves upon the general manager, who is 
often the president also, to determine from conditions already mentioned the 
amount to increase or decrease this final figure before submitting the bid. 



20 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Realizing that contracting is an art, not an exact science, he will bear in mind 
the keenness of competition and the builder's reputation for fair dealing. 
If the latter is questionable, it is doubtful wisdom even to place a bid. 

If the general manager does the estimating himself, it is well to remember 
that few contractors have become bankrupt because of not securing con- 
tracts ; many because their work was not handled economically and honestly ; 
while the vast majority who have failed have been able to secure contracts, 
have handled their work to fair advantage, but have been unable to secure 
reasonable acceptance and prompt payment; the situation most likely being 
aggravated by having taken the work too cheaply. For this reason, some 
managers add a small amount to cover interest on borrowed money to meet 
expenses while waiting on deferred payments. 

With this in mind, two additional columns are sometimes added; one in 
which to place the percentage of work completed ; the other, the cost of same 
to date. An estimate prepared as here outlined, with costs appended during 
the progress of the work, helps greatly in borrowing money with which to tide 
over unforseen emergencies. 

These matters call for business ability rather than engineering training, and 
their successful handling is the final test of a man's ability to secure contracts 
advantageously. An intelligent estimate will preclude the probability of 
taking work at a loss, but will never enable a firm to secure work at a maxi- 
mum profit. 

Sewage Disposal Plant. — As an illustrative example, part of an estimate of 
cost for the sewage disposal plant at Washington, Pa., is given, (See Table I.) 

The broken stone was to be quarried and crushed at a quarry belonging to 
the borough, which accounts for no allowance for rental. It was located at a 
distance of 500 ft. from, and at an elevation of 50 ft. above, the proposed 
plant. 

A branch line of railroad runs next the site, accounting for the absence of 
drayage in most cases. General expense was estimated as follows: 

Per cent 

Office 8 

Drafting room , 1 

Labor insurance 1 

Interest , 1^^ 

Adjustments IH 

This percentage, with minor exceptions, is computed on columns 1 to 9 
inclusive. 

Profit was estimated at from 5 per cent to 10 per cent on materials, including 
columns 1, 2, 6, 9 and 10, and 10 per cent to 15 per cent on labor, including 
columns 3, 4, 5, 7 and 8. Exceptions were made on item 45, where 23^^ per 
cent on materials and 7 per cent on labor was used, as the company was 
desirous of underbidding machinery firms ; 25 per cent on the different classes 
of concrete, as the company felt sure that bidding prices would be high; 
30 per cent on the broken stone, as this still kept it below the price at which 
stone could be shipped in. 

It will be noted that the mix is given in each of the concrete items immedi- 
ately to the left of the ingredients. Where a figure is included in parenthesis, 
as (1) under freight, it signifies that the freight is included in the amount 
given in column 1. An x, as in column 3, means that there was no drayage on 
that item. 




ENGINEERING ECONOMICS 



21 



Profit. 



o 

T-l CO 



General expense ^ 



Plant'. 



Pli Organizing the 

,j force 00 

o Rehandling 

^ material t^ 

^ Lost and broken 

g material co 

^ Labor lo 



Superintendence 
Drayage 

Freight 

Material . 



OC(NO<NO 



t>COO<M '^ »^ 
(N rH rj^ CO 05 to 






lOOcOOO^O 
OOiO ooo 

.-I i-i(M 



lOiOO 
COCM 



OOCOrtHCOOCOCOO'-i 

CO05'-'Tt<lOt^(MTH05Tj< 

r^iO'*coO(N T-ico 



■OOOOOiOiOTtiiOO 
00TfiO(N»^;D Ttioo 

T-HrHT-HCOlM 



• o 
.00 

• o 



O" 




§ fl fl o 



22 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Owing to local conditions, the questions of commissary and medical attend- 
ance were not considered in this estimate. 

The cost of plant is figured for each item, deducting its value as second- 
hand tools and machinery after the work was done. 

The cost of organizing the force falls mainly on those items which would be 
undertaken in the earlier part of the construction work. The following 
table will be found helpful, as a general guide only, in estimating the cost of 
organizing a force; the actual amounts in all cases being dependent on many 
of the conditions previously noted. 

1st 2d 3d 4th 

mo. mo. mo. mo. 
Max. force employed, 
100 men. 

1 supt. at $100 per mo $ 50 $ 25 

0-6 foreman at $60 per mo 90 90 

0-50 men at $1.75 a day 415 

50-100 men at $1.75 a day 300 

Field office help 100 50 

Total, $1,120— $11.20 per man. 

Max. force employed, 
500 men. 

1 supt. at $200 $100 

0-15 foremen at $75 360 

15-20 foremen at $75 

20-25 foremen at $75 

0-100 men at $1.75 440 

100-300 men at $1.75 

300-500 men at $1.75 

1 asst. supt. at $150 100 

Field office help 300 

Total, $4,28()-$8.56 per man. 

Max. force employed, 
1,000 men. 

1 gen. supt. at $400 $200 

0-3 supts. at $175 235 

3-5 supts. at $175 

0-20 foremen at $75 375 

10-30 foremen at $75 

30-50 foremen at $75 

0-200 men at $1.75 875 

200-500 men at $1.75 

500-800 men at $1.75 

800-1,000 men at $1.75 

Field office help 400 

Total, $5,580 — $5.58 per man. 



$ 65 


$ 50 . . . . 


'440 


'425 '.'.'.'. 


'875 

"75 
200 


'766 '.'//. 

50 . . . . 

100 . . . . 



$135 


$100 


$ 80 


*i75 






'366 


'256 


'ioo 


'875 
'366 


'446 
'266 


'446 
100 



In the present instance, the company already had in its employ trained 
superintendents, foremen and mechanics; so the cost of organizing the force 
was estimated at a figure considerably less than suggested above. Like 
all other features of an estimate, it is evident that each case must be deter- 
mined on its merits and considered accordingly. 

Filtration Plant. — The estimate next given is that of a filtration plant at 
Roanoke, Va., of 4,000,000 gallons daily capacity. It was for a lump sum 
bid, consequently the arrangement is somewhat different than in the pre- 
ceding estimate. 

Near the end, under "Accessories," the amounts given in the columns for 
Material and Freight cover "Lost and Broken Material;" under Drayage and 
Labor, "Rehandling Material" and "Organizing the Force." 






FiLTRATI 


ON Plant 




Freight 


Drayage 


Labor 

$500 

90 

892 


(1) 


$196 
(1) 






(1) 


69 
10 



ENGINEERING ECONOMICS 23 

Unit bids not being called for, Plant, Superintendence, General Expense and 
Profit are not distributed, but added at the end to make up the final cost. 

Table II. — Estimate of Cost of a 
Coagulating Basin — Material 

Excavation, 2,800 yds. 

Plow and scraper, 2,500 yds 

Pick and shovel, 300 yds 

Concrete, 596 cu. yds 

Cement, 655 bbls. at $1.85 $1 ,207 

Broken stone and sand, 511 yds. at $2. 1 ,022 

Forms, 4.6 M f. b. m 92 

Water 15 

Reinforcement, 1,000 sq. ft. expand, 
metal at .04 40 2 2 20 

Filter Tanks— 
Excavation, 685 yds. 

Plow and scraper, 625 yds ... ... 125 

Pick and shovel, 60 yds ... ... 18 

Concrete, 269 yds. 

Materials and forms (as above) 1 , 132 ... 117 470 

Reinforcement, 18,855 lbs. at .02 377 43 15 204 

Wrought iron railing, 80 ft. 180-lb. at 
.45 per ft. 36 2 1 7 

Clear Well- 
Excavation, 1,100 yds. 

Plow and scraper, 1,075 yds 

Pick and shovel, 25 yds 

Concrete, 282 cu. yds 

Materials and forms 

Reinforcement, none req'd. 
Roof, 

Framing, 25.7 M f. b. m 

Sheathing, 9.7 M f. b. m 

Composition roofing, 81 sqs. at $3.50. . 

Building — 
Concrete, 48 yds. (same as filters) .... 
Brick (common), 235,000 lbs., 47,000 

at $7.50 

Brick (pressed), 47,500 lbs., 9,500 at 

$24 

Mill work, 
12 windows at $3.75, 2 doors at $2.50. . 

Roof, 

Framing, 5 M. f. b. m 

Sheathing, 3 M. f. b. m 

Slate, 9 T., 28 sqs. at $8 

ScafTolding, 3 M. f. b. m 

Painting 

Hardware, 

Openings, 14 at $1.50. 

Ridge, 36 ft. galv. iron 

Conductors, 80 galv. iron 

Gutters, 215 galv. iron 

Bearing plates and tie rods, 322 lbs. at 
.05 

Treating Plant — 
Tanks, 4 req'd. (inc. under **Coag. 

Basin"). 

Orifice boxes, 2 at $15 

Brass pipe and fittings, as per list 

Merchant steel pipe and fit. , as per list . 

Depth gauges, 4 at $60 

Brass orifice slides, 2 at $13 









215 








8 








353 


,154 


93 


10 




514 




(1) 


180 


194 




(1) 


68 


284 




(1) 


81 


270 


8 


24 


120 


352 


(1) 


176 


376 


228 


it) 


36 


80 


50 




2 


35 


100 




(1) 


75 


60 




(1) 


30 


224 


(1) 


14 


168 


60 




(1) 


30 


25 




(1) 


50 


21 








9 




1 


3 


20 




1 


8 


54 




2 


23 


16 




1 


4 


30 


i 


1 


5 


152 


1 


1 


20 


22 


1 


1 


8 


240 


1 


1 


10 


26 


(1) 


(1) 


2 



24 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Machinery — /Vi/hti i 

Pelton wheel. >i ft. /^''^ 

Centrifugal pump, 1-lb. 10 M. 

Blower, 1-lb. 2; 3.5 T. total 810 33 6 

Pelton wheel, 1- like Lorain Cent, 
pumps, 2- like Lorain 260 9 2 

Equipment — 
Inlet controller, 1-16 " butterfly valve 

and float 91 3 1 

Water manifold and strainers, 14,280 

lbs., 1,428 sq.ft. at $1.25 1,785 32 11 

Air manifold, 4,450 lbs., 1,428 sq. ft. at 

.70 1,000 10 3 

Wash troughs, 8-168 ft., 8,400 lbs., 

$4.50 per ft 751 40 6 

Gate Valves — ■ 

4-6" flanged at $8. 10 32 

4-10" flanged at $24.30 97 

4-10" angle at $43.50 174 

3-10" high pressur at $22.50 68 

4-5" flanged at $6.75 27 

1-6" flanged high pres. at $9 9 

1-10" flanged foot, at $21.28 21 

6,700 lbs 24 5 

Sluice Gates — 

4-10" flanged, at $19.50 78 

4-12" flanged, at $26.25 105 

Valve stands, non-indicating, 20 at $5. 100 

1-10" regulator valve . 231 

Loss of head gauges, 4 at $65 260 

9,200 lbs., total • 27 7 

C. I. Pipe— 

B & S. 14,180 lbs. 

Heavy wt. 6"-50', 1680 lbs 29 (1) 1 

Heavy wt. 10"-200, 12,500 lbs 219 (1) 10 

Standard 10"-12', 720 lbs., 3 pes 58 (1) 1 

Lead and jute, 22-10", and 7-6" joints 33 (1) 1 

Specials, B & S, 1,330 lbs. 
1-10" tee, 300 lbs. 
1-10" ell, 214 lbs. 
1-10" Y, 370 lbs. 
1-10 X 10 X 6" Y, 255 lbs. 
2-6" ells, 190 lbs. 

8-12" -60 ells 69 (1) 3 

Lead and jute, 4-10" and 8-12" joints. 9 

Specials flanged, 4,168 lbs. 

1-16" X 10' F & F, 1,207 lbs. 

5-10" X 3' 3" FF & S, 1,310 lbs. 

4-12" X 2' 9" FF & S, 1,108 lbs. 

5-10" X 1' 3" F & S, 543 lbs. 

4-6"X3'3"F&S 31 (1) 1 

4-10 X 10 X 6" side outlet T's 60 (1) 1 

Bolts and gaskets 23 (1) 1 

Flanged, 9,147 lbs. 

4-10" X 5' 2" 75 

4-8" X 8' 9" 63 

4-10" X 3'0" 54 

1-12" X 16' 4" 38 

2-12" X 15' 6" 74 

1-12" X 7'0" 17 

4-6" X 1'8" 15 21 7 

Flanged fittings, standard, 3,685 lbs. 

1-12" ell 12 

8-10" ells 70 

4-8" ells 22 

4-6" ells 13 



ty 



50 
40 

6 

113 

18 

38 



66 



93 



15 
8 
2 



60 



I 



ENGINEERING ECONOMICS 



25 



4-10 X8 X 8" tees.. 58 ... ... 

2-12 X 10" crosses 41 9 4 36 

M. S. Pipe- 
Random lengths, 2,430 lbs. 

6" X 60' at .565 34 ... ... 

5" X 90' at .435 39 ... ... 

40 ends threaded, at .30 12 5 2 15 

Fittings, 469 lbs. 

4-5" ells at .52... 2 ... ... 

2-6" ells at .72 2 ... ... 

2-6 X 8" crosses at $1.92 4 ... ... 

1-6" plug at .29 ... ... 

8-5" flanges at .505 4 ... ... 

4-5" flange unions at .72 3 ... ... .... 

2-6" flange unions at .89 2 1 1 6 

Vitrified Pipe — ■ 

Standard, 29,150 lbs. 

24"-170' at .715 121 ... 

15"-70' at .297 21 (1) 40 45 

Fittings, 

2-24 X 10" crosses 13 ... ... 

2-15 X 12" crosses 5 (1) 1 

Channels, 

8" X 34' at .05 2 ... ... 

12" X 20' at .10 2 ... ... 

Standard, 

12" X 1030' at .17 175 ... ... 

8" X 240' at .08 3^ 20 (1) 28 6 

Miscellaneous — • 
Manholes, 

Brick, 4,316 at $9.50 41 (1) 4 38 

Cement, 22 bbls, at $1 22 (1) 6 

Sand, 3 yds. at $1 3 (1) 3 

Lime, 3 bu. at $1 3 (1) (1) 

Covers and frames, 7 at $7 49 (1) 2 7 

Filter sand and gravel, 252 T. at .65. . 164 ... 378 126 

Excavation, 516 yds ... ... 516 

Accessories — • 

Coagulating basin 120 ... 5 240 

Filter tanks 75 5 5 120 

Clear well 110 5 ... 140 

Building 135 ... 25 100 

Treating plant 25 ... ... 10 

Machinery 20 ... 5 20 

Equipment 50 10 ... 25 

Gate valves 5 ... ... 10 

Sluice gates 10 .5 ... 15 

Cast iron pipe 55 ... 5 40 

Merchant steel pipe 5 5 5 5 

Vitrified pipe 35 . . . 10 10 

Miscellaneous 30 ... 40 170 

Total $24,727 

Plant 300 

Superintendence 500 

General expense 2,500 

Profit 5 , 000 

Amount of bid $33 , 027 



Factors a Contractor Should Consider in Estimating. — The average contractor 
forgets a great many things which should be included in making up his esti- 
mate. It is true that many of these items are small and it might seem that 
they are insignificant, but when several are taken together the cost increases 
rapidly. In an interesting article in the January Contractor's Atlas, D. S. 



26 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Colburn points out certain of these matters that are commonly overlooked 

in estimating. The article, as abstracted in Engineering and Contracting, 
Jan. 28, 1920, follows: 

It is probable that on an average about 6 per cent of the cost of the job is 
not taken into consideration when the estimate is made. The following 
table illustrates this point : 

School Building 130' 0" X 200' 0"— 3 Stories, no Basement 

467 yds. rock excavation at $2 $ 934 . 00 

880 yds. earth at 30 ct 240 . 00 

9,900 cu. ft. concrete footing at 22 ct 2, 178.00 

11,880 cu. ft. concrete walls at 25 ct 2,970.00 

13 , 524 sq. ft. reinforced concrete floor in corridors and toilets 

at 35 ct 4,733.40 

13,524 sq. ft. terrazo floors at 25 ct 3,381.00 

1 , 980 lineal ft. terrazzo base at 35 ct 693 . 00 

7,914 sq. ft. plain cement floors at 10 ct 791.40 

182, 160 face brick at $35 6,375.62 

1,339,240 common brick at $18 24,106.30 

32,000 sq. ft. partition tile at 12 ct 3,840.00 

3,960 cu. ft. cut stone trimmings at $1.75 6,930.00 

58 , 000 enameled brick at $50 2, 900. 60 

16,059 yd. lath and plaster at 40 ct 6,427.60 

50 lineal ft. tile flue Hning at 75 ct 33.00 

6,000 lineal ft. corner beads at 6 ct 338. 00 

1 , 800 yd. metal lath at 45 ct 810 .00 

4,725 sq. ft. slate blackboards at 28 ct 1,325.00 

2, 160 sq. ft. cork tackboard at 28 ct 604.00 

27,000 lineal ft. grounds at 13^ ct 405.00 

96 squares steel ceilings at $7 672 . 00 

Moving picture booth with vent 

Balcony in gymnasium 1 , 896. 00 

66,000 ft. maple floor at $65 4,290.00 

500,000 ft. lumber at $45 22,500.00 

260 squares roofing at $7.50 1,950.00 

500 squares floor deadening at $2 1 , 000. 00 

47 tons structural steel at $115 5,405.00 

3 iron stairs (sub-bid). 2,600.00 

Hardware trim 1 , 700. 00 

Sheet metal ((sub-bid) 890.00 

Millwork, sash, doors, trim, etc. (sub-bid) 8, 197.00 

Labor on millwork 3,278.80 

Painting (sub-bid) 1 , 890. 00 

Usual estimate $126,585.42 

10 per cent profit. . 12,658.54 

Usual bid $139,243.96 

Forgotten Items 

Bond, 1 per cent $ 1,490.00 

Fire insurance, K per cent of $100,000 500. 00 

Liability insurance, 5 per cent of labor, $48,000 2,400.00 

Telephone 160.00 

Traveling expenses, board, etc 650. 00 

Temporary oflice, locker, sheds, etc 548. 00 

Water for building uses, temporary piping, hoists, etc 182.00 

Lights, fences, barricades 80. 00 

Watchman, 6 months at $70 420.00 

Timekeeper 350.00 

Engineer, laying out, batter boards, etc 30.00 

Protection of erected work 100 . 00 

Temporary heating 6 months will burn 220 tons coal at $7 1,540.00 

Cleaning out building 100.00 

Carting debris , 25. 00 

Cutting and jobbing for other trades 430. 00 

$ 9,006.00 



ENGINEERING ECONOMICS 2t 

Bid Should Be 

Usual estimate $126, 585.42 

Plus items overlooked 9 , 005 . 00 

Correct estimate $135,590.42 

Plus 10 per cent profit 13, 559.04 

Correct bid $149,149.46 

It frequently happens that the general specifications are glanced over in a 
superficial manner, the contractor immediately taking the plans and specific 
specifications and estimating all materials and workmanship. When the ma- 
terials and labor have been figured from these, 99 per cent of the contractors 
think that nothing remains to be done except add the usual 10 per cent for 
profit. The trouble is that the general specifications are not carefully enough 
observed and studied. 

As an example of this, there was a large contracting concern recently figuring 
on a drainage job of considerable magnitude. A close study of the specifi- 
cations revealed the fact that the contractor was responsible in many ways 
which ordinarily would not involve any responsibility on his part. For 
instance, he had to guarantee the designer's work and if this job was done 
according to the plans and specifications, and it didn't work, then the con- 
tractor would receive no payment for the job. This happens in many cases. 

In another instance, the specifications made the contractor responsible for 
the work under the specifications and plans as stated. In other words, 
the plans were prepared by the architect but the contractor was held responsi- 
ble. One part of the specifications referred to a basement floor and stated 
that the contractor should guarantee the basement floor slab to stand a 
certain head of water. The slab has failed and it is a question now who is 
responsible. 

There are certain matters that are commonly overlooked in estimating and 
these may be chiefly summarized as follows: 

(1) Surety Bond — A surety bond guarantees the faithful performance of 
the contract and payment of all bills in connection therewith. One per cent 
is the amount commonly charged for this bond no matter how big or how small 
the job. Many contractors pass this up and think that they can take care of 
it out of their 10 per cent profit. It may seem that this is rather the exception 
than the rule and that very few contractors would neglect to take care of this 
feature. It is surprising how great a number and how many of all classes of 
contractors neglect to take this factor into consideration. 

t2) Liability Insurance — Liability insurance usually amounts to from 5 per - 
cent to 8 per cent of the total labor cost. This can be figured at that amount 
and should always be taken into consideration. 

(3) Temporary Heating — Another item scarcely, if ever, figured in is 
temporary heating. Heating is required not only in winter work, but also in - 
early spring or fall construction. While the job may start in the summer, it 
should be borne in mind that it may possibly run into the winter and, therefore, 
the problem and cost of providing temporary heating should be taken into 
consideration. 

(4) Temporary Enclosures — These are frequently needed, especially in the 
case of winter work. They are often required to enclose a part of a building 
so as to afford public protection. Frequently in the case of a building located 
in the city, roofing is required above the sidewalks. Material sheds are 
always needed. These items are small but, of course, count up. 



28 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

(5) Water for Building Use, Temporary Piping and Hoists — It should be 
taken into consideration that water will be required for various operations 
connected with the building, for instance, the mixing of concrete, in keeping 
the concrete wet, and in cleaning. Elevators or hoists are required for ele- 
vating the materials to the proper place. This is an item that is many times 
neglected. The contractor figures that it costs so much to lay so many bricks, 
but the means of getting them in place is not considered. 

(6) Fire Insurance — During the process of construction the building is 
under joint ownership by the contractor and the individual or company for 
whom the building is being constructed and, in the event of loss of the building 
by fire, the loss is prorata. The fact remains that the contractor must pay 
the premiums on the job until finished. 

(7) Engineer, Timekeeper, Watchman — A service engineer is required in 
connection with the layout and other details. This expense is, however, 
very slight. But the expense of the timekeeper and watchmen, in case of a 
large job, amounts to a very appreciable figure. 

(8) Telephone Service — Sometimes telephone service is not required, 
while there are times when it is a great necessity and this item of expense should 
also be considered. 

(9) Traveling Expenses — This item covers the cost of transporting the 
foremen or other laborers sent out of town away from their homes. The con- 
tractor must as a rule pay all of the railroad fares and board for these men as 
well as his own expenses. 

(10) Cutting and Jobbing — Cutting and jobbing for other trades is a large 
item since the general contractor is usually required to cut all openings for 
electricians, plumbers and steamfitters and to patch these up after these 
workemen have finished. 

(11) Guarantee — Often the architects require that the contractor guarantee 
the material and workmanship for two years or maybe more. This is an 
item of considerable importance and is never taken care of under the general 
overhead expense. The United States Government figures 13^^ per cent 
depreciation per year on buildings, so it is an easy matter to gain an idea of 
how much this item alone amounts to. 

How to Determine Whether a Crushed Stone Stock Pile Pays. — Engineer- 
ing and Contracting, July 17, 1918, gives the following: In the production of 
crushed stone throughout the year it is usually profitable to provide a stock 
pile, in spite of the extra cost of rehandling the stone. The main reason for 
this is that a smaller quarrying and crushing plant working continuously 
will produce the desired annual output at less cost per ton, inclusive of stock 
pile costs, than the cost per ton incurred by a larger plant, without a stock 
pile, working below full capacity most of the time. 

Electrical engineers use the term "load factor" to denote the ratio of the 
actual annual output of electricity to the possible full capacity output of a 
plant. Thus, an electric generator of 1,000 kilowatts capacity is capable of 
generating 8,760,000 kilowatt hours of current in a year of 8,760 hrs. (i. e., 24 
hrs. daily for 365 days). If, then, such a generator is so run as to generate 
2,190,000 kw. hrs. in a year, its load factor is 25 per cent. 

Since all the annual "fixed charges" on a generating plant are independent 
of the output, it follows that if the load factor can be doubled, the fixed charges 
per kilowatt hour will be cut in two. In general, then, the cost of the "fixed 
charges" per unit of output vary inversely with the load factor. This holds 
true of all plants, and serves to explain the economy of providing a stock pile 



ENGINEERING ECONOMICS 29 

for a crushed stone plant that can be operated the year aroimd at a uniform 
weekly output. 

Stone can usually be delivered to and loaded from a stock pile at a cost of 
5 to 10 ct. per ton, depending on the scale of operations and the kind of plant 
used for stock piling and rehandling. Assuming the first cost of a quarrying 
and crushing plant to be $80 per ton of daily capacity, and that interest, 
depreciation and taxes are 20 per cent annually, we have 5.3 ct. per ton for 
fixed charges on a plant when run continuously one shift every day for 300 
days. But without a stock pile continuous operation is usually impossible. 
To meet the "peak demand" for stone the plant must usually be fully twice 
the capacity required under continuous (one-shift daily) operation. This 
alone adds 5.3 ct. per ton of stone for fixed charges on the plant, or enough to 
cover the cost of stock piling and rehandling under ordinary conditions. 
But this is not the only element of cost affected by the " load factor" or output 
factor. A plant large enough to take care of peak demands for stone must 
necessarily have a crew of men capable of running it at its capacity, and most 
of this crew must be kept on the pay roll when the plant is operating at but 
a fraction of its capacity.- Some of the crew must be paid even when it is not 
operating at all. So that either failure to secure freight cars regularly or a 
falling off in immediate demand for the stone results in the paying of full 
wages to most of the crew, regardless of the low output of the plant. 

In the solution of a problem of this character the first step is to estimate the 
total annual tonnage of stone to be delivered. The next step is to estimate 
the maximum delivery that will be required for any single day, also for any 
single week, and for any single month. Then estimate the first cost of a plant 
that will supply the maximum daily output aided by the storage capacity of 
the bins, but unaided by a stock pile. Estimate the operating expenses, inter- 
est and depreciation charges for such a plant for a year, under the fluctuating 
daily, weekly and monthly outputs. Divide this total cost by the total 
annual tonnage and ascertain the cost per ton. Compare this unit cost with 
the unit cost resulting from operating a smaller plant continuously with the . 
aid of a stock pile, including therein the interest on the average amount of 
money tied up in the stone in the stock pile. If the smaller plant with the 
stock pile shows a lower cost per ton (as it usually will) than the larger plant 
without a stock pile, then it is obvious that the smaller plant is more economic. 

Economic Considerations in Municipal Engineering Designs. — Clinton S. 
Burns gives the following in Engineering and Contracting, April 10, 1918: 
The designing engineer has for his guidance this motto: " Secure the maximum 
returns for the funds invested;" and if he be true to his chosen profession 
he will ever strive to bring his work to that standard, even though it may at 
times cause him much effort beyond that which may be appreciated by his 
clients. In many sections of the Country with which the writer is familiar, 
especially in the more recently settled portions of the Middle West, city 
councils and officers in charge of municipal works have an extremely keen 
appreciation of the fact that they must accomplish the maximum results from 
the limited funds at their disposal, and they accordingly begin by engaging the 
engineer who will do their work for the least money; or else they save the 
engineering fee entirely by simply engaging some "practical contractor " *to 
build the works and furnish the plans and specifications free of charge. 
That such a policy as this is directly the opposite to true economy is too well 
known to engineers to require discussion, but there may be others, some 
holding official positions, perhaps, who have not given this subject the atten- 



30 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

tion its importance deserves. If public officers but realized the amount of 
work involved in determining the economic features of any engineering 
design, they would more readily appreciate the fact that true economy and 
cheap engineering are not companions. 

Many of the municipal works throughout the country are built with so 
little respect to economic design as to require but a superficial examination to 
show where enough money has been wasted to more than pay the compensa- 
tion which would have been required to secure the best engineering talent to 
prepare the plans and specifications. The firm of which the writer is a 
member has been called upon to examine plans for a sewerage system in which 
the plans called for flush tanks at the head of every lateral, regardless of 
grade or other local conditions of service. The general character of the 
specifications seemed to indicate that they had been copied largely from what 
was without doubt originally an excellent set of specifications for a level city 
in a wet country, where the sewers had to be laid in quicksand and water, for 
they provided for under-drains and other expensive accessories which could 
have no utility under any other conditions. It is not surprising to learn that 
the fee charged for these plans and specifications was about the proper 
compensation for a stenographer to copy the specifications and for a drafts- 
man to make a few tracings. 

The conditions in water works design are even worse than in sewer work, 
because many cities are unfortunate enough to possess six or eight council- 
men, each of whom knows what size water pipe should be located on his own 
street. After a few hours' discussion they are able to combine their ideas, and 
the system of mains is adopted; no one dreams that possibly 5 per cent could 
have been expended for engineering fees, and much better results might have 
been accomplished with the remaining 95 per cent of the funds. 

It is no doubt true that many contractors and practical builders of water 
works have the ability to plan excellent systems, but even if so, it is not to their 
interest to work out the economic features, and therefore in the absence of an 
engineer to look after the city's interest much public money is necessarily 
poorly invested. 

As an illustration of some of the work involved in determining the economic 
relation between the different parts of a system of water works, the writer 
ventures to outline one or two of the points that must be considered in this 
connection. This can best be shown by a concrete example, using the local 
conditions as to price of fuel, cost of materials for construction, conditions of 
service, etc., all of which are taken from actual conditions for one particular 
plant, but which would, of course, be quite different for any other plant. In 
the case under consideration the rate of pumping is estimated as follows: 
2,800 gal. per minute for 6 hours per day, 1,400 gal. per minute for 6 hours per 
day, 800 gal. per minute for 6 hours per day, and 300 gal. per minute for 6 
hours per day. This is a total of approximately 2,000,000 gal. per day, sup- 
phed to a manufacturing city of 20,000 population. The pumping station is 
4,000 ft. from the branching point of the distribution system. To determine 
the most economical size of main for this distance it is necessary to make com- 
parison between the various commercial sizes of water pipe. Comparing 
12-in. with 16-in. pipe the friction offered by each 1,000 ft. of 12-in. pipe for the 
above rates of flow is greater than that in the 16-in. pipe by the following 
amounts: 16.23 ft. for the 6 hours of maximum pumping, 4.06 ft. for the next 
6 hours, 1.33 ft. for the next 6 hours, and 0.18 ft. for the 6 hours of minimum 
pumping. To overcome this friction requires the expenditure of 80 HP, 



I, 



ENGINEERING ECONOMICS 31 

hours per day, which, with pumps operating at 80,000,000 duty, takes 320 lb. 
of coal daily, worth in the local market $2 per ton, representing an annual 
investment of $116.80. This assumes that no additional investment is 
required for the increased capacity of the power plant nor for attendance and 
small supplies, because in any ordinary plant of this capacity there is a large 
reserve power plant chargeable to the fire protection of the city. 

At the time when these estimates were made the difference in cost between 
the 12-in. and the 16-in. pipe was 65 ct. per foot, or $650 per 1,000 ft. The 
interest and depreciation on this investment with money at 5 per cent, is 
only $33.45 per year, as against $116.80 for extra coal with the smaller size 
pipe, thus showing an annual saving of $83.35 in favor of the 16-in. pipe. 

Again comparing the 16-in. pipe with one 20 in. in diameter, by a similar 
detailed calculation, the result shows an annual saving in coal equal to $23.15 
per 1,000 ft. of pipe, due to the smaller friction in the larger pipe. But the 
extra cost of the larger pipe is 87 ct. per foot, or $870 per 1,000 ft. of pipe, 
requiring an annual investment of $46.11 for interest and depreciation, thus 
showing $22.96 annually in favor of the 16-in. pipe. Therefore, of these 
three sizes, the 16-in. is the most economical one to use for this particular 
service. 

After having determined that so far as the domestic service is concerned, 
there is nothing to be gained by using a main larger than 16 in., a comparison 
should then be made between the 16-in. and 20-in. pipe with reference to the 
fire protection of the city. This brings up a question as to whether the city 
should resort to the use of steamers for this service; but since this point is not 
now under discussion, it will be assumed that the necessary pressure for ordi- 
nary fire service is to be furnished at the hydrants, and that sufficient water 
is to be provided for 10 streams of 250 gal. per minute each. Then if a fire 
occurs at the time of maximum domestic consumption, the total quantity of 
water that the mains must carry is 5,300 gal. per minute. 

The difference in friction between the 16-in. and the 20-in. pipe is 12 ft. 
per 1,000 ft. of pipe, and therefore if the 16-in. be used there is required an 
additional investment of $300 for boiler plant and $20 for the room that it 
occupies in the power house. The life of this portion of the plant may be 
figured as almost indefinite, owing to the fact that it is so infrequently called 
into service. The maintenance charge, however, must be sufficient to provide 
for resetting the boiler when necessary and for the small supplies and repairs 
that are required to keep it in operating condition, a fair estimate for which 
would be 2 per cent of the cost of the boiler. For the purpose of comparison 
the life of the cast iron water pipe may be assumed at 60 years, and that of the 
reserve portion of the boiler plant the same. The two propositions are 
then compared as follows: 

Interest on extra investment for 20-in. pipe $43 . 50 

Depreciation for a life of 60 years 2.61 

Total annual charge against 20-in. in excess of 16-in. pipe $46. 11 

Interest on extra investment, boiler and power house 16.00 

Depreciation for a life of 60 years .90 

Maintenance, 2 per cent of the cost of the boiler 6. 00 

Extra coal used for domestic service as above 23. 15 

Total annual charge against 16-in. pipe for pumping $46.05 

It is thus seen that so far as the fire protection service is concerned there Is 



32 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

nothing to be gained from the use of the larger pipe, and therefore the 16-in. 
is the most economical size to adopt for this particular location. 

It will be noticed that in all of these calculations the rate of interest has been 
assumed at 5 per cent, which is the rate at which the city can secure money 
on bonds. However, in the matter of depreciation there is considerable 
uncertainty as to the proper rate of interest to be assumed. The depreciation 
of any particular machine may be defined as the annual sum that must be 
laid aside to amount to the cost of the machine at the end of its life. It then 
depends entirely upon the earning capacity of the funds laid aside annually, 
and is therefore independent of the rate of interest that is being paid on the 
original loan. If money can be invested in additional pipe to supply well 
settled streets it is likely that much more than 5 per cent can be realized on the 
investment, which will reduce the depreciation charge accordingly. 

While such detailed calculations as are illustrated above are essential as a 
general guide in determining the important features of a system of water works, 
yet the writer does not wish to be understood as stating that they should 
always be followed with mathematical precision, because it often happens that 
the funds are limited by the statutory provisions, so that a city has only a 
limited amount to invest. In this case it becomes the engineer's duty to take 
into consideration the question of whether greater returns may not be secured 
by an increased pipe system rather than by larger and more efficient pipe lines 
or, in other words, the fact that large revenue may be derived from extending 
the mains may be sufficient reason for omitting condensers, using small pipes, 
and various other acts that would be entirely unjustifiable in designing a 
system for a private water company whose funds are invested for the purpose 
of securing the maximum rate of interest on the capital invested. 

Another point where an attempt at economy is frequently made is in the 
spacing of fire hydrants. The popular impression seems to be quite general 
that since hydrants cost about $32 each they should be spaced about 500 or 
600 ft. apart, so as to make a small number of hydrants serve as much territory 
as possible. This popular impression may be accounted for by the fact that 
the number of hydrants in a system owned by a private water company is 
universally accepted as the measure of the public tax for fire protection, and 
naturally, then, they are not closely spaced in such systems, and the precedent 
is thus established. In a system of water works owned by the municipality, 
designed to give fire protection without the use of steamers, there can be no 
possible justification for spacing the hydrants at such great distances apart as 
they frequently are. 

The details will, of course, vary materially with the plan of the pipe system 
and other local conditions. In one system that has come under the observa- 
tion of the writer the hydrants averaged from 500 to 600 ft. apart, but by 
increasing the number by 100 their distances apart could be reduced to 300 ft. 
This would effect a saving of about 100 ft. of hose for reaching the average fire, 
and aside from the convenience to the fire company, due to having aj hydrant 
every 300 ft., there results a direct financial benefit to the city as sho-^n below. 
To overcome the friction in this extra 100 ft. of hose requires an additional 
pressure of 13 lb. per square inch at the hydrant, and to provide sufficient 
power to throw 10 streams simultaneously in addition to the maximum daily 
consumption necessitates the installation of 50 HP. greater boiler capacity 
and pumps to correspond. This costs $800 for the extra investment in the 
power station, the annual charge against which is $57.25 for interest, main- 
tenance and depreciation. There is also an increased pressure of 13 lb. per " 



ENGINEERING ECONOMICS 33 

square inch on the pipes throughout the distribution system, which theo- 
retically would require the use of heavier pipe, but for commercial reasons 
quite probably the pipe system would be of practically the same weight as 
though it were not called upon to meet this extra pressure. The financial 
benefits accruing from being able to secure the desired fire protection with less 
pressure will appear indirectly in the form of reduced maintenance cliarges, 
due to less frequency of bursting the mains, less leakage, and consequently 
greater efficiency of the pumps and quicker response to calls for fire pressure. 
Again, the maintenance of the fire department is increased by the long 
spaces between the hydrants, since each hose cart must be equipped with at 
least 200 ft. more hose, which requires an investment of $600 for hose, the life 
of which will not exceed an average of 5 years. Therefore, with interest at 
5 per cent the depreciation on the hose amounts to 18 per cent. The main- 
tenance is largely a matter of time and attention of the fire department, and 
therefore no charge is figured for this item ; however, for interest and deprecia- 
tion the annual tax for the extra hose is $138. This makes a direct annual 
charge of $195.25 due to the effort to save $3,200 in hydrants, the annual 
charge against which would not exceed $200, leaving less than $5 to offset the 
benefits accruing from having twice the number of hydrants. These benefits 
must include the maintenance of the pipe system under the decreased pressure 
as mentioned above, the reduced risks in fire insurance, and the greater 
rapidity with which the fire department can couple the hose and turn on the 
stream, which means that a smaller fire company can perform the same 
service. After considering these points, it is clearly apparent that as a 
business investment it is inexpedient to economize in the first cost of a system 
by cutting down the number of hydrants, as is frequently done. 

This brings up the question of hydrant spacing in systems owned by private 
companies, and suggests the fact that if a franchise provides for a certain 
stream to be maintained at the hydrant, it would be to the advantage of both 
parties concerned to put in more hydrants at a less rate per hydrant. It 
would be better for the company because it enables it to give the same service 
for less investment for power ; and it is better for the city because it enables it 
to save in the maintenance of the fire department. 

There are many other points that present themselves in planning an 
economic system of water works, such as the relative efficiency of the different 
classes of pumping machinery, proper proportioning of the boilers, motors or 
other machinerjr, cost of fuel as compared with condensers, etc.; but these are 
not unlike the points that should be considered in the design of every power 
plant, and therefore they will not be treated here. 

The point that the writer wishes to bring out most clearly is the fact that 
without careful consideration of every detail there is but little probability that 
an investment is economically made, and that it should be the duty of those 
in charge of municipal improvements to exercise the same care in selecting 
professional advice that they would if they were investing their own capital. 
It will be noticed that all of the above calculations of comparative costs are 
based on average or normal prices rather than upon the present war-time crest. 
This is as it should be, for any calculation to determine the economics of an 
engineering problem must be based upon data that will represent a fair 
average throughout the life of the project under consideration. 



CHAPTER II 

PRICES AND WAGES 

Past and Future Price Levels. — The following discussion, pages 34 to 138, 
is in large part, very greatly condensed of two articles that I published in 
Engineering and Contracting, April 7 and May 5, 1920. My object was to 
deduce a formula for estimating commodity price levels or price indexes. As 
will be seen later, the formula gives results that agree very closely with the 
facts for every year since 1889. Data for years prior thereto are less reliable, 
but even back to 1859 the formula gives approximately correct results. 

I know of no prior attempt to deduce a commodity price level formula. In 
1907 Prof. E. K. Kemmer published " Money and Credit Instruments in Their 
Relation to Prices," in which he deduced a formula for the weighted average 
of three distinct things: (1) commodity prices, (2) wages and (3; prices of 
corporation stocks. It seemed to me that these three things (commodity 
prices, wages and stock prices) are not necessarily related one to the other. If 
this is so, only confusion would be likely to follow an attempt to average such 
unrelated things. Accordingly I confined my attempt to derive two separate 
formulas, one for commodity price levels, and one for wage levels. As will be 
seen later these formulas differ in one very important element, and since each 
of them corresponds closely with the facts, it follows that any formula that 
attempts to give a composite average of wages and prices is certain to be 
incorrect. 

Prof. Irving Fisher, in his "Purchasing Power of Money" (1911) adopted 
Prof. Kemmerer's formula and attempted to bring its results up to date. 

Price Indexes. — Before a correct understanding of the present subject can be 
secured, the meaning of certain terms must be learned. One of the most 
important of these terms is the expression " price index." Its technical sound, 
however, merely camouflages a very simple thing, namely, a relative average 
price. 

"Index numbers" are relative numbers in which data for one year (or 
longer period) are taken as a base of 100, or 100 per cent, and upon which data 
for other years are computed as percentages. When the index numbers relate 
to prices, they are called "price indexes." Thus, if the year 1913 is taken as 
the base year, and average wholesale prices of, say, 300 commodities are 
taken, that average may be called 100 per cent. Then if the average whole- 
sale price of the same 300 commodities is 1.96 times as high in 1918 as in 1913, 
the price index for 1918 is 196, or 196 per cent of the average price in 1913. 

To take a simple illustration, let us assume that the wholesale price index 
of the four principal cereals is desired for the years 1914 and 1918. From 
the U. S. Statistical Abstract for 1918, we find that the average wholesale 
prices (on the farm) were as follows per bushel: 

34 



PRICES AND WAGES 35 

1914 1918 

Corn c $0. 65 $1. 37 

Wheat 0.99 2.37 

Oats. . : 0. 44 0. 71 

Barley 0.55 0.92 

Simple average price $0. 658 $1. 343 

If we add the prices of these four grains and divide by four, we get a " simple 
average price" of $0,658 for the year 1914, and $1,343 for the year 1918. 
Hence, if we take the year 1914 as our standard year, we get $1.34 ^ $0.66 = 
203 as the index price for the year 1918, when the corresponding price index is 
100 for the year 1914. 

This method of calculating price indexes does not take into consideration 
the relative quantities of each of these four cereals produced in the given 
years. To give the proper "weight" to the quantities produced, the calcu- 
lation of "weighted average prices" must be made as follows: 

For the year 1914: 

Corn 2 , 673 , 000 , 000 bu. at $0.65 = $1,737,450,000 

Wheat 891,000,000 bu. at 0.99= 882,090,000 

Oats 1,141,000,000 bu. at 0.44 = 502,040,000 

Barley 195,000,000 bu. at 0.55= 107,250,000 

Total 4,900,000,000 bu. at $0. 659 = $3,228,830,000 

Dividing the total of $3,228,830,000 by 4,900,000,000, we get $0,659 as the 
"weighted average unit price" of these four cereals in 1914, as compared with 
the "simple (or unweighted) average price" of $0,658 previously deduced. 

A similar calculation for 1918 is as follows: 

Corn 2, 583, 000, 000 bu. at $1.37 = $3,538,710,000 

Wheat 917,000,000 bu. at 2.37 = 2,173,290,000 

Oats 1 , 538 , 000 , 000 bu. at 0.71 = 1,091,980,000 

Barley 256,000,000 bu. at 0.92 = 235,520,000 



Total 5, 294, 000, 000 bu. at $1,330 = $7,039,500,000 

This gives a "weighted average unit price" of $1,330 for these four grains, 
as compared with the "simple average price" of $1,343 

Now if we divide the weighted average price of $1,330 (for the year 1918) 
by that of $0,659 (for the year 1914), we get 202, which is the weighted price 
index of these four cereals in 1918, as compared with weighted average price 
index of 100 for the year 1914. 

Where several hundred commodities are thus treated, the weighted price 
Indexes do not usually differ greatly from the unw^eighted price indexes, but the 
smaller the number of commodities thus grouped to secure an average price, the 
greater the range of differences between weighted and unweighted index 
prices. Hence, it is always preferable to use weighted price indexes when 
they are ascertainable. 

Table I shows the weighted wholesale price index in the United States for 
every year from 1860 to 1920, the year 1913 being taken as 100 per cent. 

The Author's Formula for Commodity Price Levels. — The price of every thing 
sold in competitive market is dependent upon the ratio of the realized demand 
to the effective supply. The realized demand is of course measurable only in 
terms of the total money spent ; and the effective supply is measurable only in 



36 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 





Table I.— 


Wholes^ 


Year 


Price 


Year 


1860... 


.... 90 


1880 


1861... 


.... 86 


1881 


1862... 


.... 93 


1882 


1863... 


110 


1883 


1864... 


.... 135 


1884 


1865... 


.... 172 


1885 


1866... 


144 


1886 


1867... 


... 131 


1887 


1868... 


.... 136 


1888 


1869... 


122 


1889 


1870... 


.... 117 


1890 


1871... 


.... 112 


1891 


1872... 


.... 110 


1892 


1873... 


.. .. 108 


1893 


1874... 


.... 109 


1894 


1875... 


.... 108 


1895 


1876... 


.... 104 


1896 


1877... 


.... 99 


1897 


1878... 


93 


1898 


1879... 


.... 87 


1899 



Wholesale Price Index of Commodities 



Price 
93 
95 
96 
94 
92 
86 
86 
87 



Price 

.... 82 

80 

.... 83« 

84 

.... 83 
... 86 
91 
... 96 
.... 91 

94 

... 97 
.... 95 
.... 99 
.... 100 
.... 99 
.... 100 

123 

.... 175 
.... 196 

212 

.... 243 

The actual price indexes are those derived from two sources: (1) From 1859 
to 1889, the price indexes are those given in Senate Report No. 1394 on ' 'Whole- 
sale Prices, Wages and Transportation," by Nelson W. Aldrich, March 3, 1893. 
The weighted average price indexes there given are multiplied by 0.9 to reduce 
them to the same base as the price indexes of the U. S. Bureau of Labor, the latter 
price indexes being those from 1890 to 1920, using the year 1913 as 100. The 
Aldrich report price indexes are based on the wholesale prices of 223 commodities, 
weighted in proportion to family budget expenses. The Bureau of Labor price 
indexes are based on the wholesale prices of 192 commodities in 1890, as given 
in Bulletin No. 173, and in the Monthly Labor Review, December, 1919, and 
January, 1920. 



84 
83 
78 
78 
71 
70 
67 
67 
69 
75 



Year 
1900. 
1901. 
1902. 
1903. 
1904. 
1905. 
1906. 
1907. 
1908. 
1909. 
1910. 
1911. 
1912. 
1913. 
1914. 
1915. 
1916. 
1917. 
1918. 
1919. 
1920. 



the total number of units of products sold, 
price formula: 



Hence we have this fundamental 



Average Unit Price 



Demand 
Supply 

Money spent 

Number of units bought 



In the case of lumber, wheat or any other given product, this formula, if 
applied to the transactions of a year, gives the average unit price for the 
year. This is simple enough, and may be called "self evident." But it is 
not "self evident" that this fundamental average price formula can be so 
treated as to yield a commodity price level formula. 

The money spent in any nation during a year is equal to the average 
quantity of money in circulation multiplied by the number of times the money 
is "turned over" during the year {i.e. the "velocity of circulation"). Thus 
the numerator of the fundamental price formula is derived. The denominator 
of the formula is not so readily perceived to be susceptible of an equally simple 
analysis. The total number of units of product purchased in any year is 
practically equal to the total number produced in that year. But the total 
number of units produced is equal to the total population multiplied by the 
per capita productivity. Hence we have the following application of the 
supply and demand formula to a nation's entire annual output of commodities : 



Average Price 



Mone y X Vel. of C irculati on 
Population X Per Cap. Efficiency 



PRICES AND WAGES 37 

The factor C is practically a constant percentage, and is the ratio of the 
amount of money spent for commodities to the total amount of money spent 
for all things. 

We may substitute letters for words in this foi-mula, letting A stand for 
average price, M for money, V for velocity of circulation, P for population, 
and E for per capita efficiency of production. Then we may write the 
formula: 

• P X E ^ ^ 

This formula would give the absolute average unit price of all commodities 
for any given year, were we able to ascertain the value of E in units. But 
since this is impracticable, we must try to get the relative average price of 
commodities, or price index, which we shall indicate by the letter W. It will 
be seen later that it is practicable to ascertain the relative per capita produc- 
tivity, or efficiency of production, E. When we insert its values for any given 
year in the formula, the formula then gives a relative price, or price level, or 
price index; and then may be written: 

^ P X E ^ ^ 

Similarly we need not get the absolute value of V for each year, but only 
its relative value, and since this will introduce another constant factor analo- 
gous to the C, the final formula for commodity price index becomes: 

Based upon the standards for V and E that I shall use, the value of K is 
>^. Hence we have the following formula for practical use: 

^ 1 MXV 
^ 2 ^ P X E 

This formula gives an average relative price of all commodities sold at 
wholesale and retail; but since there is at present available only wholesale 
price indexes, we must test the formula thereby, remembering that in normal 
times retail and wholesale prices move in unison, whereas in abnormal times 
wholesale prices change more rapidly than retail, and usually move through a 
wider range. 

Applying the Price Formula. — In order to use the formula it is jiecessary 
to secure average values for each of the four variables (M, V, P and E) for 
each year. Currency in circulation (M) is obtainable from the Comptroller 
of the Currency, and his reports are abstracted in the annual Statistical 
Abstract of the U. S. and in the weekly and daily financial papers. Popula- 
tion (P) is reported by the U. S. Bureau of Census. This leaves only velocity 
of circulation (V) and efficiency of production (E) to be estimated. 

Measuring the Rapidity of " Money Turnover.'' — Everyone is aware that 
when " business is good," bills are paid more promptly than when it is " poor." 
A little consideration of this fact makes it clear that "money is turned over" 
more rapidly in "good times" than in "bad times." It is also known that 
average prices of commodities rise in "good times." It follows from these 
two facts that there is a relationship between the rapidity of "money turn- 
over" and average prices of commodities. 



38 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



In seeking for a simple means of measuring the relative rapidity of " money 
turnover" I felt at the start of my study of this problem that it should be 
practicable to eliminate most, if not all, of the effect of speculative transac- 
tions upon bank clearings. My first step, therefore, was to take the bank 
clearings outside of New York City as being a better barometer of trade than 
the bank clearings in New York City. When I divided the annual bank 















































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Fig. 1. — Bank clearings. 



clearings outside of New York by the total bank deposits in the United States 
at the middle of any year, I found that the quotient was usually about 4.5 
in years when business was "normal," that is, when there was neither a 
"boom" nor a "depression." 

This result encouraged me in the belief that I might be able to "adjust" 
New York bank clearings, so as to eliminate the effect of stock and bond 



PRICES AND WAGES 39 

sales. I reasoned that in the case of an outright purchase of stock, a stock 
broker would deposit the check or draft received from his client, and would 
draw his own check for an almost equal amount payable to the person from 
whom the securities had been purchased. Hence there would appear in 
New York bank clearings $2 for every $1 of outright sales of stocks. In case 
of a purchase "on margin," a similar result would follow, because the broker 
would borrow from his bank the difference between the "margin" put up by 
his client and the purchase price of the stock. 

Acting upon this theory, I deducted from the New York bank clearings 
twice the stock and bond sales for each year, from 1893 to 1919, and I found 
that the remainder was almost exactly equal to the bank clearings outside of 
New York City every year. This is well shown in Fig. 1 , which is convincing 
evidence that my method of eliminating the effect of stock and bond sales 
from New York bank clearings is substantially correct. 

It will be noted that when the stock and bond sales on the New York Stock 
Exchange are not available, all that is necessary to secure substantially correct 
results for total mercantile and industrial bank clearings in the United States 
is to double the total bank clearings outside of New York City. 

Since the value of bonds sold is ordinarily about 10 per cent of the value of 
stocks sold on the New York Stock Exchange, and since the stocks usually 
sell at an average price of about $90 a share, an approximate adjustment of 
bank clearings in New York City, to eliminate the effect of stock and bond 
sales, can be effected thus: multiply the total number of shares sold by $90, 
and then multiply this product by 2.2 to get the total bank clearings due to 
both stock and bond sales. Deduct this product from the total bank clearings 
in New York City and the remained is the approximate total of New York 
bank clearings attributable to mercantile and industrial transactions. This is 
normally equal to the total bank clearings outside of New York City. 

To calculate the relative rate of money turnover in a year, or velocity of 
money circulation, (V) , divide the total annual bank clearings (after adjusting 
for N. Y. stock and bond sales, as above described) by the average bank 
deposits. 

For all practical purposes the individual bank deposits as of July 1 can be 
used (See Table II). The adjusted bank clearings are given in Table V and 
Fig. 1 for each year. The resulting velocity of circulation (V) for each year 
is given in Table VI. 

The values of V given in Table VI are relative only, for as a matter 
of fact only about 40 per cent of the total checks pass through bank clearing 
houses. Hence to get the actual rate of annual money turnover it is necessary 
to multiply the values of V given in Table VI by 2.5. 

Adjustments of bank clearings for the effect of stock exchange transactions 
in Chicago, Philadelphia and Boston are unnecessary because of the relatively 
small volume of their transactions. 

The following illustration may serve to make clear the soundness of the 
above given method of estimating velocity of circulation. 

Practically all currency is constantly flowing into the banks and out again, 
the bank reserves being only part of the total. A bank, therefore, resembles 
a reservoir or lake into which water is flowing, only to flow out again. We may 
conceive all the banks in America to be like all the artificial and natural water 
reservoirs in America. We may conceive the clouds to be like the individual 
purses that carry the currency to the banks. We may conceive the rivers to be 
like the "pay envelopes" that carry the currency away from the banks. The 



40 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

average velocity of a given volume of water can be accurately calculated if we 
know the number of times that a reservoir is filled in a given period by the water 
In like manner the average velocity of currency circulation can be estimated 
by ascertaining the number of times the bank reserves are turned over in a 
year. But since bank deposits are normally about ten times the bank reserves, 
the relative rate of turnover of bank reserves is ordinarily about the same as 
the rate of turnover of bank deposits. Hence the relative rate of turnover 
of bank deposits is practically the same as the relative rate of turnover of all 
currency. 

. Productive Efficiency. — Prof. King, in his "Wealth and Income of the 
People of the U. S.," has given some estimates of the average annual incomes 
of several different classes of producers, expressed in buying power as well as 
in dollars. But he does not give the increase in average income per capita 
or per worker for all those classes of producers combined, and it was this gen- 
eral average that I was seeking. Moreover, I found that through not going 
to the original sources. Prof, King had made several errors both in the actual 
data and in his interpretation of them. For example, he did not realize that 
the statistics as given in the Statistical Abstract relating to the value of 
agricultural products are not at all comparable for the different census years, 
a fact that is pointed out in the volumes of the U. S. Census. In several 
instances Prof. King used incorrect index prices, e.g., simple averages where 
weighted averages should have been used. 

In order to reduce to a minimum any errors that might arise from the use 
of incorrect price indexes, I decided to secure, as far as practicable, the number 
of units of product in each of the four grand classes of producers of commodities 
sold at wholesale, namely (1) Agriculture, (2) Mining, (3) Manufacturing, 
and (4) Transportation by Rail. I found it possible to secure all the needed 
data for every year back to 1869, except for manufactured products and for 
transportation. Steam railway transportation, however, could be carried 
back to the year 1882, for both the numbers of tons and ton-miles of freight 
were available. 

Table X gives a general idea of the distribution of those engaged in gainful 
occupations, but too rigorous a comparison between successive census years 
should not be made, especially between 1899 and 1909, because of differences 
in the classification rules followed by the census takers in different years. 

Since less than 3 per cent of all men engaged in gainfull occupation are 
classed as steam railway employes (under Transportation) in the U. S. Census, 
no appreciable error can result by omitting them entirely from consideration 
in seeking the general average productive efficiency of all workers. Moreover, 
it should be noted that for every railway employe there is an investment of 
more than $10,000 in the railway plant, or about four times as much per 
worker as is found either in manufacturing or in agriculture. All this railway 
plant has been built by workers classed under Manufacturing and Mechanical, 
and most of its renewals are made by them also. Hence, viewing the problem 
broadly, the productive efficiency of railway employes is mainly due to men 
not classed as railway employes. 

The building trades employes must be excluded from consideration because 
no data as to the value of their total output are available since 1899. For 
1899 and prior thereto the building trades output was included by the census 
with manufacturing output, but I have eliminated it from those years in 
order to derive a manufacturing output that will be comparable from 1869 
to 1914. (Prof. King failed to take into account the above mentioned change 



PRICES AND WAGES 41 

in 1899.) The building trades constitute about 4 per cent of the total engaged 
in gainful occupations. The labor cost of buildings is only 40 to 50 per cent 
of the total cost, so that the omission of the building trades from the total of 
productive workers is even less important than the 4 per cent would indicate. 

Finally, it should be remembered that we are seeking a productive effi- 
ciency factor to use in a wholesale commodity price formula, and the building 
trades employes have very little influence on this factor. 

For similar reasons, workers classed under Domestic and Personal Service 
and Trade can be omitted from consideration. The same holds true of Pro- 
fessional service, for although a very large part of the increase of productive ^ 
efficiency is attributable to professional men (educators, engineers, etc J, 
it finds its measure in the better work done by the workers, which is exactly 
what we are seeking to determine. 

We have left, then, those engaged in Agriculture, Manufacturing and 
Mining. These occupations comprise about two-thirds of all people engaged 
in gainful occupations, and they comprise fully 85 per cent of all workers 
who produce wholesale commodities. Hence if we ascertain the average 
productive efficiency of these three classes, we shall have a very accurate 
measure of the productivity of all producers. 

The census data for 1859 and earlier years are not comparable with those 
of later years, because slaves were not counted as being engaged in gainful 
occupations, although they were counted as part of the population. In 1859 
negroes were about 15 per cent of the population. 

The Efficiency of Miners. — Practically all the miners in America are engaged 
in producing seven minerals and metals: Coal, iron ore, copper, gold, silver, 
lead and zinc. Hence if we ascertain the annual number of units of each of 
these minerals and metals produced at intervals of 5 or 10 years, and multiply 
by standard unit prices we shall be able to compare one year's output with 
another. Then if we divide the total output in dollars for each year by the 
number of miners engaged in that year, we shall have the gross output in 
dollars per miner per year. But from this should be deducted the value of new 
equipment and of materials and supplies used in mining, which, according to 
the U. S. census, has averaged about 30 per cent of the gross value of the 
mineral output. 

Table XIII gives two typical years, 1889 and 1918, for which I have cal- 
culated the gross value of the 7 minerals and metals, using prices that approxi- 
mate to those of 1913. The gross mineral values for 1869, 1879, 1889, 1899, 
1904, 1909, 1914 and 1918 being thus determined (always using the same stand- 
ard unit prices) , 70 per cent thereof was taken (to get the value after deducting 
raw materials, supplies and additions to plant) , and the net values thus derived 
for each of these years were divided by the number of miners employed during 
that year. This gave net value produced per miner for each of the years, 
which is graphically shown in Fig. 2. A similar result is shown graphically 
in Fig. 3, but there expressed as percentages (instead of in dollars), taking the 
year 1879 as 100 per cent. Table XIV shows the same results, and the foot- 
notes describe the methods of calculations. The numbers in column A of 
Table XIV, when multiplied by 70 per cent, give the dollars per miner per 
year shown in Fig. 2 ; the numbers in column E (or efficiency per miner) are 
shown in Fig. 3. It will be seen that the productive efficiency of the miners 
has more than doubled in 50 years, rising from 91.7 in 1869 to 187.8 in 1918. 
It is particularly noteworthy that their efficiency has increased more rapidly 
in the last 30 years of this 50-year period than in the first 20 years. In 1917 



42 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



the coal miners (and they comprise 80 per cent of all the miners) broke all 
records for output per miner, mainly because they worked about 20 per cent 
more days per annum than in normal years. The output for 1918 also was 
abnormal. Had I used the abnormally high output that actually occurred for 
1918, the result would have been a gross equated output of $1,902 per miner 






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Fig. 2. — "Equated Productivity" per worker (dollars per annum). 

instead of the $1,550 given in column A of Table XIV. But since we are 
seeking the average efficiency of all workers in America, this abnormal out- 
put of the coal miners for 1918 would give us a false result, so both in Table 
XIV and in Figs. 2 and 3, I have scaled down the mining output to that of a 
normal year. 

With the same number of coal miners about 20 per cent more coal was mined 



i 



PRICES AND WAGES 



43 



in 1917 than in 1914. This achievement shows conclusively what may be 
accomplished in the way of improving the efiBciency of the coal mining 
industry. 

The data of annual output of the mines are to be found in the Statistical 
Abstract of the United States. 

The standard unit prices of coal and iron that I have assumed in Table 
XIII, are the prices at the mines; but the rest of the prices are those of the 



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Fig. 3. — Productive efficiency. 



metals in the primary wholesale markets. Since these metal prices include 
the cost of milHng, smelting and freight, the resulting total values (Table 
XIII) for each year are in excess of the bare cost of mining. While this makes 
it impossible to contrast the dollars produced per miner with the dollars pro- 
duced per farmer for a given year (Fig. 2), it does not prevent a comparison of 
the changes in their respective efficiency (Fig. 3), nor does it vitiate the final 
conclusions as to the per capita productive efficiency of all producers of whole- 
sale commodities, as will be more clearly evident when we come to the dis- 
cussion of that factor (E) . The increased investment in plant per miner has 
already been taken into consideration, as above described. 



44 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Agricultural Efficiency. — In order to measure the productive efficiency of 
agricultural workers from 1869 to 1918 inclusive, I decided that the most 
exact method would be to secure the number of units of product of every im- 
portant crop by years. Upon study of these crop data it became evident that 
9 crops comprised 85 per cent of all crop values. Since the other (or minor) 
crops bear an almost constant ratio in value to the total value of these 9 crops, 
it is apparent that we need consider only the 9 crops in estimating crop produc- 
tive efficiency for different years. 

Since crops usually vary somewhat from year to year I decided to take the 
average of three crop years, at five year intervals; thus for the year 1869, the 
average of the crop yields for 1868, 1869 and 1870 was taken. Then I assumed 
an average unit price for each of the crops, and multiplied each average crop 
for the 1869 "period" by the average price assumed. Table XT gives the 
calculated value of the 9 big crops for 1869 and 1918. The same unit prices 
used in Table XI were used for 1874, 1879, 1884, etc. at 5-year intervals, taking 
the average crop yield for three years in each case. 

The annual value of the animals and animal products (beef, milk, eggs, wool, 
cattle sold, etc.) in any year has averaged about 55 per cent of the value of all 
the crops. Hence if we multiply the value of the 9 big crops by 1.18 to get the 
value of all crops, and if we multiply this product by 1.55 we get the value of 
all agricultural products. The product of 1.18 and 1.55 is 1.83. 

The standard for unit prices assumed in calculating the crop values (see 
Table XI) were approximately those of 1909 to which about 7 per cent must • 
be added to be equivalent to the price level of 1913, which is the year that I use 
throughout as the standard of prices. So if we add 7 per cent to 1.83 we get 
1.96, which is the factor by which to multiply the value of the 9 crops cal- 
culated on the prices given in Table XI, to get the value of all crops and animal 
products. But it happens that a very considerable part of the farm products 
are consumed on the farms. The census of 1899 shows that 20 per cent of the 
total value of all farm products was fed to live stock. On the other hand, the 
census of 1909 shows that the quantities of animal products and the number 
of cows reported by farmers were not given in full, a check count showing the 
omissions as to dairy cows being 22 per cent of the total cows. From a study 
of such data, I have concluded that a deduction of about 12 per cent from the 
total of agricultural products will give a very close approximentation to the 
value of farm products after deducting the food consumed by live stock and 
after adding the value of items that were underestimated in the reports made 
by farmers. Annual increments in farm equipment are so small a percentage 
of farm output they need not be considered. Taking this 12 per cent from the 
factor of 1.96 (above deduced, reduces the factor to 1.745 — call it 1 75. Hence 
if we multiply the total values of the 9 big crops (as given in Table XI for 
1869 and 1918, and as similarly calculated for intervals of 5 years between 
those years) we get the equated total value of farm products after deducting 
the value of food fed to livestock. The resulting totals for each year if 
divided by the numbers of agricultural workers give the "equated" annual 
productivity per agricultural worker. 

The word "equated" here means reduced to the same standard prices for 
the standard year, the standard year in this case being 1913. 

Fig. 2 shows the output in dollars per year per "farmer," for each of the 5- 
year points (each "point" being an average for three years' crops, as above 
explained), from 1869 to 1918 inclusive. Even though I had largely elimin- 
ated the effect of fluctuations in crop yield (by taking 3-year averages) , it is 



PRICES AND WAGES 45 

evident that the effects of very bad crop failures were not entirely "ironed 
out." Since we are seeking average annual productive efficiency per capita, 
it is necessary to "iron out" all irregularities. Accordingly, it is necessary 
to omit the results for the year 1874 and 1894, for exceptionally large crop 
failures occurred at these " points." To do this "ironing out," draw a straight 
line on Fig. 2 from the farmer output in 1869 to that in 1879, thence to that in 
1889, thence to that in 1918. This line (which is not shown in Fig. 2 but can 
be drawn by the reader) may be called the "adjusted curve of output per 
farmer." It serves merely to "iron out" irregularities of farm productivity 
due to irregularities in the weather, and thus gives a true measure of the 
increase in the average productivity per farmer. 

Column B of Table XII gives the output per farmer for each of the "periods," 
and corresponds to the "adjusted curve of output per farmer." Column C 
gives the number of agricultural workers, those for the years 1914 and 1918 
being estimated. The meaning of each column is given in the footnotes of the 
table. Column E gives the productive efficiency per farmer, which is also 
shown graphically in Fig. 3, from which we see that agricultural efficiency rose 
from 80 in 1869 to 100 in 1879, then to 111 in 1889, then to 125 in 1918. This 
in an excellent record for the 20 years following 1869, but a miserable record 
for the 30 years following 1889. Although this record is bad it would have 
been worse had I taken the number of people engaged in agriculture as re- 
ported in the census of 1909, namely 12,659,000. The census report states 
that this number is probably about 500,000 high, due to a misunderstanding 
by the census enumerarors, too many women having been classed as engaged 
in "gainful occupation" on the farms. Accordingly I deducted 500,000, 
which has resulted in raising the agricultural output about 4 per cent per 
worker over what i*t would have been had no correction of the census figures 
been made. I have estimated a 900,000 increase in agricultural workers 
between 1909 and 1918, or 100,000 a year, which is only 0.8 p€r cent yearly, or 
at half the rate that the total population usually increases. Had I estimated 
a higher rate of increase in farmers, there would have resulted a lower output 
per farmer in 1914 and 1918 then that shown in Table XI. 

The Efficiency of Manufacturing Workers. — Manufacturing covers such a 
vast variety of trades that it becomes necessary to use a method differing 
from the one that I used for deducing the productive efficiency of miners and 
farmers. Table XV (with its footnotes) shows the method used to deduce the 
productive efficiency of manufacturing workers from 1869 to 1914. 

The method, briefly stated, consists in ascertaining the gross value of the 
annual product, deducting therefrom the value of the raw materials and sup- 
plies, and dividing the net value thus obtained by the wholesale price index 
for the given year. The quotient (column E, Table XV) is the "equated" 
net value produced by the work of all those engaged in manufacture. If great 
exactitude is required, this result should be reduced by about 3 per cent, to 
allow for the annual increment in "equated" investment in manufacturing 
plant, but this refinement is unnecessary. 

Dividing the value of a year's output by the price index for the given year 
gives an "equated" value that is comparable with that for any other year. 
By such a method we are able to reduce all values to a common basis, arriving 
at a result similar to that obtained by the method above described for " equat- 
ing" the output of miners and farmers. 

Fig. 2 shows graphically the data given in column H of Table XV; Fig. 3 
shows the data in column I. 



46 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

It will be seen that manuf actturing workers' productive efficienct or out-put 
was 84 in 1869, and rose to 158 in 1899 — almost doubling in 30 years. Follow- 
ing 1899 there was no improvement whatever for 15 years (up to 1914), and 
there is little doubt that some falling off in manufacturing workers' efficiency, 
per worker, has occurred since 1914. However, the per capita productive 
efficiency of the nation has not decreased materially since 1914, because 
farming and mining efficiency have risen sufficiently to offset any loss in manu- 
facturing efficiency. The proof of this conclusion will now be given: 

Productive Efficiency Per Capita. — Per capita productive efficiency has, so 
far as I know, never been ascertained before, yet Its economic significance is of 
extreme importance, entirely aside from its use in my price index formula. 

We have already considered the productivity of each of the three great 
classes of workers who produce raw materials and finished factory commo- 
dities. It remains now to secure the combined or composite efficiency of 
these workers. Before doing so it may be well to point out the economic part 
of the other classes of workers, namely those engaged in " professional service." 
"domestic and personal service," "trade and transportation." .These three 
great classes comprise about one-third of all who are engaged in gainful occu- 
pations. As will be seen from Table X, this ratio of one-third has been fairly 
constant for the 40 years, from 1869 to 1909. It is apparent, therefore, that 
to the cost of producing commodities, there must be added about 50 per cent 
for transporting and distributing them and for the professional service (educa- 
, tinal, engineering, etc.) and other services (government, etc.). This explains 
why retail prices average, on the whole, approximately 50 per cent in excess 
of wholesale prices, year after year. But the present significance of this 
constancy of the ratio of the number of "producers" to "distributors, etc.," 
namely, 2 to 1, is this: If we ascertain the efficiency of the " producers " of 
commodities sold at wholesale prices, that same efficiency will apply to the 
"distributors, efc." 

Table X shows that the ratio of "workers" (all those engaged in gainful 
occupations) to total population has increased since 1869. Probably the rate 
of increase since 1914 has been greater Jihan theretofore, because so many 
women who were called into gainful service during the war have continued 
in that service. This should be borne in mind when considering the produc- 
tive efficiency of the nation as a whole, for it accounts largely for the fact that 
our per capita efficiency has not decreased during the past five years in spite 
of a decrease in individual efficiency in many industries and trades. 

Table XVI gives my calculation of the per capita productivity and effi- 
ciency of the American people, from 1869 to 1918 inclusive. 

It will be observed that I have estimated the "equated" value of manu- 
factured products for 1918 at 10 per cent in excess of that for 1914. In 
arriving at this estimate, I studied all the data of annual production of dif- 
ferent commodities, and made a "weighted average" estimate of the resulting 
percentage increase. Table VIII contains only a small fraction of the data 
that I used in making this estimate, but it should serve to silence anyone who 
argues that high prices are attributable to the reduced output of American 
workers. 

Column G of Table XVI shows the per capita productive efficiency of the 
American people (the E in my index price formula) and Fig. 3 shows the same 
data graphically, from 1869 to 1918. Observe that per capita efficiency rose 
from 80 per cent in 1869, to 100 per cent in 1879 (the year taken as a standard 
for comparison), then to 146 in 1904, then to 152 in 1914, and finally to 153.5 



PRICES AND WAGES 47 

in 1918. It will be seen that since 1909 there has been very little change in 
per capita efficiency. It will be seen that, contrary to general opinion, the 
productive output of the nation did not decrease as a result of the war. 

The Effect of Exports Upon Price Levels. — There have been only three years 
since 1875 that out imports have exceeded our exports. During the fifteen 
years prior to the world war, the excess of merchandise exports over imports 
was as follows, by five-year periods: 

Millions 

June 30, 1899, to June 30, 1904 $2 , 552 

June 30, 1904, to June 30, 1909 2 , 381 

June 30, 1909, to June 30, 1914 2 , 385 

Total, millions of dollars $7,318 

Taking five years preceding the war, we see that out merchandise exports 
exceeded out imports by an average of 477 million dollars annually. In Table 
XVI will be seen that our average annual production of wholesale commodi- 
ties during the same five-year period was 18,400 million dollars. Hence our 
annual excess of exports over imports averaged about 2.5 per cent of the 
total commodities that we produced. In my price formula this 2.5 per cent 
does not appear as a corrective factor, but it is automatically taken care of. 

Table IX Column "A," gives the "balance of trade" for each of the last 
five calendar years in millions of dollars. To reduce these dollars to the same 
purchasing power as existed in 1913, the total for each year (as given in 
Column " A") is divided by the average price index for the corresponding year 
(as given in Column "B"), and quotient (as given in Column "C") is the 
number of dollars of "balance of trade" expressed in terms of the buying 
power of a dollar in 1913. This "equated value" of the excess of exports 
over imports is 9,764 million dollars for this five-year period, or about 1,953 
million dollars per annum, as compared with 477 million dollars per annum 
prior to the war. 

Table XVI shows that the annual production of wholesale commodities 
averaged 19,770 for the years 1914 to 1918. Hence it follows that the excess 
of exports over imports during the years 1914 to 1919 averaged about 10 per 
cent of the total commodities produced during those years, as compared with 
2.5 per cent during the prewar years; thus producing an abnormal deficiency 
of commodities for home consumption amounting to 7.5 per cent of the total 
annual production. 

So far as its effect upon the American average wholesale commodity prices 
is concerned, this abnormal balance of trade of 7.5 per cent has acted precisely 
as if there had been a 7.5 per cent decrease in productivity. Hence the per- 
capita productivity coefficient (the E in the price formula) must be decreased 
7.5 per cent for each of the five calendar years, 1915 to 1919, inclusive. 

Some Imaginary Causes of High Prices. — Among the imaginary causes of 
higher average prices are: (1) Profiteering, (2) Extravagance, (3) Inefficiency 
of workers, (4) Scarcity of commodities in America, (5) High taxes. 

"Profiteering," even where it exists, can not affect average prices, however 
much it may affect the prices of a given class of things. Profiteering merely 
serves to change the distribution of the total currency, but does not change the 
total. Profiteering does not change the total buying power of the nation, for 
that is measured by the product of the total currency and its rate of turnover. 
Profiteering diverts the currency into pockets and bank accounts that it would- 



48 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

not otherwise have reached. Such a diversion may result in a greater buying 
of certain commodities by the profiteers. But by as much as those profiteers 
, increase the demand for the things they purchase, by an exactly equal amount 
there occurs a decrease in the demand for the things that would otherwise 
have been purchased had there been no profiteering. 

The very same sort of reasoning holds good as to extravagance. Extrava- 
gance diverts money from the purchase of, say, construction materials, to say, 
diamonds and silks; but extravagance alters not one whit the total annual 
buying power of a nation. Every nation always spends all that is earned 
annually. 

High taxes have no effect on average prices, unless they cause a stagnation 
in industry. It is possible that this may yet occur to some extent, because the 
graduated income tax takes away a large part of the profits in business of a 
venturesome nature and therefore tends to a restriction of business enterprise. 
Also if high taxes lead to a permanent and large increase in government activi- 
ties of an unproductive nature, there results a lowering in productive efficiency 
per capita (the E in my price formula) and a consequent rise of average prices 
of commodities. 

A general scarcity of commodities in America does not exist. This also is 
a fictional reason for high prices. 

Scarcity of commodities in Europe affects prices in America by: (1) Causing 
a shipment of gold to America, (2) by increasing the rate of money turnover, 
and (3) by decreasing the quantity of commodities available for domestic 
markets. 

Modern political economists (with very few exceptions) have hitherto held 
that bank deposits against which checks may be drawn (often called "credit 
currency") are essentially the sanie as money, and that, therefore, an increase 
in bank deposits tends to raise the level of prices just as does an increase in 
money. It will be observed that my formula does not support that belief, 
unless it can be shown to be a fact that bank deposits subject to check have 
increased in the same proportion that money has increased. Table II shows 
that the ratio of bank deposits to total currency was 2.2 to 1 in the year 1880, 
and that it rose to 5.7 to 1 in 1919. The rise was steady and so rapid during 
those 40 years as to make it clear that, had total bank deposits had the same 
effect as currency in raising prices, there would have occurred a price increase 
several fold in excess of what actually did occur. Table VII shows that the 
ratio of total bank deposits to deposits subject to check has been constant 
for 30 years, so that it cannot be contended that the more rapid increase in 
total bank deposits has been offset by a decrease in the proportion of checking 
deposits to total deposits. 

There remains only one other way in which the increase in total bank 
deposits could be offset, and that would be by a decrease in the rapidity of 
turnover of checking deposits. This, however, has not occurred. Prof. 
Fisher states that the contrary has occurred. But we need not use his esti- 
mates to prove this contention, for all that is necessary is to refer to Tables 
VI and VII. In Table VI we see that the ratio of bank deposits to total bank 
clearings "adjusted" for the effect of New York Stock Exchange transactions 
has averaged about 9 for the past 30 years oscillating, back and forth from this 
average. Table VII shows that during the same period the ratio of total 
deposits to checking deposits has averaged 2 to 1, and that there have been 
only slight departures from this average at any time. Hence it follows that 
the ratio of "adjusted" annual bank clearings to checking bank deposits ( = 



PRICES AND WAGES 



49 



"credit currency") has averaged 18 to 1, and that there have been only 
relatively small departures from this average. 

It is made clear from these facts that the rapid increase in bank deposits, 
as compared with the less rapid increase in total currency, has not been offset 
either by (1) a decrease in the ratio of checking deposits to total deposits or 
by (2) a decrease in the rapidity of annual turnover of checking deposits. 
This being so, it is conclusively established that average commodity prices 
would be nearly two times as high as they now are, were it a fact that checking 
deposits have the same effect as currency upon prices, it being remembered 
that per capita bank deposits have increased 2 times as rapidly as currency 
since 1890 (See Table II). 

— 1?00 



Formula: W^ 






CurrencLf Over Esfirnaied 
~5%bc/ U.S.Government.^ 



Fig. 4.- 



190 
180 
ITO 
160 
150 
140 
130 
l?0 

no 

100 
90 
80 



-Comparison of actual and calculated wholesale price indexes, 1889 to 
1919. 




Predicting Price Levels by the Formula. — Table XVII and Fig. 4 show the actual 
wholesale price indexes for every year from 1889 to 1919 compared with price 
indexes calculated by the formula. The agreement is so close as to verify 
the accuracy of the formula, especially when consideration is given to the wide 
range not only of the price level during this period but the great variation in 
each of the four variables in the formula. 

So long as the variables affecting price levels were not known quantitatively, 
it was impracticable to predict price levels with any degree of accuracy. But 
by considering the probable changes in each of the four variables in the price 
formula, it is possible to forecast price movements with considerable accuracy. 

It is probable that the 50 per cent increase in gold that America secured 
during the war will not be materially reduced for several years, because Europe 
owes America 9 billion dollars, or more than all the gold in circulation in the 
world. 

Table II shows that the per capita currency in circulation was $34.56 in 
July 1, 1913, and $54.74 six years later, or an increase of about 60 per cent. 
4 



50 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



There may be some decrease in this currency due to the retirement of Federal 
Reserve notes, but this shrinkage is hkely to be nearly offset by increase in 
gold. Hence when the velocity of circulation (V) returns to normal, and when 
exports and imports again reach a normal relation of substantial equality, we 
shall have left only one factor that has changed, namely per capita currency. 
Since that has increased 60 per cent, and is not likely to change rapidly, the 
new price level, or new price plateau, will be about 60 per cent above the pre- 
war price level. This price plateau will probably slope gently downward as 
it did after 1867, following the two-year readjustment period when prices 
declined rapidly (see Table I). The factors that will tend to decrease price 
levels will be an increase in population (at about 1.5 per cent yearly), and an 
increase in productivity efficiency, which may possibly reach 2 per cent annu- 
ally ; thus resulting in a steady drop in the price level at the rate of about 3.5 
per cent annually from the new level of 160. 

Table XXI shows the price levels by months up to Jan., 1922. 

All Prices Tend to Seek the Average Price Level. — A study of price indexes 
shows that, although a particular commodity may vary in its price changes 
at a rate somewhat different from that of the average of all commodity prices 
still there is a strong tendency to follow the average price movement. 

Following the Civil War, building material prices remained above the gen- 
eral price level for fourteen years. This was due mainly to the restriction of 
construction during the four years of war, and the subsequent strong demand 
for construction materials when the country began to make up for the pre- 
vious subnormal construction. Probably the same phenomenon will be wit- 
nessed during the next few years. 

Tables XXI and XXII show price indexes of construction materials com- 
pared with the average of all commodities. It should be observed in Table 
XXII that price index for building materials was 55 in 1860, as compared with 
100 in 1913, indicating that the average price of building materials increased 
80 per cent during these 53 years. On the other hand the average wholesale 
price of all commodities increased only 10 per cent during the same period. 
This seems to indicate a relatively small increase in the productive efficiency 
of workers engaged in producing building materials, coupled with a growing 
scarcity of timber. 

Table II. — Population, Currency and Bank Deposits 

Popu- Currency Bank depos- Total bank 

Year lation per its per cap- depositst 

(June 1) capita ita (July 1) (millions) 

1895 30,822,000 $14.35 $35.80* $1,098* 

1860 31,443,321 13.85 34.60* 1,089* 

1861 32,064,000 13.98 35.00* 1,121* 

1862 32,704,000 10.23 25.60* 837* 

1863 33,365,000 17.84 44.50* 1,488* 

1864 34,046,000 19.67 49.20* 1,674* 

1865 34,748,000 20.58 51.50* 1,787* 

1866 .- 35,469,000 18.99 47.50* 1,684* 

1867 36,211,000 18.29 45.70* 1,655* 

1868 36,973,000 18.42 46.00* 1,702* 

1869 37,756,000 17.63 44.10* 1,664* 

1870 38,558,371 17.51 43.80* 1,691* 

1871 39,555,000 18.17 45.40* 1,797* 

1872 40,596,000 18.27 47.50* 1,928* 

1873 41,677,000 18.09 48.80* 2,035* 

1874 42,796,000 18.13 50.80* 2,173* 

Foot Notes: 

* Estimated by multiplying total currency by 2.5 for the years 1859 to 1871 
inclusive, then by 2.6 for 1872, by 2.7 for 1873, and 2.8 for 1874. 



PRICES AND WAGES 



51 



Table II. — Population, Currency and Bank DEPOSfTS- 

Popu- Currency Bank depos- 

Year lation per its per cap- 

(June 1) capita ita (July 1) 

1875 43,951,000 17.16 49.66 

1876 45,137,000 16.12 47.65 

1877 46,353,000 15.58 44.38 

1878 47,598,000 15.32 39.94 

1879 48,866,000 16.75 37.53 

1880 50,155,783 19.41 42.55 

1881 51,316,000 21.71 49.47 

1882 52,495,000 22.37 52.49 

1883 53,693,000 22.93 54.80 

1884 54,911,000 22.65 52.40 

1885 56,148,000 23.03 54.50 

1886.... 57,404,000 21.78 55.50 

1887 58,680,000 22.45 56.32 

1888 59,974,000 22.88 57.01 

1889 61,289,000 22.52 61.62 

1890 62,947,714 22.82 64.51 

1891...., 63,844,000 23.45 65.74 

1892 65,086,000 24.60 71.67 

1893 66,349,000 24.06 69.74 

1894 67,632,000 24.56 68.77 

1895 68,934,000 23.24 71.39 

1896 70,254,000 21.44 70.39 

1897 71,592,000 22.92 71.16 

1898 72,947,000 25.19 77.98 

1899 74,318,000 25.62 91.08 

1900 75,994,575 26.93 95.26 

1901 77,612,569 27.98 109.01 

1902 79,230,563 28.43 114.91 

1903 80,848,557 29.42 118.17 

1904 82,466,551 30.77 121.27 

1905 84,084,545 31.08 134.99 

1906 85,702,533 32.32 142.54 

1907 87,320,539 32.22 150.02 

1908 88,938,527 34.72 143.75 

1909 90,556,521 34.93 155.79 

1910 92,174,515 34.33 165.81 

1911 93,792,509 34.20 169.59 

1912 95,410,503 34.34 178.43 

1913 97,028,497 34.56 180.10 

1914 98,646,491 34.35 187.72 

1915 100,264,485 35.44 191.75 

1916 101,882,479 39.29 224.55 

1917 103,500,473 45.74 254.01 

1918 105,118,467 50.81 265.72 

1919 106,740,000 54.74 309.89 



-Continued 

Total bank 

deposits 

(millions) 

2,183* 

2,151 

2,057 

1,901 

1,834 

2,134 

2.539 

2,756 

2,876 

2,874 

3,061 

3,186 

3,596 

3,704 

4,025 

4,361 

4,482 

4,944 

4,834 

4,849 

5,167 

5,122 

5,245 

. 5 , 874 

6,964 

7,527 

8,817 

9,501 

9,953 

10,288 

11,735 

12,546 

13 , 553 

13,166 

14 , 687 

15,658 

16,332 

17,480 

17,905 

18,955 

19 , 628 

23,319 

26,776 

28,511 

33,065 



* For years following 1874 the data given by the comptroller of the currency 
in the Statistical Abstract of the U. S. are taken, except as to private banks, 
which (since 1877) have been estimated by multiplying the private bank deposits 
given in the Statistical Abstract by 4, because only one-fourth of the private 
banks have reported their deposits. The correctness of this estimate for private 
banks is confirmed by data given in Mitchell's "Business Cycles." The total 
deposits in private banks has been only about 0.6 per cent of the total deposits 
in all other banks for several years past. 

These bank deposits are those known technically as "Individual Bank De- 
posits," which excludes the U. S. Govt, deposits. 



52 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table III. — New York Stock Exchange Sales 



No. of 

Calendar shares 

year of stock 

1889 72,014,600 

1890 71,282,885 

1891 69,031,689 

1892 85,875,092 

1893 80,977,839 

1894 49,075,032 

1895 66,583,232 

1896 54,654,096 

1897 77,324,172 

1898 112,699,957 

1899 176,421,135 

1900 138 , 380 , 184 

1901 265 , 944 , 659 

1902 188,503,403 

1903 161,102,101 

1904 187,312,065 

1905 263,081,156 

1906 284,298,010 

1907 196 , 438 , 824 

1908 197,206,346 

1909 214,632,194 

1910 164,051,061 

1911 127,208,258 

1912.: 131,128,425 

1913 83,470,693 

1914 47,900,568 

1915 173 , 145 , 203 

1916 233,311,993 

1917 185 , 628 , 948 

1918 144,118,469 

1919 316,787,725 





Bonds 


Stock value 


at par 


in millions 


in millions 


$4,060 


398 


3,978 


379 


3,813 


391 


4,875 


503 


4,551 


301 


3,095 


355 


3,809 


503 


3,330 


386 


4,974 


545 


8,188 


918 


13,430 


768 


9,250 


645 


20,432 


917 


14,219 


951 


11,005 


596 


12,062 


1,037 


21,296 


1,022 


23 , 394 


672 


14,758 


519 


15,320 


1,052 


19,143 


1,293 


14,126 


634 


11,004 


897 


11,563 


670 


7,171 


494 


3,899 


456 


12,662 


961 


18,870 


1,150 


15,610 


1,047 


12,483 


1,980 


25,905 


3,809 



Table IV.- 



-Bank Clearings in Millions of Dollars 
(Calendar Years) 



New All 

Year York U. S. 

1889 $35,895 $56,175 

1890 37,458 60,623 

1891 33,749 56,718 

1892 36,662 62,109 

1893 31,261 54,323 

1894 24 , 387 45 , 680 

1895 29,841 53,348 

1896 28,870 51,333 

1897 33 , 427 57 , 403 

1898 41,971 68,931 

1899 60,761 94,178 

1900 52 , 634 • 86 , 205 

1901 79.420 118,579 

1902 76,328 118,023 

1903 65 , 970 109 , 209 

1904 68,649 112,621 



Year 



New 
York 



1905 $93,822 

1906 104,675 

1907 87,182 

1908 79,275 

1909 103 , 588 

1910 97,275 

1911 92.373 

1912 100,474 

1913 94,634 

1914 83,019 

1915 110,564 

1916 159,581 

1917 177,405 

1918... 178,533 

1919 235,802 



All 

U. S. 

$143,909 
160,019 
145,175 
132,408 
165,608 
163,722 
160,230 
174,914 
169,826 
155,242 
187,818 
260 , 953 
306 , 945 
332,351 
417,519 



Foot Note: The bank clearings given in the Statistical Abstracts of the U. S. are 
for fiscal years ending Sept. 30. In ordinary times these do not differ greatly 
from those for calendar years ending Dec. 31, but in times of rapid business 
changes they may differ considerably. 



PRICES AND WAGES 



53 



Table V. — Bank Clearings (Millions of Dollars) 

Column A B C* D E F 

New York Adjusted Clearings Total 

Calendar Stock Adjust- N. Y. outside adjusted 

year Clearings sales ment clearings N. Y. clearings 

(A - C) (D + E) 

1889 35,895 4,059 17,860 18,035 20,280 38,315 

1890 37,458 3,978 17,503 19,955 23,165 43,120 

1 33,749 3,812 16,773 16,976 22,969 39,945 

2 36 , 662 4 , 874 14 , 622 22 , 040 25 , 447 47 , 487 

3 31,261 4,550 10,010 21,251 23,062 44,313 

4. 24,387 3,095 6,809 17,578 21,299 38,877 

5 29,841 3,808 8,378 21,463 23,507 44,970 

6... 28,870 3,330 7,326 21,544 22,463 44,007 

7 33,427 4,974 10,943 22,484 23,976 46,460 

8... 41,971 8,187 18,011 23,960 26,960 50,920 

9 60,761 13,429 29,544 31,217 33,417 64,634 

1900 52,634 9,249 20,348 32,286 33,571 65,857 

1 79,420 20,432 44,950 34,470 39,159 73,629 

2 76,328 14,218 31,280 45,048 41,695 86,743 

3 65,970 11,004 24,209 41,761 43,239 85,000 

4 68,649 12,061 26,534 42,115 43,972 86,087 

5 93,822 21,296 46,851 46,971 50,087 97,058 

6 104,675 23,393 51,465 53,210 55,344 108,554 

7 87,182 14,758 32,468 54,714 57,993 112,707 

8 79,275 15,319 33,702 45,573 53,133 98,706 

9 103,588 19,142 42,112 61,476 62,020 123,496 

1910 97,275 14,126 31,077 66,198 66,447 132,645 

1 92,373 11,004 24,209 68,164 67,857 136,021 

2 100,474 11,562 25,436 75,038 74,440 149,478 

3 94,634 7,171 15,776 78,858 75,192 154,050 

4 83,019 3,898 8,576 74,443 72,223 146,666 

5 110,564 12,661 27,854 82,710 77,254 159,964 

6 159,581 18,870 41,514 118,067 101,372 219,439 

7 177,405 15,609 34,340 143,065 129,540 272,605 

8 178,533 12,483 27,463 151,070 153,818 304,888 

9 235,802 25,905 56,991 178,811 181,632 360,443 

* The quantities in this column were calculated by multiplying the stock sales 

(column B) by the following factors: For the year 1891 and prior thereto, 4.4; 

for the year 1892, 3.0; for all subsequent years, 2.2. Prior to May 17, 1892, the 

N. Y. Stock Exchange clearings were merged with the N. Y. Bank Clearings, but 

thereafter there was no merger. If greater accuracy is desired, add the N. Y. 

stock sales to the bond sales and multiply by 2, instead of approximating 

the same result by multiplying the stock sales by 2.2. 



Table VI. — Velocity of Circulation (V) 
Year (V) 

1889 9.52 

1890 9.89 

1891 8.91 

1892 9.61 

1893 9. 17 

1894 8.02 

1895 8.70 

1896 8.60 

1897 8.86 

1898 8.67 

1899 9.28 

Foot Note: The world war began early in Aug., 1914, and was followed immedi- 
ately by an abnormal decrease in bank clearings due to failure to pay obligations. 
Hence the value of V for 1914 is below the real rate of money turnover, and 
accordingly it leads to an incorrect result for 1914 when used in the price formula. 



Year 


(V) 


Year 


(V) 


1900 


8.75 


1910 


8.47 


1901 


8.35 


1911 


8.32 


1902 


9.13 


1912 


8.55 


1903 


8. 54 


1913 


8.60 


1904 


8.36 


1914 


7.74 


1905 


8.27 


1915 


..... 8.15 


1906 


..... 8.65 


• 1916 


9.41 


1907 


8.33 


1917 


10. 18 


1908 


7.50 


1918 


. . . . 10.70 


1909 


8.41 


1919 


10. 89 



54 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table VII. — Total Bank Deposits and Checking Deposits or 

Currency" 

(Millions of Dollars) 



'Credit 





Total 


Checking 




Year 


deposits 


deposits 


Year 


1891 


.... 4,482 


2,325 


1901 


1892 


4 , 944 


2,615 


1902 


1893 


.... 4,834 


2,510 


1903 


1894 


.... 4,849 


2,578 


1904 


1895 


.... 5,167 


2,731 


1905 


1896 


.... 5,122 


2,688 


1906 


1897..... 


5 , 245 


2,747 


1907 


1898 


.... 5,874 


3,198 


1908 


1899 


6,964 


3,365 


1909 


1900 


.... 7,527 


4,305 


1910 



Total 


Checking 


deposits 


deposits 


8,817 


4,935 


9,501 


5,367 


9,953 


5,853 


10,288 


6,559 


11,735 


6,860 


12,546 


7,103 


13,553 


6,522 


13,166 


6,888 


14,687 


7,713 


15,658 


8,242 



Foot Note: Total bank deposits are taken from Table II. 
are taken from Mitchell's "Business Cycles." 



Checking Deposits 



Table VIII. — Per Capita Productive Efficiency (E) 



Year 


(E) 


Year 


(E) 


1869 


0.80 


1886 


..... 1.16 


1870 


0.82 


1887 •. 


1.18 


1871 


0.84 


1888 


1.21 


1872 


0.86 


1889 


1.23 


1873 


. .... 0.88 


1890 


1.25 


1874 


0.90 


1891 


1.26 


1875 


0.92 


1892 


1.28 


1876 


0.94 


1893 


1.30 


1877 


0.96 


1894 


1.31 


1878 


0.98 


1895 


1.33 


1879 


1.00 


1896 


1.35 


1880 


1.02 


1897 


1.37 


1881 


1.05 


1898 


1.38 


1882 


1.07 


1899 


1.40 


1883 


1.09 


1900 


1.41 


1884 


1.11 


1901 


1.43 


1885 


1.14 


1902 


1.44 



Year (E ) 

1903 1.46 

1904 1.47 

1905 1.49 

1906 1.50 

1907 1.52 

1908 1.53 

1909 1. 55 

1910 1.55 



1. 55 
1. 55 
1. 55 
1. 55 
1. 55 
1. 55 
1. 55 
1. 5S 
1. 55 

Foot Note: During the years 1915 to 1919 our exports exceeded our imports 
by an amount that was abnormal to an extent that is equivalent to reducing the 
quantity of goods available for domestic consumption by 7.5 per cent. Accord- 
ingly the factor E in this table must be reduced 7.5 per cent or to 1.43 for the 
years 1915 to 1919 inclusive. 



1911 
1912 
1913 
1914. 
1915 
1916. 
1917. 
1918. 
1919. 



Table IX. — Excess op Exports over Imports 



Calendar 
year 
1915... 
1916... 
1917 .. 
1918... 
1919... 

Total. 



A 


B 


C 
Column "A 




Price 


-i- 


Excess 


Index 


column '*B' 


$ 1,776 • 


100 


$1,775 


3,091 


123 


2,513 


3,282 


175 


1,818 


3,118 


196 


1,585 


4,017 


212 


1,872 



$15,284 



$9,764 



PRICES AND WAGES 



55 



Table X- 



-Gainful Occupation Statistics 
(Thousands) 



Year 1869 1879 1889 1899 1909 

Agriculture 5,922 7,714 8,148 10,382 12,568 

Professional 372 603 944 1,259 1,825 

Domestic and personal 2 , 302 3,418 4 , 221 5 , 581 5 , 361 

Trade and transportations 1 , 240 1 , 872 3 , 326 4 , 766 7 , 606 

Manufacturing and mechanical . . 2 , 670 3 , 785 5 , 687 7 , 085 10 , 807 

Total gainful occupation 12 , 507 17 , 392 22 , 318 29 , 073 38 , 167 

Total population 37,756 48,866 61,289 74,318 90,557 

Fishermen 41 60 69 68 

Building trades 681 1,135 1,212 1,661 

Mines and quarries 163 296 531 740 1 , 177 

Transportations 587 1,131 1,515 2 , 465' 

Foot Notes: 

1 Manufacturing and mechanical includes fishing, building trades, mines and 
quarries, railway shopmen. 

2 Transportation includes railways (exclusive of shopmen), telegraph and tele- 
phone linemen and operators. 



Table XI. — Crop Data for Two Periods, 1869 and 1918 
Period of 1869 

Total 

Millions Unit miUions, 

Crop of units price dollars 

Corn, bu 958 $0. 55 527 

Wheat, bu 240 1 . 00 240 

Oats, bu 263 0.40 105 

Barley, bu . . 26 0.60 16 

Hay, ton 25. 70 12. 00 308 

Potatoes, bu 118 0. 60 71 

Cotton, bale 2. 65 55. 00 146 

Tobacco, lb 393 0. 10 39 

Sugar, lb 80 0. 025 2 

Total 1,454 

Period of 1918 

Corn, bu 2,871 $0.55 1,579 

Wheat, bu 784 1. 00 784 

Oats, bu 1 , 563 0. 43 625 

Barley, bu 278 0. 60 167 

Hay, ton 80.41 12.00 965 

Potatoes, bu 422 0. 60 253 

Cotton, bale 11. 50 55. 633 

Tobacco, lb 1 , 295 0. 10 130 

Sugar, lb 2 , 143 0. 025 54 

Total 5, 190 

Foot Note: The crop quantities for the "Period of 1869" are the average 
for the three years of 1868, 1869 and 1870. The crop quantities for the "Period 
of 1918" are the averarge for the two years of 1917 and 1918. 



56 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table XII. — Farming Efficiency 



o o o c 

S-. «*- 2 

% % |S • ^ 

"Period" |i |?|- -^„ ^S^ ^ 

§^|- S|| |£| III g. 

s^o ^^ a^l ^^o 1^ 

1869 $246 $430 5,922 $2,545 80.4 

1879 306 536 7,714 4,130 100.0 

1889 340 595 8,566 5,103 111.1 

1899 353 613 10,382 6,414 115.4 

1904 359 629 11,522 7,238 117.3 

1909 365 638 12,159 7,767 119.3 

1914 375 647 12 , 660 8 , 309 122. 5 

1918 383 671 13,060 8,754 125.2 

Foot Notes: 

Column A gives the equated average annual gross output of agricultural 
workers, for the 9 leading crops per year per worker (see Table XI for two typi- 
cal "Periods"). . 

Column B is the value in column A multiplied by 1.75, giving the per worker 
equated value of all farm "products. 

Column D is one-thousandth of the product of the numbers in columns B and 
C. • 

Column E is derived by dividing the numbers in column A by 536, the 536 being 
the equated value of all farm products per farmer for the "period" of 1879; this 
year, 1879, being taken as a standard for comparing the output during each of 
the "periods." 

The word "period" is used to designate the average crop for three years, as 
explained in the article and in Table XI. 



Table XIII. — Mining Data for Two Years, 1869 and 1918 
Year 1869 

Total 

Millions Unit millions of 

Mineral of units price dollars 

Coal, long tons 29.38 $ 1.50 44.07 

Copper, long tons 0.01 300. 00 3. 00 

Iron ore, long tons 3. 03 2. 00 6. 06 

Gold, oz 2.39 20.70 49.47 

Silver, oz... 9.28 1.00 9.28 

Lead, short tons 0. 02 100. 00 2. 00 

Zinc, short tons 0. 01 120. 00 1. 20 

Total 115.08 

Year 1918 

Coal, long tons 581.61 $-1.50 872.42 

Copper, long tons 0. 89 300. 00 267. 00 

Iron ore, long tons 75. 57 2. 00 151. 14 

Gold, oz 3.31 20.70 68.52 

Silver, oz 67.88 1.00 67.88 

Lead, short tons 0.54 100.00 54.00 

Zinc, short tons 0. 58 120. 00 69. 60 

Total 1 .550. 56 






PRICES AND WAGES 



57 



Table XIV. — Mining Efficiency 





Total 


70% total 




Number 


equated 


equated 




of 


value, 


value, 




miners 


millions 


millions 


Efficiency 


152,107 


$ 115 


$ 81 


91.7 


234,228 


193 


135 


100.0 


387 , 248 


354 


248 


110.9 


563,406 


627 


439 


134.8 


670,562 


826 


479 


149.3 


777,719 


1,084 


759 


168.8 


818,647 


1,211 


842 


179.2 


815,230 


1,264 


885 


187.8 



Equated 
output 
Year per miner 

1869 % 757 

1879 825 

1889 915 

1899 1,112 

1904 1 , 232 

1909 1 , 393 

1914 1,479 

1918 1,550 

Foot Notes: 

Column A gives the equated average annual gross output of all miners engaged 
in producing the 7 leading minerals. (See Table XIII.) 

Column B is the number of miners thus engaged. 

Column C is one- millionth of the product of the numbers in columns A and B. 

Column D is 70 per cent of column C, and this is the equated value produced 
by the miners after deducting 30 per cent for raw materials and supplies. 

Column E is derived by dividing the numbers in column A by 825, the 825 
being the equated value of minerals per miner for the year 1879; this year, 1879, 
being taken as a standard for comparing the output during each of the years. 



\ 



Table XV. — Manufacturing Productivity and Efficiency 

A B C D E 

Total 
value of 
products, 
Year millions 

1869 $ 4,232 

1879 5,370 

1889 9,372 

/ 1899 13,000 

1 1899.. 11,407 

1904 14 , 794 

1909 20 , 672 

1914 24,246 

Foot Notes: 

Column A gives the total vali 
dollars. 

Column B gives the total value of raw materials and supplies. 

Column C gives the difference between the values in columns A and B, or the 
value added by manufacture. 

Column D gives the weighted actual index prices of all commodities, treated 
as a percentage. 

Column E gives the "equated" value added by manufacture, which is derived 
by dividing the numbers in column C by those in column D, 



Total 


Value 




Equated 


value of 


added 


Weighted 


value 


raw mtls.. 


by mfg. 


price 
index 


added 


millions 


millions 


by mfg. 


$ 2,488 


$1,744 


1.22 


$1,430 


3,397 


1,973 


0.87 


2,268 


5,162 


4,210 


0.86 


4,895 


7,344 


5 , 656 


0.76 


7,442 


6,576 


4,831 


0.76 


6,357 


8,500 


6,294 


0.84 


7,493 


12,143 


8,529 


0.95 


8,978 


14,368 


9,878 


1.00 


9,878 


3 of manufactured p 


roducts in 


millions of 



58 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table XV. — Manufactuking Productivity and Efficiency — Continued 



G 


H 


I 




Adjusted 




Value per 


value per 




employe 


employe 


Efficiency 


$ 696 


$ 664 


83.9 


830 


791 


100.0 


1,039 


991 


125.3 


1,313 






1,252 


1,252 


158,3 


1,252 


1,252 


158.3 


1,212 


1,212 


153.2 


1,235 


1,235 


156.0 



Employes, 

Year thousands 

1869 2,054 

1879 2 , 733 

1889 4,713 

/ 1899 5,670 

1 1899 5,077 

1904 5 , 987 

1909 7 , 405 

1914 8 , 000 

Column F gives the thousands of employes. 

Column G gives the annual value created per employe, but for the years 1869, 
1879 and 1889 this includes the buliding trades employes, whereas the years 
1904, 1909 and 1914 exclude the building trades. Hence two sets of figures are 
given in the table for the year 1899; the upper set of figures includes the building 
trades, the lower set excludes them. 

Column H gives the equated value created per employe after "adjusting'* 
for the years 1869, 1879 and 1889 so as to exclude the building trades. This 
adjustment is made by taking 95.4 per cent of the numbers in column G for 
the years 1869, 1879 and 1899. 

Column I gives the efficiency of manufacturing employes, obtained by dividing 
the numbers in column H by 791, which is the adjusted value created by the 
average manufacturing employe in 1879, this year being taken as a standard for 
comparative purposes. 

Table XVI. — Per Capita Efficiency in the Production of Wholesale 

Commodities 



(Column G gives 


values for E in the author 


's price formula.) 






A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 


G 




3 




^ 


pq 


(O 


< 




Year. 


C3.--I '^ 


ill 


lis 


< 


^1 








Hi 


111 ■ 








Per 
prod 
B ar 
cienc 


£ 


1869 


. $2,545 


$1,222 


$ 81 


$3,849 


37,756 


$102 


80.3 


1879.. 


. 4,130 


1,937 


135 


6,202 


48,866 


127 


100.0 


1889.. 


. 5,103 


4,181 


248 


9,532 


61 , 289 


156 


122.8 


1899 


. 6,414 


6,357 


439 


13,210 


74,318 


178 


140.2 


1904 


. 7,238 


7,493 


479 


15,310 


82 , 467 


186 


146.5 


1909 


. 7,767 


9,241 


759 


17,767 


90,557 


196 


154.3 


1914 


8 , 309 


9,878 


848 


19,035 


98,646 


193 


152.0 


1918 


. 8,754 


10,866 


885 


20 , 505 


105,118 


195 


153.5 



Foot Notes: 

Column A is taken from column D of Table XII. 

Column B is derived from column E of Table XV, by taking 85 42 per cent of 
the numbers given there for the years 1869, 1879 and 1889, in order to eliminate 
the value created by the building trades. The $10,866,000,000 for 1918 is 
estimated in the assumption of a 10 per cent increase over 1914. 

Column C is taken from column D of Table XIV. 

Column D gives the total of columns A, B and C. 

Column F gives the quotient found by dividing the numbers in column D by 
one-thousandth part of the numbers in column E. 

Column G gives the quotients found by dividing the numbers in column F by 
127, so as to express the per capita efficiency in terms of that in the year 1879 
taken as 100 per cent. 



PRICES AND WAGES 59 



Table XVII. — Price Indexes Calculated by 


Formula Compared w] 








Actual 








Cal- 






Cal- 




Year 


culated 


Actual 


Year 


culated 


Actua 


1889 


87 


89 


1905.. . 


■ 86 


86 


1890 


91 


84 


1906... 


93 


91 


1891 


80 


83 


1907... 


89 


96 


1892 


92 


78 


1908... 


86 


91 


1893 


85 


78 


1909... 


95 


94 


1894 


75 


71 


1910... 


94 


97 


1895 


77 


70 


1911. . . 


92 


95 


1896 


69 


67 


1912... 


95 


99 


1897 


74 


67 


1913... 


96 


100 


1898 


79 


69 


1914. .. 


86 


99 


1899 


85 


75 


1915... 


100 


100 


1900 


84 


82 


1916. .. 


128 


123 


1901 


82 


80 


1917... 


163 


175 


1902 


90 


83 


1918... 


190 


196 


1903 


86 


84 


1919... 


207 


212 


1904 


87 


83 









The Relations of Prices of Different Commodities. — Prices of dififerent commo- 
dities tend to rise and fall in harmony. But it should be remembered that 
this harmony of movement occurs only when there is a harmony of supply 
and demand, that is, when the changes or demand are relatively the same for 
each of the different classes of commodities. Furthermore (and the fact 
is rarely considered) the supply of commodities depends upon the productive 
efficiency of workers. If the productive efficiency in one field remains station- 
ary while that in another field is rising, then we must look for.relatively diverg- 
ing prices in the two fields. Thus, if the efficiency of steel producers is rising 
while that of lumber producers is stationary, the price of steel will become 
relatively lower than that of lumber. This, in fact, is exactly what occurred 
after the Civil War, as shown in Table XVIII. 



Table XVIII. — Wholesale Price Indexes (Unweighted) 
(Aldrich Senate Report) 





All 


Building 








Year 


commodities 


materials 


Metals 


Food 


Clothing 


I860.... 


100 


100 


100 


100 


100 


1865 


217 


182 


219 


217 


299 


1870 


142 


148 


139 


154 


139 


1875 


. 128 


144 


131 


131 


120 


1880........ 


107 


131 


105 


108 


105 


1885 


93 


127 


80 


99 


85 


1890... 


92 


124 


78 


105 


82 ; 



It will be seen that while the four large classes of commodities moved 
in general harmony, there was a relative divergence between "building 
materials" and "metals." This was due to a more rapid increase in the 
average productive efficiency of miners and metal manufacturers than of 
producers of lumber, brick and other building materials. In the article on 
price levels in the Nov. 24, 1920 issue of Engineering and Contracting it was 
shown that the price indexes of "building materials," "metals" and "all 
commodities" were as follows (taking the average of the year 1913 at 100): 



60 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Table XIX. —Wholesale Price Indexes* 

All Building 

Year commodities materials Metals 

1840 89 64 166 

1850 83 56 154 

1860 90 55 134 

1870 117 86 186 

1880 93 76 141 

1890 84 72 110 

1900 82 76 106 

1910 97 101 94 

1913 100 100 100 

1920 243 308 186 

* These indexes are those of the Bureau of Labor and the Aldrich Senate 
Report, and are all weighted averages, except those for "building materials" 
and "metals" back of the year 1890 which are unweighted averages. 

It is worthy of note that between 1860 and 1913, "building materials" 
increased 80 per cent in price, on the average, whereas "metals" decreased 
nearly 30 per cent. This could scarcely have occurred unless there had been 
a far greater increase in productive efficiency in mining and metallurgy than 
in the production of building materials taken as a whole. 

Hence, while there is a general harmony of price movement of different 
classes of commodities, each class of commodities has its own economic factors 
that must be considered independently of the factors that affect all commodi- 
ties in common. 

Following our Civil War the pent up demand for building materials was 
released, and it served to hold the average price to such an extent that in 
1880 when the price index of "all commodities" was down nearly to the pre- 
war level (Tables XX and XXII ) , the price index of building materials never 
did return to the prewar level. Such facts must be borne in mind when 
forecasting the probable movement of building material prices. 



Table XX. — Wholesale Price Indexes of Building Materials and Metals 
(The averages for the year 1860 being taken at 100 per cent) 

All Building Metals and 
Year commodities materials implements 

1860 100 100 100 

1865 191 182 219 

1866 160 187 193 

1867 145 179 179 

1868 151 174 167 

1869 136 166 158 

1870 130 148 139 

1871 124 151 132 

1872 122 167 146 

1873 120 172 149 

1874 121 155 137 

1879 97 115 90 

Foot Note: 

"All Commodities" is a weighted average wholesale price index of 223 
commodities. 

The index prices for "Lumber and Building Materials" and for "Metals and 
Implements" are simple averages. 

These index prices are from the Aldrich Senate Report, No. 1394. 



PRICES AND WAGES 61 

Principles upon which Six Different Price Indexes are Based. — Many users 
of price indexes have felt the need of a more thorough understanding of the 
details of construction of such tabulations, but have not found it easy to obtain 
the information desired. 

There are radical and confusing differences among the commonly pubhshed 
indexes, leading even to the complete discredit of all index calculations in the 
minds of some people; and to supply the evident need of information upon this 
subject we present herewith brief explanations of the construction of each of 
the five most widely circulated and most commonly used indexes of wholesale 
commodity prices. Complete explanations including data would require 
a large amount of space, and readers desiring such information are therefore 
of necessity referred to the respective publishers. 

General Principles of Price Indexes. — A price index is a device for showing 
the comparative changes in costs of certain groups of commodities over certain 
periods. Changes in the cost of any single commodity ordinarily require no 
special treatment or device, but it is often desired to measure an average 
change of price affecting an entire business — or in its largest sense, the average 
change in price of all commodities which are traded within a nation. Such an 
index of all commodities serves to measure the general price level, and thus 
to show (in reciprocal form) the value of money in terms of the amount of goods 
which a given quantity of money will buy. 

Because of the difficulties in gathering complete data, indexes are usually 
based upon a limited number of commodities only, the numbers in the best 
known indexes ranging from 25 to more than 300, but these are selected with 
the intention that they shall afford a fair criterion of the business in all com- 
modities. In some indexes the commodity prices are weighted according to 
their importance in the nation's trade: in others they are unweighted. 

Indexes are most commonly stated in terms of percentage, the average 
price on some given date or for some given period being arbitrarily established 
as 100 per cent. It is now quite common to take the average for the year 
1913, as 100 per cent, that being the last year for which prices were unaffected 
by conditions due to the great war. 

A weighted index may be prepared as follows: The total money paid for 
all the index commodities sold during the base period (usually 1 year) is 
called 100 %. Then the index for any other date or period is given by dividing 
the above total into the amount which the same quantities of goods would 
have cost at prices of the new date or period. 

Unweighted indexes are prepared by adding together the unit prices of all 
the index commodities for the date chosen as base, and calling this sum 100 
per cent. Then the sum of the unit prices of the same commodities on any 
other date, divided by the sum on the base date gives the index for the other 
date in terms of percentage. Since under this system a change in price of a 
little used commodity, such as pepper, produces an effect equal to a similar 
change in the price of an important commodity, such as flour, the unweighted 
index measures the price level much less accurately than does the weighted 
index. 

Dun's Index, which is one of the best, is expressed in terms of dollars per 
capita consumption instead of in terms of percentage. This is explained later. 

Altho indexes are of necessity approximations based upon partial data, when 
properly made and interpreted they possess sufficient accuracy for practical 
use, and they should not be criticised or discredited because of their lack of 
.complete mathematical accuracy. 



62 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

We treat here only of wholesale price indexes, altho the U. S. Bureau of 
Labor Statistics publishes a retail price index, and others have been computed. 
The greater difficulty in obtaining the necessary data for retail prices — particu- 
larly as affecting the nation as a whole — accounts for the greater attention 
which has been given to wholesale indexes, and for the general superiority 
of the wholesale to the retail index. 

Index of U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. — This index covers each of 9 
groups of important wholesale commodities, and a total for all commodities. 
It is calculated for each year from 1890 to the present, and for each month 
since January, 1913. It is based upon the sales of about 327 commodities 
— the number having varied slightly from time to time. The commodities 
selected cover, as nearly as is practicable, all the most important articles of 
wholesale trade. Difficulties in obtaining satisfactory units of comparison 
have kept out of the index such things as machinery and many other, sorts 
of manufactured goods ; but the large proportion of the nations total transac- 
tions included in the commodities entering the index, and the tendency of 
price fluctuations in the omitted manufactured articles to follow the general 
tendency, leaves the index as a reasonably accurate picture of general varia- 
tions in wholesale prices. In the figures as now published, the few changes 
in commodities used have been provided for, so that the figures are consistent 
for all the years covered. 

Since it is necessary to deal with a constant basic quantity of each commod- 
ity, some average year's consumption is necessary. The quantities traded in 
the census year 1909 are at once the most easily obtained and the most accur- 
ate available, and are therefore used for multiplication by the prices of each 
index date or period. 

For each commodity group the base is established by multiplying the total 
quantity of each article marketed in 1909 by the average price of that article 
in the year 1913, adding all the products so obtained for fie group, and calling 
the total 100. The sum of the totals of the 9 groups gives the base of 100 for 
all commodities. For all other index dates similar calculations are made with 
prices as of those dates and total quantities the same as were used for 1913, 
so that the total of any group divided by the corresponding total for 1913 
gives a true weighted average price expressed as a percentage of the weighted 
average price of 1913. 

Information as to prices is obtained from both official and private sources. 
The same is true of the quantities marketed in 1909. Only products actually 
sold are used in the estimate, products not marketed, such as produce con- 
sumed on the farms where it was raised, or steel ingots made into other forms 
in the mills where they were produced being distinctly excluded. 

The group classification and the number of commodities entering into each 
is as follows: 

1 . Farm Products 32 Commodities 

2. Food, etc 91 

3. Clothes & Clothing 77 

4. Fuel and Lighting 21 

5. Metal, etc 25 

6. Lumber & Bldg. Materials 30 

7. Chemical and Drugs 18 

8. House-Furnishing Goods 12 

9. Miscellaneous 21 

Total All Commodities 327 



PRICES AND WAGES 63 

Bulletin No. 269, " Wholesale Prices 1890 to 1919," published by the Bureau 
of Labor Statistics of the U. S. Bureau of Labor gives the indexes, data, and 
description of methods in much detail. 

U. S. Federal Reserve Board Index. — This also is a weighted index, but as it 
is prepared primarily for purposes of international comparison, it relates 
chiefly to articles of foreign trade. It is based upon only 90 commodities as 
against 327 of the Bureau of Labor Index. Part of its figures are obtained 
from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, but its purpose is specifically different 
from that of the Bureau's index, and any comparison of the two should be 
with this fact definitely recognized. 

The base of this index is 100 for the year 19J3. It is calculated monthly. 
The classification of commodities is as follows — Goods produced. Goods 
imported. Goods exported, Raw materials, Producers' Goods, Consumers' 
Goods, All. 

Dun's Review Index. — This index is based upon about 300 wholesale com- 
modities divided into 7 groups. It is calculated for each year from 1860 to* 
date, and for each month since Jan., 1898. In its preparation wholesale quota- 
tions on each commodity are obtained for the nearest business day to the first 
of each month, and are separately multiplied by figures determined upon as 
the estimated annual per capita consumption of the commodity. Therefore 
this also gives a truly weighted index. 

The tabulation is on a different plan from the two indexes previously 
described, for instead of showing 100 per cent for each group of commodities 
and the total for the year 1913, it shows the worth in dollars of the estimated 
per capita consumption for the year. Thus the sum of the figures for the 7 
groups for any given date gives the total for that date. Fortunately for 
purposes of the rough comparison of totals, the total per capita consumption 
of $116,319 estimated for the year 1913 is near enough to $100 to permit of a 
quick rough comparison with the Bureau of Labor Index with a base of 100% 
for the same year. 

Percentage figures to a base of 100 in 1913 are obtainable by dividing any 
total from Dun's Index by 1.16319. 

The classification is as follows: Breadstuffs, Meat, Dairy and Garden, Other 
food. Clothing, Metals, Miscellaneous, Total. The index figures from 1860 
are published in pamphlet form by Dun's Review, New York. The number 
of commodities in each class is not stated. 

BradstreeV s Index. — This is an unweighted index based upon the prices 
of 96 commodities at the first of each month. The index numbers are the 
totals in dollars and cents of the Costs of 1 pound of each of the 96 commodi- 
ties. The classification and number of commodities used are as follows: 

1. Breadstuffs 6 commodities 

2. Live Stock 4 

3. Provisions & Groceries 24 

4. Fresh and Dried Fruits 5 

5. Hides and Leather 4 

6. Textiles 11 

7. Metals 13 

8. Coal & Coke 4 

9. Oils 6 

10. Naval Stores 3 

11. Building Materials 8 

12. Chemicals and Drugs 11 

13. Miscellaneous 7 

Total 106* 

* 10 articles are omitted from the index computation, but what 10 is not stated. 



64 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The Annalist Index. — This is an unweighted index based upon 25 dififerent 
articles of food only, mean prices for each week being used. These mean prices 
are converted to relatives of the prices of the period from 1890 to 1899, and 
simple averages of the relatives are then made. The Annalist is published 
weekly at New York City. 

Canadian Index. — The Department of Labor of Canada publishes an index 
based upon 271 commodities corresponding quite closely with those of the 
U. S. Bureau of Labor. This index is not weighted like the Bureau's index, for 
it is stated that in the opinion of the compiler "an extended list of articles 
tends to weight itself" if judiciously selected. The method is similar to that 
of the Annalist but the calculg,tion covers more than 10 times as many com- 
modities. A quite close agreement between the Canadian index and the U. 
S. Bureau of Labor index indicates that there is some justification for the con- 
tention of the Canadian compiler as to weighting. 

Table XXI gives wholesale price indexes compiled by U, S. Dept. of Labor, 
from 1913 to Jan., 1922. Averages for preceding years are given in Table L 



Table XXI. — Index Numbers op Wholesale Prices 1913 to June, 1921, 

BY Groups op Commodities 

(1913 = 100) 



It U-i ll-J|3.ill| il 1 h 

So S-g 5 °o Sm^2J« ^5 -^fl ^.2 -a S5 

>^S P^§ ^ O-S ^-^%^0 ^n 0§ MS ^- <^ 

1913 : . . 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 

Jan. 97 99 100 103 107 100 101 100 100 100 

April 97 96 100 98 102 101 101 100 98 98 

July 101 102 100 99 98 101 99 100 101 100 

■ Oct 103 102 100 100 99 98 100 100 100 101 

1914 103 103 98 96 87 97 101 99 99 100 

Jan 101 102 98 99 92 98 100 99 99 100 

April » 103 95 99 98 91 99 100 99 101 98 

July 104 104 99 95 85 97 99 99 97 100 

Oct 103 107 97 93 83 96 105 99 96 99 

1915 105 104 100 93 97 94 114 99 99 104 

Jan 102 106 96 93 83 94 103 99 100 99 

April.. 107 105 99 89 91 94 102 99 99 100 

July 108 104 99 90 102 93 108 99 98 101 

Oct 105 103 103 96 100 93 124 99 99 101 

1916 122 126 128 119 148 101 159 115 120 124 

Jan 108 113 110 105 126 99 150 105 107 110 

April 114 117 119 108 147 101 172 108 110 117 

July 118 121 126 108 145 99 156 121 120 119 

Oct 136 140 138 133 151 101 150 124 132 134 

1917 189 176 181 175 208 124 198 144 155 176 

Jan 148 150 161 176 183 106 159 132 138 151 

April 181 182 169 184 208 114 170 139 149 172 

July 199 181 187 192 257 132 198 152 153 186 

Oct 208 183 193 146 182 114 252 152 163 181 

1918 220 189 239 163 181 151 221 196 193 196 

Jan 207 187 211 157 174 136 232 161 178 185 

April 217 178 232 157 177 146 229 172 191 190 

July 224 184 249 166 184 154 216 199 190 198 

Oct 224 201 257 167 187 158 218 226 196 204 

5 



I 



PRICES AND WAGES 65 

Table XXI. — Index Numbers of Wholesale Prices 1913 to June, 1921, bt 

Groups of Commodities — Continued 

(1913 = 100) 

on 

1. t -^ h ^^M «"3 It -"! I ^-^ 

1919 234 210 261 173 161 192 179 236 217 212 

Jan 222 207 234 170 172 161 191 218 212 203 

Feb 218 196 223 169 168 163 185 218 208 197 

March 228 203 216 168 162 165 183 218 217 201 

April 235 211 217 167 152 162 178 217 216 203 

May 240 214 228 167 152 164 179 217 213 207 

June. 231 204 258 170 154 175 174 233 212 207 

July 246 216 282 171 158 186 171 245 221 218 

Aug 243 227 304 175 165 208 172 259 225 226 

Sept 226 211 306 181 160 227 173 262 217 220 

Oct 230 211 313 181 161 231 174 264 220 223 

Nov 240 219 325 179 164 236 176 299 220 230 

Dec 244 234 335 181 169 253 179 303 229 238 

1920 218 236 302 238 186 308 210 366 236 243 

Jan 246 253 350 184 177 268 189 324 227 248 

Feb 237 244 356 187 189 300 197 329 227 249 

March 239 246 356 192 192 324 205 329 230 253 

April 246 270 353 213 195 341 212 321 238 265 

May 244 287 347 235 193 341 215 329 246 272 

June 243 279 335 246 190 337 218 362 247 269 

July. 236 268 317 252 191 333 217 362 243 262 

Aug 222 235 290 268 193 328 216 363 240 250 

Sept 210 222 273 284 192 318 222 371 239 242 

Oct 182 204 257 282 184 313 216 371 229 225 

Nov 165 195 234 258 170 274 207 369 220 207 

Dec 144 172 220 236 157 266 188 346 205 189 

1921: 

Jan 136 162 208 228 152 239 182 283 190 177 

Feb 129 150 198 218 146 222 178 277 180 167 

March 125 150 192 207 139 208 171 275 167 162 

April 115 141 186 199 138 203 168 274 154 154 

May 117 133 181 194 138 202 166 262 151 151 

June 113 132 180 187 132 202 166 250 150 148 

July 115 134 179 184 125 200 163 235 149 148 

Aug 118 152 179 182 120 198 161 230 147 152 

Sept 122 146 187 178 120 193 162 223 146 152 

Oct 119 142 190 182 121 192 162 218 145 150 

Nov 114 142 186 186 119 197 162 218 145 149 

Dec 113 139 185 187 119 203 161 218 148 149 



Table XXII. — Wholesale Price Indexes of Building Materials and 

Metals 
(The averages for the year 1913 being taken at 100 per cent) 
All 
Year commodities 

1840 89 

1845 83 

1850 83 

1855 96- 

1860 90 

61 86 

62 93 

63 110 

64 135 

65 172 

66 144 



Building 


Metals and 


materials 


metal products 


64 


166 


59 


147 


56 


154 


57 


157 


55 


134 


63 


133 


87 


155 


103 


189 


129 


265 


106 


293 


109 


259 



66 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Table XXII. — Wholesale Price Indexes of Building Materials and 
Metals — Continued 
(The averages for the year 1913 being taken at 100 per cent) 
All 
Year commodities 

67 131 

68 ... 136 

69 122 

1870 117 

71 112 

72 110 

73 108 

74 109 

75 108 

76 104 

77 99 

78 93 

79 87 

1880 93 

81 95 

82 96 

83 94 

84 92 

85 86 

86 86 

87 87 

88 "88 

89 89 

1890 84 

91 83 

92 78 

93 78 

94.... 71 

95 70 

96 67 

97 67 

98 69 

99 75 

1900 , 82 

01 80 

02 83 

03 84 

04 83 

05 86 

06 91 

07 96 

08 91 

09 94 

1910.... 97 

11 95 

12 99 

13 100 

14 99 

15 100 

16 123 

17 175 

18 196 

19 212 

Foot Note. — The index prices for 1840 to 1889 are from the Senate Report 
No. 1394 on "Wholesale Prices," by Nelson W. Aldrich, Mar. 3, 1893. Those 
for "all commodities" (223 in number) are "weighted" in proportion to family 
budget expenses; but those for "building materials" and for "metals and metal 
products" are unweighted or simple averages, and therefore not so reliable, down 
to 1889. 

The index prices from 1890 to 1919 are all "weighted" in proportion to annual 
consumption and are compiled by the U. S. Bureau of Labor. See Tables XXIII 
and XXIV. 



Building 


Metals and 


materials 


metal products 


104 


240 


101 


224 


97 


212 


86 


186 


88 


177 


87 


196 


100 


200 


90 


184 


84 


176 


80 


158 


73 


141 


68 


126 


67 


121 


76 


141 


76 


130 


80 


133 


78 


126 


75 


111 


74 


107 


75 


105 


74 


105 


73 


107 


72 


105 


72 


110 


70 


101 


67 


94 


68 


85 


66 


72 


65 


78 


63 


81 


62 


72 


65 


72 


71 


109 


76 


106 


73 


98 


77 


78 


80 


97 


81 


89 


85 


98 


94 


107 


97 


121 


92 


94 


97 


93 


101 


94 


101 


90 


99 


100 


100 


100 


97 


88 


94 


97 


101 


149 


124 


208 


150 


180 


194 


161 



PRICES AND WAGES 



67 



I 



Table XXIII. — Group 5, Metals and Metal Products, Quantities and 
Wholesale Values in 1919 

Unit Quantity Value 

(000 omitted) (000 omitted) 
Bar Iron: 

Best refined, Phila lb. 1 , 083 , 265 $ 41 , 381 

Common, from mill, Pitts lb. 1,083,265 36,614 

Copper: 

Ingot, electrolytic lbs. 1,312, 438 250 , S07 

Wire, bare. No. 8 lb. 278 , 964 61 , 930 

Iron Ore, Mesabi, Bessemer Long ton 52 , 310 327 , 539 

Lead, pig, desilverized lb. 732 , 1.53 42 , 318 

Lead pipe 100 lb. 1 ,058 7 , 688 

Nails, wire keg 13,916 48,961 

Pig Iron: 

Basio Long ton 1,742 48,248 

Bessemer do. 1,168 36,362 

Foundry 

No. 2 northern Long ton 2,557 77,512 

No. 2 southern do. 2,557 82,271 

Pipe, cast iron, 6 in Ton 1,146 65,896 

Silver, bar, fine Ounce 151,969 170,935 

Steel: 

Billets, Bessemer Long ton 4,972 201 ,557 

Plates, tank H in. wide lb. 5 , 256 , 756 142 , 458 

Rails, standard — 

Bessemer Ton 1,767 83,516 

Open-hearth Ton 1 ,257 61 ,925 

Structural lb. 4.996,876 139,413 

Tin: 

Pig lb. 94,248 61,742 

Plate, coke 100 lb. 12,968 91,736 

Wire: 

Barbed, galvanized 100 1b. 6,471 28,907 

Plain annealed Nos. to 9 . . . do. 9 , 580 29 , 827 
Zinc: 

Sheet 100 1b. 576 5,666 

Spelter (pig zinc) western lb. 464,903 34,403 

Total $2,179,612 

This table compiled from Bulletin No. 269, U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 

Table XXIV. — Group 6, Lumber and Building Materials, Quantities 
AND Wholesale Values in 1919 



Unit 
Brick, common: Chicago run of 

kiln salmon 1 , 000 

Cincinnati, red, building 1 , 000 

New York, red, building ....... 1 , 000 

Cement, Portland, Domestic. . . bbl. 
Glass: 

Plate, polished, glazing — 

3 to 5 sq. ft sq. ft. 

50 to 10 sq. ft sq. ft. 

Window, American, single, 
25 inch: 

A 50 sq. ft. 

B 50 sq. ft. 

Lath, eastern spruce, 13^^ in. slab 1 ,000 

Lime, common bbl. 

Lumber: 

Douglas fir — 

No. 1 1,000 ft. 

No. 2 and better do. 

Hemlock do. 

Maple do. 

Oak White- 
Plain 1,000 ft. 

Quartered do. 



Quantity 
(000 omitted) 


Value 
(000 omitted) 


3,*264 

3,264 

3,264 

65,435 


$ 29,202 

44,336 

52.088 

207,115 


24,861 
24,861 


11,498 
14,482 


3,461 

3,461. 

4,388 

23,278 


24 ,951 

• 23,439 

28,293 

62,224 


3,642 
1,214 
3,Q51 
1 , 107 


92,568 

48,155 

121,277 

76,014 


1,471 
2,943 


150,226 
461,683 



68 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table XXIV. — Group 6, Lumber and Building Materials, Quantities 
AND Wholesale Values in 1919 — Continued 

Quantity Value 

Unit (000 omitted) (000 omitted) 
Pine — 

White, boards, No. a barn . do. 3,510 223,909 

White, boards uppers do. 39.Q 54,827 

Yellow, flooring do. 10 , 173 801 , 971 

Yellow, siding do. 6 , 104 332 , 668 

Poplar, yellow do. 859 94 . 490 

Spruce, eastern do. 1 , 749 79 , 798 

Paint Materials: 

Lead, carbonate of (white 

lead) lb. 247,237 32.437 

Linseed oil, raw gal. 102 , 528 181 , 352 

Turpentine, spirits of do. 29 , 765 36 , 022 

Zinc, oxide of (zinc, white) ... lb. 143 , 550 12 , 532 

Putty do. 63,502 2,959 

Rosin, common to good, 

strained bbl. 3 , 673 55 , 831 

Shingles, 16 in. long: 

Cypress 1,000 1,387 8,375 

Red Cedar 1,000 12,005 53,882 

Total $3,418,604 

This table compiled from Bulletin No. 269, O. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 



Table XXV. — Relative Importance op Wholesale Commodities 

— 1909 1919 

Millions Per Cent Millions Per Cent 

1 Farm Products $4,056 27.58 $9,891 28.14 

2 Food 3,876 26.34 8,592 24.45 

3 Cloths & Clothing 1,648 11.23 5,014 14.26 

4 Fuel & Lighting 1,518 10.32 3,057 8.70 

5 Metals...- 834 5.67 2,180 6.20 

6 Building Materials 1,685 11.47 3,419 9.73 

7 Chemicals 184 1. 24 398 1. 13 

8 Furniture 65 0.42 184 0.51 

9 Miscellaneous 844 5. 72 2 , 414 6. 87 

Total $14,710 100.00 $35,149 100.00 

From Bulletin No. 269, U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 



Average Wholesale Prices of Important Commodities, Used in Construc- 
tion, 1890 to 1920. — Tables XXVI and XXVII are prepared from data given 
in Bulletin No. 269 of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, U. S. Department of 
labor and from further information obtained from the Bureau, by letter. 

As stated in Bulletin No. 269, the average prices shown in the tables are, in 
all instances where this information could be obtained, based on first-hand 
transactions in primary markets. Thus the pig-iron prices are those to 
foundry operators and large steel makers. Steel prices are to jobbers or 
large manufacturing consumers. 

In collecting prices for inclusion in these tables the aim was to secure quota- 
tions on those particular grades or qualities of an article that represent the 
bulk of sales within the class. 

It is obvious that in order to arrive at a strictly scientific average price for 
any period one must know the precise quantity marketed and the price at 



PRICES AND WAGES 69 

which each unit of the quantity was sold. It is manifestly impossible to 
obtain such detail, and even if it were possible the labor and cost involved in 
such a compilation would be prohibitive. The method adopted here, which 
is the one usually employed in computing average prices, is believed to yield 
results quite satisfactory for all practical purposes. 

In computing the averages shown in the tables the net cash price was used 
for all articles subject to large and varying discounts. In the cases of a few 
articles, such as steel plates, steel sheets, etc., the prices of which are subject 
to a small discount for cash within 10 days, no deduction has been made. 

The name of city where price quotations were secured is given in every case. 



Table XXVI. — Average Price op Metals and Metal Products 



-Bar iron Copper: ingot- 



Best re- From mill (Pittsburgh — 

fined, from market) (New' York)— 

store 
(Phila- 
delphia Best Electro- 
market) refined, Common, Lake, lytic, 
Year per pound per pound per pound per pound per pound 

1890 $0,021 $0,018 $0,158 

1891 019 .017 .131 

1892 018 .016 .115 

1893 017 .015 .109 

1894 013 .012 .095 



1895. 
1896. 
1897. 
1898. 
1899. 

1900. 
1901. 
1902 
1903. 
1904. 

1905. 
1906. 
1907. 
1908. 
1909. 

1910. 
1911. 
1912. 
1913. 
1914. 

1915. 
1916. 
1917. 
1918. 
1919. 
1920. 



.014 


.013 




.108 




.014 


.012 




.110 




.013 


.011 




.113 




.013 


.011 




.119 




.021 


.020 




.177 




.020 


.022 




.166 




.018 


.018 




.169 




,021 


.019 




.120 




.020 


.018 




.137 




.017 


.015 




.131 




.019 


.019 


$0,017 


.158 




.020 




.017 


.196 




.021 




.018 


.213 


$0. 208 


.017 




.015 




.133 


.018 




.015 




.131 


.019 




.016 




.129 


.016 




.013 




.125 


.018 




.014 




.164 


.019 




.017 




.157 


.016 




.013 




.134 


.017 




.013 




.173 


.032 




.026 




.275 


.047 




.041 




.294 


.048 




.038 




.247 


.038 




.034 




.191 


.048 




.044 




.180 



70 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table XXVI. — Continued 

Copper 

Sheet: hot 



Lead: pig Lead pipe 









rolled Wire: bare, (New York) 


(New York) 








(base sizes) 












(New York) (f 


o.b. mill) 




per 




Year 




per pound per pound 


per pound 


100 pounds 


1890 






$0,228 


$0,188 


$0,044 


$5 , 400 


1891 






.190 


.165 


.044 


5.600 


1892 






.160 


.144 


.041 


5.183 


1893 






.150 


.135 


.037 


5.000 


1894 






.143 


.116 


.033 


4.433 


1865 






.143 


.124 


.033 


4.200 


1896 






.143 


.106 


.030 


4.100 


1897 






.146 


.138 


.036 


4.317 


1898 






.140 


.138 


.038 


4.600 


1899 






.218 


.183 


.045 


5.350 


1900 






.207 


.180 


.045 


5.121 


1901 






.209 


.182 


.044 


5.048 


1902 






.178 


.133 


.041 


5.217 


1903 






.192 


.150 


.043 


5.196 


1904 






.180 


,144 


.044 


4.795 


1905 






.199 


.170 


.048 


5.225 


1906 






.238 


.211 


.059 


6.421 


1907 






.279 


.240 


.055 


6.705 


1908 






.179 


.152 


.042 


4.740 


1909 






.179 


.148 


.043 


4.821 


1910 






.180 


1.44 


.045 


5.061 


1911 






.166 


.139 


.045 


5.028 


1912 






.213 


.175 


.044 


5.201 


1913 






.212 


.167 


.044 


5.082 


1914 






.188 


.147 


.039 


4.523 


1915 






.225 


1.185 


.046 


5.301 


1916 






.359 


.305 


.068 


7.598 


1917 






.391 


.359 


.091 


10.068 


1918 






.338 


.276 


.074 


8.887 


1919 






.285 


.222 


.058 


7.266 


1920 






.284 


.219 


.081 


9.782 
Steel 








Foundry, 


(Cincinnati ) 




Bessemer 


No. 2, 


Gray forge 


, Foundry 


Billets: 








northern 


southern, 


No. 2 


Bessemer 




(Pittsburgh) (Pittsburgh) 


coke, 


southern. 


(Pittsburgh) 




per 


per 


per 


per 


per 


Year 


long ton 


lont ton 


long ton 


long ton 


long ton 


1890 


... $18,873 


$17,150 


$14,500 




$30,468 


1891 


15 


590 


15.396 


12.517 




25 . 329 


1892 


14 


367 


13.773 


11.792 




23.631 


1893 


12 


869 


12.440 


10.635 




20.436 


1894 


11 


378 


10.846 


8.938 




16.578 


1895 


12 


717 


11.675 


10.323 




18.484 


1896 


12 


140 


11.771 


9.604 




18.833 


1897 


10 


126 


10.100 


8.802 




15.080 


1898 


10 


332 


10.027 


8.719 




15.306 


1899 


19 


033 


17.350 


15.063 




31.117 


1900. .. 


19 


493 


18. 506 


15. 604 




25. 063 


1901 


15 


935 


14.719 


12.552 




24. 131 


1902 


20 


674 


21.240 


17.604 




30. 599 


1903 


18 


976 


19. 142 


16. 229 




27.912 


1904 


13. 


756 


13. 625 


11.677 




22. 179 



PRICES AND WAGES 



71 



Table XXVI. — Continued 



Year 
1905 


BesseE 

(Pittsbu: 
per 
long t( 

$16. 

19. 

22. 

17. 

17. 

17. 

15. 

15. 

17. 

14. 

15. 

23. 

43. 

36. 

31. 

..... 44. 


tier 

rgh) 

)n 
359 
544 
842 
070 
408 

193 
713 

938 
133 

889 

783 
888 
608 
663 
132 
459 


jTig iron 

Foundry, (Cincii 

No. 2, Gray forge, 
northern southern, 
(Pittsburgh) coke, 
per per 
long ton long ton 
$16,410 $14,490 
19.267 16.531 
23.869 20.988 
16.250 14.375 
16.410 14.938 

15.983 14.573 
14.519 12.833 
15.088 14.240 
16.008 14.098 
13.903 

14.873 

21.065 

41.392 

34.460 

30.314 

44.902 


mati) 

Foundry 

No. 2 
southern, 

per 
long ton 


Billets: 

Bessemer 

(Pittsburgh) 

per 

long ton 

$24,028 


1906 






27. 448 


1907 . 






29. 253 


1908 






26 313 


1909 






24.616 


1910 






25. 380 


1911 






21.458 


1912 






22.378 


1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 


$14, 
13. 

13 

18 
38 
36 
32 

44, 


,903 
,390 

.576 
.671 
.808 
.526 
.175 
.508 


25.789 
20.078 

22.441 
43. 946 
69.856 
47. 274 
40. 539 
56. 260 








Year 
1890 


Rails: Rails: Sheets: box 
Bessemer open hearth annealed, No. 2' 
(Pittsburgh) (Pittsburgh) (Pittsburgh) 
per long ton per long ton per pound 

$31,779 

29.917 

30,000 

28.125 

24.000 $0,024 

24 , 333 .024 

28.000 ....... .022 

18.750 .020 

17.625 .019 

28.125 ... .027 

32.288 .029 

27 . 333 .032 

28.000 .029 

28 . 000 .026 

28,000 .021 

28 . 000 .022 

28.000 .024 

28.000 .025 

28.000 .024 

28 . 000 .022 

28.099 .023 

28 . 000 ,020 

28 . 000 .020 

28.000 $30,000 .022 
28.000 30.000 .019 

28.000 30.000 .019 
31.333 33.333 .030 
38.000 40.000 • .065 
54.000 56.000 .049 
47.264 49.264 .044 
51.827 53.827 .053 


7 Structural 
(Chicago) 
per pound 


Tin 

Pigs 

(New York) 

per pound 

$0,212 


1891.. 






.203 


1892 






.204 


1893.. . . 






.200 


1894 






.181 


1895 






141 


1896 






.133 


1897 




.136 


1898 






.155 


1899 






.272 


1900 






.031 


1901.. 






262 


1902 






.265 


1903.. . . 






.282 


1904 






.280 


1905 






.313 


1906 






.392 


1907 






.388 


1908 






.294 


1909 






.296 


1910 






.342 


1911 






.427 


1912 






.463 


1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 


$0,016 
.013 

.015 
.028 
.043 
.032 
.028 
.032 


.494 
.351 

.376 
.433 
.594 
.852 
.655 
.503 



72 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 





Table XXVI.- 


-Continued 










Tin ; 


Wire: fence 
- Barbed: 


.M . 7\r-- 




— Plate: 


Sheet 


Spelter 












galvanized 


(La Salle, 
111.) 


(pig) 
(New 




Coke at 


Coke, f.o.b. 


F.o.b. 




York) 




New York 


Pittsburgh 


Chicago, 








per 100 


per 100 


per 100 


per 100 




Year 


pounds 


pounds 


pounds 


pounds 


per pound 


1890 






$3,567 


$ 6.054 


$0,055 


1891 






3.219 


5.719 


..51 


1892 






2.766 


5.490 


.047 


1893 






2.519 


4.994 


.041 


1894 






2.175 


3.950 


.036 


1895 






2.246 


4.522 


.036 


1896 


$3,435 




1.963 


4.940 


.040 


1897 


3.182 




1.800 


4.940 


.042 


1898 


2 . 850 




1.838 


5.498 


045 


1899 


4.191 




3.170 


7.004 


.059 


1900 


4.678 




3.394 


6.095 


.044 


1901 


4.190 




3.38 


5.558 


.041 


1902 


4.123 




2.954 


5.731 


.049 


1903 


3.940 




2.738 


6.018 


.056 


1904 


3.603 




2.508 


5 . 609 


.052 


1905 


3.707 




2.383 


6.285 


.059 


1906....... 


3.861 




2.428 


7.173 


.062 


1907 


4.090 




2.634 


7.486 


.062 


1908. 


3.890 




2.022 


6.440 


.048 


1909 


3.737 




2.359 
2.133 


6.643 
7.019 


.055 


1910 


3.840 


.056 


1911 


3.865 




2.180 


7.048 


.058 


1912 


3 . 657 


$3,456 


2.134 


7.924 


.071 


1913 




3.558 


2.309 


7.245 


.058 


1914... 




3.369 


2.152 


6.919 


.053 


1915 




3.242 


2.535 


16.158 


.144 


1916... .... 




5.057 


3.515 


18.783 


.140 


1917 




8.864 


4.527 


18.093 


.093 


1918 




7 . 727 


4.594 


14.238 


.083 


1919. 




7.074 

7.558 


4.467 
4.724 


9.837 
11.338 


.074 


1920 




.081 



Table XXVII. — Average Price of Lumber and Building Materials 





Brick: common 


Cement 




Salmon: 

run of klin. 

(Chicago) 


Red: 
(Cincin- 
nati) 


Red: 
domestic 

(New 
York) 

per M 


Portland : domestic 
(New York) 


Year 


per M 


per M 


Series 1, Series 2, 
per barrel per barrel 


1890 

1891 

1892 

18^3 

1894 






$6. 563 
5.708 
5. 771 
5.833 
5. 000 




1895 

1896 

1897 

1898 

1899 




'.'.':'.'.'. 


5.313 
5.063 
4.938 
5.750 
5.688 


$1,961) 

2.000 

^967 

1.998 

2.048 






PRICES AND WAGES 



73 





Table XXVIL— 


Continued 








Brick: comn 




Cement — 








Salmon: 


Red: 


Red: 


Portland 


: domestic 




run of kiln 


(Cincin- 


domestic 








(Chicago) 


nati) 


(New 
York) 


-(New 

Series 1. 


Yord) 

Series 2. 


Year 


per M 


per M 


per M 


per barrel 


per barrel 


1900 






$5. 250 


$2. 158 




1901 






5.766 


1.890 




1902 






5.385 


1.950 




1903 






5.906 


2.029 




1904 






7.495 


1.460 




1905 






8.104 


1.427 




1906 






8.547 


1.575 




1907 






6.156 


1.646 




1908 






5.104 


1.460 




1909 






6.385 


1.412 




1910 






5.719 


1.448 




1911 






5.891 


1.461 




1912 






6.760 


1.315 




1913 


$4,938 


$7,666 


6.563 


1.580 




1914 


4.872 


6.750 


5.531 


1.580 




1915. 


4.780 


6.250 


6.052 


1.453 


$1,434 


1916 


4.783 


6.750 


8.035 




1.689 


1917 


4.947 


8.438 


8.885 




2.094 


1918 


7.449 


12.938 


11.927 




2.647 


1919 


8.947 


13. 583 


15.958 




3.165 


1920 


11.441 


17.467 


21.854 




4.377 





Polished, 


area 3 to 


Polished, 


area 5 to 




5 sq. ft. 


10 sq. ft. 




(New York) 


(New 


York) 




Un- 




Un- 






silvered, 


Glazing, 


silvered. 


Glazing, 




Per 


per 


per- 


per 




square 


square 


square 


square 


Year 


foot 


foot 


foot 


foot 


1890... 


. . $0. 530 




$0. 700 




1891 . . . . 


.520 




.690 




1892... 


.420 




.550 




1893. . . 


.420 




.550 




1894 . . . . 


.330 




.450 




1895... 


.300 




.480 




1896 . . . . 


.340 




.540 




1897. ... 


.200 




.320 




1898... 


.270 




.430 




1899... . 


.300 




.480 




1900... . 


.340 




.540 




1901 . . . . 


.320 




.490 




1902... . 


.258 




.411 




1903. .. 


.363 




.431 




1904 . . 


.228 




.365 




1905. . . 


.241 


$0. 198 


.373 


$0,305 


1906. .. 




.227 




.330 


1907 . . 




.230 




.340 


1908 . . . 




.173 




.275 


1909... 




.202 




.282 



Glass: window — — 

American, American, 

single, 25-in., single, B, 

6 by 8 to 10 25-in., 6 

by 15 in. by 8 to 10 

(New York) by 15 in. 

(New 

AA, A, York) 

per 50 per 50 per 50 sq. 

sq. ft. sq. ft. ft. 

$2.228 $1,786 

2.213 1.770 

1.994 ..... 1.595 

2.138 1.710 

1.992 . . 1.633 

1.599 1.392 

1 . 802 1 . 600 

2. 199 1.963 

2. 643 2. 343 

2. 708 2. 399 

2.699 ..... 2.319 

4.128 3.282 

3.219 2.565 

2. 640 2. 160 

2. 887 2. 328 

2.764 2.137 

2.920 2.256 

2.813 2.242 

2.360 1.881 

2.320 1.849 



74 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Year 

1910. 
1911. 
1912. 
1913 . 
1914. 

1915. 
1916. 
1917. 
1918. 
1919. 
1920. 



Polished, area 3 to 

5 sq. ft. 

(New York) 



Table XXVII. — Continued 
-Glass: plate- 



Polished, area 5 to 
10 sq. ft. 

(New York) 



-Glass: window- 



Un- 
silvered, 

per 
square 

foot 



Glazing, 
per 

square 
foot 

$0. 249 
.225 
.217 
.237 
.211 

.187 
.292 
.340 
.361 
.463 
.745 



Un- 

silvered, 

per 
square 
foot 



American, 

single, 25-in., 

6 by 8 to 10 

by 15 in. 
(New York) 



Glarzing, 
per 

square 
foot 

$0. 348 
.316 
.297 
.318 
.291 



A. 

per 50 
sq. ft. 



AA. 

per 50 

sq.ft. 
$2. 930 

2.253 

2. 240 

2.720 $2,274 
2. 274 



.253 2. 550 

.338 3.150 

.393 4.123 

.453 6.322 

.583 7. 209 

.809 6. 900 



American, 

single, B, 

25-in , 6 

by 8 to 10 

by 15-in. 

(New 

York) 

per 50 sq. 
ft. 

$2. 338 
1.796 
1.785 
2.221 
2.168 

2.423 
2. 49^ 
3.325 
5.689 
6.772 
6.555 



Lath: 

eastern 

spruce, 

l>^-inch 

slab 

(New 

York) 

Year per M 

1890 

1891 

1892 

1893 

1894 

1895....; 

1896 

1897 

1898 

1899 

1900 

1901 

1902 

1903 

1904 

1905 

1906 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

191i 

1912 

1913 $4,284 

1914 3.904 

1915 3.839 

1916 4.221 

1917 4.938 

1918 5.000 

1919 6.448 

1920 14.354 



-Lime: common- 
— (New York)— 



-Lumber- 



045 
108 
085 
078 



1.023 
1.167 



Douglas fir: Douglas fir. 

No. 1, No. 2, 

common and better, 

drop siding 

(F.o.b. mill Wash. Stated 



Rockport, 
per barrel 
$0. 979 
.913 
.929 
.929 
.848 

• .781 
.694 
.719 
.742 
.798 

.683 

.774 
.806 
.788 
.825 

.891 

.947 

.949 

1.045 

1.045 



Eastern, 
per barrel 



per M feet per M feet 



$1,240 
1.405 
1.760 
2.309 
2.673 
4.322 



$9,208 
7.917 

7.875 
10. 375 
15.875 
18.250 
25.417 
29.917 



$17,333 
14.292 

14.292 
18. 583 
23.917 
28.000 
39.667 
54. 750 



PRICES AND WAGES 



75 



Table XXVII. — Continued 



-Lumber (New York)- 



Hemlock 
per 

Year M feet 

1890 $12. 583 

1891 12.458 

1892 12.292 

1893 12.000 

1894 11.708 

1895 11.146 

1896 11.167 

1897 11.000 

1898 11.750 

1899... 13.521 

1900 16.500 

1901 15.000 

1902 15.833 

1903 16.792 

1904 17.000 

1905 .. . 17.875 

1906 21.896 

1907 22.250 

1908 20.875 

1909 20.583 

1910 20.625 

1911 20.682 

1912 21.455 

1913 24.227 

1914 24.396 

1915 21.591 

1916 23.542 

1917 27.708 

1918 33.929 

1919 39.750 

1920 56.667 



Maple: 
hard 



Oak: 
white, 
plain 
per per 

M feet M feet 
S 26.500 $ 37.875 
26.500 38.000 
26. 500 38. 458 
26. 500 38. 750 
26.500 37.250 



market, 



26. 500 
26. 500 
26. 500 
26. 500 
26. 542 

27. 500 
26. 708 
28.583 
31.667 
31.000 

30. 500 
31.000 
32. 250 
31.625 
31.000 

31.800 
34.318 
36. 455 
36.364 
38. 500 

38. 500 
40. 583 
49. 708 
60. 125 
68. 667 
143.750 



Oak: 
white, 
quartered 

per per 

M feet M feet 

$ 51.458 $16,792 

53.583 17.000 

53.000 17.146 

53.000 18.625 

51.125 18.167 



Pine: white, boards 

No. 2 barn 

Buffalo New York 
market, 



per 
M feet 



36. 250 
36. 250 
36. 250 
36. 250 
38. 958 

40.833 
36.771 
40. 875 
44.833 
46. 500 

47.333 
50.417 
55. 208 
49.292 
48.417 

54.250 
54. 682 
56. 227 
60.591 
60.042 

57.682 
61.333 
66. 292 
75.625 
102. 125 
204.667 



53. 250 
54. 500 
53.833 
52. 500 
60. 521 

64.458 
59. 167 
63.083 
74.792 
80. 750 

80. 250 
79. 167 
80. 000 
80. 167 
84.333 

87.450 , 
87. 182 
86.500 
88.318 
88.333 , 

86.500 , 
86.500 , 
90.000 , 
104.271 
156.875 
296. 250 



17.250 
16. 500 
15.833 
15. 500 
18.292 

21.500 
20.875 
23. 500 
24.000 
23. 000 

24. 167 
29. 750 



$33,250 
37.417 
36. 375 
37. 104 

38.052 
38.376 
37.227 
36.864 
37.500 

37.500 
37. 500 
49. 125 
60.417 
63. 792 



Lumber (New York) 

Pine: white, boards, uppers. 

Pine: 
Buffalo New yellow, 
market, York flooring 
market 



-Lumber— 



per 

M feet 



per 

M feet 



per 

Year M feet 

1890 $44,083 

1891 45.000 

1892 46.142 

1893 48.500 

1894 46.417 

1895 46.000 16.917 

1896 46. 625 16. 417 

1897 46. 333 16. 438 

1898. 46. 083 18. 625 

1899 50. 458 20. 042 

1900... 
1901 . . 
1902.. 
1903.. 
1904 . . 



Pine: yellow, siding 
(New 

' ' (Norfolk 
Va., mar- 
ket) per 



York) 
market) 
per 
M feet 
$20,750 
19.958 
18. 500 
18. 500 
18. 500 



M. feet 



57. 500 20. 708 

60.417 19.667 

74.833 21.000 

80.000 21.000 

81.000 21.417 



Poplar Spruce 



(New 
York) 
per 
M feet 
$30,500 
30. 500 
30. 604 
33. 625 
31.750 

31.000 
31.000 
30.667 
30.000 
34.021 

37. 688 
36. 708 
42. 104 
49.646 
50. 329 



(New 

York) 

per 

M feet 

$16,292 

14.218 

14.854 

13.771 

12. 708 

14.250 
14.250 
14.000 
13. 750 
15. 396 

17.375 
18.000 
19.250 
19. 188 
20. 500 



76 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table XXVII. — Continued 

— -Lumber (New York) Lumber 

Pine; white, boards, uppers. 

Pine: Pine, yellow, siding Poplar Spruce 
Buffalo New yellow, (New 

market, York flooring York) (Norfolk (New 

market market Va., mar- York) 



per 
M feet 



Year 
1905 . . 

1906 84.750 

1907 . . 
1908.. 
1909 . . 

1910.. 

1911.. 

1912. 

1913. 

1914.. 

1915.. 
1916.. 
1917.. 
1918.. 
1919.. 
1920.. 



per 
M feet 



per 
M feet 



per 
M feet 



ket) per 
M feet 



per 
M feet 



$82. 000 $24. 917 $48. 208 

$ 88. 250 29. 333 50. 958 

97. 083 30. 500 58. 083 

96. 083 $ 43. 917 30. 500 58. 292 

93.042 45.833 33.042 57.625 



98. 800 
100. 500 
101.046 
103.500 
103.500 

103.500 
103. 500 
112.500 
130. 792 
140. 583 



46. 300 
46. 546 
44. 546 
44. 591 
42. 750 



30.800 
30. 591 
33. 136 
32. 136 
29.625 



39. 591 28. 182 

39.375 31.818 $26,917 

50.909 36.208 

60.750 42.917 

78. 833 54. 500 

145.417 95.750 



61.500 
61.591 
61.500 
61.727 
60. 667 

58. 909 
60. 292 
63.458 
84. 708 
110.000 
195. 636 



(New 

York) 

per 

M feet 

$21,417 

25.542 

24.000 

20. 792 

25.250 

24.600 
24.273 
26. 955 
27.864 
27.417 

27.000 
28.250 
35.000 
39. 625 
45. 625 



Lead, car- 
bonate of 
(white lead): 
American, 

in oil 
(New York) 
Year per pound 

1890 $0,064 

1891 .065 

1892 .066 

1893 ; . . . .061 

1894 .052 

1895 .053 

1896 .052 

1897 054 

1898 054 

1899 .057 

1900 063 

1901 058 

1902 .054 

1903 .062 

1904 .059 

1905 .063 

1906 .069 

1907 .070 

1908 065 

1909 .064 

1910 069 

1911 '. .071 

1912 .068 

1913 .068 

1914 .068 

1915 .070 

1916 093 

1917 112 

1918 127 

1919 .131 

1920 152 



-Paint materials- 



Linseed oil, Turpentine, 

raw spirits of 

(New York) (New York) 



per gallon 
$0,616 
.484 
.408 
.463 
.524 

.524 
.368 
.328 
.393 
.427 

.629 
.635 
.593 
.417 
.416 

.468 
.405 
.434 
.438 
.580 

.847 
.879 
.673 
.462 
.502 

.562 
.751 
1.107 
1.597 
1.769 
1.459 



per gallon 
$0,408 
.380 
.323 
.300 
.293 

.292 
.274 
.292 
.322 
.458 

.477 
.373 
.474 
.572 
.576 

.628 
.665 
.634 
.453 
.491 

.683 
.679 
.470 
.428 
.473 

.459 
.491 
.488 
.594 
1.210 
« 1.734 



Zinc, oxide of 
(zinc white) 
(New York) 
per pound 
$0,043 
.042 
.043 
.041 
.037 

.035 
.038 
.038 
.040 
.044 

.045 
.044 
.044 
.046 
.046 

.047 
.051 
.054 
.051 
.052 

.054 
.054 
.052 
.054 
.054 

.067 
.092 
.100 
.100 
.087 
.089 



I 



PRICES AND WAGES 



77 



Year or month 

1890 

1891 

1892 

1893 

1894 

1895 

1896. 

1897 

1898 

1899 

1900 

1901 

1902 


Table 

Shingles: 

cypress, 

16 inches long 

(New 

Orleans) W 

per M 
$3,350 

3.250 

3. 150 

3.000 

2. 800 

2. 650 
2. 500 
2. 350 
2. 500 
2. 663 

2. 850 
2.850 
2.671 
2. 567 
2. 600 

2. 725 
3.242 
4.225 

3. 538 
3.267 

3.492 
3. 608 
3.483 
3.542 
3. 329 

3.067 
3.446 
4.054 
5.425 
6.039 
8.067 


XXVII.- 

(Buffah 

hite pine, 

18 inches 

long, 

per M 

$3,842 

4.000 

3.906 

3.850 

3.750 

3.700 
3.613 
3.542 
3.552 
3.679 

4.000 
4.188 


—Continued 
—Shingles — 
3, N. Y.)— 

Michigan 
white pine, 
16 inches 
long, 

per M 

$3^263 
3.588 
3.650 
3.575 

3.500 


(Wash. 
State) 

Red cedar 

16 inches 

long, 

per M 

$1,688 
2.213 
2.696 
2.013 
2.004 

2.008 
1.813 
1.939 
1.967 
1.713 

1.664 
1.910 
2.818 
2.794 
4.488 
4.723 


Tar 

(Wilmington, 

N. C.) 

per barrel 
$1,475 
1.583 
1.300 
1.046 
1.092 

1.142 
1.013 
1.054 
1.098 
1.246 

1.363 
1.282 
1.325 


1903 






1.679 


1904 






1.679 


1905 






1.758 


1906 






1.958 


1907 






2.329 


1908 






1 600 


1909 






1.638 


1910 






2.254 


1911 






2 125 


1912.. 






2.000 


1913 






2 225 


1914 






2. 188 


1915 






1 733 


1916 






2 254 


1917 






3. 192 


1918 






3 677 


1919 






4.452 


1920 






5.123 



Relation of Cast-Iron Water Pipe and Gray Forge Iron Prices. — Figs. 5 and 
6, given in the Annual Review Section of Iron Age, published Jan. 6, 1921, 
show clearly the fluctuations in the prices over a period of 18 years and indi- 
cate, as might be expected, that the variations in price of cast iron pipe are 
largely due to the variations in the price of the pig iron from which the pipe is 
made. 

Prices of Cast Iron Water Pipe During the Past 50 Years. — Interesting 
statistics on the price of cast iron pipe were presented by Burt B. Hodgman, 
Chief Engineer of the National Water Main Cleaning Co., in a paper pre- 
sented at the 1917 annual meeting of the American Water Works Association. 
In his paper, an abstract of which is given in Engineering and Contracting, 
Aug. 29, 1917, Mr. Hodgman gives the prices actually paid for cast iron 
pipe by the city of Boston, Mass., during the past 50 years. 



78 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 







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PRICES AND WAGES 



79 



1916 






1917 



emcta:>z5c5cL»->o 






^ 



^^==; 



1918 



K 



1919 



xmKcc>z5c3a»->d 
5uj<Q.<55oujooIli 

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1^- 



1920 



^ u. Z < Z -3 -«< 00 O Z C 



;? 



Cast-Iron Pipe « 



Fig. 6.- 



-Detail diagram of course of cast iron pipe and 
1916 to 1920 inclusive. 



Grey Forge Pig Iron— „---. 

gray forge iron prices 



80 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



In 1832 Richmond, Va., purchased 10-in. pipe from Samuel & Thomas S. 
Richards of Philadelphia for $1.38 per foot, the pipe being in 9-ft. lengths and 
Ke in. in thickness. This amounts to about $54 per ton of 2,000 lb., and the 
price was for pipe delivered at Richmond. The cost in 1832 of other sizes of 
pipe was as follows: 

Per foot 

8-in. pipe was $1.25 

6-in. pipe was 70 

4-jn. pipe was .45 

3-in. pipe was 37 

In 1844 3-in. pipe was bought for 30 

In 1854 16-in. and 8-in. pipe was purchased in Richmond from R. & S. H. 
Jones at $52.50 per long ton. The pipe was cast at Florence, N. J. In 1832 
10-in. valves were purchased in Richmond at $70, 8-in. valves at $56, 6-in. 
valves at $44.50, 4-in. valves at $30 and 3-in. valves at $28. 



Prices of Cast Iron Pipe and Specials 



Elgin, 



Year 

1887. 

1888. 

1889. 

1890. 

1891. 

1892. 

1893 

1894. 

1895. 

1896. 

1897. 

1898. 

1899 

1902 

1905. 

1906 

1907. 

1908. 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912. 

1913 

1914 



, 111. Rochester, N. Y. 

Pipe Specials Year Pipe 

$34. 70 $55. 00 1884 $30. 00 

34. 70 55. 00 1885 27. 90 

24.70 45.00 1887 34.00 

28. 00 50. 00 1890 24. 50 

27.40 42.50 1891 23.20 

27.00 42.75 1892 21.20 

26. 50 42. 50 1894 18. 68 

24.70 ,41.50 1895 18.90 

24.70 41.50 1896 18.25 

28. 00 50. 00 1897 16. 70 

28.00 48.50 1898 15.27 

23.85 45.00 1899 . 22.00 

23.50 43.50 1900 . 25.25 

24.00 45.25 1901 20.80 

30. 00 50. 00 1902 26. 75 

27.00 46.50 1903 32.50 

21.40 41.40 1904 22.80 

21.00 42.50 1905 25.40 

23. 00 45. 00 1906 26. 80 

22. 50 45. 00 1907 23. 20 

23. 00 44. 75 1908 24. 30 

23.45 45.00 1909 22.70 

23.50 45.00 1910 24.00 

23.70 45.25 1911 20.70 

1912... 21.20 

1913 24.25 

1914 21.95 



Specials 
$45.00 
60.00 
60.00 
46.00 
46.00 
45.00 
45.00 
40.00 
40.00 
38.00 
35.00 
50.00 
45.00 
45.00 
60.00 
70.00 
50.00 
50.00 
55.00 
60.00 
50.00 
50.00 
50.00 
49.00 
48.00 
50.00 



Year 
1908 
1910 

1911 



1913 



Portland, Ore 

(All prices per ton of 2,000 lbs.) 
Size Pipe Specials Year 



16" 


$42 
37 
37. 
32. 
32. 
30. 
30. 
34 
34 


75 
00 
00 
35 
35 
90 
50 
25 
50 






4'' 






12'' 

10'' 


$60.00 


20" 

10" 


48 


00 


20" 






6" 






8" 







1913 
1914. 



Size Pipe Specials 

24" 34.00 

30" 34.00 53.00 

6" 30. 20 

8" 30. 20 

12" 30. 20 

16" 30. 20 

24" 30. 20 

30" 30. 20 



PRICES AND WAGES 81 

Prices op Cast Iron Pipe and Specials 
Lowell, Mass. 

(1870 to 1902, 2,240 lb. to ton; 1904 to 1914, 2, 000 lb. to ton) 

Year Pipe Year Pipe 

1870 $63. 00 $0. 04 per lb. 1902 : . . . 28. 20 

1873 73.00 $0.04 per lb. 1904 23.20 $0.05 per lb. 

1874 42.00 $0.04 per lb. 1906 29.30 

1876 36.39 1906 32.70 

1880 51. 00 $70 per ton 1909 25. 20 

1882 45. 00 $0.03 per lb. 1909 24. 20 

1881 55.00 1010 22.30 

1889 28.31 1910 22.00 

1895 23.85 1912 21.45 

1895 19.70 1912 22.34 

1897.. 18.18 1913 23.23 

1899 21.75 1914 22.49 

1899 23.00 1914 21.95 

Included in the abstract of Mr. Hodgman's paper, as published in Engineer- 
ing and Contracting, Aug. 29, 1917, is a voluminous table, giving prices on 
various sizes of pipe, the respective tonnage ordered and the name of the 
company supplying the pipe, for the years 1868 to 1917 inclusive. It is 
necessary to omit this table on account of its size. 

Prices of Waterworks and Other Materials Month by Month. — The accom- 
panying tables of prices of various engineering materials given in Engineering 
and Contracting, Oct. 12, 1921, were compiled in the office of Dabney H. 
Maury, Consulting Engineer, Chicago, Illinois, for use in connection with 
appraisals of water works and other properties. 

Table XXVIII shows cast iron water pipe prices per ton of 2000 lb, in 4-in., 
6-in. and larger sizes, as explained in the note. The peak of cast iron pipe 
prices was reached in Oct., Nov., and Dec, 1920. Since that time the decline 
has been rapid, but the price is still far above the prewar average. 

Gas Pipe, because of its lesser thickness, costs more per ton, the advance 
over water pipe having ranged from $1.00 per ton in 1913 to $4.00 per ton in 
1920 and 1921. On Sept. 1, 1921, the differential was $3.00 per ton in all 
markets. 

Table XXIX the price list of wrought iron and steel pipe is the standard 
which has been in effect for many years, and to which all of the discounts of 
Table XXX apply. 

Steel and wrought iron pipe reached high points in 1917 and 1918, and again 
during the winter of 1920-21. Present prices are nearly 100 per cent above 
average prewar prices. 

The pig lead maximum was reached in 1917. There was another high point 
In 1920, followed by a rapid decline which has brought pig lead down to 
prewar prices. 

The common brick maximum was reached in 1920. Common brick is still 
almost double its prewar price in Chicago. 

Starting with 1903, cement decreased gradually in price to 1911 when, in 
November, a minimum of $.70 per bbl. was reached. Its trend since that 
time has been slowly but steadily upwards with a high peak of $2.37 in January 
and February of this year, the present price being only $.20 less than the peak. 

Structural shapes and plates reached their peak during the latter half of 
1917, when plates were quoted at the almost unbelievable price of $.10 at 
warehouse, Chicago. Since that time they have declined in price, reaching 
a point slightly below $ .03 in August, 192 1 . 

The range of prices of reinforcing bars has followed rather closely that of 
structural shapes. 
6 



82 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table XXVIII.- 



-Prices per Short Ton op Cast Iron Water Pipe at 
Chicago, III. 



Year 
Average 
for 
year 

Jan 

Feb 

Mar 

April .... 

May 

June .... 

July 

Aug 

Sept 

Oct 

Nov 



(Quotations are from The Iron Age). See Footnote. 

1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 



Dec 

Year 

Average 
for 
year 

Jan 

Feb 

Mar. . . . 
April .... 

May 

June .... 
July.... 



26.42 
25.46 
24.50 
28.00 
27.50 

27! 66 

26.00 

25.00 

f26.00 

25.00 

124.00 

^26.00 

25.00 

24.00 

27.00 

26.00 

25.00 

26.00 

25, 00 

25! 56 
24.50 



29.25 
25.96 
27.83 
28.50 
27.50 

28! 56 
27.50 

28. 56 
27.50 



25.50 
24.50 

f25!56 
24.50 



25.50 
24.50 

27! 56 
26.50 

27! 56 
26.50 

1910 
27.92 
26.92 
25.92 
'28.50 
27.50 
26.50 
28.50 
27.50 
26.50 
28.50 
27.50 
26.50 
28.50 
27.50 
26.50 
28.50 
27.50 
26.50 
28. 50 
27.50 
,26.50 
[28.00 
< 27.00 
' 26.00 



29.00 
28.00 

29! 66 

28.00 

29! 66 

28.00 

29! 66 

28.00 
27.50 
29.00 
28.00 
27.00 
29.50 
28.50 
27.50 
30.00 
29.00 
28.00 
30.00 
29.00 
28.00 
31.00 
30.00 
29.00 



32.46 
31.46 
30.46 
31.00 
30.00 
29.00 
31.00 
30. 00 
29.00 
31.00 
30.00 
29.00 
31.00 
30.00 
29.00 
31.00 
30.00 
29.00 
31.00 
30.00 
29.00 
32.50 
31.50 
30. 50 
32.50 
31.50 
30.50 
33.00 
32.00 
31.00 
34.00 
33.00 
32.00 
34.00 
33.00 
32.00 
37.50 
36.50 
35.50 



37.75 
36.75 
35.75 
37.50 
36.50 
35.50 
38.50 
37.50 
36.50 
38.50 
37.50 
36.50 
38.50 
37.50 
36.50 
38.50 
37.50 
36.50 
38.50 
37.50 
36.50 
38.50 
37.50 
36.50 
38.50 
37.50 
36.50 
38.00 
37.00 
36.00 
37.00 
36.00 
35.00 
36.00 
35.00 
34.00 
35.00 
34.00 
33.00 



28.08 
27.08 
26.08 
33.00 
32.00 
31.00 
30.00 
29.00 
28.00 
30.00 
29.00 
28.00 
28.00 
27.00 
26.00 
27.00 
26.00 
25.00 
27.00 
26.00 
25.00 
27.00 
26.00 
25.00 
27.00 
26.00 
25.00 
27.00 
26.00 
25.00 
27.00 
26.00 
25.00 
27.00 
26.00 
25.00 
27.00 
26.00 
25.00 



25.75 
24.42 
23.92 
25.00 
24.00 
23.50 
25.00 
24.00 
23.50 
25.50 
24.50 
24.00 
25.50 
24.50 
24.00 
25.50 
24.50 
24.00 
25.50 
24.50 
24.00 
25.50 
24.50 
24.00 



28.13 
26.17 
25.46 
26.50 
24.50 
24.00 
27.00 
25.00 
24.50 
27.00 
25.00 
24.50 
27.00 
25.00 
24.50 
27.00 
25.00 
24.50 
27.00 
25.00 
24.50 
27.50 
25. 50 
25.00 



29.00 
27.00 
26.00 
31.00 
29.00 
28.00 
31.00 
29.00 
28.00 
30.00 
28.00 
27.00 
30.50 
28.50 
27.50 
29.50 
27.50 
26.50 
28.50 
26.50 
25.50 
28.50 
26.50 
25.50 



1909 
27.79 
26.79 
25.46 
27.00 
26.00 
25.00 
28.00 
27.00 
25.00 
28.00 
27.00 
25.00 
27.50 
26.50 
24.50 
27.50 
26.50 
24.50 
27.50 
26.50 
25.50 
26.50 
27.50 
25.50 
27.50 
26.50 
25.50 
27.50 
26.50 
25. 50 
28.50 
27.50 
26.50 
28.50 
27.50 
26.50 
28.50 
27.50 
26.50 



1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 



26.21 
24.21 
23.58 
27.00 
25.00 
24.00 
27.00 
25.00 
24.00 
27.00 
25.00 
24.00 
26.00 
24.00 
23.50 
26.00 
24.00 
23. 50 
26.00 
24.00 
23.50 
26.00 
24.00 
23.50 



26.37 
24.37 
23.13 
25.50 
23.50 
23.00 
25.50 
23.50 
23.00 
25.50 
23.50 
23.00 
25. 50 
23.50 
23.00 
25.50 
23.50 
23.00 
25.50 
23.50 
23.00 
26.00 
24.00 
23.50 



I 



PRICES AND WAGES 



83 



Table XXVIII. — Continued 



Year 
Aug. . 



Sept. 
Oct.. 
Nov. 
Dec. 




1910 

28.00 

27.00 

26.00 

27. 00 

26.00 

25.00 

27.00 

26.00 

25.00 

f27.00 
26.00 
25.00 
27.00 
26.00 

(25.00 

1916 
34.23 
31.31 



1911 1912 1913 1914 



25.50 
24.50 
24.00 
26.50 
24.50 
24.00 
26.50 
24.50 
24.00 
26. 50 
24.50 
24.00 
26.50 
24.50 
24.00 

1917 
57.83 
54.83 



27.50 
26.00 
25.00 
30.00 
28.00 
27.00 
30.00 
28.00 
27.00 
30.00 
28.00 
27.00 
31.00 
29.00 
28.00 

1918 
62.85 
59.85 



28.00 
26.00 
25.00 
28.00 
26.00 
25.00 
28.00 
26.00 
25.00 
28.00 
26.00 
25.00 
27.00 
25.00 
24.00 

1919 
60.90 
57.97 



26.00 
24.00 
23.50 
26.00 
24.00 
23.50 
26.00 
24.00 
23.50 
26.00 
24.00 
23.50 
25.50 
23. 50 
23.00 

1920 
79.98 
76.48 



[30.50 44.50 57.30 69.80 69.80 

128.50 41.50 54.30 66.80 66.80 

[32.75 44.50 57.30 64.80 72.80 

129.75 41.50 54.30 61.80 69.80 

r32.75 45.50 57.30 64.80 75.80 

129.75 42.50 54.30 61.80 72.80 

f33.75 53.50 57.30 59.80 75.80 

130.75 50.50 54.30 56.80 72.80 

f33.75 58.50 57.30 59.80 79.80 

130.75 55.50 54.30 56.80 76.80 

f33.75 61.50 63.35 54.80 79.80 

[30.75 58.50 60.35 51.80 76.80 

[34.00 68.50 65.05 54.80 79.80 

131.00 65.50 62.05 51.80 76.80 

[34.00 68.50 65.05 56.30 79.80 

131.00 65.50 62.05 53.30 76.80 

[34.00 68.50 64.80 58.50 82.10 

131.00 65.50 .61.80 55.80 79.10 

[34.50 68.50 69.80 58.80 88.10 

131.50 65.50 66.80 55.80 83.10 

[34.50 53.50 69.80 62.80 88.10 

131.50 50.50 66.80 59.80 83.10 

j^^^ /4^.50 58.50 69.80 65.80 88.10 

^®^ • "^39.50 55.50 66.80 62.80 83.10 



1915 
26.00 
24.00 
23.50 
26.50 
24.50 



27.00 
25.00 



29.00 
27.00 



29.00 
27.00 



1921 



69.10 
64.10 
69.10 
64.10 
69.10 
64.10 
69.10 
64.10 
69. 10 
64.10 
57.10 
54.10 
52.10 
49. 10 
49.10 
46.10 



Foot Note: The prices given in the table are arranged according to size of 
pipe, the top figure for each month representing quotations on 4" pipe. The 
sizes represented by the other figures are as follows; 



Middle 
Period figure 

Jan., 1902 to July, 1903 6'' 

Aug., 1903 6" & larger 

Sept., 1903 6" & 8" 

Oct., 1903 to Jan., 1904 6" & larger 

Feb., 1904 to May, 1904 6" to 12" 

June, 1904 to June 1905 6" & larger 

July, 1905 to Sept., 1905 6'' to IOC 

Oct., 1905 to Aug., 1915 6" to 12" 

Sept., 1915 to Sept., 1921 6" & larger 



Lower 
figure 
8" & larger 



10" & larger 



Larger than 12" 



12' 
16' 



& larger 
larger 



ft 



84 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table XXIX- 



-Standard Price List of Steel and Wrought Iron Pipe- 
Either Black or Galvanized 



This list was established prior to 1900, and has since remained in general use 
throughout the United States. 

Standard pipe is furnished with threads and couplings and in random lengths 
unless otherwise ordered. Weights are in pounds. 













Threads and 


Price per foot 


Plain ends couplings 


$0. 051^^ 


.244 . 245 


.06 


. 424 . 425 


.06 


. 567 . 568 


.08>^ 


. 850 . 852 


• IIH 


1.130 1.134 


.17 


1.678 1.684 


.23 


2.272 2.281 


. 27y2 


2.717 2.731 


.37 


3.652 3.678 


. 5sy2 


5.793 5.819 


.76>^ 


7.575 7.616 


.92 


9.109 9.202 


1.09 


10.790 10.889 


1.27 


12.538 12.642 


1.48 


14.617 14.810 


1.92 


18.974 19.185 


2.38 


23.544 23.769 


2.50 


24.696 25.000 


2.88 


28. 554 28. 809 


3.45 


33.907 34.188 


3.20 


31.201. 32.000 


3.50 


34.240 35.000 


4.12 


40.483 41.132 


4.63 


45. 557 46. 247 


4.50 


43.773 45.000 


5.07 


49.562 50.706 



Size, in. 
H 

H 
\^ 

1 

13^ 

2 

2>^ 

3 

3>i 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

8 

9 
10 
10 
10 
11 
12 

Extra strong pipe for high pressure hydraulic installations, etc., takes a higher 
price. 



Table XXX.- 



-Discounts on Wrought Iron and Steel Pipe in Carload 
Lots at Pittsburgh, Pa. 



Size — inches H 

1910— 

Jan 74 

Feb.-May 74 

June-Sept 74 

Size — inches. H 

1910— 

Oct 75 

Nov.-Dec 75 

1911— 

Jan.-Sept 75 

Oct 77 

Nov 78 

Dec 78 

1912— 

Jan.-Feb 78 

Mar .-May 78 

June-July 77 

Aug 76 

Sept 76 

Oct. 76 

Nov 76 

Dec 76 



Black- 

%-6 7-12 

78 72 
78 72 
78 72 

^-U^ ^-3 



79 
79 

79 
80 
80 
81 

81 
81 
80 
79 
79 
.... 79 

79 

.... 79 



-Steel pipe 

... Yi 

... 62 
... 62 
... 62 



2-3 

80 
80 

80 
81 
81 

82 

82 
82 
81 
80 
80 



63 
63 

65 
67 
67 



68 
68 
67 
66 
66 
66 
66 
66 



-Galvanized- 



^i-6 7-12 

68 57 
68 57 

68 57 

y^-\Y2 H-s 

69 

69 ... 

69 
72 
72 
73 

73 
72 
72 
71 
71 
.... 71 

71 

.... 71 



2-3 

70 
70 

70 
74 

74 
75 

75 
75 
74 
73 
73 



PRICES AND WAGES 



85 



Table XXX.- 



1913— 

Jan.-April. . .. . 77 

May 76H 

June-Aug 76 

Sept -Dec 77 

1914— 

Jan 77 

Feb.-Apr 7&H 

May-Oct 77 

Nov -Dec 78 

1915— 

Jan.-Feb 78 

Mar 77 

April 77 

May 76 

June 76 

July- Aug 76 

Sept -Oct 76 

Nov -Dec 75 

1916— 

Jan.- 74 

Feb 73 

Mar 71 

April 69 

May- July 67 

Aug.-Sept 67 

Oct.-Nov 66 

Dec 63 

1917— 

Jan.-Feb 61 

Mar 59 

April 52 

May-June 46 

July-Nov 46 

Dec 48 

1918— 

Jan.-Dec 48 

1919— 

Jan.-Mar 51 

Apr .-Aug 54>^ 

Sept.-Dec 54^ 

1920— 

Jan 54}ri 

Feb 51 

Mar.-July 51 

Aug.-Dec 52^ 

1921— 

Jan.-Feb 54?^^ 

Mar.-Apr 543'^ 

Size, inches 3^^ 

1921— 

May- July 56>^ 

Aug . 58>^ 



-Black- 



-Continued 
-Steel ] 



-Galvanized- 



60M 
62H 



80 
793^^ 
79 
80 

80 
791.^ 
80 
81 

81 
80 
80 
79 
79 
79 
79 
78 

77 
76 
74 
72 
70 
70 
69 
66 

64 
62 
55 
49 
49 
51 

51 

54 

57>^ 

573^ 

57>^ 
54 
54 
55^ 

57>^ 
573^^ 
1-3 

62K 
64K 



66K 
66 
653^ 
663^ 

66>^ 
66 



673^ 
673-^ 



653^ 
643^ 
593^ 
533^ 
593^ 
593^ 

5Sy2 
56>1 
53>^ 
493^ 
463^ 
513-^ 
513^ 



46>^ 
443^ 
373^^ 
313-^ 
313^ 



333^ 



40 
40 

40 

363^ 

363^ 

38>i 

40 
40 

42 
44 



48 
50 



713^ 
70 
703^^ 
713^^ 

713^ 
71 

713^ 
72H 

723^ 



69K 
683^ 
63H 
57>^ 
633^ 
633^ 

62>^ 
603^ 
573^ 
533^ 
503^ 
553^ 
55y2 
523^ 

503^ 
483-^ 
413^ 
353^ 
353^ 
37>i 

37>^ 

403^ 

44 

44 

44 
413^ 
413^ 
42^ 

44 
44 
1-3 

50 
52 



Size — inches. 

1910— 

Jan 

Feb.-May . . . 
June-Sept . . . 
Size — inches. 

1910— 

Oct 

Nov .-Dec. . . 



y2 ^-6 



69 
70 



73 
73 

74 



-Black- 
7-12 

68 
67 
68 



-Wrought iron pipe- 



H ^-6 



57 
57 
58 



63 
63 
64 



-Galvanized- 
7-12 

53 
52 
53 



71 



H-m H-2y2 2-23^ 2-3 }4 H-IH H-2H 2~2H 2-3 
75' ' . ." .' ." .' .' ." .' .' 76* 59" ' 65* '.'.'.'. '.'.'.'. 66* 



86 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table XXX. — Continued 

-Wrought iron pipe- 



. 1911— 

Jan.-Sept. . . 71 

Oct 75 

Nov 72 

Dec 72 

1912— 

Jan.-Feb.... 72 

Mar -May. . 72 

June-July ... 72 

Aug 71 

Sept 69 

Oct 70 

Nov 70 

Dec 70 

1913— 

Jan.- April ... 70 

May 70 

June- Aug. . . 69 

Sept.-Dec ... 69 

1914— 

Jan 69 

Feb .-April. . . 69 

May-Oct .... 69 

Nov .-Dec. . . 69 

1915— 

Jan.-Feb 69 

Mar 69 

April 69 " 

May 68 

June 68 

July- Aug.... 68 

Sept.-Oct. . . . 68 

Nov.-Dec. . . 67 

1916— 

Jan 67 

Feb 63 

Mar 61 

April 59 

May- July ... 57 

Aug.-Sept ... 57 

Oct.-Nov.... 56 

Dec 53 

1917— 

Jan.-Feb.... 51 

Mar 49 

April 41 

May- June ... 35 

July-Nov 28 

Dec 28 

1918— 

Jan.-Dec .... 28 

1919— 

Jan.-Mar 31 

Apr.-Aug 34^^ 

Sept.-Dec... 343.^ 

1920— 

Jan 343^ 

Feb 343^ 

Mar .-July.. . 29 >^ 

Aug .-Dec ... 24 3-^ 

1921— 

Jan.-Feb .... 20 

Mar .-Apr. .. 24 >^ 
Size — inches, 3'^ 

1921— 

May-July,.. 273-^ 

Aug 31>^ 



-Black- 



-Galvanieed- 



75 
75 
75 

75 

75 
75 
75 
74 
72 
73 
73 
73 



66 
64 
62 
60 
60 
59 
56 

54 
52 
44 
38 
33 
33 

33 

36 
39 
30 

30 
30 
343^^ 
29>^ 

25 

293^ 



33 3^^ 

37>^ 



73 
73 

72 
72 

72 
72 

72 
72 

72 
72 
72 
71 
71 
71 
71 
70 

70 



74 
73 



ssy2 



353^^ 
393^ 



76 59 

76 65 

76 62 

76 62 



76 62 

76 59 

76 59 

75 58 

73 56 

. 57 

. 57 

. 57 

. 57 

. 57 

. 56 

. 56 

. 56 

. 56 

. 56 

. 56 

. 56 

. 54 

. 54 

. 52 

. 47 

. 41 

. 47 

. 47 

. 47 

. 43 

. 40 

. 36 

. 33 

. 38 

. 38 

. 35 

. 33 

. 31 

. 23 

. 17 

. 10 

. 10 

. 10 

. 13 

. 163^^ 

. 16>^ 

. 163-^ 

. 163^ 

. 113-^ 
. 6>^ 

. 2 

. y2 

. 93^ 

. 13>^ 



65 
67 
67 
67 

67 

64 
63 
61 
62 
62 
62 



48 
45 
41 
38 
43 
43 
40 

40 
38 
28 
22 
17 
17 

17 

20 

233^^ 
23>^ 

233^^ 
233^ 
183^ 
133-^ 

9 
13>^ 



183-^ 
.22>^ 



62 
62 
61 
61 

61 
61 
61 
61 

61 
59 
59 
57 
52 
46 
52 
52 

52 



63 
62 



66 
69 
69 
69 

69 
65 
65 
64 
62 



I 



173-^ 



H i-m 



203-^ 
24>^ 






PRICES AND WAGES 



87 



,-H lOiOOiOOiOiOO .... 
(M CO lO lO |> 05 <M <N (N .... 

a 

O 0»OiOiOO»00'OiO»OiO»0 
(M lO "* !>• I> ''^H .-H O l> t^ t^ CO (N 

Oi 

1-i t* 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 CX) l> O lO 
Oi Oi000>0 iOiOOiOiOO"5 

. 1-1 t* r^ o o 05 05 '-t lo i> 05 »o lo 
O O) • • • 

kH rH lO "* ^ lO TfH rfi lO »0 lO »0 CO O 

-r 00 l^»000<NCMiOiOiOiOiO>0 
S '-H CO 00 '-I O CO 05 l> I> l> l> l> t^ 

b o> 

Q i-H O CO t* l> CO CO 1> l> l^ l> t>. CO 

jg 1-H CO O CO rH |> lO (N O tH 00 CO CO 
^ tH t> 00 OS oi 05 i-H r-l O O t>^ ^* CO 

Fh ^c<j • 

^o OOOOl>OiOOO^OO 
H-1 th Tt*OCOOCO(NCOOCOOOOS"^ 

05 

fi tH lO CO CO 00 t>. t^ CO CO CO CO CO b» 

o 

J \(N \N\(N\M \(N 

a; i-N 1-Ni-Nj-K i-K 

!2 lO 0<N»0(N|>(NOO»0(NOO 

O^ ,-i CO CO 00 rH o 00 CO 05 1> '^ 00 <N 

05 

^ rH CO CO CO -^ 1^ tJH >0 -tJH Tt< r^ Tfl »0 

M 

flO i-K ,-Nr-Ni-K^i-K'-N 

/j tH OOI>OOOI><N<Nl^l>l> 

>-< i-H .-I o oo t^ 00 00 r^ i> i> lo CO CO 
^ 1-1 '<^' TjH CO CO CO CO CO CO co' CO* co' co' 

^ CO iOOOQi>0(Nl>I>00»0 

^ 1-1 i-i(M (N (N CO (M (N CO CD to (N Oi 

W Oi 

Q 1-H Ti< Tt< rtH r^H rH Tt< TtH -"t-^ -^ Tj( CO 

g \N\N\(N\N\(N \N\N 

OQ <M lO tXN (N I>(N O t^ (N »0 O O 

^ tH CO i-h Oi r-i o 1-1 Tti lO !> Oi CO (N 

Q Oi . . .,. 

M tH tJ< rfi CO rji t}h Tt< ■>* Tf -"ti -^ •^ -^ 

Q i-KpJs 1-Ki-N i-N 

3 tH lO (N lO O IXN ^ lO (N (N lO t^ 

!^ tH CO CO <N CO (N (N CO Tt< -* CO 1-1 CO 

•^ Oi 

1 O iOOO»OiO<M t0i001>t>»0 
I 1-1 CO CO -^ c^ (N c<j (M (M CO (M (M Tt« 

j_| Oi 

ij 1^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Tf^ ^J^ ^^ 

X 



< 
H 



fi-^.S 






88 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Table XXXII. — Prices of Reinforcing Bars from Mill — Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Prices are in cents per pound in carload lots, and are taken from Engineering 
News and Engineering News-Record. 

Note. — Prices of bars from Chicago warehouse, 1910 to 1916 inclusive, are 
from .45c to .70c higher than Pittsburgh mill prices. Prices of bars from Chicago 
warehouse, 1917 to 1920 inclusive, are from .70c to 1.27c higher than Pittsburgh 
mill prices. 

1910 1911 1912 1913 

H''& H''& H"& H"& 

W %" larger yi" %" larger >^" ^" larger H" %'' larger 

Jan 1.65 1.60 1 55 1.55 1.50 1.45 1.30 1.25 1.25 1.60 1.55 1.50 

Feb 1.65 1.60 1 55 1.55 1.50 1.45 1.30 1.25 1.25 1.60 1.55 1.50 

Mar 1.65 1.60 1.55 1.55 1.50 1.45 1.30 1.25 1.20 1.60 1.55 1.50 

Apr 1.65 1.60 1.55 1.55 1.50 1.45 1.35 1.30 i:25 1.60 1.55 1.50 

May 1.65 1.60 1.55 1.55 1.50 1.45 1.35 1.30 1.25 1.60 1.55 1.50 

June 1.65 1.60 1.55 1.40 1.35 1.30 1.40 1.35 1.30 1.60 1.55 1.50 

July 1.60 1.55 1.50 1.40 1.35 1.30 1.45 1.40 1.35 1.60 1.55 1.50 

Aug 1.60 1.55 1.50 1.40 1.35 1.30 1.50 1.45 1.40 1.60 1.55 1.50 

Sept 1.60 1.55 1.50 1.40 1.35 1.30 1.55 1.50 1.45 1.60 1.55 1.50 

Oct. 1.60 1.55 1.50 1.35 1.30 1.25 1.55 1.50 1.45 1.55 1.50 1.45 

Nov 1.60 1.55 1.50 1.35 1.30 1.25 1.60 1.55 1.50 1.60 1.45 1.40 

Dec . 1.60 1.55 1.50 1.25 1.20 1.20 .... 1.55 1.40 1.35 

Average... 1.62 1.58 1.52 1.44 1.39 1.35 1.59 1.52 1.48 



-1914 1915 1916 1917- 



%"& H"& H"& H"& 

3^" ^" larger H" H" larger 3^" ^^" larger M" ^" larger 

Jan 1.55 1.40 1.35 1.30 1.15 1.10 3.10 3.05 3.00 

Feb 1.55 1.40 1.35 1.30 1.15 1.10 2.05 1.90 1.80 3.10 3.05 3.00 

Mar 1.45 1.30 1.25 1.35 1.20 1.15 2.50 2.35 2.25 3.10 3.05 3.00 

Apr. 1.40 1.25 1.20 1.35 1.20 1.15 2.70 2.55 2.45 3.45 3.40 3.35 

May 1.35 1.20 1.15 1.40 1.25 1.20 2.75 2.60 2.50 3.60 3.55 3.50 

June 1.35 1.20 1.15 1.40 1.25 1.20 2.75 2.60 2.50 

July 1.35 1.20 1.15 1. 45 1. 30 1. 25 2. 75 2. 60 2. 50 

Aug 1.45 1.30 1.25 2.60 2.55 2.50 

Sept 1.40 1.25 1.20 1.40 1.35 1.30 2.70 2.65 2.60 

Oct 1.40 1.25 1.20 1.50 1.45 1.40 2.70 2.65 2.60 

Nov 1.40 1.25 1.20 2.70 2.65 2.60 

Dec 1.35 1.20 1.15 3.00 2.95 2.90 3.00 2.95 2.90 

Average 



-1918 1919 1920 1921- 



H''& H"& H"& H"& 

Vi" %" larger i.^" %" larger >^" %" larger >^" H" larger 

Jan 3.00 2.95 2.90 3.00 2.95 2.90 2.45 2.40 2.35 2.45 2.40 2.35 

Feb 3.00 2.95 2.90 3.00 2.95 2.90 2.45 2.40 2.35 2.45 2.40 2.35 

Mar 3.00 2.95 2.90 3.00 2.95 2.90 2.45 2.40 2.35 2.40 2.35 2.30 

Apr 3.00 2.95 2.90 2.45 2.40 2.35 3.22 3.20 3.17 2.28 2.22 2.18 

May 3.00 2.95 2.90 2.45 2.40 2.35 3.22 3.20 3.18 2.20 2.15 2.10 

June 3.00 2.95 2.90 2.45 2.40 2.35 3.10 3.08 3.05 2.20 2.15 2.10 

July. 3.00 2.95 2.90 2.45 2.40 2.35 3.10 3.08 3.05 2.20 2.15 2.10 

Aug 3.00 2.95 2.90 2.45 2.40 2.35 3.10 3.08 3.05 2.20 2.15 2.10 

Sept 3.00 2.95 2.90 2.45 2.40 2.35 3.10 3.08 3.05 

Oct 3.00 2.95 2.90 2. 45 2. 40 2. 35 3. 10 3. 08 3. 05 

Nov 3. 00 2. 95 2. 90 2. 45 2. 40 2. 35 2. 98 2. 95 2. 92 

Dec 3.00 2.95 2.90 2.45 2. 40 2. 35 2. 98 2. 95 2. 92 

Average... 3.00 2.95 2.90 2. 59 2. 54 2. 49 2. 94 2. 91 2. 87 



PRICES AND WAGES 89 

Table XXXIII. — Prices of Structural Shapes, from Warehouse 

Chicago, III. 

Prices are in cents per pound in carload lots and are taken from Engineering 
News, Iron Age and Engineering News Record. 

1910 1911 1912 1913 

CO CO V*0CO CO V^QjCO CO V.<D CO CO N^ fe 

So flO ^^ So fiO ^^ So flO ^^ Jo CO «^ 

fq-^ ^tj*' pL,^ PQ-*" ^^ Ph^ pq^ <t5^ piH^ pq-*^ <1"^ Pl,^ 

Jan ^.00 2.05 2.00 1.85 1.85 1.88 1.60 1.60 1.60 2.05 2.05 2.10 

Feb 2.00 2.05 2.00 1.85 1.85 1.88 1.60 1.60 1.60 2.05 2.05 2.05 

Mar 2.00 2.05 2.00 1.85 1.85 1.88 1.60 1.60 1.60 2.05 2.05 2.05 

Apr 2.00 2.05 2.00 1.85 1.85 1.88 1.60 1.60 1.60 2.05 2.05 2.05 

May 2.00 2.05 2.00 1.85 1.85 1.88 1.70 1.70 1.70 2.05 2.05 2.05 

June 2.00 2.05 1.98 1.78 1.83 1.83 1.75 1.75 1.75 2.05 2.05 2.05 

July 1.90 1.95 1.95 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.75 1.75 1.75 2.05 2.05 2.05 

Aug 1.85 1.85 1.88 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.90 1.90 1.90 2.05 2.05 2.05 

Sept 1.85 1.85 1.88 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.91 1.91 2.00 1.95 1.95 2.05 

Oct 1.85 1.85 1.88 1.75 1.75 1.83 2.08 2.08 2.05 1.95 1.95 2.05 

Nov 1.85 1.85 1.88 1.65 1.65 1.63 2.05 2.05 2.05 1.95 1.95 1.95 

Dec 1.85 1.85 1.88 1.60 1.60 1.60 2.05 2.05 2.05 1.51 1.51 1.85 

Avg 1.93 1.96 1.94 1.79 1.80 1.81 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.98 1.98 2.03 



-1914 1915 1916 1917- 



co^ 



V*5 M CO V*S CO W \*0 CO CO \?c3 

gS Mio SS B"^ Mh S^ B"^ M^^ 2S B"^ Sh SS 

Jo go t'^ go go :§; go g5 j; go go j; 

Jan 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.80 1.80 1.78 2.40 2.40 2.40 3.70 3.70 4.35 

Feb 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 2.50 2.50 2.70 3.85 3.85 4.50 

Mar 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 2.90 2.90 3.15 4.00 4.00 4.75 

Apr 1.75 1.75 1.65 1.75 1.75 1.75 3.10 3.10 3.50 4.50 4.50 5.50 

May 1.75 1.75 1.65 1.75 1.75 1.75 3.10 3.10 3.50 4.75 4.75 6.00 

June 1.75 1.75 1.70 1.75 1.75 1.75 3.10 3.10 3.50 5.00 5.00 7.00 

July 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 3.10 3.10 3.50 5.00 5.00 7.00 

Aug 1:75 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 3.10 3.10 3.50 5.00 5.00 8.00 

Sept 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.85 1.85 1.85 3.10 3.10 3.50 5.00 5.00 10.00 

Oct 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.90 1.90 2.00 3.25 3.25 3.75 5.00 5.00 10.00 

Nov 1.75 1.75 1.75 2.00 2.00 2.20 3.25 3.25 3.75 5.00 5.00 7.00 

Dec 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.99 1.99 2.30 3.70 3.70 4.35 4.20 4.20 4.45 

Avg 1.75 1.75 1.73 1.82 1.82 1.86 3.05 3.05 3.42 4.58 4.58 6.54 



co^ 



-1918 1919 1920 1921- 



VO COv CO \*c3 CO CO \f« CO CO N*« 

— rr CO 1^ CO .^ .1*' m rv ro«- _ r" »>?'_ m^ t" 



&0 



Pr-t »-hCO ^ e3 B '"' »-hO Q^ e3 g tH rScO 4) e8 g rH 

|5 |5 i^ |5 |2 |3 is |5 |3 is |5 1^ 

Jan 4.20 4.20 4.45 4.27 4.27 4.52 3.47 3.47 3.67 3.58 3.58 3.78 

Feb 4.20 4.20 4.45 4.07 4.07 4.27 3.47 3.47 3.67 3.58 3.58 3.78 

Mar 4. 20 4. 20 4. 45 4. 07 4. 07 4. 27 3. 97 3. 97 4. 17 3. 58 3. 58 3. 78 

Apr 4.20 4.20 4.45 3.47 3.47 3.67 3.97 3.97 4.17 3.13 3.13 3.13 

May 4. 20 4. 20 4. 45 3. 47 3. 47 3. 67 3. 97 3. 97 4. 17 3. 23 3. 23 3. 23 

June 4. 20 4. 20 4. 45 3. 47 3. 47 3. 67 3. 97 3. 97 4. 17 3. 23 3. 23 3. 23 

July 4. 27 4. 27 4. 52 3. 47 3. 47 3. 67 3. 97 3. 97 4. 17 3. 13 3. 13 3. 13 

Aug . 4.27 4.27 4.52 3.47 3.47 3.67 3.97 3.97 4.17 2.88 2.88 2.88 

Sept 4. 27 4. 27 4. 52 3. 47 3. 47 3. 67 3. 97 3. 97 4. 17 

Oct 4.27 4.27 4.52 3.47 3.47 3.67 3.97 3.97 4. 17 

Nov 4. 27 4. 27 4. 52 3. 47 3. 47 3. 67 3. 97 3. 97 4. 17 

Dec 4. 27 4. 27 4. 52 3. 47 3. 47 3. 67 3. 58 3. 58 3. 78 

Avg 4.24 4.24 4.48 3. 64 3. 64 3. 84 3. 85 3. 85 4. 05 



90 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table XXXIV. — Common Brick Prices at Chicago, III. 
Prices are in dollars per l,000*in car load lots 

Month 

Jan $6.00 

Feb 

Mar 

Apr 

May 

^une 

July 

Aug 

Sept 

Oct 

Nov 

Dec 



1916 


1917 


1918 


1919 


1920 


1921 


$6.00 


$6.00 


$ 8.00 


$11.00 


$12.00 


$15.00 


6.25 


6.00 


8.00 


12.00 


14.00 


15.00 


6.25 


6.00 


8.00 


12.00 


14.00 


15.00 


6.00 


6.00 


8.00 


12.00 


14.00 


15.00 


6.25 


6.00 


8.00 


12.00 


14.00 


12.00 


6.00 


8.00 


8.00 


12.00 


14.00 


12.00 


6.25 


8.00 


. 11.00 


12.00 


15.00 


12.00 


6.00 


8.00 


11.00 


12.00 


16.00 


12.00 


7.00 


8.00 


11.00 


12.00 


16.00 




6.00 


8.00 


11.00 


12.00 


15.00 




6.00 


8.00 


11.00 


12.00 


15.00 




6.00 


8.00 


11.00 


12.00 


15.00 





Avg $6.17 



$7.17 $9.50 $11.92 $14.50 



Table XXXV. — Portland Cement Prices at Chicago, III. 

Prices to and including December, 1913, from Universal Portland Cement Co.; 
prices January, 1914, to and including March, 1917, from Engineering News; 
prices April, 1917, to date from Engineering News Record. Prices are, in 
dollars per barrel, for carload lots, f. o. b. Chicago, and do not include price of 
bags. 

Average yearly price (1903 to 1909, inclusive): 



1903 $1.65 

1904 1.35 

1905 1.30 

1909 



1906 $1.55 

1907 1.55 

1908 1.15 

$1.00 



Month 

Jan 

Feb 

Mar 

Apr 

May 

June. 



1910 

.90 

.92 

1.00 

1.08 

1.18 

1.28 

July 1.30 



1.28 
1.18 



Aug 
Sept 

Oct 1.15 

Nov 1.07 

Dec 1.05 



1911 

1.05 

1.05 

1.10 

1.12 

1.05 

.95 

.85 

.85 

.83 

.74 

.70 

.72 



1912 

.75 

.77 

.78 

.85 

.88 

.88 

.96 

1.05 

1.20 

1.25 

1.18 

1.09 



1913 
1.05 
1.12 
1.22 
1.25 
1.25 
1.25 
1.25 
1.25 
1.22 
1.20 
1.12 
1.07 



1914 



.30 
.05 
.05 
.15 
.15 
.15 
.15 
.17 
.17 
.15 
.10 
.10 



1915 
1.02 
1.02 
1.11 
1.11 
1.11 
1.11 
1.11 
1.11 
1.16 
1.01 
1.26 
1.31 



1916 
1.31 
1.31 
1.36 
1.41 
1.46 
1.41 
1.41 
1.41 
1.46 
1.46 
1.46 
1.56 



1917 



.56 
.56 
.66 
.76 
.76 
.91 
.91 
.91 
.81 
.81 
.81 
.81 



1918 
1.81 
1.81 
1.81 
1.96 
1.96 
1.96 
2.05 
2.05 
2.05 
2.05 
2.05 
2.05 



1919 
2.05 
2.05 
2.05 
2.05 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 



1920 1921 
2.00 2.37 
2.00 2.37 
2.00 2.17 
2.00 2.17 
2.00 2.17 
2.15 2.17 
2.15 2.17 
2.15 2.17 

2.15 

2.35 

2.35 

2.35 



Avg. 



1.11 .91 .97 1.19 1.14 1.12 1.42 1.77 1.97 2.02 2.14 



PRICES AND WAGES 



91 



Table XXXVI. — Vitrified Sewer Tile Prices, 1915-1917, Inclusive 
Prices are taken from Engineering News & Engineering News Record and are in 
dollars per ft. for carload lots, f .o.b. Chicago. 

Avge. 



Size 


Jan. 


Feb. Mar. Apr. 


May 


XVLO 

June July 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


1915 


3'' 


.055 


.055 .055 .055 


.05 


.05 


.05 


.045 


.045 


.045 


.045 


.05 


.05 


4// 


.055 


.055 . 


355 .055 


.05 


.05 


.05 


.045 


.045 


.045 


.045 


.05 


.05 


5" 


.088 


.088 . 


388 .088 


.08 


.08 


.08 


.072 


.072 


.072 


.072 


.08 


.08 


6" 


.088 


.088 . 


088 .088 


.08 


.08 


.08 


.072 


.072 


.072 


.072 


.08 


.08 


8'' 


.126 


.126 . 


126 .126 


.11 


.11 


.11 


.099 


.099 


.099 


.099 


.11 


.112 


10'' 


.184 


.184 . 


184 .184 


.16 


.16 


.16 


.144 


.144 


.144 


.144 


.16 


.163 


12" 


.22 


.22 . 


22 .22 


.20 


.20 


.20 


.18 


.18 


.18 


.18 


.20 


.20 


15'' 


.297 


.297 . 


297 .297 


.27 


.27 


.27 


.243 


.243 


.243 


.243 


.27 


.270 


18" 


.418 


.418 . 


il8 .418 


.38 


.38 


.38 


.342 


.342 


.342 


.342 


.38 


.380 


20" 


.495 


.495 . 


i95 .495 


.45 


.45 


.45 


.405 


.405 


.405 


.405 


.45 


.450 


22" 


.66 


.66 . 


66 .66 


.60 


.60 


.60 


.54 


.54 


.54 


.54 


.60 


.60 


24" 


.715 


.715 . 


715 .715 


.65 


.65 


.65 


.585 


.585 


.585 


.585 


.65 


.65 


27" 


1.35 


1.35 1 


35 1.35 


1.35 


1.35 


1.35 


1.26 


1.26 


1.26 


1.26 


1.35 


1.32 


30" 


1.65 


1.65 1 


65 1.65 


1.65 


1.65 


1.65 


1.54 


1.54 


1.54 


1.54 


1.65 


1.61 


33" 


2.20 


2.20 2 


20 2.20 


2.20 


2.20 


2.20 


2.06 


2.06 


2.06 


2.06 


2.18 


2.15 


36" 


2.45 


2.45 2 


45 2.45 


2.45 


2.45 


2.45 


2.31 


2.31 


2.31 


2.31 


2.45 


2.40 
























Avge. 












— 1916 












price 


Size 


Jan. 


Feb. Mar. Apr. 


May June July Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


1916 


3" 


.045 


.045 . 


. . .055 


.055 


.055 


.055 


.055 


.062 


.062 


.062 


.062 


.056 


4" 


.045 


.045 . 


.. .055 


.055 


.055 


.055 


.055 


.062 


.062 


.062 


.062 


.056 


5" 


.072 


.072 . 


. . .088 


.088 


.088 


.088 


.088 


.10 


.10 


.10 


.10 


.089 


6" 


.072 


.072 . 


.. .088 


.088 


.088 


.088 


.088 


.10 


.10 


.10 


.10 


.089 


8" 


.099 


.099 . 


.. .121 


.121 


.121 


.121 


.121 


.138 


.138 


.138 


.138 


.123 


10" 


.144 


.144 . 


.. .173 


.173 


.173 


.173 


.173 


.20 


.20 


.20 


.20 


.177 


12" 


.18 


.18 . 


.. .22 


.22 


.22 


.22 


.22 


.25 


.25 


.25 


.25 


.22 


15" 


.243 


.243 . 


.. .297 


.297 


.297 


.297 


.297 


.338 


.338 


.338 


.338 


.302 


18" 


.342 


.342 . 


.. .418 


.418 


.418 


.418 


.418 


.438 


.475 


.475 


.475 


.422 


20" 


.405 


.405 . 


.. .495 


.495 


.495 


.495 


.495 


.562 


.562 


.562 


.562 


.503 


22" 


.54 


.54 .. 


. .66 


.66 


.66 


.66 


.66 


.75 


.75 


.75 


.75 


.67 


24" 


.585 


.585 . 


.. .715 


.715 


.715 


.715 


.715 


.812 


.812 


.812 


.812 


.727 


27" 


1.50 


1.50 . 


.. 1.44 


1.44 


1.44 


1.44 


1.44 


1.35 


1.35 






1.43 


30" 


1.75 


1.75 . 


.. 1.76 


1.76 


1.76 


1.76 


1.76 


1.65 


1.65 






1.73 


33" 


2.15 


2.15 . 


.. 2.31 


2.31 


2.31 


2.31 


2.31 


2.19 


2.19 






2.25 


36" 


2.25 


2.25 . 


.. 2.73 


2.73 


2.73 


2.73 


2.73 


2.45 


2.45 






2.56 
























Avge. 












— 1917 












price 


Size 


Jan. 


Feb. M 


ar. Apr. 


May 


June 


July Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


1917 


3" 


.075 


.075 .( 


375 .075 


.075 


.075 




.09 


.09 


.09 


.09 


.09 


.082 


4" 






.. .075 


.075 
.12 


.075 
.12 




.10 
.135 


.10 
.135 


.10 
.135 


.10 
.135 


.10 
.135 


.090 


5" 


;i2* 


;i2* ; 


12 .12 


.127 


6" 






. . .12 


.12 
.175 


.12 
.175 




.15 
.21 


.15 
.21 


.15 
.21 


.15 
.21 


.15 
.21 


. 14 


8" 


;i75 


;i75 ; 


175 .175 


.191 


10" 






. . 262 


.262 
.338 


.262 
.338 




.315 
.405 


.315 
.405 


.315 
.405 


.315 
.405 


.315 
.405 


295 


12" 


[338 


!338 ! 


338 .338 


.368 


15" 






. .45 
. . . 625 


.45 

.625 

.75 


.45 
.625 

.75 




.54 
.75 
.90 


.54 
.75 
.90 


.54 
.75 
.90 


.54 
.75 
.90 


.54 
.75 
.90 


. 50 


18" 






.703 


20" 






.. .75 


.84 


22" 






.. 1.00 


1.00 


1.00 




1.20 


1.20 


1.20 


1.20 


1.20 


1.12 


24" 
27" 
30" 


i.35 


i!35 i 


35 1.12 


1.12 


1.12 




1.35 


1.35 


1.35 


1.35 


1.35 


1.29 


33" 
36" 


3:56 


3." 50 3 


50 .*.■.■.* 


















3; 50 



92 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table XXXVI. — Continued 



1918 

Size Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. 

3" .09 .09 .09 .09 .09 .10 .10 .125 .125 

4" .10 .10 .10 .10 .10 .10 .10 .125 .125 

5" .135 .135 .135 .135 .135 .15 .15 .175 .175 

6" .15 .15 .15 .15 .15 .15 .15 .175 .175 

8" .21 .21 .21 .21 .21 .21 .21 .25 .25 

10" .315 .315 .315 .315 .315 .315 .315 .375 .375 

12" .405 .405 .405 .405 .405 .405 .405 .475 .475 

15" .54 .54 .54 .54 .54 .54 .54 .63 .63 

18" .75 .75 .75 .75 .75 .875 .875 1.00 1.00 

20" .90 .90 .90 .90 .90 1.05 1.05 1.20 1.20 

22" 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.40 1.40 1.60 1.60 

24" 1.35 1.35 1.35 1.35 1.35 1.58 1.58 1.80 1.80 

27" 2.25 2.25 2.75 2.75 

30" 2.75 2.75 3.45 3.45 

33" 3.25 3.25 4.00 4.00 

36" 3.75 3.75 4.35 4.35 



Avge. 

price 

Oct. Nov. Dec. 1918 



.125 

.125 

.175 

.175 

.25 

.375 

.475 

.63 

1.00 

1.20 

1.60 

1.80 

2.75 

3.45 

4.00 

4.35 



.125 .125 
.125 .125 
.175 .175 
.175 .175 
.25 .25 
.375 .375 
.475 .475 
.63 .63 
1.00 1.00 
1.20 1.20 
1.60 1.60 
1.80 1.80 
2.75 2.75 
3.45 3.45 
4.00 4.00 
4.35 4.35 



.106 

.11 

.154 

.160 

.23 

.34 

.43 

.57 

.875 

.105 

1.40 

1.58 

2.60 

3.25 

3.78 

4.18 





1010 








A.vge. 












price 


Size 


Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. 


Sept. Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


1919 


3" 


.125 .125 .125 .125 .125 .09 .09 .09 


. 09 . 105 


.12 


.12 


.111 


4" 


.125 .125 .125 .125 .125 .09 .09 .09 


. 09 . 105 


.12 


.12 


.111 


5" 


. 175 . 175 . 175 . 175 . 175 . 135 . 135 . 135 


.135 .158 


.18 


.18 


.161 


6" 


.175 .175 .175 .175 .175 .135 .135 .135 


.135 .158 


.18 


.18 


.161 


8" 


.25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .21 .21 .21 


. 21 . 245 


.28 


.28 


.241 


10" 


.375 .375 .375 .375 .375 .315 .315 .315 


.315 .368 


.42 


.42 


.362 


12" 


.475 .475 .475 .475 .475 .405 .405 .405 


.405 .472 


.54 


.54 


.462 


15" 


.63 .63 .63 .63 .63 .54 .54 .54 


.54 .63 


.72 


.72 


.615 


18" 


1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 .875 .875 .875 


.875 1.00 


.875 


.875 


.938 


20" 


1.20 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.05 1.05 1.05 


1.05 1.20 


1.05 


1.05 


1.12 


22" 


1.60 1.60 1.60 1,60 1.60 1.40 1.40 1.40 


1.40 1.60 


1.40 


1.40 


1.50 


24" 


1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 


1.80 1.80 


1.80 


1.80 


1.80 


27" 


2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 


2.75 2.75 


2.75 


2.75 


2.75 


30" 


3.45 3.45 3.45 3.45 3.45 3.45 3.45 3.45 


3.45 3.45 


3.45 


3.45 


3.45 


33" 


4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 


4.00 4.00 


4.00 


4.00 4.00 


36" 


4.35 4.35 4.35 4.35 4.35 4.35 4.35 4.35 


4.35 4.35 


4.35 


4.35 


4.35 















Avge. 








1920 






price 


Size 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. Dec. 1920 


3" 


.12 


.135 


.15 .15 .15 .15 .15 .15 


.15 


.15 


.15 .15 .146 


4" 


.12 


.135 


.15 .15 .15 .15 .15 .15 


.15 


.15 


.15 .15 .146 


5" 


.18 


.202 


.225 .225 .225 .225 .225 .225 


.225 


.225 


.225 .225 .219 


6" 


.18 


.202 


.225 .225 .225 .225 .225 .225 


.225 


.225 


.225 .225 .219 


8" 


.28 


.315 


.35 .35 .35 .35 .35 .35 


.35 


.35 


.35 .35 . 341 


10" 


.42 


.472 


.525 .525 .525 .525 .525 .525 


.525 


.525 


.525 .525 .512 


12" 


.54 


.608 


.625 .625 .625 .625 .625 .625 


.625 


.625 


.625 .625 .617 


15" 


.72 


.81 


.90 .90 .90 .90 .90 .90 


.90 


.90 


.90 . 90 . . 89 


18" 


.875 


1.22 


1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 


1.25 


1.25 


1.25 1.25 1.21 


20" 


1.05 


1.35 


1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 


1.50 


1.50 


1.50 1.50 1.45 


22" 


1.40 


1.80 


2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 


2.00 


2.00 


2.00 2.00 2.27 


24" 


1.80 


1.92 


2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 


2.25 


2.25 


2.25 2.25 2.18 


27" 


2.75 


3.25 


3.50 3.50 3.50 3.50 3.50 3.50 


3.50 


3.50 


3.50 3.50 3.42 


30" 


3.45 


3.75 


4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 


4.00 


4.00 


4.00 4.00 3.39 


33" 


4.00 


4.50 


4.75 4.75 4.75 4.75 4.75 4.75 


4.75 


4.75 


4.75 4.75 4.67 


36" 


4.35 


5.10 


5.50 5.50 5.50 5.50 5.50 5.50 


5.50 


5.50 


5.50 5.50 5.37 



PRICES AND WAGES 



93 



Table XXXVI. — Continued 



8ize 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May 


June 


July 


Aug. 


3" 


15 


.15 


.15 


.15 


.15 


.135 


.135 


.135 


4" 


15 


.15 


.15 


.15 


.15 


.135 


.135 


.135 


5" 


225 


.225 


.225 


.225 


.25 


.202 


.202 


.202 


6" 


225 


.225 


.225 


.225 


.225 


.202 


.202 


.202 


8'' 


35 


.35 


.35 


.35 


.35 


.315 


.315 


.315 


10" 


525 


.525 


.525 


.525 


.525 


.472 


.472 


.472 


12" 


625 


.625 


.625 


.625 


.625 


.606 


.606 


.607 


15" 


90 


.90 


.90 


.90 


.90 


.81 


.81 


.81 


18" 


1.25 


1.25 


1.25 


1.25 


1.25 


1.12 


1.12 


1.12 


20" 


1 . 50 


1.50 


1.50 


1.50 


1.50 


1.35 


1.35 


1.35 


22" 


2.00 


2.00 


2.00 


2.00 


2.00 


1.80 


1.80 


1.80 


24" 


2.25 


2.25 


2.25 


2.25 


2.25 


2.02 


2.02 


2.02 


27" 


3. 50 


4.50 


4.50 


4.50 


4.50 


3.75 


3.75 


3.75 


30" 


4.00 


5.50 


5.50 


5.50 


5.50 


4.75 


4.75 


4.75 


33" 


4.75 


6.75 


6.75 


6.75 


6.75 


5.50 


5.50 


5.50 


36"... 


5. 50 


7.00 


7.00 


7.00 


7.00 


6.00 


6.00 


6.00 



Copper, Spelter, Lead, Tin and Sheet Steel Prices. — Tables XXXVII to 
XLIII, inc. are given in the Annual Review Section of The Iron Age, Jan. 6, 
1921. The prices are the computed monthly averages of the prices of car- 
loads, at New York, for metals and at Pittsburgh for tin plate and No. 28 
galvanized and black sheets, given in the metal market reports of the Iron 
Age week by week. 



94 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table ^XXVII. — Lake Copper, 



1900 1901 1902 1903 

Jan 16.21 16.90 11.45 12.13 

Feb 16.25 16.97 12.47 12.80 

March... 16.41 17.00 12.12 14.31 

April 17.00 17.00 11.97 14.85 

May 16.80 17.00 12.10 14.75 

June 16.31 17.00 12.23 14.56 

July 16.31 16.97 11.94 13.73 

Aug 16.55 16.50 11.59 13.35 

Sept 16.75 16.50 11.60 13.58 

Oct 16.73 16.71 11.71 13.42 

Nov 16.75 16.82 11.44 13.25 

Dec 16.87 14.71 11.61 12.30 



1904 

12.62 

12.34 

12.60 

13.19 

13.28 

12.74 

12.62 

12.50 

12,67 

13.09 

14.22 

14.87 



1905 

15.18 

15.25 

15.25 

15.18 

15.00 

15.00 

15.03 

16.07 

16.12 

16.62 

16.90 

18.75 



1906 

18. 78 
17.94 
18.50 
18.62 
18.70 
18.69 
18.47 
18.65 
19.31 
21.81 
22 50 
23.06 



1907 

24.41 

25.10 

23.38 

24.62 

24.10 

23.94 

21.95 

18.94 

16.41 

13.80 

13.94 

13.48 



1908 
13.90 
13. 13 
12.85 

13 09 
12.88 
13.00 
13.00 
13.71 
13.80 
13.81 

14 44 
14.53 



1909 

14.56 

13.37 

12.90 

12.94 

13.21 

13.50 

13.34 

13.56 

13.50 

13.19 

13.44 

13.80 



Table XXXVIII— Spelter, at 



1900 

Jan 4 . ^5 

Feb 4.69 

March 4.60 

April 4.71 

May 4.52 

June 4.27 

July 4.24 

Aug 4.17 

Sept 4.10 

Oct 4.10 

Nov 4.20 

Dec...'.... 4.19 



1901 
4.08 
3.94 
3.89 
3.94 
3.97 
3.95 
3.90 
3.92 
4.02 
4.20 
4.32 
4.35 



1902 



.28 
.18 
.29 
.41 
.50 



4. 

4. 

4. 

4. 

4. 

4. 

5.23 

5.46 

5.45 

5.48 

5.29 

4.91 



1903 
4.82 
5.00 
5.36 
5.65 
5.75 
6.00 
5.95 
5.94 



1904 
4.95 
4.95 
5.05 
5.22 
5.14 
4.79 



1905 
6.17 
6.12 
6.06 
5.97 
5.55 
5.32 
5.38 
5.66 
5.83 
6.05 
6.17 
6 50 



1906 
6.48 
6.09 
5.96 
6.05 
5.95 
6.14 
5.98 
6.06 
6.19 
6.18 
6.36 
6 62 



1907 
6.90 
7.00 
6.92 
6.81 
6.51 
6.45 
6.15 
5.71 
5.28 
5.45 
5.10 
4 39 



1908 
4.54 
4.78 
4.76 
4.68 
4.60 
4.56 
4.46 
4.71 
4.76 
4.81 
5.03 
5.17 



1909 
5.15 



99 

.81 

94 

.12 

39 

.35 

5.74 

5 85 

6.09 

6.32 

6.35 



Table XXXIX.— Lead, at 



1900 

Jan 4.70 

Feb 4.70 

March 4.70 

April 4.70 

May 4.22 

June 3.90 

July 4.03 

Aug 4.26 

Sept 4.36 

Oct 4.37 

Nov 4.37 

Dec 4.37 



1901 1902 



37 
37 
37 
37 
37 
37 
37 
37 
37 
37 
37 



4.19 



4.02 
4.10 
4.10 
4.10 
4.10 
4.10 
4.10 
4M0 
4.10 
4.10 
4.10 
4.10 



1903 
4.10 
4.10 
4.44 
4.59 
4.37 
4.25 
4.12 
4.12 
4.26 
4.40 
4.25 
4.19 



1904 1905 



4.39 
4.40 
4.50 
4.50 

4.48 



22 
17 
15 
20 
20 



4.51 
4.60 



4.56 
4.50 
4.45 
4 50 
4.50 
4.51 
4.56 
4.64 
4.85 
5.07 
5.48 
5.96 



1906 
5.86 
5.56 
5.35 
5.39 
5.90 
5.94 
5 80 
5.78 
5.92 
5.94 
5.97 
6.19 



1907 
6.30 
6.31 
6.31 
6. 16 
6.02 
5,75 
5.24 
5.12 
4.84 
4.64 
4.45 
3.76 



1808 

3 73 
3.75 
3.88 
4.02 
4.26 
4,45 

4 50 
4.59 
4.54 
4.34 
4.39 
4.24 



1909 
4.19 
4.07 
4.02 
4.19 
4.32 
4.36 
4.35 
4.36 
4.39 
4.39 
4.40 
4.56 



Table XL.— Tin, at New 



1900 

Jan 26.00 

Feb 29.71 

March 32.42 

April 30.85 

May 29.25 

June 30.00 

July 32.76 

Aug 31.13 

Sept 29.63 

Oct 28.46 

Nov 28.10 

Dec 26.84 



1901 

26.60 

26.55 

25.95 

25.94 

26.82 

28.22 

27.41 

26.90 

25.04 

24.62 

27.47 

24.39 



1902 

23.38 

24.73 

26.16 

27.29 

29.26 

29.29 

28.28 

28.14 

26.55 

25.76 

25.43 

25.33 



1903 

27.76 

29.14 

30.06 

29.69 

39.26 

28.30 

27.60 

28.00 

27.06 

25.83 

25.35 

27.53 



1904 

28.75 

27.98 

26.19 

27.99 

27.76 

26.14 

26.28 

26.74 

27.27 

28.53 

29.00 

29.27 



1905 

29.18 

29.49 

29.21 

30.43 

30.04 

30.36 

31.71 

32.85 

32.21 

32.47 

33.46 

35.84 



1906 

36.36 

36.48 

36.62 

38.86 

43.08 

38.97 

37.18 

39.90 

40.32 

42.90 

42.70 

42.62 



1907 

42. 14 

42.16 

41.29 

40.84 

43.01 

42.65 

41.15 

37.35 

37.22 

32.33 

30.81 

27.92 



1908 

27.43 

28.74 

30.46 

31.79 

29.84 

28.18 

28.92 

29.99 

28.91 

29.44 

30.43 

29.13 



1909 

28.19 

28.44 

28.75 

29.35 

29.07 

29.26 

29.05 

29.96 

30.00 

30.41 

30.74 

32.91 



PRICES AND WAGES 95 

AT New York, Cents per Pound 
1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 

14.00 12.81 14.50 16.-98 14.85 14.02 24.39 29.73 23.50 20.48 19.52 

13.78 12.75 14.41 15.55 15.00 15.21 26.85 34.90 23.50 17.86 19. 25H 

13.75 12.58 14.88 15.05 14.79 15.75 27.10 35.85 23.50 15. 46^ 18.67 

13.31 12.41 16.00 15.67 14.75 18.90 28.27 31.67 23.50 15.55 19.36 

13.06 12.33 16.30 15.91 14.40 21.00 28.88 31.42 23.50 16.18 19.05 

12.88 12.71 17.53 15.42 14.12 23.38 27.82 32.46 23.50 17.95 19.00 

12.66 12.78 17.54 14.78 13.70 21.98 25.84 28.78 25.80 22.07 19.00 

12.93 12.75 17.73 15.86 12.85 19.33 26.95 27.24 26.00 23.16 19.00 

12.81 12.65 17.77 16.77 12.66 17.97 28.03 24.90 26.00 22.68 18.70 

12.84 12.53 17.80 16.85 11.73 17.89 28.48 23.50 26.00 22.13 16.56 

12.98 12.80 17.70 16.16 12.00 18.92 32.32 23.50 26.00 20.69 14.67 

13.00 13.84 17.69 14.88 13.35 20.24 33.38 23.50 25.40 18.90 13.90 



New York, Cents per Pound 
1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 



6.26 


5.55 6.52 


7.15 


5.29 


6.59 18.19 


9.94 7.88 


7.38 


9.62 


5.89 


5.56 6.71 


6.45 


5.40 


8. 84 20. 13 


10.48 7.99 


6.70 


9.14 


5.72 


5.65 6.98 


6.26 


5.28 


9.29 18.40 


10.77 7.64 


6.52 


8.92>^ 


5.60 


5.51 6.86 


5.77 


5.18 


11.22 18.58 


9.85 7.01 


6.51 


8.63 


5.20 


5.50 6.86 


5.47 


5.06 


16.14 15.86 


9.46 7.32 


6.46 


8.08 


5.19 


5.63 6.99 


5.18 


5.09 


22.18 12.75 


9.62 8.01 


6.93 


7.92 


5.20 


5.79 7.26 


5.38 


5.02 


20.58 9.83 


8.95 8.69 


7.90 


8.18 


5.26 


6.04 7.19 


5.75 


5.60 


14.11 8.98 


8.69 8.96 


7.84 


8.31 


5.53 


6.03 7.53 


5.82 


5.50 


14.16 8.22 


8.34 9.60 


7.57 


7.82 


5.69 


6.20 7.57 


5.42 


4.97 


13.96 9.98 


8.24 9.11 


7.83 


7.51 


5.95 


6.60 7.48 


5.29 


5.12 


17.15 11.90 


7.95 8.70 


8.14 


6.84 


5.80 


6.44 7.33 


5. 18 


5.71 


16.69 11.13 


7.84 8.45 


8.59 


6.00 



New York, Cents per Pound 



1910 


1911 1912 


1913 


1914 


1915 


1916 


1917 1918 


1919 


1920 


4.70 


4.50 4.41 


4.35 


4.11 


3.74 


5.93 


7.69 6.87 


5.56 


8.67 


4.63 


4.46 4.00 


4.35 


4.06 


3.82 


6.23 


9.13 7.04 


5.05 


8.88 


4.51 


4.41 4.08 


4.35 


3.97 


4.04 


7.43 


9.47 7.24 


5.23 


9.20K 


4.40 


4.44 4.20 


•4.40 


3.82 


4.20 


7.73 


9.43 6.95 


5.03 


8.95 


4.37 


4.40 4.20 


4.37 


3.90 


4.25 


7.45 


11.00 6.88 


5.05 


8.55 


4.38 


4.46 4.50 


4.35 


3.90 


5.89 


6.87 


11.68 7.55 


5.33K 


8.47>^ 


4.40 


4.50 4.67 


4.37 


3.90 


5.59 


6.34 


10.72 8.04 


5.65 


8.67 


4.40 


4.50 4.54 


4.64 


3.87 


4.68 


6.26 


10.72 8.05 


5.77 


8.98 


4.40 


4.49 5.04 


4.73 


3.86 


4.62 


6.88 


8.84 8.05 


6.12 


8.11 


4.40 


4.31 5.06 


4.52 


3.52 


4.60 


7.00 


6.77 8.05 


6.45 


7.24 


4.44 


4.31 4.66 


4.33 


3.68 


5.16 


7.13 


6.44 8.05 


6.76 


6.33 


4.50 


4.45 4.32 


4.06 


3.80 


5.33 


7.60 


6.48 6.71 


7.03 


4.37 



York, Cents per Pound 

1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 

32.61 41.20 44.58 50.34 39.12 34.13 41.76 44.10 85.13 71.50 62.74 

32.65 43.34 43.56 48.71 39.82 37.25 42.60 51.47 85.00 72.45 59.87 

32.51 41.10 42.76 46.93 38.03 48.73 50.53 58.38 85. 00 72. 50 61. 92>^ 

32.83 42.05 43.64 49.04 36.10 47.64 51.5155.82 88.53 72.50 62.12 

33.05 43.32 45.98 49.06 33.21 38.79 49.14 63.21 100.00 72.50 54.99 

32.79 46.25 47.44 45.0130.60 40.26 42.07 61.93 91. 00 71. 83 48. 33>^ 

32.99 43.23 44.70 41.32 35.65 37.38 38.25 62.61 93.00 70.11 49.29 

33.92 43.38 45.86 41.63 48.34 34.37 38.88 62.53 91.33 62.20 47.60 

35.17 39.69 49.16 42.63 31.13 33.13 38.65 61.54 80.40 59.79 44.43 

36.76 41.23 50.07 40.38 30.25 33.05 41.10 62.24 78.82 54.82 40.47 

37.38 43.08 49.87 39.75 33.28 39.50 44.12 74.18 73.67 54.17 36.97 

38.21 45.03 49.86 37.12 34.0138.53 42.66 84.74 71.5153.80 34.04 



96 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table XLI.— Tin Plate, at 



1900 

Jan 4. 65 

Feb 4.65 

March 4.65 

April 4.65 

May 4.65 

June 4. 65 

July 4.65 

Aug 4.65 

Sept 4.50 

Oct 4.00 

Nov 4.00 

Dec 4.00 



1901 


1902 


1903 


1904 


1905 


1906 


1907 


1908 


1909 


4.00 


4.00 


3.60 


3.56 


3.55 


3.47 


3.90 


3.74 


3.70 


4.00 


4.00 


3.60 


3.45 


3.55 


3.50 


3.90 


3.70 


3.70 


4.00 


4.00 


3.80 


3.45 


3.55 


3.50 


3.90 


3.70 


3.53 


4.00 


4.00 


3.80 


3.45 


3.55 


3.57 


3.90 


3.70 


3.40 


4.00 


4.00 


3.80 


3.45 


3.55 


3.66 


3.90 


3.70 


3.40 


4.00 


4.00 


3.80 


3.45 


3.55 


3.75 


3.90 


3.70 


3.40 


4.00 


4.00 


3.80 


3.41 


3.55 


3.75 


3.90 


3.70 


3.40 


4.00 


4.00 


3.80 


3.30 


3.55 


3.75 


3.90 


3.70 


3.40 


4.00 


4.00 


3.80 


3.30 


3.55 


3.75 


3.90 


3.70 


3.40 


4.00 


4.00 


3.80 


3.30 


3.34 


3.75 


3.90 


3.70 


3.50 


4.00 


3.65 


3.50 


3.39 


3.34 


3.90 


3.90 


3.70 


3.56 


4.00 


3.60 


3.60 


3.47 


3.40 


3.90 


3.90 


3.70 


3.60 



Table XLII. — No. 28 Black Sheets, 



1900 

Jan 2.97>^ 

Feb 3.03 

March. ... 3. 10 

April 3.20 

May 3.20 

June 3.05 

July 3.14% 

Aug 2.98 

Sept 2.93% 

Oct 2.90 

Nov 2.89 

Dec 2.96 



1901 
2.90 
2.93% 
3.22>^ 
3.35 
3.30 
3.30 
3.10 
3.41 
3. 773-^ 
3.23 
3.10 
3.10 



1902 

3.073^^ 

3.10 

3. 10 

3.123^ 

3.10 

3.05 

3.00 

3.05 

2.973^ 

2.79 

2.75 

2.75 



1903 
2.75 
2.75 
2.75 
2.75 
2.75 
2.75 
2.73% 
2.70 
2.65 
2.62 
2.49 
2.32 



1904 
2.29 
2.273-^ 
2.27 
2.25 
2.20 
2.16 
2.10 
2.10 
2.10 
2.10 
2.123^ 
2.22 



1905 
2.30 
2.30 
2.34 
2.40 
2.40 
2.30 
2.26 
2.26 
2.25 
2.25 
2.27 
2.30 



1906 1907 
2.40 2.60 
2.40 2.60 
38 2.60 
35 2.60 
35 2.60 
50 2.60 
50 2.60 
50 2.60 
50 2.60 
50 2.60 
60 2.60 
60 2.60 



1908 1909 
2.52 2.50 
2.50 2.50 
2.50 2.25 
2.50 2.20 
2. 50 2. 20 



2.50 



20 
20 
20 
26 
30 
30 
40 



Table XLIII. — Average Prices of No. 28 Galvanized 



1900 

Jan.... ... 3.83 

Feb 4.09 

March 4.32 

April 4.78 

May 4.66 

June 4 . 59 

July 4.53 

Aug 4.43 

Sept 4.33 

Oct 4.25 

Nov 4.16 

Dec 4.36 



1901 
4.36 
4.36 
4.84 
4.84 
4.74 
4.59 
4.48 
4.74 
4.73 
4.55 
4.84 
4.84 



1902 
4.64 
4.36 
4.36 
4.36 
4.36 
4.23 
4.26 
4.18 
3.99 
3.87 
3.85 
3.78 



1903 
3.70 
3.70 
3.78 
3.89 
3.88 
3.81 
3.73 
3.66 
3.66 
3.73 
3.51 
3.40 



1904 
3.36 
3.25 
3.23 
3.23 
3.23 
3.18 
3.14 
3.14 
3.14 
3.14 
3.23 
3.31 



1905 
3.35 
3.40 
3.45 
3.45 
3.45 
3.35 
3.36 
3.32 
3.30 
3.30 
3.32 
3.35 



1906 
3.45 
3.45 
43 
40 
40 
55 
55 
55 



3.55 
3.58 
3.65 
3.65 



1907 
3.67 
3.75 
3.75 
3.75 
3.75 
3.75 
3.75 
3.75 
3.75 
3.75 
3.75 
3.75 



1908 
3.59 
3.55 
3.55 
3.55 
3.55 
3.55 
3.55 
3.55 
3.55 
3.55 
3.55 
3.55 



1909 
3.55 
3.51 
3.26 
3.25 
3.25 
3.25 
3.25 
3.25 
3.28 
3.35 
3.43 
3.50 



The highest prices realized for galvanized sheets, aside from the war peak, 
in 1917, were obtained in April, 1916, following the spectacular performances 
of spelter, when prices of that metal soared to an unprecedented height. At 
that time. No. 28 galvanized sheets sold up to 5.30c. per lb., Pittsburgh, or 
higher, although the average for the month is placed, in the table, at 5c. It 
is interesting to know that in 1901, in a period of great activity in the steel 
trade. No. 28 galvanized sheets were regularly quoted at 5.10c., Pittsburgh, for 
two weeks, namely, the first half of September. " 

In making up the above table of prices the compiler has used for January, 



PRICES AND WAGES 



97 



Pittsburgh, Dollars per Box 



1910 


1911 


1912 


1913 


1914 


1915 


1916 


1917 


1918 


1919 


1920 


3.60 


3.60 


3.40 


3.60 


3.32 


3.10 


3.75 


7.00 


7.75 


7.35 


7.00 


3.60 


3.67 


3.35 


3.60 


2.29 


3.10 


3.96 


7.38 


7.75 


7.35 


7.00 


3.60 


3.70 


3.30 


3.60 


3.30 


3.25 


4.19 


8.00 


7.75 


7.26 


7.00 


3.60 


3.70 


3.30 


3.60 


3.30 


3.25 


4.50 


8.00 


7.75 


7.00 


7.00 


3.60 


3.70 


3.33 


3.60 


3.30 


3.15 


5.30 


8.40 


7.75 


7.00 


7.00 


3.60 


3.70 


3.40 


3.60 


3.30 


3.11 


5.81 


10.50 


7.75 


7.00 


7.00 


3.60 


3.70 


3.43 


3.60 


3.27 


3.10 


6.00 


12.00 


7.75 


7.00 


7.50 


3.60 


3.70 


3.50 


3.55 


3.41 


3.10 


5.95 


11.40 


7.75 


7.00 


9.00 


3.60 


3.67 


3.58 


3.50 


3.35 


3.15 


5.75 


12.00 


7.75 


7.00 


9.00 


3.60 


3.52 


3.60 


3.50 


3.24 


3.15 


5.81 




7.75 


7.00 


8.33 


3.60 


3.40 


3.60 


3.40 


3.15 


3.28 


5.97 


'7; 75 


7.75 


7.00 


7.50 


3.60 


3.40 


3.60 


3.40 


3.13 


3.52 


6.63 


7.75 


7.55 


7.00 


7.00 



AT Pittsburgh, Cents per Pound 



1910 


1911 


1912 


1913 


1914 


1915 


1916 


1917 


1918 


1919 


1920 


2.40 


2.20 


1.90 


2.31 


1.87 


1.80 


2.60 


4.50 


5.00 


4.70 


4.47H 


2.40 


2.20 


1.87 


2.35 


1.95 


1.80 


2.60 


4.69 


5.00 


4.70 


5.00 


2.40 


2.20 


1.80 


2.35 


1.95 


1.80 


2.71 


4.94 


5.00 


4.61 


5.50 


2.40 


2.20 


1.86 


2.35 


1.91 


1.80 


2.85 


5.75 


5.00 


4.35 


5.50 


2.40 


2.20 


1.90 


2.30 


1.85 


1.79 


2.89 


7.00 


5.00 


4.35 


5.50 


2.40 


2.00 


1.90 


2.27 


1.81 


1.75 


2.90 


7.88 


5.00 


4.35 


5.50 


2. 2334 


2.00 


1.95 


2.25 


1.80 


1.75 


2.90 


8.50 


5.00 


4.35 


6.75 


2.21 


1.99 


2.02 


2.21 


1.86 


1.85 


2.90 


8.50 


5.00 


4.35 


7.50 


2.15 


1.91 


2.07 


2.14 


1.95 


1.90 


2.93 


8.50 


5.00 


4.35 


7.37H 


2.20 


1.85 


2.21 


2.04 


1.94 


2.03 


3.23 




5.05 


4.35 


6.69 


2.20 


1.85 


2.25 


1.97 


1.87 


2.25 


3.65 


5.66* 


5.00 


4.35 


5.77 


2.19 


1.83^^ 


2.25 


1.89 


1.82 


2.50 


4.31 


5.00 


4.85 


4.35 


4.35 



Sheets, at Pittsburgh in Cents per Pound 



1910 


1911 


1912 


1913 


1914 


1915 


1916 


1917 


1918 


1919 


1920 


3.50 


3.20 


2.90 


3.46 


2.87 


2.79 


4.75 


6.25 


6.25 


6.05 


5. 323.^ 


3.50 


3.20 


2.87 


3.50 


2.95 


3.16 


4.75 


6.38 


6.25 


6.05 


6,50 


3.50 


3.20 


2.80 


3.50 


2.95 


3.40 


4.75 


6.69 


6.25 


5.96 


7.00 


3.50 


3.20 


2.86 


3.50 


2.91 


3.29 


5.00 


7.00 


6.25 


5.70 


7.00 


3.50 


3.20 


2.90 


3.42 


2.80 


3.50 


4.94 


8.20 


6.25 


5.70 


7.00 


3.50 


3.00 


2.90 


3.38 


2.75 


4.28 


4.69 


9.50 


6.25 


5.70 


7.00 


3.39 


3.00 


3.00 


3.33 


2.75 


4.40 


4.38 


10.00 


6.25 


5.70 


8.25 


3.30 


2.99 


3.12 


3.24 


2.85 


3.71 


4.21 


10.00 


6.25 


5.70 


9.00 


3.21 


2.93 


3.21 


3.16 


2.95 


3.56 


4.18 


9.75 


6.25 


5.70 


8.87>^ 


3.20 


2.85 


3.36 


3.08 


2.95 


3.50 


4.41 




6.25 


5.70 


8.81 


3.20 


2.85 


3.40 


2.98 


2.88 


3.89 


5.18 


*6:25 


6.25 


5.70 


7.04 


3.19 


2.89 


3.40 


2.90 


2.78 


4.75 


6.00 


6.25 


6.15 


5.70 


5.70 



February and March, 1919, up to March 21, the prices in effect to the latter 
date, and then used the 5.70c. price in effect all through the year from March 
21. Premiums were paid during late November and all of December, but 
premiums have not been recorded above, as a large percentage of the sheets 
sold in 1919 were at the prices named in the table. 

Pig Iron Steel, and Rail Prices for Twenty-one Years. — Tables XLIV to 
LV, inc., published in the Annual Review Section of the Iron Age, Jan. 6, 
1921, give the monthly average prices computed from the weekly market 
quotations of the Iron Age. 
7 



98 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table XLIV. — Bessemer Pig Iron at Pitts- 

1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 

Jan $24.99 $13.15 $16.70 $22.15 $13.91 $16.85 $18.35 $23.15 $19.00 $17.34 

Feb 24.80 14.43 16.93 21.45 13.66 16.41 18.35 22.85 17.90 16.78 

March 24.72 16.31 17.37 21.85 14.25 16.35 18.28 22.85 17.86 16.25 

April 24.70 16.75 18.75 21.28 14.18 16.35 18.19 23.35 17.49 15.78 

May 21.00 16.30 20.75 20.01 13.60 16.16 18.10 24.01 16.93 15.84 

June 19.72 16.00 21.56 19.72 12.81 16.65 18.23 24.27 16.90 16.05 

July 16.75 16.00 21.60 18.89 12.40 14.85 18.41 23.55 16.83 16.46 

Aug 15.60 15.75 21.62 18.35 12.81 15.20 19.00 22.90 16.23 17.03 

Sept 13.87 15.75 21.75 17.22 12.63 15.91 19.54 22.90 15.90 18.05 

Oct 13.06 15.89 21.75 16.05 13.10 16.54 20.35 22.00 15.71 19.53 

Nov 13.48 16.00 21.68 15.18 14.85 17.85 22.85 20.65 16.59 19.90 

Dec 13.43 16.31 21.75 14.40 16.65 18.35 23.75 19.34 17.40 19.90 



Table XLV. — Bessemer Steel Billets at 

1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 

Jan $34.50 $19.75 $27.50 $29.60 $23.00 $22.75 $26.25 $29.40 $28.00 $25.00 

Feb 34.87 20.21 29.37 29.87 23.00 23.50 26.50 29.50 28.00 25.00 

March 33.00 22.88 31.25 30.62 23.00 24.00 26.70 29.00 28.00 23.00 

April 32.00 24.00 31.50 30.25 23.00 24.00 27.00 30.12 28.00 23.00 

May 28.90 24.00 32.20 30.37 23.00 23.50 26.40 30.30 28.00 23.00 

June 27.25 24.38 32.37 28.87 23.00 22.00 26.63 29.62 25.75 23.00 

July 21.00 24.00 31.75 27.60 23.00 22.00 27.25 30.00 25.00 23.50 

Aug 18.20 24.20 31.06 27.00 23.00 24.00 27.80 29.25 25.00 24.13 

Sept 16.93 24.88 29.50 27.00 20.00 25.00 28.00 29.37 25.00 25.00 

Oct 16.50 26.70 29.70 27.00 19.50 25.62 28.00 28.20 25.00 26.25 

Nov 18.95 27.00 28.50 24.00 20.25 26.00 28.88 28.00 25.00 27.13 

Dec 19.75 27.50 29.12 23.00 21.20 26.00 29.50 28.00 25.00 27.50 



Table XLVI. — Southern No. 2 Foundry Pig 

1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 

Jan $20.69 $13.45 $14.55 $21.65 $12.37 $16.25 $16.75 $26.00 $16.15 $16.25 

Feb 20.50 13.12 14.75 21.50 12.12 16.25 16.75 26.00 15.75 16.13 

March 20.30 14.00 14.75 21.37 12.10 16.25 16.65 26.00 15.50 15.05 

April 20.19 14.50 16.87 20.15 12.50 16.25 16.63 25.06 15.20 14.25 

May 19.75 13.85 18.35 18.87 12.25 15.81 16.75 24.25 14.75 14.50 

June 18.75 13.37 20.19 17.75 11.80 14.65 16.44 24.10 15.25 14.70 

July 16.81 13.00 20.75 16.15 11.81 13.94 16.06 23.85 15.00 15.75 

Aug 14.25 13.00 23.06 15.19 12.00 14.40 17.30 23.00 15.25 16.38 

Sept 13.62 13.06 25.00 14.75 12.00 14.37 18.69 21.50 15.65 17.35 

Oct 12.87 13.75 25.65 13.50 12.81 15.^1 20.00 20.95 15.75 17.88 

Nov 12.95 14.00 23.62 12.00 15.19 16.60 23.38 19.50 16.00 17.75 

Dec 13.75 14.25 22.44 12.05 15.85 16.75 25.00 17.00 16.25 17.45 



Table XLVII. — Local No. 2 Foundry Pig Iron at 

1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 

Jan $23.85 $15.10 $16.25 $23.45 $14.47 $17.85 $19.60 $25.85 $18.45 $17.35 

Feb 23.85 14.60 16.85 23.35 13.91 17.85 19.41 25.85 18.16 16.75 

March 23.85 15.60 18.51 23.22 14.05 17.80 19.35 26.10 17.85 16.50 

April 23.72 15.85 18.97 22.87 14.35 17.60 19.10 26.35 17.73 16.50 

May.... 22.65 15.85 20.85 20.72 13.85 17.60 18.90 26.85 17.63 16.50 

June 20.72 15.35 21.85 19.85 13.70 17.00 18.54 26.60 17.73 16.50 

July 18.60 15.35 21.60 18.25 13.60 16.47 18.60 25.55 17.55 17.00 

Aug 16.25 15.35 22.10 17.22 13.60 16.60 19.45 24.85 17.35 17.13 

Sept 15.35 15.35 23.35 16.41 13.85 16.60 20.16 24.10 17.05 18.70 

Oct 14.85 15.10 23.35 15.70 14.10 17.66 21.48 22.45 16.85 19.00 

Nov 14.85 15.23 23.35 15.10 15.98 19.15 24.70 20.66 17.10 19.00 

Dec 15.10 15.85 23.35 14.81 16.95 19.60 25.85 18.80 17.35 19.00 



PRICES AND WAGES 



99 



BURGH, Dollars per Gross Ton (2240 Lb.) 



1910 
$19.90 
19.34 
18.60 
18.27 
17.52 
16.60 
16.40 
16.09 
15.90 
15.90 
15.82 
15.90 



1911 
$15.90 
15.90 
15.90 
15.90 
15.90 
15.90 
15.90 
15.90 
15.90 
15.44 
15.00 
15.03 



1912 
$15.05 
14.90 
15.09 
15.15 
15.13 
15.15 
15.20 
15.46 
16.15 
17.80 
18.02 
18.15 



1913 

$18.15 
18.15 
18.15 
17.90 
17.70 
17.14 
16.70 
16.52 
16.65 
16.60 
16.02 
15.77 



1914 
$14.96 
15.09 
15.09 
14.90 
14.90 
14.90 
14.90 
14.90 
14.90 
14.84 
14.59 
14.70 



1915 
$14.59 
14.55 
14.55 
14.55 
14.59 
14.70 
14.95 
15.95 
16.85 
16.95 
17.51 
19.65 



1916 
$21.58 
21.51 
21.75 
21.95 
21.95 
21.95 
21.95 
21.95 
22.26 
24.08 
30.15 
35.68 



1917 
$35.95 
35.95 
37.70 
42.20 
45.15 
54.70 
57.45 
54.75 
48.03 
37.25 
37.25 
37.25 



1918 
$37.25 
37.25 
37.25 
36.15 
36.15 
36.38 
36.60 
36.60 
36.60 
36.60 
36.60 
36.60 



1919 
$33.60 
33.60 
32.54 
29.35 
29.35 
29.35 
29.35 
29.35 
29.35 
29.35 
31.26 
36.65 



1920 
$40.00 
42.90 
43.40 
43.60 
44.03 
44.80 
47.15 
49.11 
50.46 
49.16 
41.10 
36.96 



Pittsburgh, Dollars per Gross Ton 



1910 


1911 


1912 


1913 


1914 


1915 


1916 


1917 


1918 


1919 


1920 


127.50 


$23.00 $20.00 $28.30 $20.13 


$19.25 


$32.00 


$63.00 


$47.50 


$43.50 


$48.00 


27.50 


23.00 


20.00 


28.50 


21.00 


19.50 


33.50 


65.00 


47.50 


43.50 


55.25 


27.50 


23.00 


19.75 


28.50 


21.00 


19.70 


42.40 


66.25 


47.50 


42.25 


60.00 


26.75 


23.00 


20.00 


28.50 


20.80 


20.00 


45.00 


73.75 


47.50 


38.50 


60.00 


26.12 


22.60 


20.80 


27.37 


20.00 


20.00 


45.00 


86.00 


47.50 


38.50 


60.00 


25.30 


21.00 


20.87 


26.50 


19.50 


20.50 


43.50 


98.75 


47.50 


38.50 


61.00 


25.00 


21.00 


21.50 


26.60 


19.00 


21.38 


41.00 


100.00 


47.50 


38.50 


62.50 


24.62 


21.00 


22.12 


26.00 


20.25 


23.13 


44.20 


86.00 


47.50 


38.50 


61.00 


24.40 


20.75 


23.62 


24.87 


21.00 


24.10 


45.00 


66.25 


47.50 


38.50 


58.74 


23.75 


20.00 


26.00 


23.30 


20.00 


24.63 


46.25 


49.38 


47.50 


38.50 


55.00 


23.30 


19.50 


27.00 


21.00 


19.25 


26.50 


52.00 


47.50 


47.50 


41*38 


49.70 


23.00 


19.25 


27.00 


20.00 


19.00 


30.60 


57.50 


47.50 


45.50 


46.00 


43.50 



Iron at Cincinnati, Dollars per Gross Ton 



1910 


1911 


1912 


1913 


1914 


1915 


1916 


1917 


1918 


1919 


1920 


$17.25 


$14.25 $13.25 $16.95 $13.88 


$12.40 


$17.90 


$26.10 


$35.90 


$34.60 


$41.80 


17.06 


14.25 


13.31 


16.69 


13.81 


12.40 


17.90 


27.53 


35.90 


34.60 


43.60 


16.30 


14.25 


13.50 


16.31 


14.00 


12.27 


17.90 


31.90 


35.90 


33.54 


43.60 


15.37 


14.25 


13.75 


15.65 


13.75 


12.34 


17.90 


37.40 


35.90 


30.35 


44.00 


15.00 


13.95 


14.15 


14.94 


13.75 


12.40 


17.90 


41.90 


35.90 


29.85 


45.60 


14.85 


13.44 


14.25 


14.06 


13.63 


12.50 


17.34 


45.15 


36.08 


28.39 


45.60 


14.75 


13.25 


14.70 


13.75 


13.30 


12.71 


16.90 


49.90 


36.60 


28.35 


45.60 


14.31 


13.45 


15.06 


14.06 


13.25 


13.71 


16.70 


49.90 


36.60 


30.40 


45.78 


14.25 


13.31 


15.87 


14.25 


13.25 


14.15 


17.28 


49.90 


36.60 


31.25 


46.50 


14.25 


13.25 


16.80 


14.35 


12.90 


14.78 


18.03 


49.38 


37.60 


31.60 


46.50 


14.25 


13.20 


17.25 


13.87 


12.90 


16.15 


22.40 


35.90 


37.60 


34.35 


42.50 


14.25 


13.19 


17.25 


13.95 


12.50 


17.10 


- 25.90 


35.90 


37.60 


38.60 


41.10 



Chicago (at Furnace), Dollars per Gross Ton 



1910 


1911 


1912 


1913 


1914 


1915 


1916 


1917 


1918 


1919 


1920 


$19.00 


$15.50 $14.00 $17.90 $13.75 


$13.00 


$18.50 


$30.00 


$33.00 


$31.00 


$40.00 


19.00 


15.50 


14.00 


17.31 


14.00 


13.00 


18.50 


32.00 


33.00 


31.00 


42.25 


18.30 


15.50 


14.00 


17.25 


14.25 


12.95 


18.70 


36.00 


33.00 


29.94 


43.00 


17.50 


15.00 


14.00 


17.00 


14.25 


13.00 


19.00 


39.25 


33.00 


26.75 


43.00 


17.06 


15.00 


14.50 


16.00 


14.06 


13.00 


19.00 


43.80 


33.00 


26.75 


43.00 


16.75 


15.00 


14.50 


15.62 


13.69 


13.00 


19.00 


51.00 


33.00 


26.75 


43.40 


16.56 


14.87 


14.70 


14.70 


13.75 


13.00 


19.00 


55.00 


33.00 


26.75 


45.25 


16.50 


14.50 


15.37 


15.00 


13.69 


13.44 


18.40 


55.00 


33.00 


26.75 


46.00 


16.40 


14.50 


16.00 


15.00 


13.25 


13.90 


18.13 


54.67 


33.00 


26.75 


46.00 


16.00 


14.46 


17.00 


15.00 


12.94 


14.63 


19.63 


33.00 


34.00 


27.75 


44.50 


16.00 


14.09 


17.75 


14.87 


12.56 


17.13 


25.80 


33.00 


34.00 


31.00 


39.40 


16.00 


14.00 


18.00 


14.30 


13.00 


18.10 


29.50 


33.00 


34.00 


38.75 


34.50 



100 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table XLVIII. — Standard Brands Eastern Pennsylvania No. 2 X 

1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 

Jan $22.70 $15.50 $16.75 $22.45 $14.69 $17.50 $18.50 $24.80 $18.25 $17.25 

Feb 22.56 15.31 17.19 22.25 14.50 17.50 18.50 25.87 18.25 17.00 

March 22.31 15.12 18.81 22.25 14.80 17.56 18.35 25.00 18.12 16.37 

April 21.75 15.46 19.62 21.87 15.00 17.75 18.44 24.81 17.65 16.20 

May 20.60 15.19 19.75 20.06 14.75 17.81 18.50 25.55 16.94 16.06 

June 18.75 15.06 20.94 19.19 14.50 16.75 18.44 24.62 16.62 16.42 

July 16.37 15.00 22.30 18.10 14.31 16.12 18.25 23.06 16.50 16.50 

Aug 16.15 14.97 22.00 16.87 14.25 16.25 19.00 21.90 16.50 17.00 

Sept 15.56 14.80 22.00 16.12 14.25 16.43 20.44 20.50 16.62 18.05 

Oct 15.00 15.25 22.12 15.20 14.43 17.25 21.12 19.85 16.75 18.69 

Nov 15.35 15.37 23.37 15.00 15.75 18.05 23.30 18.94 17.00 19.00 

Dec 15.62 15.75 23.00 15.00 16.90 18.25 24.00 18.84 17.25 19.00 



Table XLIX. — Soft Steel Bars at 



1900 

Jan 2.22 

Feb 2.21 

March 2.25 

April 2.10 

May 1.91 

June 1.52 

July 1.19 

Aug 1 . 05 

Sept 1.12 

Oct 1.09 

Nov 1.18 

Dec • 1.25 



1901 1902 1903 1904 



1.25 
1.30 
1.40 
1.47 
1.41 
1.40 
1.40 
1.44 
1.50 
1.53 
1.50 
1.50 



1.50 
1.51 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 



1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 



60 
60 
60 
37 
30 



1.30 
1.30 
1.33 
1.35 
1.35 
1.35 
1.35 
1.35 
1.31 
1.30 
1.31 
1.34 



1905 
1.40 
1.40 
1.50 
1.50 
1.50 
1.46 
1.50 
1.50 
1.50 
1.50 
1.50 
1.50 



1906 
1.50 
1.50 
1.50 
1.50 
1.50 
1.50 
1.50 
1.50 
1.50 
1.50 
1.54 
1.60 



1907 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 



1908 

1.60 

1.60 

1.60 

1.60 

1.60 

1.45 

1.40 

1.40 

40 

40 

40 



1.40 



1909 
1.40 
1.35 
1.20 
1.15 
1.19 
1.20 
1.27 
1.32 
1.39 
1.51 
1.50 
1.50 



Table L. — Wire Rod Prices at 



1903 1904 1905 

Jan $34. 70 $30. 00 $31.00 

Feb... 35.75 30.00 31.00 

March 36.62 30.80 31.70 

April 37.00 31.00 34.00 

May 37.00 30.50 34.00 

June 36. 62 29. 20 33. 30 

July 35.80 28.00 31.87 

Aug 35.00 28.00 32.10 

Sept 34.75 27.00 31.12 

Oct 34.00 26.00 31.75 

Nov 31.62 26.75 32.10 

Dec 30.50 29.80 32.50 



1906 
$33. 75 
34.00 
34.00 
34. 12 
34.40 
34.00 
34.00 
34.00 
34.00 
34.50 
35.50 
37.00 



1907 
$37.00 
37.00 
37.00 
37.00 
37.00 
37.12 
36.50 
36.10 
36.00 
35.40 
34.00 
34.00 



1908 
$34.30 
35.00 
35.00 
35.00 
35.00 
33.50 
33.00 
33.25 
33.00 
33.00 
33.00 
33.00 



1909 
$33.00 
33.00 
33.00 
29.00 
27.50 
27.50 
29.40 
31.00 
31.50 
31.87 
32.50 
33.00 



1910 
$33.00 
33.00 
33.00 
32.50 
32.00 
30.80 
29.25 
28.25 
28.00 
28.50 
28.12 
28.00 



Table LI. — Billet Prices at Pitts- 
1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 

Jan $28.15 $36.65 .$25.60 $25.00 $21.56 $16.12 $14.90 

Feb 27.81 35.25 26.00 24.36 21.62 15.75 14.95 

March 27.25 31.88 26.25 23.00 22.60 15.55 14.84 

April 27.00 28.38 25.35 22.81 22.44 15.69 15.44 

May 26.90 27.55 25.50 22.41 21.69 18.00 16.30 

June 26.75 30.25 25.25 22.97 21.70 18.12 18.63 

July 27.13 30.70 25.50 23.50 21.06 18.00 20.75 

Aug 28.20 30.38 25.31 23.81 20.45 17.15 21.75 

Sept 29.50 30.13 25.00 23.65 19.31 17.19 24.00 

Oct 33.70 28.70 24.90 23.53 18.06 16.00 21.90 

Nov 34.00 27.39 24.16 24.94 17.37 15.57 19.13 

Dec 35.60 26.25 24.20 22.40 16.69 15.12 16.97 

* Quotations on wire rods did not regularly appear in market reports until 
burgh. The quotations for November and December, 1917, and all of 1918, 

t The table below gives the average monthly prices of 4 x 4 in. Bessemer steel 
and are averaged from weekly quotations in Iron Age. Prior to 1886 steel 



PRICES AND WAGES 



101 



Foundry Pig Iron at Philadelphia, Dollars per Gross Ton 



1910 
$19.00 
18.69 
18.00 
17.75 
17.00 
16.55 
16.25 
16.00 
16.00 
15.81 
15.68 
15.50 



1911 
$15.50 
15.50 
15.50 
15.50 
15.50 
15.25 
15.00 
15.00 
15.00 
15.00 
14.95 
14.85 



1912 
$14.85 
14.85 
14.92 
15.00 
15.18 
15.31 
15.70 
15.87 
16.59 
17.60 
18.25 
18.25 



1913 
$18.25 
18.25 
17.77 
17.40 
16.75 
16.19 
15.60 
15.60 
15.83 
15.95 
15.56 
15.20 



1914 
$14.65 
14.94 
15.00 
15.00 
14.81 
14.75 
14.75 
14.75 
14.75 
14.63 
14.50 
14.25 



1915 

$14.25 

14.25 

14.25 

14.25 

14.25 

14.25 

14.31 

14.94 

16.00 

16.25 

17.12 

19.05 



1916 
$19.94 
20.00 
20.05 
20.50 
20.50 
19.94 
19.75 
19.55 
19.50 
20.31 
24.90 
29.25 



1917 
$30.10 
31.88 
37.31 
41.38 
43.60 
48.19 
53.13 
53.00 
51.67 
34.25 
34.25 
34.25 



1918 
$34.25 
34.25 
34.25 
34.25 
34.25 
34.29 
34.40 
34.40 
34.40 
38.85 
39.15 
39.15 



1919 
$36.15 
36.15 
34.39 
31.90 
30.70 
29.50 
29.08 
29.60 
30.70 
32.10 
35.35 
40.10 



1920 
$44.10 
45.10 
45.53 
46.85 
47.10 
47.15 
48.15 
51.96 
53.51 
52.53 
44.99 
34.79 



Pittsburgh, Cents per Pound 



1910 
1.50 
1.50 
1.45 
1.45 
1.45 
1.45 
1.45 
1.40 
1.40 
1.40 
1.40 
1.40 



1911 
1.40 
1.40 
1.40 
1.40 
1.37 
1.25 
1.23 
1.20 
1.19 
1.12 
1.08 
1.12 



1912 



1.10 



1.20 
1.25 
1.30 
1.37 
1.45 
1.55 
1.66 



1913 
1.70 
1.70 
1.85 
1.84 
1.70 
1.60 
1.50 
1.40 
1.40 
1.39 
1.29 
1.21 



1914 

1.20 
1.20 
1.20 
1.15 
1.14 
1.11 
1.12 
1.19 
1.20 
1.15 
1.10 
1.07 



1915 
1.10 
1.10 
1.15 



20 
20 
1.21 
1.25 
1.30 
1.34 
1.44 
1.62 
1.84 



1916 
2.03 
2.31 
2.65 
2.88 
3.00 
2.75 
2.63 
2.56 
2.60 
2.75 
2.83 
3.00 



1917 
3.15 
3.25 
3.63 
3.75 
4.00 
4.25 
4.50 
4.30 
4.00 
2.90 
2.90 
2.90 



1918 

2.90 

2.90 

2.90 

90 

90 

90 

90 

90 

90 

2.90 

2.90 

2.80 



1919 
2.70 
2.70 
2.61 
2.35 
2.35 
2.35 
2.35 
2.35 
2.35 
2.39 
69 



2.75 



1920 
2.75 
3.00 
3.63 
3.75 
3.63 
3.50 
3.50 
3.25 
3.25 
3.13 
2.87 
2.35 



Pittsburgh for Eighteen Years* 



1911 
$28. 00 
28.75 
29.00 
29.00 
29.00 
28.25 
27.00 
27.00 
27.00 
26.00 
25.30 
24.50 



1912 
$24.37 
25.00 
25.00 
25.00 
25.00 
25. 00 
25.00 
25.80 
27.00 
28.50 
29.75 
30.00 



1913 
$30. 00 
30.00 
30.00 
30.00 
30.00 
29.50 
28.30 
28.00 
27.37 
26.60 
25.87 
25.17 



1914 
$25. 50 
26.38 
26.50 
26.00 
25.50 
24.50 
24.50 
25.00 
26.20 
25.88 
25.25 
25.00 



1915 
$25.00 
25.00 
25.00 
25.00 
25.00 
25.00 
25.63 
27.00 
29.40 
31.75 
36.25 
39.50 



1916 
$43.00 
48.00 
54.80 
60.00 
60.00 
53.75 
53.75 
55.00 
55.00 
55.00 
63.00 
68.75 



1917 
$75.00 
77.50 
81.00 
85.00 
86.00 
92.50 
96.25 
94.00 
88.75 
77.25 
57.00 
57.00 



1918 
$57. 00 
57.00 
57.00 
57.00 
57.00 
57.00 
57.00 
57.00 
57.00 
57.00 
57.00 
57.00 



1919 
$57.00 
57.00 
55.75 
52.00 
52.00 
52.00 
52.00 
52.00 
52.00 
52.00 
54.50 
59.50 



1920 
$60.00 
63.75 
70.00 
70.00 
72.50 
75.00 
75.00 
75.00 
75.00 
75.00 
66.40 
57.00 



burgh for Thirty-two Years! 



1896 
$16.80 
17.38 
17.09 
19.53 
19.50 
19.12 
18.85 
18.75 
19.75 
19.75 
20.00 
17.50 



1897 
$15.42 
15.25 
15.44 
14.60 
13.82 
14.06 
14.00 
14.00 
15.60 
16.44 
15.57 
15.00 



1898 
$14.93 
15.06 
15.25 
15.06 
14.85 
14.65 
14 50 
15.85 
16.00 
15.56 
15.06 
15.80 



1899 
$16.62 
18.00 
24.30 
25.37 
26.75 
30.10 
33.12 
35.40 
38.37 
38.75 
36.50 
33.75 



1900 
$34.50 
34.87 
33.00 
32.00 
28.90 
27.25 
21.00 
18.20 
16.93 
16.50 
18.95 
19.75 



1901 
$19.75 
20.31 
22.88 
24.00 
24.00 
24.38 
24.00 
24.20 
24.88 
26.70 
27.00 
27.50 



1902 
$27.50 
29.37 
31.25 
31.50 
32.27 
32.35 
31.76 
31.02 
29.50 
29.70 
28.50 
29.10 



1903 
$29.60 
29.87 
30.62 
30.25 
30.37 
28.87 
27.60 
27.00 
27 00 
27.00 
24 00 
23.00 



1904 
$23.00 
23.00 
23.00 
23.00 
23.00 
23.00 
23.00 
23.00 
20.00 
19.50 
20.25 
21.20 
at Pitts- 



late in 1901. Prices above are for Bessemer wire rods, per gross ton 

are Government prices and apply also to open-hearth rods. 

billets at Pittsburgh from 1889 to 1920, inclusive. The prices are per gross ton 

billets were not a regular merchant commodity. 



102 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 

Jan $22.75 $26.25 $29.40 $28.00 $25.00 

Feb 23.50 26.50 29.50 28.00 25.00 

March 24.00 26.70 29.00 28.00 23.00 

April 24.00 27.00 30.12 28.00 23.00 

May 23.50 26.40 30.30 28.00 23.00 

June 22.00 26.63 29.62 25.75 23.00 

July .. 22.00 27.25 30.00 25.00 23.50 

Aug 24.00 27.80 29.25 25.00 24.13 

Sept 25.00 28.00 29.37 25.00 25.00 

Oct 25.62 28.00 28.20 25.00 26.25 

Nov 26.00 28.88 28.00 25.00 27.13 

Dec 26.00 29.50 28.00 25.00 27.50 



Table LI— 


1910 


1911 


$27.50 


$23.00 


27.50 


23.00 


27.50 


23.00 


26.75 


23.00 


26.12 


22.60 


25.30 


21.00 


25.00 


21.00 


24.62 


21.00 


24.40 


20.75 


23.75 


20.00 


23.30 


19.50 


23.00 


19.25 



Table LII. — Tank Plates at 





1900 


1901 


1902 


1903 


1904 


1905 


1906 


1907 


1908 


1909 


Jan 


. 2.22 


1.40 


1.60 


1.75 


1.60 


1.50 


1.60 


1.70 


1.70 


1.60 


Feb 


. 2.17 


1.40 


1.60 


1.60 


1.60 


1.50 


1.60 


1.70 


1.70 


1.52 


March. . 


. 2.03 


1.47 


1.60 


1.60 


1.60 


1.60 


1.60 


1.70 


1.70 


1.30 


April 


.. 1.87 


1.57 


1.60 


1.60 


1.60 


1.60 


1.60 


1.70 


1.70 


1.27 


May .... 


. 1.69 


1.60 


1.60 


1.60 


1.60 


1.60 


1.60 


1.70 


1.70 


1.29 


June .... 


. 1.39 


1.60 


1.69 


1.60 


1.60 


1.60 


1.60 


1.70 


1.62 


1.25 


July. . . . 


. 1.16 


1.60 


1.75 


1.60 


1.60 


1.60 


1.60 


1.70 


1.60 


1.33 


Aug 


.. 1.09 


1.60 


1.75 


1.60 


1.60 


1.60 


1.60 


1.70 


1.60 


1.40 


Sept .... 


. 1.11 


1.60 


1.75 


1.60 


1.44 


1.60 


1.60 


1.70 


1.60 


1.46 


Oct 


. 1.07 


1.60 


1.84 


1.60 


1.40 


1.60 


1.60 


1.70 


1.60 


1.50 


Nov. . . . 


. 1.31 


1.60 


1.82 


1.60 


1.40 


1.60 


1.62 


1.70 


1.60 


1.54 


Dec 


.. 1.39 


1.60 


1.82 


1.60 


1.45 


1.60 


1.70 


1.70 


1.60 


1.55 



Table LIU. — Beams at Pitts- 



1900 

Jan 2.25 

Feb 2.25 

March 2.25 

April 2.25 

May 2.25 

June 2.07 

July 1.90 

Aug 1.74 

Sept 1.50 

Oct 1.50 

Nov 1.50 

Dec 1.50 



1901 
1.50 
1.50 



1.60 



60 
60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 



1902 
1.60 
1.60 
1.70 
1.70 
1.60 
60 



1.84 



2.00 



1903 
1.80 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 



1904 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.44 
1.40 
1.40 
1.44 



1905 
1.50 
1.50 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.63 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 



1906 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 



1907 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 



1908 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.62 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 



1909 
1.60 
1.52 
1.30 
1.27 
1.27 
1.25 
1.33 
1.40 
1.46 
1.50 
1.54 
1.55 



Table LIV. — Wire Nails at Pitts- 



1900 

Jan $3.20 

Feb 3.20 

March 3.20 

April 2.95 

May 2.20 

June 2.20 

July 2.20 

Aug 2.20 

Sept 2.20 

Oct 2.20 

Nov 2.20 

Dec 2.20 



1901 
$2.22 
2.30 
2.30 
2.30 
2.30 
2.30 
2.30 
2.30 
2.30 
2.28 
2.17 
1.99 



1902 
$1.99 



05 
2.05 
2.05 
2.05 
2.05 
2.05 
2.05 
2.03 
1.89 
1.85 
1.85 



1903 
$1.89 
1.92 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
1.97 
1.87 



1904 
$1.89 
1.90 
1.91 
1.90 
1.90 
1.90 
1.89 
1.71 
1.60 
1.60 
1.62 
1.73 



1905 
$1.75 
1.80 
1.80 
1.80 
1.80 
1.74 
1.70 
1.70 
1.74 
1.80 
1.80 
1.80 



1906 
$1.85 
1.85 
1.85 
1.85 
1.85 
1.85 
1.84 
1.82 
1.86 
1.85 
1.88 
2.00 



1907 
$2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 



1908 
$2.05 
2.05 
2.05 
2.05 
2.05 
1.97 
1.95 
1.95 
1.95 
1.95 
1.95 
1.95 



1909 
$1.95 
1.95 
1.95 
1.87 
1.65 
1.70 
1.72 
1.80 
1.80 
1.80 
1.80 
1.85 



PRICES AND WAGES 



103 



Continued 
















1912 


1913 


1914 


1915 


1916 


1917 


1918 


1919 


1920 


$20.00 


$28.30 


$20.13 


$19.25 


$32.00 


$63.00 


$47.50 


$43.50 


$48.00 


20.00 


28.50 


21.00 


19.50 


33.50 


65.00 


47.50 


43.50 


55.25 


19.75 


28.50 


21.00 


19.70 


42.40 


66.25 


47.50 


42.25 


60.00 


20.00 


28.50 


20.80 


20.00 


45.00 


73.75 


47.50 


38.50 


60.00 


20.80 


27.60 


20.00 


20.00 


45.00 


86.00 


47.50 


38.50 


60.00 


20.87 


26.50 


19.50 


20.50 


43.50 


68.75 


47.50 


38.50 


61.00 


:21.50 


26.60 


19.00 


21.38 


41.00 


100.00 


47.50 


38.50 


62.50 


22.12 


26.00 


20.25 


23.13 


44.20 


86.00 


47.50 


38.50 


61.00 


23.62 


24.87 


21.00 


24.10 


45.00 


66.25 


47.50 


38.50 


58.74 


26.00 


23.30 


20.00 


24.63 


46.25 


49.38 


47.50 


38.50 


55. CO 


27.00 


21.00 


19.25 


26.50 


52.00 


47.50 


47.50 


38.87 


49.70 


27.00 


20.00 


19.00 


30.25 


57.50 


47.50 


45.50 


46.00 


43.50 



Pittsburgh, Cents per Pound 

1914 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 



1910 


1911 


1912 


1913 


1.55 


1.40 


1.15 


1.75 


1.55 


1.40 


1.11 


1.71 


1.55 


1.40 


1.12 


1.70 


1.55 


1.40 


1.21 


1.68 


1.51 


1.39 


1.25 


1.60 


1.48 


1.35 


1.25 


1.45 


1.41 


1.35 


1.30 


1.45 


1.40 


1.34 


1.35 


1.44 


1.40 


1.29 


1.47 


1.40 


1.40 


1.17 


1.53 


1.36 


1.40 


1.13 


1.59 


1.26 


1.40 


1.15 


1.60 


1.20 



.20 




.20 




.18 




.15 




.12 




10 




.10 




.18 




.20 




.14 




.08 




.05 


2. 



15 


1916 


1917 


1918 


1919 


1920 


10 


2.25 


4.45 


3.25 


3.00 


2.72 


10 


2.56 


4.88 


3.25 


3.00 


3.50 


10 


3.10 


5.25 


3.25 


2.91 


3.63 


15 


3.56 


5.88 


3.25. 


2.65 


3.75 


15 


3.75 


6.60 


2.25 


2.65 


3.75 


16 


3.63 


8.00 


3.25 


2.65 


3.55 


22 


3.44 


9.00 


3.25 


2.65 


3.38 


26 


3.70 


8.80 


3.25 


2.65 


3.25 


34 


4.00 


8.00 


3.25 


2.53 


3.25 


44 


4.00 


3.25 


3.25 


2.61 


3.09 


65 


4.15 


3.25 


3.25 


2.65 


2.81 


04 


4.25 


3.25 


3.13 


2.65 


2.65 



BURGH, Cents per Pound 



1910 


1911 


1912 


1913 


1914 


1915 


1916 


1917 


1918 


1919 


1920 


1.55 


1.40 


1.15 


1.75 


1.20 


1.10 


1.90 


3.25 


3.00 


2.80 


2.47 


1.51 


1.40 


1.11 


1.71 


1.20 


1.10 


2.06 


3.25 


3.00 


2.80 


2.70 


1.50 


1.40 


1.15 


1.70 


1.19 


1.10 


2.40 


3.54 


3.00 


2.71 


3.13 


1.50 


1.40 


1.21 


1.68 


1.15 


1.20 


2.55 


3.88 


3.00 


2.45 


3.25 


1.50 


1.39 


1.25 


1.50 


1.14 


1.20 


2.60 


4.00 


3.00 


2.45 


3.10 


1.48 


1.35 


1.25 


1.45 


1.11 


1.20 


2.53 


4.31 


3.00 


2.45 


3.10 


1.41 


1.35 


1.30 


1.45 


1.12 


1.25 


2.50 


4.50 


3.00 


2.45 


3.10 


1.40 


1.35 


1.35 


1.45 


1.19 


1.30 


2.52 


4.30 


3.00 


2.45 


3.10 


1.40 


1.34 


1.42 


1.41 


1.20 


1.35 


2.64 


4.00 


3.00 


2.45 


3.10 


1.40 


1.21 


1.48 


1.37 


1.15 


1.44 


2.75 


3.00 


3.00 


2.45 


3.05 


1.40 


1.13 


1.57 


1.29 


1.10 


1.60 


2.86 


3.00 


3.00 


2.45 


2.89 


1.40 


1.15 


1.60 


1.25 


1.07 


1.78 


3.25 


3.00 


2.90 


2.45 


2.45 



BURGH, Dollars per Keg of 100 Lb. 



1910 


1911 


1912 


1913 


1914 


1915 


1916 


1917 


1918 


1919 


1920 


1.85 


$1.71 


$1.57 


$1.75 


$1.54 


$1.54 


$2.13 


$3.00 $3.50 


$3.50 


$4.50 


1.85 


1.75 


1.60 


1.75 


1.60 


1.57 


2.25 


3.00 


3.50 


3.50 


4.50 


1.85 


1.79 


1.60 


1.76 


1.60 


1.60 


2.40 


3.20 


3.50 


3.44 


4.00 


1.85 


1.80 


1.60 


1.80 


1.60. 


1.56 


2.40 


3.28 


3.50 


3.25 


4.00 


1.82 


1.80 


1.60 


1.80 


1.56 


1.55 


2.50 


3.50 


3.50 


3.25 


4.00 


1.80 


1.75 


1.60 


1.80 


1.50 


1.55 


2.50 


3.75 


3.50 


3.25 


4.00 


1.75 


1.70 


1.62 


1.70 


1.52 


1.60 


2.50 


4.00 


3.50 


3.25 


4.00 


1.70 


1.69 


1.66 


1.65 


1.56 


1.61 


2.58 


4.00 


3.50 


3.25 


4.^5 


1.70 


1.65 


1.70 


1.65 


1.60 


1.69 


2.60 


4.00 


3.50 


3.25 


4.25 


1.70 


1.64 


1.70 


1.63 


1.60 


1.80 


2.63 




3.50 


3.31 


4.25 


1.70 


1.55 


1.70 


1.59 


1.50 


1.87 


2.85 


3! 50 


3.50 


3.50 


4.05 


1.70 


1.53 


1.72 


1.55 


1.51 


2.04 


3.00 


p. 50 


8.50 


4.12 


3.25 



104 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table LV. — Bessemer Steel Rails 

1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 

Jan $35.00 $26.00 $28.00 $28.00 $28.00 $28.00 $28.00 $28.00 $28,00 $28.00 

Feb 34.00 26.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 

March 35.00 26.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 

April 35.00 27.30 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 

May 35.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 

June 35.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 

July 35.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 

Aug 35.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 

Sept 32.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 

Oct 26.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 

Nov 26.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 

Dec 26.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 

Structural Steel Prices for 15 Years. — Fig. 7, given in Engineering and 
Contracting, Oct. 31, 1917, shows the average prices of structural steel at 



coo 
ZdO 






























2.75 
2.70 
265 






















































































260 






























2.55 
250 




Agreemenf- reached in Sepi-ember befween ihe War 
Indusfridl Board and 5he\ Producers, fJxed following 
prices to be in effeci until Jan. 1-1916 at Pittsburg and 
Chicago. 

Price, Ct 5. Reduction, per cent 

bars 230 A7.3 

Shapes Z.QO. 50.0 

Phfes _ 3.Z5 .....70.5 




J 






Zl 


245 

2.40 
2.35 
230 
2.25 
2.20 
2.15 
2.10 
205 






1 






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ji 






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If 






If 




























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1.95 
190 




























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1.85 

i.ao 

1.75 




























1 




























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1 


170 




























1 


165 










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160 








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150 


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145 
1.40 
/35 


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1901 1902 1903 /904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 19/2 1913 1914 1915 1916 
Years 
Fig. 7. 



Pittsburgh for the years 1901 to 1916. The figures for structural shapes are 
base for beams and channels 3 in., to 15 in., and angles 3 in. to 6 in. Prices for 
plates are f . o. b. Pittsburgh, and are for tank quality. Prices for bars are also 
Pittsburgh base and are for rounds and squares ^i in. to ^f © in. 



PRICES AND WAGES 



105 



AT Mill, Dollars 


PER Gross Ton 












1910 


1911 


1912 


1913 


1914 


1915 


1916 


1917 


1918 


1919 


1920 


$28.00 


S28.00 $28.00 $28.00 $28.00 


$28.00 


$28.00 


$38.00 


$55.00 


$55.00 


$45.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


38.00 


55.00 


55.00 


45.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


38.00 


55.00 


52.50 


47.50 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


38.00 


55.00 


45.00 


55.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


33.00 


38.00 


55.00 


45.00 


55.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


33.00 


38.00 


55.00 


45.00 


55.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


33.00 


38.00 


55.00 


45.00 


55.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


33.00 


38.00 


55.00 


45.00 


55.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


33.00 


38.00 


55.00 


45.00 


55.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


33.00 




55.00 


45.00 


55.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


36.00 




55.00 


45.00 


55.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


28.00 


38.00 




55.00 


45.00 


51.00 



Structural Steel Prices, 1898 to 1917. — Fig. 8, reproduced in Engineering and 
Contracting, April 25, 1917, from the Dec, 1916, Bridge Manual of the Oregon 
State Highway Commission, shows price fluctuations in steel from year to year 
at various stages in its progress from furnace to the erected bridge. The 
lowest line in the diagram represents pig iron (Pittsburgh District) , the next 
two lines steel bars and structural steel in the Pittsburgh District, the second 
line from the top fabricated steel at site (average for Oregon), and the top 
line steel in bridge erected in Oregon. 



, faSS 1399 IdOO IdOl 1901 1963 1^04 IdOS Id06 1907 . 



m9 mo m m wa im iSfS m m? 





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Legend - Basic pig iron Valley Piq Iron Steel Bars Structural Steel Fabricaff^ 

Steel at site — ^ includes cost of structural Steel atmUl plus *50.per to cover draftb, fabrication, 
shop paint, inspth, freight, cartage, handl'g profit & contgs. Fab'd steel in place —Jnc cost at site plus '^Op'rton. 

Fig. 8. — Price per ton of structural steel from furnace to place in bridge. 



The curves representing the costs of pig iron, steel bars and structural 
shapes are drawn up from data from The Iron Age and are based on prices 
at Pittsburgh. 

The line representing fabricated steel at the bridge site is obtained by adding 
$50 to these Eastern prices on structural shapes to provide for: Steel inspec- 
tion, fabrication, shop inspection, waste in fabrication, draughting, shop 
painting, freight to Portland district, road haul and handling. 

While this assumed figure of $50 is not a maximum, it is stated to be con- 
siderably higher than the mean or average cost of the sum of the items it is 
intended to cover, within the present zone of steel bridge construction in 
Oregon. 

The line representing steel erected in place is obtained by adding $20 to 
the cost of the fabricated material at the site, to cover all costs of falseworli, 
handling, erection and painting, and is a little better than a fair average price 
for steel bridge erection in Oregon. This line suggests in a graphical way, for 
the term of years which it covers, a base line about which, in comparative 
proximity to it, thq prices paid for this work should have ranged themselves. 



106 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The costs from mill to site and for erection and painting are based on the cost 
of a large number of structures built in Oregon. The Manual states that 
actual costs should run under, rather than over, the figures given. 

Teaming rates vary considerably according to the topography of the country 
and condition of the roads. They also are subject to conditions of supply 
and demand, but, according to the Manual, a fair average price for teaming 
throughout the state is 30 ct. per ton mile. 

Price of Common Brick. — At the first annual convention of the Common 
Brick Manufacturers of America at Chicago, information was collected from 
the delegates regarding the prices of common brick in various cities. The 
following table shows the trend of prices for the years 1916-1919 in 9 large 
cities : 

1916 ' 1917 1918 1919 

Boston $12.00 $14.00 $17.00 $18.00 

Chicago 7.00 9.00 12.00 12.00 

Cincinnati 10.00 13.00 15.00 16.75 

Detroit 9.00 11.00 12.00 13.00 

Los Angeles 6. 00 8. 00 14. 00 12. 50 

Louisville 8.50 12.50 20.00 17.50 

New York* 7.35 8.15 10.85 14.00 

Philadelphia 8.50 12.50 14.00 19.00 

San Francisco 't 7.50 10.00 11.00. 12.50 

* Delivered at ferry, f Delivered at plant. 

Method of Obtaining the "Average" Increase in Prices of Building Mater- 
ials (Engineering and Contracting, April 24, 1918.) When dealing with 
" averages" there is grave danger of falling into the error of using arithmetical 
averages instead of weighted averages. A building magazine recently said 
that since Aug. 1, 1914, the average price of building materials had risen 84 
per cent, yet the same periodical published the following table of prices for 
March 1, of the years named: 

1914 

Pine, yellow, 12-in. and under per M $25. 00 

Nails, wire, base price, per keg 1 . 90 

Brick, Hudson River, hard, per M 6. 50 

Lime, eastern common, per bbl .92 

Timber, E. spruce, wide random, per M 24. 00 

Timber, hemlock, Penn., random, per M 24. 50 

Glass, window, 10 X 15, per box, 50 sq. ft 2. 14 

If we add together the figures in the last column and divide by the number of 
items, 7, we get an arithmetical average of 67 per cent, which might be called 
an average increase in the prices of these building materials; but it should be 
apparent that such an average is really meaningless. Note that the quan- 
tities of each of these seven different materials that would be required in most 
buildings are such that brick and pine would greatly predominate; yet brick 
and pine have each risen only 46 per cent in price. On the other hand, nails, 
lime and glass are used in relatively small quantities, and they have risen 95, 
106 and 137 per cent in price. 

To ascertain the weighted average change in price of building materials in 
a building of a given class, multiply the quantities of each kind of material 
by the prices at the two different periods and ascertain the ratio of the two 
resulting totals. A rough application of this rule leads us to conclude that 
the average building cost has risen about 50 per cent since the war began. 





Per cent 


1918 


increase 


$42.00 


46 


4.00 


95 


10.25 


46 


1.90 


106 


28.00 


17 


30.50 


24 


5.13 


137 



i 



PRICES AND WAGES 107 

Determination of Unit Prices of Material for Purposes of Valuation of 
Plant. — Engineering and Contracting, May 13, 1914, publishes the following 
article by R. V. Achatz. 

One of the first questions which must be decided in making a valuation of a 
physical plant is what unit costs of material and labor are to be used. In 
making a valuation on the cost of reproduction basis, it is agreed that these 
costs should be present costs but there is a question of just what is present 
cost. In the case of labor present cost is a cost based on the current wage scale, 
but in the case of material it is quite generally agreed that the market price on 
a given date, particularly for those materials which are subject to constant 
fluctuations in price, cannot always be used with justice. Many writers in 
discussing this question have said that, in case of materials subject to price 
fluctuations, the market price on a given date should not be used but an 
average price over a number of years past, usually five or ten, should be 
adopted. There immediately arises a question as to the propriety of using 
an average of past prices in a valuation on the cost of reproduction basis, and 
there is also a large question as to whether such an average actually represents 
a fair present price. It has been proposed that the present normal price can 
be determined by plotting the prices for a number of years past and drawing a 
smooth curve representing an average ^of the prices as shown by the yearly 
price curve. 

In order to make a study of the different methods of determining unit costs 
of materials the prices on three metals, copper, tin and lead, were used. These 
metals were adopted because prices were available for many years past, 
because of their importance in telephone and other electrical properties, and 
because the prices are representative of three types of price variation. Copper 
prices have fiuctuated continuously and sometimes violently with a general 
tendency toward increase. Tin prices have also fluctuated considerably and 
also have shown a marked increase in the past fifteen years. Lead prices 
have in general been stable and show little if any tendency toward change. 
Table LVI shows prices for Lake Ingot copper. The prices are taken from a 
leaflet called "Copper History" published by the Rome Wire Co., Ronie, N. 
Y., and are based on actual prices paid. These prices are slightly higher than 
prices given in Iron Age but the difference is usually only a small 
fraction of a cent per pound. Tables LVII and LVIII are prices of tin and 
lead respectively and are compiled from data given in Iron Age in the first 
issue of the year for several years past. 

In making the study curves were plotted for the monthly average prices of 
the metal (not given in the tables) by plotting at the abscissa representing 
each month, the average price for that month and connecting the points by 
straight lines. In a similar way curves were plotted for the average prices 
for 5, 10 and 15 year periods by plotting at the close of each year the average 
of the prices for the period preceding and, as before, connecting the points 
by straight lines. A smooth curve was also drawn representing a mean 
between the higher and lower changes in the monthly average prices. 
Theoretically there should be equal areas, above and below, between this 
curve and the monthly average curve but in practice it can be drawn by eye 
with sufficient accuracy. This curve has been designated a "normal trend 
price" curve. 

In Fig. 9 are shown the curves of copper prices. These prices extend from 
1884, the earliest period that prices were available, to the present. It will 
be noted that the prices have had peaks at periods of from seven to ten years 



108 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



apart, the highest peaks occurring in 1889, 1899, and 1907, followed by periods 
of comparatively low prices. The dotted curve represents successive five 
years averages and was plotted as described in the preceding paragraph. 
This curve also has peaks coming at the frequency of the peaks in the monthly 



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U94- '65 '66 '61 "^ 'S9 \ 

Fig. 9. — Variation and trend of prices for copper for period 1884 to 1913. 

inclusive. 

average curve but displaced so that the maximum points in the five year 
average curve come later than those of the monthly average and occur during 
times of low market prices. For example, at the close of 1909 the market 
price of copper was 13.75 cts. per pound, while the five years average was 

























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1396 '91 *9d 99 19U0 Oi OS. '02> 0^ 05 '06 01 03 '09 ' lO 'll 12. \'5 

Years 
Fig. 10. — Variation and trend of prices for tin for period 1895 to 1913, inclusive. 



16.808 cts. per pound. At the close of 1912 the market price was 17.75 cts. 
per pound, while the five year average was 13.91 cts. The high average for 
the five years ending with 1909 was due to the influence of the very high peak 
In the market in 1906-7 and the low average for the five years ending in 1912 



PRICES AND WAGES 



109 



was due to the abnormally low prices following the 1907 peak, the influence 
of that peak on the five year average having passed. It is at once seen that a 
five year average price at either of these times would be unjust, the price in 
1909 being too high to be just to the public and the price in 1912 too low to 
be just to the utility. 

The 10 year average prices of copper are shown in Fig. 9 by the broken 
line. This curve has peaks in much the same way as the 5 year average 
curve but the differences from time to time are not so great. The 10 year 
average at the close of 1911 is 1.1 cts. less than at the close of 1908. The 
use of this average would be less open to objection than the 5 year average 
on account of smaller variation from time to time. 



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1695 '96 '97 '96 99 1900 '01 'Od. 'O^ '04 '05 '06 'Ol ba '03 'lO'^ll '/£ "/3 

Years 

FiQ. 11. — Variation and trend of prices for lead for period 1895 to 1913, inclusive. 



The 15 year average is shown on Fig. 9 by the dot and dash line. It is 
entirely free from variation due to the influence of peaks in the market price 
and shows a general tendency upward. Its use might be objectionable on 
account of the influence of a period of low prices a long time ago. 

The smooth curve which has been called the normal trend price has been 
drawn to represent an average of the market prices. At any given time the 
price read from this curve may be considered to be the price of copper under 
normal conditions. A buyer of copper in the future would expect to find 
prices following this curve more or less closely. The price as indicated by 
this curve was 15.2 cts. at the close of 1909, 15.8 cts. at close of 1911 and 16.3 
cts. at close of 1913. 

Fig. 10 shows the variation in prices of tin. This metal like copper has been 
subject to considerable fluctuation in price and has also more than doubled 
in price in the past fifteen years. The curves representing the 5, 10 and 15 
year averages and the trend curve have been drawn in the same manner as in 
case of copper. The average curves are free from the variation from time to 
time noted in the average curves for copper but it will be noted that, with the 
exception of a few months in 1904 and the years 1908, 1909 and part of 1910 
for the 5 year curve and a few months in 1908 and 1909 for the 10 year 
curve, the average curves are consistently lower than even the lowest points 
in the market prices. This brings out more clearly the objection mentioned 
above in the discussion of the prices of copper that average prices might be too 
greatly influenced by previous low prices to be used if the basis of the valuation 
is the cost of reproduction. If the basis is original cost of course this objection 



110 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



disappears. This discussion, however, has been predicated on the use of 
cost of reproduction. In the case of tin the normal trend curve at the close 
of 1913 shows a price of 45.9 cts. per pound while the 5 year average, the 
highest of the average curves, shows 39.468 cts. per pound. It is evident in 
this case that the use of any average price is unfair. 

The variation in lead prices is shown in Fig. 1 1 . The monthly average price 
curve shows that lead prices have been practically constant since 1899 with 
the exception of the abnormally high prices in 1906-7. This peak was caused 
by no particular condition of the lead market at that time but by the general 
inflation of commercial affairs during those years. The average price curves 
have been drawn as before. It will be noted that the 10 or 15 year curves 





Table LVI.- 


-Average Prices op "Lake' 


' Ingot Copper 


(Prices compiled from 


pamphlet, "Copper History,' 


published by Rome Wire 






Company, 


Rome, N. Y.) 








Period ending 


Av. for the 


Av. for 


Av. for 


Av. for 






year 


5 years. 


10 years, 


15 yrs. 




Dec. 31— 


per lb. 


per lb. 


per lb. 


per lb. 


1884. 




. . $0. 14031 









1885. 




.11166 








1886. 




.111458 








1887. 




.11323 








1888. 




. 16781 


$0. 12889 






1889. 




. 137395 


. 12831 






1890. 




. 15812 


. 13760 






1891. 




. 13093 


. 14150 






1892. 




. 11625 


. 14210 






1893. 




. 10781 


. 13010 


$0. 12950 




1894. 




.095416 


.12171 


. 12501 




1895 . 




. 10812 


.11171 


. 12465 




1896. 




. : . 10979 


. 10748 


. 12449 




1897. 




. 11333 


. 10691 


. 12450 




1898. 




. 12062 


. 10945 


.11978 


$0. 12664 


1899. 




. 17802 


. 12598 


. 12384 


. 12533 


1900. 




. 16656 


. 13766 


. 12468 


. 12899 


1901. 




. 16729 


.15116 


. 12832 


.13271 


1902. 




. 12135 


.15117 


. 12883 


. 13325 


1903. 




. 13791 


. 15423 


. 13184 


.13126 


1904. 




. 13250 


.14512 


. 13555 


. 13093 


1905. 




. 16093 


. 14399 


. 14083 


.13122 


1906. 




. 19812 


. 15014 


. 14966 


. 13560 


1907. 




.21177 


. 16825 


. 15951 


. 14197 


1908. 




. 13540 


. 16776 


. 16099 


. 14381 


1909. 




. 13420 


. 16808 


. 15660 


. 14640 


1910 




. 13135 


. 16217 


. 15308 


. 14794 


1911. 




. 12750 


. 14802 


. 14910 


. 14912 


1912. 




. 16708 


. 13910 


. 15368 


. 15271 


1913. 




. 15833 


. 14369 


. 15572 


. 15522 



still show that influence of the 1907 high prices while the flve year average 
has passed beyond this influence and has come very near to the normal price. 
The normal trend curve has not been drawn to avoid confusion in the figure 
but if it were drawn it would be a straight line parallel to the X-axis at 4.4 
cts. This is exactly the same as the 5 year average at the close of 1913. 
There have been periods in the past, however, when the use of the five year 
average would have been incorrect. For instance, at the close of 1909 this 
average was 4.926 cts. per pound while at the close of 1912 it was 4.379 cts., 
a decrease of about 1 1 per cent. 

From the study of the curves and the above discussion the following con- 
clusions are drawn regarding the use of the different methods of determining 
unit costs of material for valuation purposes: 



PRICES AND WAGES 



111 



Table LVII. — Average Prices op Tin 



(Prices compiled from Iron Age first 
lots, New 



issue of each year. 
York market.) 



Prices are on carload 







Av. for 


Av. for 


Av. for 


Av. for 




Period ending 


the year, 


5 years, 


10 years, 


15 yrs., 




Dec. 31— 


per lb. 


per lb. 


per lb. 


per lb. 


1895. 




. . $0. 14033 








1896. 




. 13325 








1897. 




. 13592 








1898. 




.15613 








1899. 




. 24853 


$0. 16283 






1900. 




. 29579 


. 19392 






1901 . 




. 26326 


. 21993 






1902. 




. 26633 


. 24600 






1903. 




. 27973 


. 27073 






1904. 




. 27658 


. 27634 


$0. 21959 




1905. 




. 31438 


. 28005 


. 23699 




1906. 




. 39666 


. 30764 


. 26333 




1907. 




. 38239 


. 32995 


. 28798 




1908. 




. 29438 


. 33288 


. 30180 




1909. 




. 29678 


. 33692 


. 30663 


$0. 25869 


1910. 




. 34239 


. 34252 


.31129 


.27217 


1911. 




. 42742 


. 34867 


. 32780 


. 29185 


1912. 




. 46350 


. 36489 


. 34742 


.31362 


1913. 




. 44332 


. 39468 


. 36378 


. 33276 



(1) The use of the market price of materials, especially those which are 
subject to price fluctuations is likely to be unfair. 

(2) Average prices for a period of 5 years previous to the valuation are 
unreliable on account of the influence of periods of high market prices which 
tend to raise the 5 year average during the period of low prices that usually 
follows a period of high prices and the corresponding decrease in 5 five year 
average following period of low prices even after prices have again increased. 

(3) An average of the prices for a period of 10 years previous to the valua- 
tion fluctuates in a less degree than the average for 5 years, but may be 
lower than a fair price or higher than a fair price due to the influence of a 
period of low or high prices many years before. 

(4) An average of the prices for 15 years may be unfair for the same reason 
as the second given under the ten year average, viz.: the effect of prices of 
many years previous. 

(5) An average smooth curve can be drawn, taking into consideration 
market prices for a number of years past and also successive average prices 
for periods of 5, 10 and 15 years, which will represent the normal present price 
of the material. In general the use of this curve as a basis of unit price of 
material will be more fair and less open to objection than any average price. 

(6) Before unit prices are adopted it is necessary to make a study of the past 
and present prices of materials, particularly the more important ones which 
may represent a large portion of the total cost of material in the plant. Such 
materials would be poles, copper wire, lead covered cable, duct materials and 
Portland cement in the case of telephone, street railway and other electrical 
properties, and cast iron pipe in case of gas and water plants. 

There may be some objection to a price based on the trend curve on account 
of the fact that the judgment of the appraiser is brought into its determination, 
but it must be remembered that a valuation is an estimate of cost to reproduce 
a given plant and the entire result is based on engineering judgment. Further- 
more a result arrived at by the use of well trained judgment after considering 
all the facts is more likely to be fair than an average over an arbitrary period 
without further consideration. 



112 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



The use of such a trend curve as a basis for the unit price of a material is 
not new although little has been written concerning it. As far as the writer's 
knowledge goes the most important appraisal that has been made public in 
which this method was used is the appraisal of the property of the Chicago 
Telephone Co. made by H. M. Byllseby and Co. and the Arnold Co. in 1911. 
It is true that Prof. Edward W. Bemis, who was conducting the investigation 
of rates for the Chicago City Council in this case mentions the price of 16 cts. 
used in the appraisal as a doubtful point but he accepted the valuation based 
on this price. Prof. Bemis' comment is as follows: 

Among the doubtful points in the appraisal may be mentioned the price of 
copper used by the appraisers. Copper was taken at 16 cts. a pound, as of 
Aug. 1, 1911. The following table gives the average price for each of the 19 
years, 1893-1911, inclusive, as taken from the Iron Age by the Chicago 
Telephone Company. These prices are a little lower than those given in the 
Telephone Directory of the telephone industry, 1912 edition (page 333): 

(Table of copper prices omitted.) 

The above table would indicate that 16 cts. was high. The company has, 
however, established an elaborate trend curve of prices of copper to show that 

Table LVIII. — Average Prices op Lead 



(Prices compiled from Iron Age, first 
lots. New 
Av. for 
Period ending the year, 

Dec. 31— per lb. 

1895 $0.03235 



issue of each year. Prices are on carload 

York market.) 

Av. for Av. for Av. for 

5 years, 10 years, 15 yrs., 

per lb. per lb. per lb. 



1896. 
1897. 
1898. 
1899. 
1900. 
1901. 
1902. 
1903. 
1904. 
1905. 
1906. 
1907. 
1908. 
1909. 
1910. 
1911. 
1912. 
1913. 



.02971 
. 03566 
. 03769 
. 04469 
. 04390 
. 04355 
. 04093 
. 04266 
. 04360 
. 04898 
. 05800 
. 05408 
. 04224 
. 04300 
. 04461 
. 04436 
. 04476 
. 04401 



$0 



03802 
03833 
04110 
04215 
04315 
04293 
04394 
04683 
04946 
04938 
04926 
04839 
04566 
04379 
04415 



$0. 03947 
.04114 
. 04397 
. 04581 
. 04626 
.04609 
.04617 
. 04625 
.04663 
. 04676 



$0.04274 
. 043*49 
. 04453 
.04512 
. 04556 



16 cts. a pound is in line with the trend or tendency of prices, at the time of the 
appraisal. Since the earliest quotations on hand, beginning in 1883, copper 
has averaged less than 16 cents every year save in 1888, 1899-1901, inclusive, 
and 1905-1907, inclusive. During those years only 309,433 miles of wire out 
of 807,571 in use at the close of 1911, or 38 per cent, were laid. It would be 
easy to show that copper had not from the beginning averaged over 15 cts. 
per pound, and had not even averaged that for any period of 5 or more years 
before the appraisal. At the same time, if the test of value is not to be the 
actual cost or recent costs, but probable costs of material and labor during 
the next five years, then 16 cts, may be accepted as a probable price. 

In advocating the use of the trend curve as a basis for determining the unit 
prices of material for purposes of valuation, it can not be said that this method 
will give, in every case, results which are absolutely fair and uniform. Judg- 



PRICES AND WAGES 113 

ment is required in its use and unforseen developments may change the trend 
of the price of any material but it is believed that the use of this method will 
give unit costs that are more fair to all parties concerned than any other 
method that has been used. 

Past and Future Wage Levels. — The following is from an article of mine in 
Engineering and Contracting, Aug. 31, 1921. 

In an article at the beginning of this Chapter I showed that average whole- 
sale commodity prices, or price levels, are proportional to the money per capita; 
and to its velocity of circulation, and inversely to the productive efficiency 
per capita. In the present article it will be shown that the average wage, 
or wage level, is proportional to the money per capita and to its velocity of 
circulation, but that the productive efficiency has no effect upon the average 
wage except in so far as it may lead to an increase in the per capita money. 

It will be shown that the buying power of the average wage (often called 
the "real" wage) was stationary in England for five centuries, but that begin- 
ning about the year 1800 it began to increase rapidly, until in 1914 it was nearly 
five times what it was in 1800. It will be shown that almost the same per- 
centage of increase in buying power occurred in America during the same 
period. 

It will be shown that the buying power of the average wage varies directly 
with the per capita efficiency of production, and that no other factor is 
involved. 

It will be shown that in the building trades the average wage of common 
laborers has risen at the same rate as that of skilled workers and that for six 
centuries in England the average of common laborers has been almost exactly 
60 per cent of the average wage of skilled workers. 

It will be shown that per capita money has shown a rapid upward trend for 
more than a century, and that following a short halt in this tendency after 
each great war, the upward trend is resumed. Hence it is to be inferred that 
average wages in America will resume their upward trend, after the present 
wage readjustment is ended. Since per capita money in America is now 60 
per cent above the prewar level of the year 1913, average wages will decline 
until they reach the new per capita money level. In other words, the average 
wage will be about 60 per cent above the average wage of 1913, after the pres- 
ent readjustments are completed. 

The proof of the truth of the wage formula above mentioned is overwhelm- 
ing, and the establishment of its truth necessarily demolishes the prevalent 
theory that inflation of bank deposits has the same effect upon wage levels 
as inflation of currency. The practical importance of overthrowing such a 
false theory can hardly be over-estimated, for every modern nation has hith- 
erto acted upon the assumption that inflation of currency is not a serious evil 
compared with inflation of bank credits, whereas the contrary is true. 

Money Wages and ^'ReaV Wages. — Wherever the term wage is used in 
this article, the daily or weekly wage in currency is meant. The average 
yearly wage is given in Table LXVII for manufacturing employes, and it will 
be seen that it has usually varied almost exactly as the daily wage level (Table 
LIX) has varied. 

The wage level (or wage index) is calculated by averaging the wages in dif- 
ferent trades, ajid then taking the average wage during a selected year as a 
standard for comparison. The year 1913 is here taken as 100 per cent. The 
Aldrich Senate Report (No. 1394) is my authority for wage and price levels 
between the years 1840 and 1890. Prior to 1840 there was no published wage 
8 



114 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



level, but from data given in the Annual Report of the Mass. Bureau of Statis- 
tics of Labor for 1885, I was able to deduce the wage levels back to 1790. 

Fig. 12 and Table LIX give the daily wage level for almost every year for 
the last 130 years. Table LIX also gives the wage level at five year intervals 
prior to 1790. 

The buying power of the average wage is ascertainable by dividing the 
average wage by the average commodity price, or, what amounts to the same 
thing, by dividing the wage level by the commodity price level. For this 



260 




^ean ^-CaJif-^^^Civil 



Great Increase ^-^ WprlJ 
In Worlds. War 

6ola Begins 



Fig. 12. — Wage and price levels. 
(The Wage Levels are from Table LIX the footnote of which gives their source. 
The unweighted Price Levels from 1791 to 1840 are from an article by H. V, 
Roelse in the American Statistical Assoc. Quarterly, December, 1917; the weighted 
Price Levels from 1840 to 1890 are from the Aldrich Senate Report (No. 1394); 
the weighted Price Levels from 1890 to 1920 are from the U. S. Bureau of Labor). 



purpose it would be desirable to use a retail price level, but since none Is 
available, the wholesale price level must be used. Except during periods of 
very rapid changes in price levels, retail prices change in almost the same 
proportion as wholesale prices change. Hence, for the purpose of this article, 
no error occurs from using the wholesale price level. 

The last column of Table LX gives the relative "real" wage, or the buying 
power of the average wage in America for the last 130 years. It is deduced 
by dividing the numbers in the second column by the corresponding numbers 
in the third column. The buying power of the average wage being 100 for 



PRICES AND WAGES 



115 



Tab]le 


LIX.—Wage 


Level 


OR "Inde 


!X" FOR J 


-Average ; 


Day's W^ 


LGE, THE 




Average 


Wage in 


1913 Being 100% 








Wage 




Wage 




Wage 




Wage 


Year 


level 


Year 


level 


Year 


level 


Year 


level 


1752... 


15 


1846. 


40 


1873.. 


. ... 75 


1900... 


. . . . 76 


1755... 


15 


1847. 


41 


1874.. 


74 


1901... 


. . . . 80 


1760... 


. 11 


1848. 


42 


1875.., 


. ... 72 


1902... 


. . . . 82 


1765... 


16 


1849., 


41 


1876. .. 


, . . . 69 


1903... 


85 


1770... 


15 


1850. 


41 


1877... 


66 


1904... 


. . . . 85 


1775... 


16 


1851. 


41 


1878... 


. .. 64 


1905... 


. . . . 86 


1780... 


19 


1852., 


42 


1879... 


... 64 


1906. . . 


91 


1785... 


22 


1853. , 


42 


1880... 


...65 


1907..., 


. ... 92 


1790... 


18 


1854., 


43 


1881... 


...69 


1908..., 


. . . . 89 


1794... 


25 


1855.. 


44 


1882... 


...70 


1909.... 


, . . . 90 


1795... 


28 


'1856.. 


44 


1883... 


...72 


1910.... 


... 93 


1797... 


25 


1857.. 


45 


1884... 


...71 


1911 


, ... 95 


1800 . . . 


25 


1858. . 


44 


1885... 


...71 


1912.... 


. .. 97 


1802... 


33 


1859.. 


45 


1886... 


...71 


1913..., 


... 100 


1804... 


35 


I860.. 


.... 45 


1887... 


...71 


1914.... 


. .. 102 


1805 . . . 


40 


1861. . 


.... 46 


1888... 


...72 


1915.... 


. .. 103 


1810... 


45 


1862.. 


47 


1889 . . . 


...74 


1916 


... Ill 


1815 


42 


1863.. 
1864.. 


.... 54 
61 


1890... 
1891... 


...76 

...77 


1917.... 
1918.... 


... 128 


1820... 


52 


... 162 


1830... 


36 


1865.. 


.... 68 


1892... 


.. . 77 


1919.... 


. .. 184 


1835... 


....... 36 


1866. . 


.... 71 


1893... 


...76 


1920.... 


. .. 220 


1840... 


37 


1867.. 


.... 75 


1894... 


...74 






1841... 


36 


1868.. 


.... 75 


1895... 


. .. 74 






1842... 


38 


1869.. 


.... 76 


1896... 


...75 






1843... 


38 


1870.. 


.... 76 


1897... 


...75 






1844... 


38 


1871.. 


.... 76 


1898... 


...76 






1845... 


39 


1872.. 


.... 76 


1899... 


...77 







Note: From 1752 to 1840 these wage levels have been deduced by H. P« 
Gillette from wage statistics given in the annual report of the Massachusetts 
Bureau of Statistics of Labor for 1885, as compiled in "Comparative Wages, 
Prices and Cost of Living," by Carroll D. Wright, and are based mainly on New 
England wages paid to farm labor and to construction labor. From 1840 
to 1890, the wage levels are those given in the Aldrich Senate Report, No. 1394, 
and are a weighted average of about 20 trades. According to that report, the 
average length of the working day was 11.4 hours in 1840; 11 hours in 1860, and 
10 hours in 1890. From 1890 to 1920 these day wage levels have been deduced 
by H. P. Gillette from data in the monthly Labor Review of the U. S. Bureau 
of Labor, and in the monthly Labor. Market Bulletin of the New York State 
Industrial Commission and in the monthly Crop Reporter of the U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 



Table LX. — Buying Power of Average Daily Wage in United States 

Wholesale Buying 

Wage price power 

Year level level of wage 

1790 18 88 20 

1800 28 136 20 

1810 45 136 33 

1820 52 96 54 

1830 36 83 43 

1840 37 89 42 

1850. 41 83 49 

I860.... 45 90 50 

1870 76 117 65 

1880 65 93 70 

1890 76 84 90 

1900 76 82 93 

1910 93 97 97 

1913 100 100 100 

1920 220 243 91 

Note: The Buying Power of the Wage is deduced by dividing the Wage Level 
by the Wholesale Price Level. 



116 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

the year 1913, it was 50 for the year 1860; and 20 for the year 1800. In other 
words, within 113 years the "real" wage of the average worker in America 
had increased fourfold, until it was fivefold as great at the end of that period 
as at the beginning! The same astonishing increase occurred in Great 
Britain, as will be shown later. 

In my price level article, I deduced the per capita efficiency of productive- 
ness in America by 5-year periods, from 1859 to 1919; and it is there shown 
that this efficiency doubled between the years 1860 and 1910, which is in almost 
precise accord with the results shown in Table LX, although they were arrived 
at in an entirely different way. 

Table LXI gives the changes in wages and in commodity prices in England, 
and its footnote gives the sources of the data. In connection it is important 
to observe that the weight of the pound sterling changed many times between 
the thirteenth and the nineteenth centuries, and that, therefore it is necessary 
to multiply English wages and prices prior to 1816 by factors to render them 
comparable with modern wages and prices. Accordingly, Table LXII has 
been prepared for this purpose. As silver was the common currency prior to 
the nineteenth century I have used the factors for silver (last column of Table 
LXIIj in equating ancient English wages and prices. Prior to 1782 there are 
no British commodity price level or index data, but I have used average prices 
of wheat for periods of three years as the basis of price levels. 

Table LXI shows that for five centuries the buying power of English wages 
was practically stationary. Then came a marvelous increase, beginning 
about the year 1800. In 114 years the buying power of the average wage 
rose from about 36 to 160: 

Between the years 1600 and 1800 pure science made enormous strides. 
Then came its first fruits with the invention of an econorgiic steam engine and 
scores of other labor-saving devices. The age of pure science dawned about 
the year 1600. The age of applied science (that is, engineering) dawned about 
the year 1800. What engineering has accomplished in a little more than a 
century is truly amazing. Yet the public is so ignorant of both the degree 
of the accomplishment and the primary cause of it that not one man in ten can 
name either one. 

It was not labor unions that raised average money wages, for that occurred 
as a result of the increase in per capita money as will be shown later. Nor did 
labor unions raise "real" wages, for that was the result of applied science. 
Labor unions reached the apex of their strength in Britain two centuries ago, 
but without the slightest effect on the buying power of English wages. Skilled 
labor in England secured an average wage that was about 50 per cent greater 
than that of common labor as far back as the year 1400, and it has never been 
able to increase that ratio. In fact, during the recent war, skilled labor fell 
behind unskilled labor in the race. It is profoundly significant that the most 
completely organized labor in England has been unable during five centuries 
to increase its average wage more rapidly than that of unorganized or common 
labor. 

Fortunately for Britain, its free trade policy during the last century has 
prevented any extensive curtailment of output by trades unions for any exten- 
sive period of time. America has always been almost free from such curtail- 
ment. Hence these two nations have progressed almost at the same rate in 
the Increased buying power of the average wage. 

Since economists are agreed that about three-fourths of all income goes to 
workers and one-fourth to capital, it is evident that future increases in "real" 



PRICES AND WAGES 117 

Table LXI. — English Wages and Their Buying Power 

Buying 

Skilled power 

Year worker Laborer Price level of wage 

1292 $0.36 $0.17 50 34 

1400 0.29 0.17 45 38 

1494 0.21 0.12 30 40 

1601 0.28 0.19 75 26 

1699 0.64 0.42 116 36 

1778 0.70 0.45 120 37 

1788.. 0.76 0.47 125 38 

1797 0.89 0.57 159 36 

1801 1.02 0.61 198 31 

1803 1.25 0.61 178 34 

1826-61 1.20 0.72 

1861-65 1.40 0.85 ... ... 

1865-66 1.50 0.90 117 77 

1866-72 1.60 0.95 

1872-73 1.70 1.05 

1873-78 1.80 1.15 129 81 

1914 2.30 1.60 100 160 

1920 5.60 5.00 290 172 

Note: These wage data are based upon wages given by William Hardy in the 
London Times, Aug. 31, 1920, but the wages given by him have been multiplied 
by the factors given in the last column of Table LXII. The wages of "skilled 
workers" are the average wages paid to carpenters, masons, bricklayers and 
joiners engaged on public building construction and maintenance in London. 
The wages of "laborers" relate to the helpers of the "skilled workers." The 
wages of laborers correspond closely to those given for farm laborers in "A 
History of Agriculture and Prices in England, 1259 to 1793," by Rogers. This 
monumental treatise is my source of information as to the prices prior to 1788. 
The "price level" data from 1292 to 1778 are based upon the average price of 
wheat, which, as both Rogers and Adam Smith observe, was the greatest staple 
used by workers. The price of wheat, moreover, varied substantially as the 
prices of other foodstuffs varied. From 1788 to 1860, the price level is that of 
Jevons; from 1861 to 1872, that of Sauerbeck; from 1873 to 1920, that of the 
"Economist.'* 

Table LXII. — Factors by which to Multiply English Prices and Wages 
TO Equate to Present Standard 

Factor for 

Years Gold Silver 

1066-1344 3.30 

1344-1349 3. 55 3. 26 

1349-1356 3. 33 2. 93 

1356-1421 3. 10 2. 64 

1421-1464 2. 80 2. 20 

1464-1465 2.24 1.76 

1465-1527 2. 08 1. 76 

1527 1.73 to 1.95 1.47 to 1.65 

1527-1543 1. 86 1. 47 

1543-1545 1. 62 1. 37 

1545-1549 1.55 1.37 

1549-1551 1. 37 0. 92 

1551 1.30 to 1.41 1.10 

1551-1553 1. 41 1. 10 

1553-1560 1.30 1.10 

1560-1600 1.41 1. 10 

1600 1.28 to 1.39 1.06 

1600-1604 .- 1. 39 1. 06 

1604-1626 1.25 1.06 

1626-1666 1.14 1.06 

1666-1717 1.05 1.06 

1717-1816 1.00 1.06 

1816-1920 1.00 1.00 

Note: These factors have been deduced from data given in "History of Prices 
and the State of Circulation," by Thos. Tooke, 



118 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

wages are infinitely more dependent upon increased productivity than upon 
securing a greater share of the total product. There is no reason why " real" 
wages can not be increased as greatly during the next century as during the 
past century. If this is accomplished the average common laborer in the year 
2000 will have "real" wages as great as those of the average $6,000-a-year- 
man of today. 

Up to 1824 the working day in America was from "sun up to sun down." 
By 1840 it had been reduced to an average of 11.4 hours, and by 1890 to 10 
hours. It is now probably about 9 hours, possibly 8.5 hours. Since Table 
LX gives only the increase in the buying power of average daily wages, at 
least 40 per cent should be added to the buying power in 1913 in comparing 
it with that in 1800, if both are to be compared on the basis of wages per hour. 
When this is done, we see that the buying power of an hour's wages in 1913 
was fully seven times that in 1800. 

The Author's Wage Level Formula. — The average wage paid in any country 
during any given year would be ascertainable by dividing the total money 
spent for wages by the total number of workers. This may be expressed thus: 

Money Spent for Wager 

Average wage = 

Number of Workers 

But the money spent for wages is a very constant percentage of the total 
expenditures, as a study of the census statistics indicates. The total annual 
expenditures are equal to the average number of dollars of currency multi- 
plied by the number of times the money is "turned over" during the year. 
And the number of workers is a very constant percentage of the population ; so 
if we indicate this percentage by the letter k, and the population by the letter 
P, the number of workers is k X P. Similarly, if we indicate the wage per- 
centage of the total expenditures by c the number of dollars of money in 
circulation by M, and the velocity of circulation by V, the total money spent 
for wages will be c X M X V. Hence the above given formula for the 
average wage becomes: 

c X M X V 
Average wage = — - — '^-— 

K X P 

Since it is difficult to ascertain the exact value of c and, since we are mainly 
concerned in ascertaining a "relative wage," or "wage level" (W), we can 
pass at once to the desired wage level formula by substituting another constant 
(K) for the quotient of the constant c divided by the constant k. We then 
have: 

M X V 
Wage level (W) = K X 

This Is the desired formula for wage levels, and an application of it to actual 
daily wage levels discloses that the constant K has a value of H when the wage 
level is taken at 100 for the year 1913. Hence we have: 

M X V' 
W = >^ X — ^— 

This gives the annual wage level, but since the number of days worked 
annually is normally about constant, it also gives approximately the dally 
wage level. 



PRICES AND WAGES 



119 



It will be seen that this wage level formula differs from my commodity price 
level formula in not containing a factor for efficiency of production (E) . The 
price level formula is : 

M X V 

The buying power of the daily wage is measured by dividing the daily wage 
level (W) by the commodity price level (w). Hence, if we divide the last 
equation into the equation preceding it we get : 



Buying Power of Wage I — 







XE 



Expressed verbally this last formula means that the buying power of the 
average wage is proportional to the per capita efficiency of production. If the 
wage level formula is found to be correct, the conclusion is inevitable that 
the level of " real " wages rises or falls exactly in proportion to the rise or fall in 

















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Ifi90 1395 1900 1905 l$IO 1915 

year 

Fig. 13. — Actual compared with calculated wage levels. 

per capita efficiency of production, I have established the correctness of the 
commodity price level formula by showing that it accords closely with commo- 
dity price levels. It now remains to prove the correctness of the wage level 
formula in the same manner. Table LXIII and Fig. 13 show such a comparison 
for the past 30 years. The agreement is very close. Unfortunately, values 
for velocity of circulation (V) cannot be very accurately estimated much back 
of 1889, but, since V has a value that oscillates between 8 and 11, we may 
assume it to have been 10 every year, and if the value for the wage level 
derived by substituting 10 for V in the wage level formula agree roughly with 
the actual wage levels for the past 80 years we may be certain that the wage 
level formula is substantially correct. Table XLIV shows such a comparison 
by 5-year intervals from 1840 to 1920. It is, I believe, a complete proof of 
the substantial truth of the wage level formula. Therefore, we reach this 
very imporant (and, so far as I know, novel) generalization: 



120 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Aside from the relatively minor fluctuations in the velocity of circulation 
of the currency, the general wage level is proportional to the per capita cur- 
rency in circulation. 

Having this information it becomes possible to forecast the future trend of 
daily wage levels, or wage indexes. Per capita gold is now 54 per cent above 
the 1913 level, and per capita currency of all kinds, including gold, is 60 per 
cent above the 1913 level. If we hold this increase in currency, the new wage 
level will be 60 per cent above the prewar level. The only question then is as 
to the probable future trend of our per capita currency. 

For the past two years our per capita currency has been nearly constant. 
The decrease in paper money (Federal Reserve notes) has been offset by the 

Table LXIII. — Wage Levels, Actual and Calculated by a Correct 

Formula 

Wage level Wage level 

Year Actual Calculated Year Actual Calculated 

1890 76 74 1910 94 94 

1895 74 67 1915 103 97 

1900 76 78 1920 200 204 

1905 86 85 

Note: The formula used was: W = H X M/P X V, or the wage level is one- 
third the per capita money multiplied by its velocity of circulation. The velocity 
of circulation is the ratio of adjusted annual bank clearings to average bank 
deposits (individual), the adjustment being made as explained in the article 
on Past and Future Price Levels at the beginning of this chapter. 

Table LXIV. — Wage Levels, Actual and Calculated by an Approximate 

Formula 

Wage level 

Year Actual Calculated Year 

1840 37 36 1885 

1850 41 40 1890 

1855 44 51 1895 

1860 45 46 1900 

1865 68 68 1905 

1870 76 58 1910 

1875 72 57 1915....... 

1880 65 65 1920 

Note: The formula used was: W = ^% X M/P, or the wage level is ten-thirds 
of the per capita money. This formula is only approximately correct, for it 
assumes a constant velocity of circulation of money. See Table LXIII for an 
application of the more precise wage level formula. 

inflow of gold. The great nations of Europe have Issued huge quantities of 
paper money, which would normally drive out much of their gold to other 
nations, even were they not debtors to those other nations to begin with. 
But the victorious allied war nations are debtors to America to an enormous 
extent — about $9,000,000,000. The payment of the interest on this huge 
sum would alone increase our per capita currency 6 per cent annually. Al- 
though our per capita gold is already 54 per cent above the prewar level, it is 
almost certain to rise still more in the next few years, not merely because of 
Interest payments from Europe, but because of the economic necessity of 
restoring the exchange equilibrium. 

Every great per capita increase of currency in any nation results in a flow of 
its gold to countries whose per capita increase has not been so great. During 
and following our Civil War, most of our gold flowed away to Europe. The 
same phenomena is now occurring in a reverse direction, but for the same 
reason. 



Wage level 


Actual 


Calculated 


71 


77 


76 


76 


74 


77 


76 


89 


86 


103 


94 


114 


103 


120 


220 


191 



PRICES AND WAGES 



121 



For these reasons, and based on the history of the flow of gold during and 
after previous great modern wars, it is safe to infer that our present per capita 
currency will not decrease materially during the next few years, and that it will 
ultimately increase. 





Table LXV.- 


—Day Wages 


IN New 


England 




















Farm 


Year 










Carpenter 


Laborer 


laborer 


1752.... 














$0.33 


$0.33 


1755.... 














0.33 


0.36 


1760.... 














0.25 


0.25 


1765.... 














0.33 


0.36 


1770.... 












$0.44 


0.34 


0.34 


1775... 












0.36 


0.38 


0.34 


1780... 












0.44 


0.44 


0.42 


1785.... 












0.59 


0.56 


0.41 


1790... 












0.59 


0.40 


0.38 


1795 ... 












0.75 


0.67 


0.57 


1800... 












0.92 


0.69 


0.42 


1805 .... 












1.46 


0.77 


1.00 


1810.... 












1.05 


1.00 


1.00 


1815. ... 












0.87 


0.99 


0.87 


1820... 












1.00 


0.68 


0.75 


1827... 














1.00 




1830... . 














0.74 


0.87 


1835. ... 












1.30 


0.73 


0.87 


1840.... 














0.78 




1845.... 












1.29 


1.00 


0.95 


1850.... 












1.50 


1.00 




1855... . 












1.55 


1.00 




I860.... 












1.37 


1.10 


1.06 


Note: These wages 


are from the Annual Report of the Massachusetts Bureau 


of Statistics of Labor for 1885 


, as 


1 compiled by Carroll D. Wright 


in his book on 


"Comparative Wages, 


Prices and Cost of Living." 








Table LXVI.- 


-Day Wages 


IN Building Trades 










Pennsylvania 




-Massachusetts 
















Mason's 


Carpenter's 


Year 






Carpenter's 


Mason 


helper 


helper 


1840... 








$1.25 








1845... 








1.25- 








1850... 






1. 


25-1. 


37 








1855... 








1.50 






$0.74 


1860... 








1.75 


$1.75 


$1.05 


0.83 


1862 . . . 






2. 


00-2. 


25 


1.78 


1.09 


0.88 


1864... 






2. 


25-3. 


00 


2.03 


1.43 


1.00 


1865... 






2. 


35-2. 


75 


2.35 


1.50 


1.25 


1866... 






2. 


50-2. 


64 


2.91 


1.75 


1.62 


1868... 






2. 


50-2. 


67 


3.21 


1.81 


1.39 


1870... 






2. 


50-2. 


65 


3.62 


2.06 


1.42 


1875... 






2. 


36-2. 


75 


2.96 


1.68 


1.50 


1880... 






2. 


30-2. 


75 


2.41 


1.75 


1.18 


1885... 






2. 


70-2. 


75 


3.59 


1.58 


1.21 


1890... 






2. 


70-2. 


88 


3.40 


1.56 


1.12 



Note: These wages are from the Aldrich Senate Report No. 1394. 

In answering this important question of the flow of gold between countries, 
the price formula can be applied to advantage. It can be easily shown that 
the average prices in two countries that trade with one another on a large 
scale must become substantially equal. Hence we may deduce that the per 
capita money in each of two such countries must be proportional to their 
per capita efficiency of production. Also, it follows that gold must flow from 
the less efficient nation to the more efficient nation, also that it must flow from 
the nation that has increased its paper money to the country that has not 



122 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



increased its paper money so greatly. This is a disturbing factor that America 
has to reckon with for years to come, and it may result in a marked increase 
in our per capita currency, hence in our money wages within a few years. 

Table LXVII. — Average Annual Wages and Salaries in Manufacturing 



Year Salary 

1849 
.1859 

1869 

1879 

1889 

1899 

1904 

1909 

1914 

1919' 

* For only 15 states. 

Note: Prior to 1889 the U. S. Census reports do not give wages and salaries 
separately. The compensation is supposed to be given in currency throughout 
the entire period; but judging from the wage levels for 1869 arid 1879, it would 
appear that many manufacturers reported wages paid in gold, which was then at 
a premium. Excepting for those two census years the wage levels in this table 
agree very well with those in Tables LIX and LXVIII. The census report for 
1919 is not yet completed, so the data in this table for 1919 are merely indicative 
in a general way, as they apply only to 15 states. 









... $ 




850 




046 




108 




188 




880 


* 


941 



Industries 
















Salary 








Salary 


and 


Salary 




Wage 


and 


wage 


level 


Wage 


level 


wage 

$ 248 

289 

378 

347 


level 
37 
43 
56 
52 


64 


$ 444 


76 


484 


72 


78 


426 


74 


469 


70 


82 


477 


82 


532 


79 


89 


518 


89 


590 


88 


100 


580 


100 


671 


100 


140 


1,074* 


185 


1,178* 


176 





Table LXVIII.— Hourly Wage 


Index. 


Year 1913 = 100% 






Wage 




Wage 




Wage 




Wage 


Year 


index 


Year 


index 


Year 


index 


Year 


index 


1840. 


33 


I860.. 


. ... 39 


1880.. 


. . . . 60 


1900 


. 73 


1841. 


34 


1861.. 


. ... 40 


1881 . . 


. ... 62 


1901 


. 74 


1842. 


33 


1862. . 


41 


1882. . 


63 


1902 


77 


1843. 


33 


1863.. 


44 


1883.. 


. . . . 64 


1903 


. 80 


1844. 


32 


1864. . 


50 


1884.. 


. ... 64 


1904 


. 80 


1845. 


33 


1865.. 


58 


1885.. 


. ... 64 


1905 


. 82 


1846. 


34 


1866.. 


. ... 61 


1886.. 


. ... 64 


1906 


. 85 


1847. 


34 


1867. . 


63. 


1887.. 


. . . . 67 


1907 


. 89 


1848. 


35 


1868.. 


. ... 65 


1888. . 


. . . . 67 


1908 


. 89 


1849. 


36 


1869.. 


. . . . 66 


1889.. 


. . . . 68 


1909 


. 90 


1850. 


35 


1870. . 


67 


1890. . 


69 


1910 


. 93 


1851. 


34 


1871.. 


. . . . 68 


1891.. 


. . . . 69 


1911 


, 95 


1852. 


35 


1872.. 


. . . . 69 


1892.. 


. . . . 69 


1912 


. 97 


1853. 


35 


1873.. 


69 


1893.. 


. . . . 69 


1913 


. 100 


1854. 


37 


1874.. 


. ... 67 


1894.. 


. . . . 67 


1914 


. 102 


1855. 


38 


1875. . 


67 


1895 . . 


68 


1915 


. 103 


1856. 


39 


1876.. 


. . . . 64 


1896.. 


. . . . 69 


1916 


. Ill 


1857. 


40 


1877.. 


. . . . 61 


1897.. 


. . . . 69 


1917 


. 128 


1858. 


39 


1878. . 


. . . . 60 


1898.. 


. . . . 69 


1918 


. 162 


1859. 


39 


1879.. 


. ... 59 


1899.. 


. ... 70 


19191. ... 
19202 


. 1184 
. 2234 



1 This index number applies to the spring of 1919. Wage rates advanced 
during the year. 

2 This index number applies to the summer of 1920, and probably represents 
the wage peak of the year. 

Note: Wages are in currency throughout the entire period. This wage level 
table was compiled by the U. S. Bureau of Labor. 

One of the most important conclusions to be drawn from the wage level 
formula is this: In the past 30 years per capita bank deposits have increased 
twice as rapidly as per capita money. Since bank deposits are nearly 6 times 
as great as currency, it would follow that if inflation of bank deposits (or 
*' credit money") acts precisely as inflation of currency acts, then wages 



PRICES AND WAGES 



123 



should have risen nearly twice as much as they actually did rise in the last 30 
years. The failure of wage levels to follow increases in per capita bank 
deposits, therefore demolishes the theory that "credit currency" (bank 
deposits) affects wage levels in the same manner that real currency affects 
wage levels. I had already shown the fallacy of this theory in my article on 
price levels ; but it is now shown again from this wage level study. It can no 
longer be successfully contended that changes in per capita currency are 
relatively immaterial so long as changes in the volume of credit occur. The 
truth is that "credit currency" is of comparatively minor importance as a 
factor in the changes in wage and price levels, its only effect being the relatively 
small fluctuations that it causes in the velocity of money circulation. 

Table LXIX. — Indexes of Union Minimum Wage Rates and Hours of 
Labor. Year 1913 = 100% 



Year 
1907. 
1908. 
1909. 
1910. 
1911. 
1912. 
1913. 
1914. 
1915. 
1916. 
1917. 
1918. 
1919. 
1920. 





inaex oi 


Rates of 


Rates of 


Full-time 


wages 


wages 


hours 


per week, 


per hour 


per week 


full-time 


90 


103 


92 


91 


102 


93 


92 


102 


93 


94 


101 


95 


96 


101 


96 


98 


100 


98 


100 


100 


100 


102 


100 


. 102 


103 


99 


102 


107 


99 


106 


114 


98 


112 


133 


97 


130 


155 


95 


148 


199 


94 


189 



Note: Based on union minimum wage rates as of May 1 of each year, compiled 
by U. S. Bureau of Labor. 




JULY 


JULY 


JULY 


JULY 


JULY 


JULY 


JULY 


JULY 


1913 


1914 


1915 


1916 


1917 


1918 


1919 


I9?0 



FiG^. 14.- 



- Average rates of wages in 22 building trades in cities shown, compiled 
from schedule of Chicago Builders' Association. 



124 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Wages in Building Trades. — W. N. Patten, in Stone and Webster Journal 
(reprinted in Engineering and Contracting, May 25, 1921) gives the following: 

Fig. 14 shows increase in the average rates of wages for twenty-two repre- 
sentative trades in the construction industry for the period between July, 
1913, and Jan. 1, 1921, for the cities of San Francisco, Galveston, New York, 
Pittsburgh, Boston and Cincinnati. 



Table LXX. — Average Building Wages Per Hour 
(According to U. S. Bureau of Labor.) 

Year 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 
Building trades 

Bricklayers 686 .699 .706 .713 .734 .789 .878 1. 200 

Bricklayers — sewer, t u n n el, 

and caisson 960 .960 .960 .960 .989 1.065 1.085 1.459 

Building laborers 309.312.312.327.361 .423 .482 .698 

Carpenters. 530 . 541 . 546 . 562 . 610 .668 . 774 1. 034 

Carpenters, parquetry-floor 

layers 568 . 603 . 608 . 614 . 659 .739 .847 1.245 

Cement finishers 552 . 557 . 563 . 568 . 6D2 .662 . 745 1. 010 

Cement finishers' helpers 360 . 364 . 364 . 367 . 382 . 447 . 508 . 814 

Cement finishers' laborers .... . .418 .418 .418 .431 .460 .535 .606 .907 

Engineers, portable and hoist- 
ing 586 . 592 . 598 . 604 . 633 .727 . 797 1. 032 

Hod carriers 356 . 359 . 363 . 373 . 416 .487 .569 . 825 

Inside wiremen 547 . 564 . 575 . 586 . 624 .695 . 799 1.051 

Inside wiremen, fixture hangers .491 .521 .521 .540 .580 .634 .707 .953 

Lathers .....485.494.499.514.533 .577 .640 ,916 

Marble setters 665.672.678.678.685 .718 .798 1,051 

Marble setters' helpers .404 .408 .408 .408 . 432 .453 .517 . 873 

Painters 505 .520 .526 .571 .591 .652 .763 1.041 

Painters, fresco 544 . 566 . 566 . 636 . 642 .664 . 778 1. 115 

Painters, sign. 629 . 629 . 629 . 648 . 674 .736 . 888 1, 196 

Plasterers 674.680.680.707 728 .761 883 1.152 

Plasterers' laborers . 409 . 417 . 417 . 429 . 458 . 528 601 . 871 

Plumbers and gas fitters 619 .625 .631 .637 .662 . 724 .823 1. 064 

Sheet-metal workers 512 . 532 . 538 . 548 . 573 . 671 . 737 . 988 

Steam fitters 598 . 610 . 622 . 634 . 658 .723 .807 1. 070 

Steam fitters' helpers 312 . 319 . 328 . 331 . 353 .409 . 490 . 709 

Stonemasons 610 . 628 . 634 . 646 . 671 . 731 .823 1 . 146 

Structural-ironworkers..... . .617 .629 .629 .641 .678 .777 .882 1.104 

Structural-iron workers, finish- 
ers 594 . 606 . 606 . 618 . 647 .730 . 814 1.069 

Structural-iron workers, finish- 
ers' helpers 405.409.409.409.445 .498 .599 .826 

Tile layers 652 . 658 . 658 . 671 . 704 .723 . 788 1. 062 

Tile layers' helpers 359 . 362 . 373 . 387 . 398 . 409 . 498 . 814 

Metal Trades 

Blacksmiths 426 . 435 . 435 . 452 . 486 .694 .758 .899 

Blacksmiths' helpers 276 .279 .287 .301 . 337 . 492 . 550 .663 

Machinists 391.399.399.454.497 .654 .724 .818 

Machinists' helpers 274 . 274 . 274 . 293 . 323 .411 .460 ,575 

Note: In the building trades the average day was 8 hrs., but after 1916 there 
was an almost universal adherence to a 44-hour week. 



Wages of Common Labor on Construction Work. — The wages shown in 
Table LXXI are approximately the same as those paid common labor on 
construction work. Table LXXII shows that the average wage varied 
greatly in different sections of the U. S. These data are from the Monthly 
Crop Report, pubhshed by the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



PRICES AND WAGES 



125 



[^LE LXXI. — Average Day Wages of Farm Labor in U. 
(Without board and during harvest time) 



Year 


Wage 


Year 


Wage 


Year 


Wage 


Year 


Wage 


1866 


2.20 


1888 


1.31 


1898 


1.30 


1913 


1.94 


1869 


2.20 


1890 


1.30 


1899 


1.37 


1914 


1.91 


1875 


1.70 


1892 


1.30 


1902 


1.53 


1915 


1.92 


1879 


1.30 


1893 


1.24 


1910 


1.82 


1916 


2.07 


1882 


1.48 


1894 


1.13 


1911 


1.85 


1917 


2.54 


1885 


1.40 


1895 


1.14 


1912 


1.87 


1918 
1919 
1920 


3.22 
3.83 
4.36 



Note: These wages are for farm labor hired at harvest time; but at other times 
of the year the wages were less, being about 33% less in 1866, 25% less in 1914, 
and 20% less in 1919. 



Table LXXII. — Day Wages of Farm Labor 
(Without board and during harvest time.) 



State 1910 1919 

Alabama. 1.26 2.30 

Arizona 2. 24 3. 65 

Arkansas 1. 55 3. 10 

California 2. 48 4. 69 

Colorado 2. 47 4. 60 

Connecticut 2. 00 3. 75 

Delaware 1. 55 4. 00 

Florida 1.46 2.30 

Georgia 1.23 2.30 

Idaho 2.80 4.95 

Illinois 2.30 4.63 

Indiana 2.07 4.30 

Iowa 2.51 5.20 

Kansas 2.57 6.05 

Kentucky. 1.71 3.35 

Louisiana 1 . 25 2. 56 

Maine., 1.95 3.85 

Maryla-tid 1.64 3.70 

Massachusetts 1 . 92 3. 75 

Michigan 2. 10 4. 30 

Minnesota 2. 65 5. 15 

Mississippi 1.22 2.30 

Missouri 1.93 4.35 

Montana 2. 80 4. 95 

Nebraska 2. 60 6. 25 

Nevada 2.38 4.45 

New Hampshire 1 . 84 3. 80 

New Jersey 2.15 4. 10 

New Mexico 1.88 3.20 

New York . , 2. 22 4. 02 

Note: North Atlantic division: Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massa- 
chusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania; 
South Atlantic division; Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North 
Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida; North Central division (east of 
Mississippi River): Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin; North 
Central division (West of Mississippi River): Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, North 
Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas; South Central division: Kentucky, 
Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas; Far 
Western division: Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, 
Nevada, Idaho, Washington, Oregon, and California. 



State 1910 1919 

North Carolina 1. 28 3. 01 

North Dakota 3. 03 5. 85 

Ohio 2.07 4.22 

Oklahoma 1.97 4.80 

Oregon 2.60 4.85 

Pennsylvania 1. 96 3. 71 

Rhode Island 2. 05 3. 50 

South Carolina 1. 12 2. 40 

South Dakota 2. 95 6. 00 

Tennessee 1. 44 2. 70 

Texas 1.57 3.68 

Utah 2.20 4. 10 

Vermont 2. 25 3. 82 

Virginia 1. 44 3. 10 

Washington 2. 78 5. 40 

West Virginia 1. 65 3. 40 

Wisconsin 2. 20 4. 02 

Wyoming 2. 50 4. 70 

Average 1. 82 3. 83 



Geographic Division 

North Atlantic 2. 08 3. 86 

South Atlantic 1 . 33 2. 82 

North Central East 2.16 4. 32 

North Central West 2. 43 5. 33 

South Central 1.47 3.14 

Far Western 2. 52 4. 67 



126 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

These wages are approximately the same as those paid for common labor 
on construction work. In the South Atlantic and South Central Divisions 
the laborers are mostly negroes. 

Rate of Wages per Hour for Common Labor on Highway Work, 1912 to 
1919. — Engineering and Contracting, March 19, 1919, reprints a committee 
report to the 1919 convention of the American Road Builder's Association, in 
regard to labor conditions as regards highway work, from which the following 
data are abstracted. 

A questionnaire was sent out to all state highway departments, to the city 
engineer of all cities having a population in excess of 100,000 and to many 
of the large road-building contractors throughout the country. Replies to this 
questionnaire were received from 39 of the 48 state highway departments, from 
54 of the 82 cities to which it was sent, and from 24 road contractors. 

Summary of Replies from State Highway Departments. — Thirty-nine 
state highway departments made replies to the questionnaire. As some of the 
departments are only 2 years old their replies were not used in figuring average 
rates of wages. 

In 1912 the average rate per hour as reported by 27 states was $ 188, while 
in the same year Georgia was paying $0.09 and Nevada was paying $.40 
Only six states were paying $.25 or more and 10 states were paying $ 15 or 
less — the most of them less. In 1913 the average as reported by 28 states 
was $.20. In 1914 the same states report an average of $.205, in 1915 of 
$.225, in 1916 of $.2585, in 1917 of $.303 and in 1918 of $.39. The highest 
rate for 1918 is reported by Oregon and is $.58. The lowest is by South 
Carolina and is $.18 per hour. 

Summaries of Replies from Cities. ^Fifty-f OUT out of 82 cities replied to the 
questionnaire. Forty-six furnished information as to wages for all years from 

1912 to 1918. Taking the year 1912, Spokane, Wash., reports $.37H per 
hour, which was the highest, and Birmingham, Ala., with $.14 was the lowest, 
while the average rate for the year was $.234. In 1913 these 46 cities report 
an average wage of $.238 per hour. In 1914 the average was $.245; in 1915, 
$.255; in 1916, $.276; in 1917, $.312; in 1918, $.384. Boston, Mass., reported 
the highest rate for 1918. It is $.52>^ per hour. San Antonio, Tex., had the 
lowest for the year, $.25, while Atlanta, Ga., and New Haven, Conn., both 
report a wage of $.28 

Summaries of Replies from Contractors. — Twenty-four contracting firms, 
well distributed throughout the country, make replies, Which may be summar- 
ized as follows:. The average rate of wages they paid in 1912 was $.192; in 

1913 it was $.20; in 1914, $.21; in 1915, $.23; in 1916, $.256; in 1917, $.315;in 
1918, $.397. 

Wages of Skilled and Common Labor Paid by Railroads 1896-1917. — 
Tables LXXIII and LXXIV have been prepared from the records of daily 
compensation given in the annual Reports of the Interstate Commerce Com- 
mission. These records start with the year ended June 30, 1892. The 
United States has been divided into territorial districts and all railroads 
(excepting terminal and switching companies) within each district are 
included. 

From 1892-1910 inclusive the country was divided into 10 districts as 
shown in Fig. 15. 

From July 1, 1910 the country has been divided into three districts and the 
roads classified as Class I, II or III depending upon the amount of gross 
earnings. 



pr/ces and wages 



127 




128 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The "Eastern District" is made up of the New England States together 
with New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, the North- 
ern part of West Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan with the exception of the 
northern peninsula and that part of Illinois east of a line from Chicago to 
Peoria and to East St. Louis. 

The "Southern District" consists of Kentucky, West Virginia, Virginia, 
Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Mississippi, 
that part of Louisiana east of the Mississippi River and Alabama. 

The "Western District" consists of all states west of the Mississippi River 
and the western boundary line of the Eastern District, referred to above 
and running from East St. Louis to Peoria to Chicago. 

Commencing July 1, 1914 the compensation is given as the average hourly 
rate, instead of the daily rate as previous to that date. The employees 
of the roads were also classified more extensively. 

In 1916 reports were changed from the fiscal year ending June 30th to a 
fiscal year coinciding with the calendar year. 

In 1917 only compensation of Class I carriers is given (hourly compensation 
report.) However, Class I employees aggregated approximately 94.5 per 
cent of the total in the United States and therefore Table LXXIII has been 
prepared, giving compensation records for this class only. 

The following statement, given in the ICC Statistics Report for 1910 
regarding average daily compensation of employees, should be noted in using 
the tables. 

"The statements pertaining to average daily compensation are not alto- 
gether satisfactory. The compensation of employees on account of overtime 
work, for example, is not reflected in these averages, although the fact that 
overtime work is paid for at a higher rate than for the hours covered by the 
customary day does affect the average daily compensation here reported. 
It is not possible to change the basis of compiling and reporting compensation 
for railway employees so as to arrive at the average amount earned each day 
by the average employee of each class without either changing the rules 
according to which certain classes of railway employees are paid or formulating 
a set of arbitrary rules for converting compensation into a daily wage. Much 
study has been given to this question, but thus far without arriving at any 
satisfactory solution. Meanwhile the tables are continued, and, if properly 
understood will serve a useful purpose as a basis of comparison from year to 
year." 



Table LXXIII. — Average Compensation per Hour in Dollars 
(Class I Roods) 

All 

1917 (calendar) dist. East South West 

Machinists 0. 462 0. 429 0. 497 0. 498 

Blacksmiths 446 . 431 . 468 . 458 

Masons 327 .333 .268 . . 354 

Str. iron workers 357 .339 .313 . 425 

Carpenters 322 .330 .301 .324 

Painters 347 .352 .343 .344 

Section foremen 2.592* 2.795* 2.524* 2.476* 

Trackmen 192 .212 .151 .193 

Other unskilled labor .224 .240 .182 .228 

Foremen, const, gangs 309 . 319 . 300 . 299 

* Items marked * are dollars per day. 



PRICES AND WAGES 129 

Table LXXIII. — Continued 
1916 (calendar) 

Machinists 410 .379 .428 .447 

Blacksmiths 393 .379 .403 .408 

Masons 315 .306 .252 .402 

Str. iron workers 327 .313 .258 .389 

Carpenters 290 .299 .264 .392 

Painters 309 .314 .294 .308 

Section foremen 237 .259 .219 .229 

Track men 164 .185 .129 .162 

Other unskilled labor ' .194 .206 .158 .200 

Foremen, const, gangs 283 .298 .258 .282 

1916 (fiscal) 

Machinists 0.397 0.369 0.412 0.429 

Blacksmiths 379 .368 .384 .393 

Masons 303 .304 .241 .344 

Str. iron workers 321 .308 .270 .384 

Carpenters 282 .292 .259 .283 

Painters 301 .308 .285 .299 

Section foremen 229 . . 251 .207 .222 

Trackmen 155 .173 .127 .153 

Other unskilled labor 186 .197 .154 .192 

Foremen, const, gangs 283 .290 .263 .287 

1915 (fiscal) 

Machinists 0.362 0.407 0.422 0.387 

Blacksmiths 359 . 385 . 392 . 372 

Masons 290 .209 .363 .279 

Str. iron workers 304 .252 .401 .322 

Carpenters 287 .251 .279 .276 

Painters 300 .288 .298 .297 

Section foremen 254 .210 .226 .233 

Trackmen 167 .125 .147 .150 

Other unskilled labor 187 .156 .193 .182 

Foremen, const, gangs 275 .269 .277 .275 

1914 (fiscal) Average compensation per day in dollars 

Machinists 3. 14 3. 34 3. 52 3. 27 

Carpenters 2. 76 2. 50 2. 66 2. 67 

Other shopmen 2.44 2.11 2.42 2.36 

Section foremen 2. 37 2. 08 2.15 2.21 

Trackmen 1.73 1.29 1.60 1.59 

1913 (fiscal) 

Machinists 3. 09 3. 29 3. 55 3. 26 

Carpenters 2. 70 2. 48 2. 62 2. 63 

Other shopmen 2.36 2.09 2.37 2.31 

Section foremen 2. 26 2. 04 2. 11 2. 15 

Trackmen 1.69 1.28 1.61 1.59 

1912 (fiscal) 

Machinists 3. 04 3. 26 3. 57 3. 22 

Carpenters 2. 63 2. 39 2. 56 2. 56 

Other shopmen : 2.29 1.97 2.34 2.24 

Section foremen. 2. 19 1. 97 2. 08 2. 10 

Trackmen 1.64 1.24 1.48 1.50 

1911 (fiscal) 

Machinists 2.99 3.11 3.46 3.14 

Carpenters 2.61 2. 38 2. 56 2. 55 

Other shopmen 2.29 1.99 2.31 2.24 

Section foremen 2.19 1.94 2.06 2.08 

Trackmen 1.64 1.22 1.49 1.50 



130 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



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132 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Rental Prices for Construction Equipment. — A schedule, evolved from 
the records and experiences of contractors, manufacturers and rebuilders of 
equipment, and designed to furnish contractors with a practical means for 
estimating equipment expense and determining adequate rental charges has 
been approved by the Executive Board of the Associated General Contractors. 
The schedule, which was prepared by the Research Division under the direc- 
tion of the Committee of Methods of the Association, is given in the Nov. 
Bulletin of the Associated General Contractors. The schedule and discussion 
of its application as abstracted in Engineering and contracting, Dec. 15, 1920, 
follow. 

To use the schedule with safety, it is essential to understand how the 
amounts were obtained, how they are to be applied, and how they are limited 
for determining rental charges. Knowing these things, no great difficulty 
should be found in establishing the charges within the bounds of practical 
accuracy. 

For the reason that arithmetical averages as obtained from available records, 
gave few rational values for depreciation and repairs, such averages were 
given less weight in establishing the tabular amounts than the practical 
experience of contractors. In fact, the strongest evidence that these amounts 
are reasonably safe and accurate lies in the endorsement given them by 
experienced general contractors. 

A tentative draft of the schedule was submitted to members in the Weekly 
Bulletin of July 31. They were asked to criticise the amounts and offer 
suggestions. In accordance with the criticism received, which evinced 
considerable study upon the subject, some of the tabular amounts were 
changed. As it now stands, the schedule represents the consensus of opinion 
of many contractors, and with the proper understanding of what the percent- 
age amounts mean, it should offer a safe means of estimating rental charges. 

What the Values Mean. — The endless variation of job conditions, such as 
topography, ground formation and climate, indicate how great may be the 
error of any fixed equipment charge when apphed to the exceptional job. But 
having figures which represent the mean of many projects, a starting point 
exists for ascertaining reasonable charges for the exceptional circumstances. 
Figures given in the standard schedule may be said to show equipment expense 
when machines are not required to operate continuously under either the 
worst or the best of operation strain. When no especially favorable or un- 
favorable circumstances attend a project, the tabular values probably give the 
expense within a permissible error. 

To eliminate error as far as possible by permitting consideration and com- 
parison of the individual items that make up equipment expense, the gross 
amounts are reduced to their component parts. Thus any item of the expense 
which is known to be unusually high in specific cases may be adjusted in the 
schedule to obtain a more appropriate rental rate. 

Components of Expense. — Seven items of equipment expense constitute 
the total rental charge and require consideration in estimating a lump sum 
contract or in determining fixed rate rentals. An average value for each of 
these items which represents the expense of a general contractor's outfit 
as ja, whole, has been approved by the Executive Board. The items referred 
to and their annual proportions of the equipment's initial cost are as follows: 

Schedule of Typical Rental Charge. — Items of expense are expressed as per 
cents of original capital investment for equipment having a useful life of 6 
years and a salvage value of 25 per cent of the original cost. 



^^^^^ PRICES AND WAGES 133 

^■^^^ Per cent 

^P 1. Average depreciation 12)4 

2. Equivalent annual interest at 6>^ per cent 4 

3. Shop repairs 6 

4. Field repairs 4 

5. Storage and incidentals 3>^ 

6. Insurance 1 

7. Taxes 1 

Total annual expense 32 

Equivalent expense on basis of 8 months' working timer per year 48 

Rental rate per month 4 



How to Obtain Proper Percentage. — These percentages and those given in the 
detailed schedule were determined according to the following principles: 

The economical life of a machine is considered to end when its value has 
depreciated to 25 per cent of the original cost. The average annual deprecia- 
tion then amounts to 75 per cent of the initial cost divided by the number of 
years it may be expected to give service. The initial cost of a machine is 
represented by the cost of that machine delivered at the contractor's yard. 

Table LXXV. — Rental Schedule for Construction Equipment 



©a g^ 

Yrs. 

Auto-crane 5 

Auto-truck 3 

Auto-trailer 5 

Backfiller, power 4 

Ballast spreader 8 

Boiler, upright 8 

Boiler, locomotive 8 

Bucket, clamshell 4 

Bucket, orange peel 4 

Bucket, dragline 4 

Cars, steel dump 6 

Cars, wood dump 5 

Cars, flat 8 

Cars, hopper 5 

Compressor, steam 7 

Compressor, gasoUne 4 

Compressor, electric 6 

Concrete chutes 2 

Conveyor, belt 2 

Conveyor, bucket 2 

Crusher, rock 6 

Derrick, wood 5 

Derrick, steel 10 

Dragline, steam 6 

Dragline, gasoline 4 

Dragline, electric 8 

Drill, tunnel carriage 5 

Drill, traction well 6 

Drill, tripod 4 

Drill, jack hammer 4 

Engine, gas 6 

Engine, steam 10 



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134 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table LXXV. — Rental Schedule for Construction Equipment — Continued 











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Yrs. 

Excavator, cable way 6 

Excavator, Keystone 5 

Excavator, trench 5 

Forms, steel concrete 2 

Graders, common road 4 

Graders, elevating. 4 

Hoist, steam 10 

Hoist, gasoline 6 

Hoist, electric 8 

Locomotive — 

Industrial steam 9 

Industrial gas 4 

Industrial battery 4 

Standard gage 10 

Crane, steam 8 

Crane, electric 8 

Mixer, steam 5 

Mixer, gasoline 4 

Mixer, electric 6 

Mixer, paving steam 5 

Mixer, paving gas 3 

Motors 6 

Pile driver, steam 8 

Pile driver, track 10 

Pile hammer, steam 7 

Pipe, galvanized . 3 

Plows 3 

Pneu. cone, mach 4 

Pump, centrifugal 8 

Pump, piston 6 

Pump, pulsometer 8 

Pump, Emerson 8 

Rails 8 

Riveter, air 5 

Rock channeler 6 

Roller steam road 10 

Saw rigs 4 

Scraper, wheel 3 

Scraper, slip 1 

Scraper, fresno 2 

Shovel, steam 6 

Shovel, gasoline 4 

Shovel, electric 7 

Switches, fabricated 3 

Tower, steel hoist 7 

Tractor, wheel gas 6 

Tractor, caterpillar 5 

Wagons, dump 4 

Wagons, hauling 4 

Wagon loaders, power 5 

Interest sliould naturally be charged at the prevailing rate. This may be 
computed in three ways: 

1 . By charging the prevailing rate each year on the depreciated value of 
the machine. 



PRICES AND WAGES 135 

2. By charging the prevailing rate each year on the average value of the 
machine during economical life. For example, when the salvage rate value 
Is 25 per cent the average value equals (100 per cent + 25 per cent) divided 
by 2 = 62M per cent. 

3. By finding the proportion which the average value is of the initial cost 
and charging this proportion of the prevailing rate each year. This proportion 
is called the equivalent annual interest and shows what interest rate on original 
cost will yield the same interest as the prevailing rate when applied to the 
depreciating value of the machine. This is the method used in the above 
schedule. The average value is 62>^ per cent of the original; therefore the 
equivalent annual rate is 62}i per cent of the prevailing rate, or 62>^ per cent 
of 6>^ per cent = 4 per cent. 

Shop and field repairs are separated by reason of a previous recommendation 
of the Committee on Methods that field repairs be considered a part of the 
cost under cost plus contracts and shop repairs be borne by the contractor 
and covered by the fixed rate rental charge. This recommendation was made 
on the ground that an owner should not be made to pay the total cost, for 
example, of re-fluing a boiler which may have been burned out principally on 
another owner's work. 

The other items of cost require no special explanation. 

Three Types of Charges. — Owners of equipment find occasion to establish 
rental rate as follows: 

1. For a lump sum or unit price estimate. 

2. To owners on cost plus work. 

3. To others than client owners. 

In these instances charges should be made as follows: 

1. The rental charge or equipment expense for lump sum work includes all 
the items mentioned above. 

2. The fixed rate to owners on cost plus work will include all but field repairs, 
if this item is paid as a cost of the work. To the amount thus determined may 
be added a service charge depending upon the policy of the contractor, i.e., 
whether the service of equipment is included in the profit fee or carried in the 
rental charge. 

3. The charge to persons other than client owners includes all of the items 
of expense and an additional amount for profit or payment for the machine's 
earning power. 

A further consideration in each of these cases is the rate for double shift 
work, where the percentages for depreciation and repairs should be doubled, 
or nearly so. 

Individual Judgment Essential. — The committee desires to emphasize the 
fact that the values presented in the table should not be considered absolute 
in determining a rental charge. A real danger presents itself in using any 
tabular percentage without investigating the conditions under which the 
equipment is to work. To illustrate: if the values here given for a standard 
gage shovel outfit were applied to such an outfit engaged constantly in exca- 
vating hard rock, the probability is that the charges allowed would not cover 
more than half the expense. The frequent dobey shots and the dropping of 
heavy boulders into cars entails a higher rate of depreciation and repairs than 
is given in the schedule. On the other hand, if this shovel outfit were steadily 
engaged in digging sandy loam, the values given in the table would probably 
cause the equipment charge to contain a fair per cent of profit. 

It is with the understanding that individual judgment and experience 



136 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



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138 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

should adjust the tabular values to meet unusual conditions that this schedule 
Is offered to contractors. 

Individual Equipment Rental Schedule. — The component expenses incurred 
by the ownership and maintenance of construction plant are expressed in this 
table as percentages of the initial cost for individual items of equipment. 
They indicate the probable annual expense without profit under ordinary job 
conditions and should be included in any lump sum estimate or in determining 
time rate rental charges. The salvage value in all cases is considered to be 25 
per cent of the initial cost. 

Total percentage amounts in the etreme right-hand column should be 
applied to the total cost of a machine, including charges for transportation 
from the factory. This gives the total annual charge which for a lump sum 
contract covering a full season, is the total equipment expense. For deter- 
mining a monthly, weekly or daily rental rate the annual amount is divided 
by the number of such periods in the year during which construction work may 
be carried on. 

Rental Rates for Grading Contractors Equipment. — (Engineering and 
Contracting, Feb. 18, 1920.) 

F. J. Herlihy has compiled the following table (Table LXXVI.) giving the 
derivation of rental rates for grading equipment. The table shows the 
original capital cost of his equipment, depreciation charges, average earning 
days per year, daily charge for interest, depreciation, insurance and storage, 
and total daily rental charge. 



CHAPTER III 
HAULING 

A fundamental cost entering into nearly every kind of construction is that 
for hauling. For some work, such as excavation, the cost of removing or 
hauling away the excavated material is often the controlling factor in arriving 
at the unit cost; while on practically all work if the transportation end "falls 
down," progress and costs are "shot to pieces." It is evident, therefore, that 
time may be well spent in determining the most economic method of hauling 
for each job. 

The material in this chapter is, in general, grouped according to methods of 
hauling. For further data on this subject, the reader should refer to the 
index of this volume and also to Gillette's "Earthwork and Its Cost" and 
"Handbook of Rock Excavation." 

Cost of Maintaining City Owned Teams is given in Engineering and Con- 
tracting, July 2, 1919, and is from a report by the Rochester Bureau of Munici- 
pal Research, Inc., on the collection of refuse in the city of Rochester, N. Y.: 

Cost of Maintaining Horses at Columbus, 0. — According to the report of 
Superintendent E. W. Stribling, of the Division of Garbage and Refuse 
Collection, the cost of maintaining 142 horses by the city of Columbus, O., 
in 1916 was 83.7 cts. per horse per day. This included a cost of 41.63 cts. for 
feed; 13.53 cts. for veterinary services, shoeing and supplies; and 28.54 cts. for 
stable labor. In 1915 the unit cost was 83 cts. per horse per day, including 
45.77 cts. for feed, 11.98 cts. for veterinary services, shoeing, and supplies 
and 25.25 cts. for stable labor. The labor force consisted of 16 men and a 
night watchman. The cost of feed was about $14 per ton for hay, 75 cts. per 
bushel for corn and 50 cts. per bushel for oats. Straw cost about $7 per ton. 
In 1916 each horse consumed daily 30 lbs. of hay, and 13 lbs. of grain, 5.3 lbs. of 
straw were used in bedding each horse. In 1915 these quantities were 31 lbs., 
12.75 lbs., and 6.3 lbs. respectively. 

Cost of Horse Maintenance at Cincinnati. — Similar costs for 1916 in the city 
of Cincinnati, given in the report of Fred Maag, Superintendent of the 
Department of Street Cleaning, Sewer and Catch Basin Cleaning, indicate 
that 34.9 cts. per horse per day was the cost of feeding and 39.4 cts. was the 
cost of " other stable expenses," the total cost being 74.3 cts. per horse per day. 
Approximately 190 horses and 80 mules were maintained in 17 stables, 
practically one-half of this number being boarded in one stable. Each horse 
consumed 14.7 lbs. of hay, 11.5 lbs. of oats and 2.8 lbs. of nutritia daily. 
Hay cost about $18 per ton, oats 45 cts. per bushel and nutritia $1.50 per 
hundredweight. (No allowance apparently was made for bedding straw.) 

Cost of Feeding Horse at Washington. — In Washington, D. C, according to 
the report of the Engineering Department for the fiscal year, 1915-lQ, the 
cost of feed amounted to 40.2 cts. per horse per day. The daily allowance 
per horse was 3.3 lbs. of dry straw, 7 lbs. of long timothy, 7 lbs. of mixed 
clover hay, 12.8 lbs. of oats and 1.7 lbs. of bran. Straw cost at the rate of 

139 



140 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

$16, long timothy at $20.80 and mixed clover hay at $20 per ton, oats at 
54 cts. per bushel and bran at $1.27 per hundredweight. The cost of shoeing 
was stated to be 2.6 cts. per horse per day. 

Cost of Maintaining Horses by New York Street Cleaning Department. — 
In the annual report of the Department of Street Cleaning of New York, in 
1916, Commissioner J. T. Fetherston states that the cost of "labor, materials, 
supplies and consumable equipment used directly in the care of horses" 
amounted to $1,087 per horse per day and that this cost represents prices of 
forage and supplies considerably above normal. About 64 per cent of the 
total cost represents the cost of forage, 30 per cent the direct labor cost and 6 
per cent the cost of maintaining stable equipment. In the 26 stables main- 
tained by the department, 2,400 horses were cared for. One hostler and one 
stableman were employed for each 13 horses. In 1917, the daily allotment for 
each horse was 23 lbs. of oats, 18 lbs. of hay, 3H lbs. of bran and 3 lbs. of 
straw. In addition to this each horse was given 1}4 lbs. of coarse salt and 
2>^ lbs. of rock salt per month. When idle the horses were given half ration 
of oats. In 1916, the daily ration was 21 lbs. of oats, 15 lbs. of hay and 
IH lbs. of bran. The other items were practically the same as for 1917. 
This appears to be an unusually heavy ration and the cost of feed alone was 
practically 70 cts. per horse per day. 

Stable Costs at Rochester. — For Rochester it was possible to obtain from 
James M. Harrison, formerly superintendent for the Genesee Reduction Co., 
data of the cost of maintaining horses employed in garbage collection from 
1908 to 1916. On Jan. 1, 1917, the Department of Public Works took over 
the operation, of the garbage plant stables and the 1917 costs, therefore, are 
available also. 

In 1917 the 68 horses quartered at. the garbage plant stables cost about 
68 cts. per horse per day to maintain. The approximate cost of feed amounted 
to 50.7 cts.; the direct labor cost of stable operation, 9.4 cts.; and the esti- 
mated cost of barn supplies, shoeing and harness repairs, 7.9 cts. per horse 
per day. No exact ration allotment was made, but according to the total 
quantities purchased during the year each horse consumed about 11 lbs. of 
oats and 22 lbs. of hay per day. The approximate average cost of oats was 
80 cts. per bushel and the cost of hay was about $18 per ton. The stable 
force consisted of one barnman and three helpers, the barnman and one 
helper working seven days and the other two helpers six days per week. The 
drivers cleaned and harnessed the horses and gave them their noon feeding. 

The foregoing and certain additional data as to the cost of maintaining 
horses by the Genesee Reduction Co. before 1917, are shown in Tables I and II. 

From the foregoing and other data it appears that a horse used in collection 
work should be fed on the average about 20 lbs. of hay and 14 lbs. of oats per 
day, in addition to possibly 2 lbs. of other feed, consisting principally of bran, 
salt, etc. Also each horse should be bedded with approximately 5 lbs. of dry 
straw daily. On this basis and with hay costing $18 per ton, oats 80 cts. per 
bushel, other feed $1.50 per hundredweight and straw $12 per ton, the total 
daily cost per horse of feed and bedding would amount to the following: 

20 lb. of hay at $18 per ton $0. 18 

14 lb. of oats at $0.80 per bu 35 

2 lb. of other feed at $1.50 per cwt 03 

5 lb. of straw at $12 per ton 03 

Total estimated cost of feed and bedding per horse per day. ... $0.59 



HAULING 141 

In addition to this the cost of veterinary services, maintenance of stable 
equipment and supplies, shoeing, and harness repairs should not exceed 12 cts. 
per horse per day. If one hostler at $800 per year and one stableman at $750 
per year were provided for every 20 horses, the direct labor cost of stable 
operation would amount to about 21 cts. per horse per day. This would 
include the cost of all work involved in feeding, bedding, cleaning and other- 
wise caring for horses, and all labor about the stables such as cleaning stables, 
handling feed and supplies, handling and moving equipment, cleaning equip- 
ment, etc. 

The total cost per horse per day, therefore, might be estimated at 92 cts. 
distributed as follows: 

Feed and bedding $0. 59 

Veterinarian, shoeing, harness repairs, etc 0. 12 

Direct labor cost of stable operation ' 0.21 



Total maintenance cost per horse per day $0. 92 

The annual cost of maintaining horses at this figure would be $336.65 per 
horse, exclusive of the cost of overhead supervision, fixed charges on first 
cost of horses, stable sites and stable buildings, depreciation of horses, and 
depreciation and maintenance of stable buildings. 

The annual (purchase) cost of the horses used in garbage collection in 
Rochester since 1912 has been about $31 per horse, which includes replace- 
ments as well as the purchase of three horses during the six years in addition 
to the number owned at the beginning of the period. (See Table II.) 

Table I. — Cost of Feeding Hoeses Employed in the Collection of Gak- 
BAGE IN Rochester, N. Y., 1908 to 1916 

Year 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 ' 

1912 

1913 

1914.... 

1915 

1916 



Table II.- 



Year 

1912.. 

1913.. 

1914.. 

1915.. 

1916.. 

1917.. 



Total cost of 


Approximate 


Average cost 


feed (grain. 


number 


per horse 


hay, straw) 


horses fed 


perlday 


$ 7,364.08 


40 


$0,505 


6,964.89 


40 


.477 


6,912.67 


40 


.474 


6,827.04 


40 


.467 


7,816.29 


65 


.330 


9,269.83 


65 


.395 


8,771.77 


65 


.370 


10,666.02 


66 


.443 


9,570.47 


66 


.397 


OF Horses Employed in the 


Collection oi 


HESTER, N. Y 


, 1912 TO 1917 




Total 


Approximate 


Average cost 


expenditure 


number of 


per horse 


for horses 


horses 


per year 


$2,219 


65 


$34 


1,885 


65 


29 


4,205 


65 


65 


1,020 


66 


15 


1,575 


66 


24 


1,125 


68 


17 



Estimates as to the economic, life of a horse used in collection work vary from 
^}4 to 8 years. It is believed, however, that a good horse should give at least six. 
years of useful service in this kind of work. Assuming a first cost of $275 and a 
salable value of $75 at the end of six years, the annual depreciation would be 
$33.33 per year per horse. 

Depreciation in Value of Horses (Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 17, 
1917). — Some interesting data on the depreciation in value of horses are given 
in a bulletin issued by the U. S. Department of Agriculture. This buUetin 



142 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

deals with the cost of keeping farm horses and the cost of horse labor. It is 
compiled from a study of records for 316 horses on 27 farms in Illinois, Ohio 
and New York. 

In determining depreciation and appreciation in value of horses a yearly- 
inventory value was placed on each horse on the farm by careful appraisal and 
a record was kept of each horse bought or sold. In Illinois 11 of the 18 yearly 
farm records showed a net depreciation of horses. In Ohio 7 of the 16 yearly 
records showed a net depreciation, and in New York 16 of the 18 yearly 
records showed a net depreciation. 

The average net depreciation of the 316 horses was $4.50 per horse. Of 
this amount $2.70 per horse was due to the death of 9 horses, valued at $855. 
Depreciation varied from $11.60 per horse in New York to an appreciation of 
$2.10 per horse in Ohio. 

Table III shows the percentage of horses that appreciated in value, the 
percentage that did not, and the factors influencing the aggregate depreciation 
or appreciation, by States. 

Table III. — Percentage of 316 Horses That Appreciated in Value, Per- 
centage That Did Not Appreciate, and the Factors Influencing the 
Aggregate Depreciation or Appreciation, by States (27 Farms, 
316 Horses) 

Percentage of 
horses that 
showed — 

'53 a ^22^;t?;t^ 

o K "1^ 9, o o o o 

State and number of horses <J ^ "A "A "A "A )^ "^ 

Illinois (154 horses) 18.75 81.25 3 21 21 2 43 

Ohio (72 horses) 21.95 78.05 . 9 17 2 i 7 

New York (90 horses) 4.95 95.05 6 6 3 1 2 18 

The 3 states (316 horses) 15.60 84.40 9 36 41 5 3 68 

On the Illinois and New York farms colts became work horses when from 
2K to 4 years of age. The age of work horses that depreciated in value varied 
considerably, depending on their usage and care. The average age of work 
horses that appreciated in value was about 4 years. The average age of those 
that neither appreciated nor depreciated in value was about 8 years, and the 
average of those that depreciated in value was about 1 1 years In Ohio data 
showing the age of all the horses studied were not obtained; however, the 
data that were obtained along this line showed about the same results as those 
in Illinois and New York. 

In Illinois about 19 per cent of the horses appreciated in value at the rate 
of $36.05 per head per year, while the average depreciation for the other 81 per 
cent was $12.55 per head. At this rate it will be seen that a $36 appreciation 
of one horse practically would offset the depreciation of three others. Thus 
the appreciation of one horse out of every 5.34 kept resulted in an average net 
depreciation for all horses of but $3.46 per head. Of the 154 horses included 
in the records from this State 3 died, causing a loss of $350. In other words, 
the death loss was about 1 out of every 51. In considering the reason for the 
number of young horses on these farms and the low depreciation of work 



HAULING 143 

horses it was found that there was an average of one colt for every four work 
horses kept. Further, no colts were sold, all being developed into work 
horses, 11 becoming work horses during the time in which data were collected. 
It also will be seen that the same number of horses was bought as was sold. 
Three died and had to be replaced, and a part of the farmers enlarged their 
business, thus requiring more horses. With the continued raising and 
developing of colts into work horses, however, it is safe to say that ordinarily 
a greater number of young horses will be developed than will be needed in the 
farm business. 

On the Ohio farms about 22 per cent of the horses appreciated in value at 
the rate of $56.90 per head. The average depreciation of the remaining 78 per 
cent was $13.30 per head. At this rate the appreciation of 1 horse would 
offset the depreciation of more than 4 other horses. Thus the appreciation of 
1 horse out of every 4.55 resulted in an average net appreciation of $2.10 per 
head for the total number of horses. While no deaths occurred in this 
group, 2 horses were severely injured, entailing a loss of $175. 

On the Ohio farms there was an average of one colt for every 10 work horses 
kept. This was about two-thirds less than on the Illinois farms, and yet the 
depreciation of horses was $5.56 per head less than in Illinois. By this it will 
be seen that the net appreciation of horses in Ohio was not so much due to the 
raising of young horses as in Illinois. A study of the data shows that the 
reason for this was that on some farms a practice was made of buying young 
horses, and after working them for a time, selling them at an increase in value. 
During the years this study was made 9 horses were bought and 17 were sold, 
8 of the 17 having been on the farms at the time this work was begun. The 
horses bought and sold were mostly young draft stock, which accounts for the 
high appreciation of $56.90 per horse. In following this practice, at" times 
more horses were kept than were needed to do the farm work. Other data 
in this bulletin show that the average horse worked less hours per year on the 
Ohio farms than on the Illinois or New York farms. 

On the New York farms the relative number of horses that appreciated in 
value was a great deal less than in each of the other States — less than 5 per 
cent — at the rate of $44.40 per head. The depreciation per head of the 
remaining 95 per cent was $14.48. At this rate, the appreciation of one horse 
would a little more than offset the depreciation of three other horses. Thus, 
the average net depreciation was $11.56 for all horses. One reason for this 
depreciation being higher than in the other two States was a loss of $505 
due to the death of 6 horses, or about 1 out of every 15. Thus, more than 
48^^ per cent of the total depreciation was due to deaths. The number of 
colts on these farms was less than in Illinois. For every work horse sold two 
were bought. It seems that these farmers have but recently started to replace 
the old horses by raising colts. 

Depreciation figures from other bulletins follow: 

Bulletin 341 of the U. S. Department of Agriculture shows that the average 
depreciation of horses on 378 farms studied in Chester County, Pennsylvania, is 
$7 per head, and on 300 farms studied in Lenawee County, Michigan, $7.10 per 
head. These figures are largely determined by the practice of farmers in dis- 
posing of horses while they are still salable at a fairly satisfactory price, and would 
undoubtedly be much greater if all farm horses were kept until their usefulness 
was at an end. 

Cornell University (N. Y.) bulletin 377 shows that the average annual depre- 
ciation of horses on 14 New York farms for the year 1912, and on 31 New York 
farms for 1913, was $14.03 and $12.10 per horse unit, respectively. Of the 45 
farms studied, 12 showed an appreciation of horses. 



144 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Minnesota extension bulletin 15, covering a period of four years, 1904 to 1907, 
inclusive, gives figures for farms studied in three different counties. In Rice 
County depreciation varied from $0.98 in 1905 to $15.48 in 1904, averaging for 
the four years $5.56 per head. In Lyon County depreciation varied from $4.20 in 
1905 to $9.86 in 1904, averaging per year $6.94 per head. In Norman County 
depreciation varied from $2.60 in 1907 to $7.37 in 1904, averaging per year 
$5,892 per head. 

It is pointed out in the text that depreciation of the horse is an expensive item 
to farmers who are not able to control this expense by means of clever selling 
methods and by the use of young horses. Shrewd selling, however, does not 
affect the general principle of depreciation, since thus the loss is passed on to the 
buyer. 

Minnesota experiment station bulletin 145 gives results of a further study of 
horse depreciation in the above-mentioned counties. Records for Rice County 
for the period 1908 to 1912 inclusive shows a variation in depreciation from 
$0.28 in 1910 to $5.10 in 1909, and an average per year of $3.05 per head. In 
Lyon County the study covers a period of three years, 1908 to 1910, inclusive. 
The depreciation varied from $1.47 in 1910 to $5.60 in 1909, averaging per year 
$3.06 per head. In Norman County the work covered a period of four years, 1908 
to 1911, inclusive. The depreciation varied from $0.51 in 1910 to $3.42 in 1911, 
averaging per year $1.48 per head. It is pointed out in this bulletin that the 
annual depreciation as shown above is not high enough to represent a proper 
average charge through a long term of years. Abnormal conditions in the 
Minnesota horse market were largely responsible for the low depreciation charge. 

Health Efficiency of Horses. — In Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 17, 
1913, J. W. Paxton states that records are kept by the street cleaning depart- 
ment of Washington, showing the total number of horses cared for in each 
stable each day and the total number unable to work because of injury 
or sickness. The health efficiency of the stable is the ratio found by dividing 
the number of horses capable of working by the total number of horses. 
The health efficiency of all stables combined has been brought up to 98 per 
cent, although it was as low as 86 per cent one month shortly after the health 
records were initiated. 

A health efficiency curve is plotted for each stable, and comparisons between 
different stables can be made at a glance. When in any case there is a drop 
in the curve, a conference with the stable boss discloses the reason. 

In addition to a health record of this sort, it may be suggested that it would 
be wise, in many cases, to keep a record of all time lost by stock, and to plot 
curves showing the total "output factor," i.e., ratio of hours actually worked 
to hours that might have been worked had health, weather, etc., permitted. 
On construction work it frequently happens that many head of stock are idle 
for lack of drivers or equipment. Especially is this true when a job is being 
started. Time is also lost in shoeing, in moving from one camp to another, 
etc. It is certainly desirable to have daily records of all time losses, and the 
reasons therefor. Daily "output factor curves" and "health efficiency 
curves" will focus attention upon time losses and lead inevitably to a reduc- 
tion of the losses. 

Hauling Material with Mules. — The following data are taken from an 
article by William W. Hurlbut published in Engineering Record, July 19, 
1913. 

For hauling steel plates from Mojave to the Antelope Valley Siphon, 
Los Angeles Aqueduct, a distance of 35 miles, three stations were established 
10 miles apart. Twelve mule teams were used for this hauling, the average 
load being 12.9 tons or a little more than 1 ton to the animal. 

A team made 20 miles a day, loading at Mojave, arriving at the 10-mile 
station at noon; at the 20-mile station at night of the first day; at the 30-mile 
station at noon of the second day ; leaving there and discharging the load at the 



HAULING 145 

siphon the afternoon of the second day ; than returning to the 30-mile station 
the same night; returning the following day to the 10-mile station; and at 
noon of the fourth day reloading at Mojave, thus making the round trip in 
three and one-half days. The cost of this haul averaged 12 cents per ton mile. 
Number of Wagons Required for Hauling from Steam Shovels. — The 
following data are reprinted from the Aug., 1919, issue of Successful Methods: 

Yardage for Various Hauls 

Cu. yd. per day 
per team with 
Haul in ft. Round trips l^-yd. wagons 

500.. 105 157 

1,000 53 79 

2,000 26 40 

3,000 17 26 

5,000 10 15 

10,000 4 6 

Number of Teams for Various Outputs 
Daily output 

in cu. yd. Haul 1,000 ft. Haul 3,000 ft. Haul 10,000 ft. 

250 3 10 41 

300 4 12 50 

500 8 20 84 

On a road job in Minnesota 5 wagons are serving a ^-yd. steam shovel on a 
300-ft. haul and are kept busy. 
At Hamilton, O., a steam shovel with a M-yd. bucket, loading gravel on a 

3 to 10-ft. face, loaded 480 2-cu. yd. wagons in 9 hours, and 60 teams were 
estimated as necessary to keep the shovel busy on a 1-mile haul. The same 
shovel handled clay out of a 6 to 12-ft. face and should be able to load 360 2-yd. 
wagons in 9 hours. This would require 45 teams to haul the material away 
on a 1-mile haul, 8 trips to the team. 

Average Loads in Team Hauling on Country Highways. — The following 
data are given in a paper by Seth A. Moulton (Engineering and Contracting, 
Jan. 4, 1911) before the Association of Cement Users. The observations were 
made during the construction of a storage dam at Aziscohos, Me., in 1910. 

The round trip of 76 miles from Colebrook to the dam and return is made in 

4 days, each team making two complete round trips without rest, and laying 
off the ninth day. Four, five, and six horse teams were employed, averaging 
4H horses to a team, and by a proper arrangement of the time schedule 
a maximum total of 180 horses could be accommodated on the road, making 
a total of 40 teams, wliicli, on the basis of 4 days to a trip, gave an average of 
10 teams arriving at the dam during each day of the toting season. 

During the best period of toting, or for the 6 weeks from Dec. 1 to Jan. 15, 
the average loads were as follows: 

Four horse team 6 , 650 lbs. 

Five horse team 8 , 600 lbs. 

Six horse team 10 , 400 lbs. 

The, average load per horse was 1,680 lbs. 

During the best period of summer toting the average loads were as follows* 

Four horse team 5,750 lbs. 

Five horse team . . . . ; None working 

Six horse team 8,400 lbs. 



The average load per horse was 1,430 lbs. 
10 



146 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

During the most adverse condition of toting the average loads were as 
follows: 

Four horse team 4 , 800 lbs 

Five horse team 6 , 200 lbs. 

Six horse team 7 , 200 lbs. 

The average load per horse was 1,220 lbs., or 20 per cent less than could be 
hauled during the best sledding. 

Cost of Hauling with Teams. — Table IV, prepared by E. B. Hiatt, is pub- 
lished in Engineering and Contracting, Dec. 4, 1918. The figures are based 
on a rate of travel of 2 miles per hour with loads and 3 miles per hour returning 
empty. Forty minutes is allowed for loading and unloading 3,750 lbs. with 
shovels. This weight was the average load in Madison County, Iowa, during 
the 1918 season. The vehicle considered was a common farm wagon. 

Table IV. — Schedule of Peices for Hauling One Ton 

Team rates per day of ten hours 

Miles $5.00 $5.50 $6.00 $6.50 $7.00 $7.50 

0.5 0.288 0.317 0.346 0.375 0.404 0.433 

1.0 0.400 0.440 0.480 0.520 0.560 0.600 

1.5 0.511 0.562 0.613 0.664 0.715 0.766 

2.0 0.622 0.684 0.746 0.808 0.871 0.933 

2.5 0.733 0.806 0.880 0.953 1.026 1.100 

3.0 0.844 0.928 1.013 1.097 1.182 1.266 

3.5 0.955 1.051 1.146 1.242 1.337 1.433 

4.0 1.066 1.173 1.280 1.386 1.493 1.600 

4.5 1.177 1.295 1.413 1.531 1.648 1.766 

5.0 1.288 1.417 1.546 1.675 1.804 1.933 

5.5 1.400 1.540 1.680 1.820 1.960 2.100 

6.0 1.511 1.662 1.813 1.964 2.115 2.266 

6.5 1.622 1.784 1.946 2.108 2.271 2.433 

7.0 1.733 1.906 2.080 2.253 2.426 2.600 

7.5 1.844 2.028 2.213 2.397 2.582 2.766 

8.0 1.955 2.151 2.346 2.542 2.737 2.933 

8.5 2.066 2.273 2.480 2.686 2.893 3.100 

9.0 2.177 2.395 2.613 2.831 3.048 3.266 

9.5 2.288 2.517 2.746 2.975 3.204 3.433 

10.0 2.400 2.640 2.880 3.120 3.360 3.600 

10.5 2.511 2.762 3.013 3.264 3.515 3.766 

11.0 2.622 2.884 3.146 3.408 3.671 3.933 

11.5 2.733 3.006 3.280 3.553 3.826 4.100 

12.0 2.844 3.128 3.413 3.697 3.982 4.266 

12.5 2.955 3.251 3.546 3.842 4.137 4.433 

13.0 3.066 3.373 3.680 3.986 4.293 4.600 

13.5 3.177 3.495 3.813 4.131 4.448 4.766 

14.0 3.288 3.617 3.946 4.275 4.604 4.933 

14.5 3.400 3.740 4.080 4.420 4.760 5.100 

15.0 3.511 3.862 4.213 4.564 4.915 5.266 

15.5 3.622 3.984 4.346 4.708 5.071 5.433 

16.0 3.733 4.106 4.480 4.853 5.226 5.600 

16.5 3.844 4.228 4.613 4.997 5.382 5.766 

17.0 3.955 4.351 4.746 5.142 5.537 5.933 

17.5 4.066 4.473 4.880 5.286 5.693 6.100 

18.0 4.177 4.595 5.013 5.431 5.848 6.266 

18.5 4.288 4.717 5.146 5.575 6.004 6.433 

19.0 4.400 4.840 5.280 5.720 6.160 6.600 

Similar tables can be prepared using different times for loading and unload- 
ng which would depend upon methods employed and materials hauled. 
The average load would also vary with the type of wagon employed. 

Cost and Service Comparisons of Motor Trucks and Horse-drawn Vehicles 



HAULING 147 

are given by Clinton Brettell in " The School of Mines Quarterly," Columbia 
University, from which Engineering and Contracting, May 14, 1913, abstracts 
the following: 

There are several ways of making a cost comparison. One is to reduce all 
costs to a " per day " basis. This method is of little value, for while the motor 
truck costs more per day, it also does more work per day. Then there is the 
"cost per mile" basis. This is a little better, but also shows but one phase 
of the question, as np account is taken of the tonnage moved. The third 
method, and the best one, considered from all sides, is the "cost per ton- 
mile." This is the method which will be employed in practically all cases 
throughout this paper. Data on the subject of transportation costs are 
abundant, but so many methods of bookkeeping and computation are used 
that it is not safe to accept any of them off-hand. Before adopting them for 
comparisons they should be carefully analyzed. 

Motor Trucking. — To be accurate, the cost of operation for motor trucks 
should include the following items: 

I. Fixed Charges. — Based on an average number of working days. A 
figure of 300 working days per year is often used, and approximates quite 
closely the actual working days for the average case. 

A. Driver's Wages. — About $20 per week is a fair charge for this item. 

B. Garage. — If the truck is stored in a public garage, about $25 per month 
is charged. This includes washing, polishing, inspection, heat, light, power, 
etc. If the owner maintains his own garage, this figure may be somewhat 
lower. In that case the charge for storage, to compare with the above, would 
be made up as follows: (a) Interest on investment, including building, property 
and equipment. (6) Insurance and taxes on same. (If the building is 
rented, the above, i. e., interest on investment, insurance and taxes on build- 
ing, and an additional charge for depreciation on building would all be included 
in one item, rent.) (c) Depreciation on building and equipment, if owned by 
truck owner; on equipment only, if building is rented, {d) Wages of attend- 
ants, elevator men, washers and polishers, inspectors, superintendent or 
foreman, (e) Charges for heat, light and power. (/) Charges for main- 
tenance of building and equipment. 

C. Insurance. — Fire, liability, theft, property damage. These rates vary 
all over the country. As a rule they are unreasonably high. In most cases 
the same rates as for pleasure cars are applied to commercial vehicles, with- 
out taking account of the lessened liability with slow moving motor trucks. 
Insurance against fire and theft is generally at some percentage on a partial 
valuation, say, 2^ per cent on 80 per cent valuation. Insurance against 
property damage depends on the horsepower of the truck and is arranged on a 
sliding scale basis, which is arbitrarily adopted without scientific basis. 
Liability is usually a flat sum, being greater the more hazardous the occupa- 
tion. This item should also include taxes for licenses, etc. 

D. Interest. — Opinion differs as to what rate of interest to use. One com- 
moi^ method is to assume as a basis the rate offered by banks. Whatever the 
rate finally adopted, it is well to recognize that there is a regular depreciation 
in the amount of capital invested; so that while interest for the first year is 
chargeable on practically full value, for the second year it should be on less 
than full value, for the third year on still less, and so on. The easiest way of 
taking account of this is to use an average rate of interest, assuming full 
capital first year and entire dissipation of capital at the end of, say, the tenth 
year. The average rate will then be H the flat rate decided on, say >^ of 5 



148 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

per cent. This method charges too httle interest for the first five years and 
too much for the last five, the one balancing the other in the final result. 
II. Variable or Mileage Charges. A. Depreciation. — To account for the 
gradual wearing out of the truck, even with the best possible care and main- 
tenance, a certain amount must be charged off each year, so that at the end of 
the truck's life there will be a fund sufficient to purchase a new truck, iden- 
tical with the old one. If a truck receives ordinary care and attention in the 
matter of upkeep, etc., and is not abused in operation,, it will last as much as 
ten years before it is really worn out, and many will last longer, (a) One 
method of charging depreciation, then, is to write off one-tenth the original 
value of the truck each year. Opinion differs as to the life, but under present 
conditions it is not wise to figure over ten years. Naturally a truck which is 
run 25 miles a day should last longer than one operated 100 miles a day, 
with equal care and attention in both cases. (6) This suggests a second 
method of charging depreciation, i. e., on a mileage basis, figuring the life 
of a truck at 100,000 miles under average conditions. The latter method 
seems the more logical one to follow, since in fixing the rate for the former 
method it was necessary to consider, among other things, the daily mileage of 
the truck. Cost per mile is thus equal to total cost divided by total mileage. 

B. Tires. — The life of tires is subject to practically the same discussion as 
given in connection with depreciation. The method generally employed is as 
follows: The tire maker guarantees his tires for a certain mileage (provided 
that rated capacities of tires are not exceeded, and in some cases that speeds 
are limited to certain specified values) usually around 8,000 miles. In 
addition, the time element is involved, because tires, being made of rubber, 
deteriorate even when standing idle. The tire maker covers this phase of the 
situation by stipulating (in most cases) that the guaranteed mileage must be 
covered within a given time, usually 12 months, to validate the guarantee. 
Hence cost per mile equals cost per set of tires divided by guaranteed (or 
actual) mileage, as the case may be. 

C. Repairs (exclusive of tires). — This includes labor and material (and 
profit if work is done in a public garage) . It is generally figured on a yearly 
basis and then converted to a mileage rate, by determining the yearly mileage. 
For electric trucks, this item includes renewals of plates, electrolyte, etc. 

D. Gasoline or Current. — This cost is figured for a year and then reduced 
to a mileage basis. Cost of gasoline depends on the fuel consumption of 
the motor and the prevailing price of gasoline. Cost of current depends 
on type of motors, etc., and cost per kw.-hour for charging batteries. It 
is best to figure this on a yearly basis and then reduce to a mileage basis. The 
same discussion applies to oil. 

Summary. — The total of items under I gives total cost per day for fixed ^ c 
charges. Assuming a certain daily mileage, and multiplying the rates for the 
various items under II by this mileage, we get the daily cost for each item. 
Total of these gives total variable costs per day. Adding daily fixed charges 
and daily variable charges, we obtain total daily operating cost. Ton-miles 
per day is the product of the tonnage, by the distance this tonnage was 
carried. Dividing average cost per day by ton-miles per day, we obtain 
"Cost per Ton-mile" which is the final result sought. As an example of the 
foregoing, see Table V, which shows costs for a 5-ton gasoline truck, figured 
for various daily mileages, and Fig. 1 plotted from these figures. 

Horse Truckiag. — Following out the same computation for horse drawn 
trucks, the costs would be determined as follows: 



HAULING 



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150* 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



I. Fixed Charges. A. Driver. — In case the driver's wages are paid by the 
week, it is best to figure this item on the basis of a year and then reduce it to a 
daily basis. For average figures at Chicago, see Table VI. 

B. Stable. — If a truck owner keeps a stable for his equipment the following 
items should be included in the cost account: (a) Feed, hay and straw, water 
and stable supplies. (6) Taxes, insurance, depreciation, interest; if the 
building is rented, rent includes all of these, (c) Light, heat and power. 
(d) Wages of stablemen, helpers, etc.; salary of manager. 






















































































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Fig. 1. — Estimated daily cost of operation of five-ton gasoline truck subdivided 
into its various items 

If he boards his horses, a flat figure covers all of the above items. Record 
of costs should be kept for a year and then reduced to a daily basis by using 
the average days in service per year. 

Table VI. — Costs Incident to Horse Transportation, Chicago 



Commodity 
Corn, per bu. . 
Oats, per bu. . 

Hay, per ton. 



1871 

. $0.39 

.33 

1903 

$15.00 



1881 
$0,635 
.468 

1907 
21.50 



1891 
$0.59 
.334 

1908 
14.00 



1901 
$0,675 
.483 

1909 
17.00 



1906 
$0.46 
.358 

1910 
21.00 



1911 
$0.70 
.474 

1911 
25.00 



Chicago Truck Drivers, Wages Per Week 



Type of wagon 

Single wagon 1902 1904 1906 1909 

One horse $11.00 $11.25 $11.25 $11.50 

Two horses 12.75 13.00 13.00 13.50 

Double wagon 

Two horses 13.75 14.00 14.00 14.50 

Three horses 15.50 15.75 15.75 16.00 

Four horses 16.50 17.00 17.00 18.00 

Six horses 18.50 19.00 19.00 20.00 

Overtime (year 1912), 30 cents per hour up to 8 p. m. 

D. Interest. — The same methods are applied as in connection with motor 
trucking. Interest on horses and equipment (harness, wagons, blankets, etc.). 

E. Insurance. — No insurance is carried, as a rule. 

F. Veterinary and Medicine. — Charges for a year are reduced to dally 
basis. 



1910 

$12.00 

14.00 

15.00 
17.00 
18.00 
20.50 



1912 

$0.90 

.40 

1912 
20.00 



1912 

$13.50 

15.50 

16.50 
18.50 
19.50 
21.50 



HAULING 



151 



II. Variable Charges. A. Depreciation. — Distinctly a mileage charge, 
as horses are worn out much quicker by working long hours, and constantly, 
than by giving them plenty of rest. Under average conditions, horses are 
unfit for heavy trucking after more than a few years' service. Life of wagons, 
while somewhat longer, depends on the amount of service; also on nature 
of service and care as to upkeep. Yearly mileage under average conditions is 
based on average number of working days, and an average daily mileage (not 
over 18 miles for light work, considerably less for heavy work). The original 
cost must thus be divided over the total mileage for the working life of the 
horse. Cost of wagon is distributed in same way. This gives cost per mile. 

B. Repairs. — Repairs on harness and wagons, painting, etc., are figured 
for a year and then reduced to a mileage basis by applying the total yearly 
mileage. For any given daily mileage, find total mileage cost per day. 

The sum of fixed and variable charges gives total cost per day. Dividing by 
ton-miles per day gives the final result, cost per ton-mile. The curves shown in 
Fig. 2 give quite accurately the ton-mile costs for various capacities of trucks, 
gasoline, electric and horse drawn, figured for various mileages. Table VII 
shows another method of keeping the cost records for two-horse and three- 
horse wagons. The final result is cost per ton-mile. 

Table VII, — Cost of Operating Horse Wagons 
(On basis of five years' operation: loaded both ways.) 
Two-horse wagon — 

Price of open express-body wagon $300 . 00 

Price of two horses 400 . 00 

Price of double set harness 75.00 

Total cost of equipment $775 . 00 

Working days 300 

Average miles per day 20 

Load in pounds 8 , 000 

Per 

Items working Per Per 

Wagon expense — Per year day Per mile ton mile cent 

Maintenance, grease, repairs, etc $ 125.00 $0,417 $0.0208 $0.0052 6.94 

Depreciation, 10 per cent 30 . 00 .100 . 0050 .0012 1 . 66 

Rental value of space 25 . 00 .084 . 0042 .0010 1 . 38 

Horse expense — 

Depreciation, 15 per cent 60.00 .200 .0100 .0025 3.33 

Ratio that die, 1 in 20 10.00 .433 .0016 .0004 .56 

Feed and bedding 360.00 1.200 .0600 .0150 20.00 

Care (hostler) 100.00 .333 .0168 .0042 5.57 

Veterinary 15.00 .050 .0026 .0007 .84 

Medicine 10 . 00 . 033 .0016 . 0004 . 56 

Rental value, space for horses. . . 125.00 .417 .0208 .0052 6.94 

Shoeing 50.00 .167 .0083 .0021 2.78 

Water 10.00 .033 .0016 .0004 .56 

Blankets 8.00 .026 .0014 .0004 .45 

Deterioration to building caused 

by horses 16.00 .053 .0027 .0007 .89 

Rental value of space for storing 

feed 12.00 .040 .0020 .0005 .66 

Harness expense — 

Depreciation 7.50 .025 .0012 .0003 .41 

Maintenance and repairs 10.00 .033 .0016 .0004 .56 

Rental value of space 5.00 .017 .0008 .0002 .28 

General — 

Interest on investment 46.50 .155 .0077 .0019 2. 58 

Driver's wages 750.00 2.500 .1250 .0313 41.66 

Stable supplies 15.00 .050 .0025 .0006 .83 

Removing manure 10.00 .033 .0016 .0004 .56 

$1,800.00 $5,999 $0.2998 $0.0750 100. 



152 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Three-horse wagon — 

Price of open wagon $ 375 . 00 

Price of three horses 750.00 

Price of harness 100.00 

Total cost of equipment $1 , 225 . 00 

Working days 300 

Average miles per day 18 

Load in pounds 12 , 000 

Per 

Items working Per Per 

Wagon expense — Per year day Per mile ton mile cent 

Maintenance, grease, repairs, etc., $125.00 $0,417 $0.0232 $0.0039 5.20 

Depreciation, 10 per cent 37 . 50 .125 . 0007 .0011 1 . 56 

Rental value of space 30 .00 .100 . 0056 . 0009 1 . 25 

Horse expense — 

Depreciation, 1 5 per cent 1 12 . 00 .374 . 0208 . 0035 4 . 66 

Ratio that die. 1 in 20 10.00 .033 .0018 .0003 .42 

Feed and bedding 550.00 1.834 .1019 .0169 22.91 

Care (hostler) 150.00 .500 .0278 .0046 6.25 

Veterinary 20.00 .066 .0036 .0006 .83 

Medicine 15 . 00 .050 . 0028 . 0004 . 63 

Rental value, space for horses ... 150 . 00 . 500 . 0278 . 0046 6 . 25 

Shoeing 75.00 .250 .01.39 .0023 3.13 

Water 15 . 00 .050 . 0028 . 0004 . 63 

Blankets 12.00 .040 .0022 .0004 .50 

Deterioration to building caused 

by horses 25.00 .084 .0046 .0007 1.05 

Rental value of space for storing 

feed 15.00 .050 .0028 .0005 .63 

Harness expense — 

Depreciation .. 12.00 .040 .0022 .0004 .50 

Maintenance and repairs 20 00 066 . 0036 . 0006 . 83 

Rental value of space 8.00 .027 .0015 .0003 .33 

General — 

Interest on investment 73 . 50 .245 . 0136 . 0024 3 . 06 

Driver's wages 900.00 3.000 .1666 .0278 37.50 

Stable supplies 25 . 00 .084 . 0046 . 0007 1 . 05 

Removing manure 20, 00 . 066 . 0036 . 0006 . 83 

$2,400.00 $8,001 $0.4380 $0.0739 100. 

Comparative Economies. — The costs of horse transportation were cal- 
culated as follows: A one-horse truck with driver can be hired for $4 per day. 
Its maximum daily mileage would be 22 miles and its maximum capacity 1 
ton. Hence, ton-miles per day (full load half way) =3^^X22X1 = 11; 
and cost per ton-mile = $4.00 ^ 11 = $0,364. Similarly: 

Two-horse truck with driver, per day $ 6. 00 

Maximum daily mileage, miles 20 

Maximum capacity, tons ..... 3 

Maximum ton-miles per day = K X 20 X 3 = 30 

Cost per ton-mile = $6.00 ^ 30 = $ 0. 20 

Three-horse truck with driver, per day $ 8 . 00 

Maximum daily mileage, miles 18 

Maximum capacity, tons . . ' 5 

Maximum ton-miles per day = H X 18 X 5 = 45 

Cost per ton-mile = $8.00 -r 45 = $0. 178 



These are the extreme points for the three curves. For lower mileages, the 
costs will be higher. The daily mileages given are much higher than would 
be obtained under average operating conditions. Hence, in most cases, 
the costs would be found further up on the curves. 



HAULING 



153 



The figures from which curves in Fig. 2 were plotted, for gasoline trucks, 
are from figures given in a table (see Table VIII) published in " Commercial 
Car Journal," Feb. 15, 1912, and are averages taken over a number of years, 
from records of trucks in actual service. They are based on the assumption 
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The figures for electric trucks of from 1 to 5 tons' capacity (see Table IX) 
were taken from a table published in February, 1912, by the Commonwealth 
Edison Co. of Chicago, a company operating a large force of electrics and 
supplying current to many others. Both these tables are thus from reliable 
sources. 

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collected by the National Association of Automobile Manufacturers, from 
professional truckmen. (2) Probable daily mileages for horse-trucks of 
various capacities. These are the results of actual practice. (3) Motor- 
truck speeds recommended by N. A. A. M. for trucks of various capacities. 



154 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



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HAULING 



157 



These speeds have been determined after considering all sides of the question, 
so that depreciation will not be too rapid, due to excessive speeds. (4) The 
costs shown in this curve for the operation of gasoline trucks of various 
capacities were plotted from figures published by the Knox and the Hewitt 
automobile companies. Part of the figures are averages of the two, the 
remainder being either Knox or Hewitt costs alone. 



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Truck Capacity Tons' 
Fig. 3. — Comparative operating costs of motor and horse trucks. 



In Fig. 2 truck capacities up to 5 tons were shown. In Fig. 4 additional 
curves are shown for capacities from 6 to 10 tons. The same rates of increase 
were maintained in figuring the unit costs in these trucks of larger capacity, 
the results being checked by estimating the various capacities. In addition, 
calculations were made, assuming average conditions as to running speeds and 
working hours, to determine what daily mileages trucks of these various 
capacities would accomplish under ordinary conditions. Results were com- 
pared with figures submitted by the N. A. A. M., and were found to check quite 
well. A curve was plotted from these values, between daily mileages and truck 
capacity, on the same sheet with the other curves. This curve cuts the cost 
curves, thereby marking out the working part of these curves for average 
conditions. The cost curves approach one another as capacity is increased; 
increase of daily costs begins to catch up to increase in daily ton-miles, so that 
it becomes less and less of an advantage to increase from one capacity to the 
next. This is true even when the mileages per day are kept constant. But in 
actual changing from seven to ten ton capacity there is practically no decrease 
in cost of hauling per ton mile. 

Referring again to Fig. 2 we find that for low mileages, up to about 18 miles 
per day, the three-horse truck is the most economical means of transporting 
goods. This then is the field of usefulness of the horse-drawn vehicle, i.e., 
where traffic loading, unloading or other conditions are such that the 
conveyance is forced to remain idle a considerable portion of the day and would 
therefore be un-economical. Realizing the truth of this argument, the 



158 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



truck manufacturer is designing loading and unloading devices, by the use of 
which standing time is reduced to a minimum, and the motor truck is thus 
able to cope successfully with the horse, even in this short haul work. To 
reduce loading time, several means are resorted to, depending on the nature of 
the product to be transported. For building materials, coal, etc., cranes, 
scoops and other mechanical loading devices are employed with great success. 
For general merchandise, bodies made up of several units are used. For 
uploading, the bodies are made to dump either by power or by hand. Where 
removable units are employed, these are removed by cranes or trolleys. 




Fig. 4. 



30 40 50 

Doily Mileage 

-Cost of operation per ton-mile for average conditions, various truck 
capacities and daily mileages. 



Comparative Costs of Hauling with Steam Tractor and Teams are given by 
K. I. Sawyer in Engineering and Contracting, March 13, 1912. The records 
were taken in 1911 on road extension work of Menominee County, Mich. 

Owing to the fact that the steam haulers* (75 h. p. Case Traction Engines) 
were a new part of the county plant a comparison was worked out to show the 
advantage of using this equipment. This comparison was taken directly 
from the schedule of actual costs of the road. In the work 12,177 cu. yds. of 
stone were handled by the engines and 1,912 cu. yds. by team. This work 
was under identical conditions and gives a good basis of comparison. The 
team haul rate was 53 cts. per yard-mile. This would be considered high 
under normal conditions, but it was good under existing conditions. The con- 
ditions under which the hauling was done were very stern as is shown by the 
fact that it was possible to load only about a ton to the load for teams at the 
start, and even then it was necessary to double the teams over considerable 
of the road now built. Only good teams weighing 2,900 lbs. to 3,400 lbs. 
each were used. Further details regarding the hauling are given in Table X. 



HAULING 159 

Table X. — Cost of Haulinq with Tractor and Teams 

Steam tractor 
Item haul Team haul 

Av. haul, ft 9,700 2,300 

Total cu. yd 12,177 1,912 

Cost 

Labor $ 940.87 

Coal and oil $814.08 

Total $1754.95 $454.26 

Av. per cu. yd 14 . 5c 23 . 8c 

1 cu. yd. per mile 8 . 6c * 53 . * 

* This is an average of the monthly rates operating cost of tractor labor 17-20 
cts. per hr., engineers 25-27 cts. per hr., coal $4.50 f.o.b. scow. Teams were hired 
at 45 cts. per hr. 

The following is a comparison of the cost of the engine haul and team 
haul: 

Engine Haul. — Engines hauled 12,177 cu. yds., a mean haul of 

9,700 ft. at a cost of $ 1,754.96 

20 % interest and depreciation on $6,200 plant 1 , 260. 00 

Water tower expenses 140. 92 

Cleaning and repairs on haul equipment 163. 26 

Material placed in engine track in excess of amount required by 

specifications, 1,703 cu. yds. at 47 cts 800. 41 

Total $ 4,119.55 

Team Haul. — Team haul cost at 53 cts. per mile gives average cost 

9 700 
for mean haul of 9,700 ft. of 53 cts. X f^Kro ^ ^^ ^^^' ^^^ ^^' 

hauled 9,700 ft. by team as mean haul 12,777 cu. yds. at 96 cts $11 , 689. 92 

Saving by use of engine . $ 7 , 507. 37 

Mules vs. Steam Tractor in Hauling for Road Work at Los Angeles. — 
According to H. R. Postle, Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 22, 1910, in 
hauling crushed rock from cars to the road, under construction at Los Angeles, 
Cal., it proved cheaper to haul rock with mules than with a traction engine, 
using the type of wagon ordinarily manufactured and sold to be drawn in 
train with an engine. The particular wagon used was the Port Huron 5-yd. 
or 6 ton wagon; each was fitted with a tongue, two mules being hitched along- 
side the tongue with three abreast in the lead. With a haul of about y^ mile, 
each wagon made 10 trips per day of 8 hours, thus delivering on the road 
60 tons of rock at a cost of $7.50 (five mules at $1.00 per day and $2.50 per day 
for the driver) or $0,125 per ton. To have hauled 60 tons of rock with 2-yd. 
wagons would have required two and a half 2-yd. wagons costing $4.25 each 
(two horses $2.00, one driver $2.25) or $10.65, which would make the cost 
$0,177 per ton, which shows a saving of $0,052 per ton by hitching more stock 
to one wagon and using a large sized wagon. The saving will increase with the 
length of haul. The coupling of two or three wagons together, or using a 
wagon of large capacity, with 4 to 8 head of stock is a very common California 
practice, and is one which the writer has failed to observe in the east. It 
is the writer's experience that this method of hauling, unless the haul be a long 
one, will generally be found to be cheaper than hauling by engines for the 
following reasons: 

1. To load a train of wagons quickly requires either a private or specially 
constructed railroad switch and loading bins, or two trains of wagons, one of 
which is loading while the other is on the road. Loading wagons continuously 
one by one does not require so much in the way of switches, bins or wagons. 

2. Most contracts demand an equipment easily and cheaply movable from 
one switch to another. It is seldom that all of the loading can be done at one 



160 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

switch, consequently expensive equipment which cannot be cheaply and 
quickly moved, is not justifiable. 

3. Horse equipment is better adapted to torn-up and dusty roads, which are 
sure to be encountered where construction work is in progress. 

4. Horse drawn wagons are more easily handled on the sub-grade where the 
rock is dumped. They pull in on the sub-grade more easily, do less damage, 
dump and pull out and turn around more quickly. 

5. On very few contracts and on very few railroad switches can rock be 
delivered fast enough to justify the equipment required for engine hauling. 
The whole equipment, the necessary unloading devices and the number of 
wagons, more easily fit the general run of contracts where horse drawn wagons 
are used. 

Of the numerous contracts now under construction in Los Angeles County, 
where $3,000,000 is being expended on macadam road construction, on only 
one is the rock being hauled by steam engines. They were tried on several 
others, but quickly abandoned. 

Motor Truck Cheaper than Teams on Hauling Gravel. — ^F. P. Scott in 
Engineering News-Record, May 16, 1918, gives the following data on cost of 
hauling gravel for road constructing in Montana. 

Teams and a 5-ton (5 cu. yd. capacity) truck were used. Late delivery of 
the truck prevented it doing its full share of the work. 

Labor and supplies were paid for at the following rates: Common labor; 
$0,375 per hour; team and teamster, $0.75 per hour; foreman, $0.45 per hour, 
truck drivers, $100 per month; gasoline, $0.27 per gallon; oil, $0.52 per gal. 

Table XI. — Comparative Cost of Hauling Gravel by Teams and Motor 

Truck 

Item Team hauling Truck hauling 

Total amount hauled, cu. yds 21 , 952 2 , 937 

Haul, miles ave 1 . 588 2. 079 

max. 2. 125 2.416 

min 0.704 1.805 

Cost per yd. mi., ave $0,431 $0,235 

max 0.813 0.292 

min 0.349 0.158 

The operating costs of the truck upon which the above units are based were 
as follows : 

Operator $292. 05 

Repairs 131 . 59 

Fuel 320.63 

Int. and Depr 695. 16 

Economics and Costs of Motor Truck Operation. — The following matter, 
from a paper by W. H. Clapp in the Journal of the A. S. M. E., Oct., 1916, is 
given in Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 18, 1916. 

Economics of Truck Operation. — For many kinds of haulage, covering a wide 
range of operation, the motor truck is distinctly superior to any other method 
of transportation. Given an active service at full load, with a terminal not 
definitely fixed and a radius of operation up to 30 miles, it is an exceptional 
condition which will justify any other method of goods haulage. 

There are, however, special considerations which may have considerable 
bearing upon the employment of a truck. A committee of the Boston 
Chamber of Commerce, in a detailed report on street traffic in Boston, cover- 
ing eighteen months of study, reported that "development of motor trucks 



HAULING 



161 



will tend to relieve congestion by moving all merchandise in larger units and 
more rapidly," and that "the average speed of motor vehicles in getting into 
and away from railway terminals is from two to three times that of the horse." 
Costs of Gasoline Trucks. — Fig. 5 gives curves of cost, weight and horse- 
power (average values) for all classes of gasoline trucks as listed by publishers 
of motor truck publications. The noticeable feature of these curves is the 
sudden break of each for the lighter trucks of less than 1 ton capacity. These 
show that the demand for a light truck has been met by making a vehicle 
which is much lighter for the rated load than the heavier trucks. This is 
possible because of the higher engine speed, a more simple final drive, torque 
and thrust taken through the vehicle springs, and by the generous use of 




Truck Ccipcici+y mTons 

Fig. 5. — Average cost, weight, capacity and h.p. from all classes of gasoline 

motor trucks. 



special alloys and heat-treated steels. The curves suggest that these trucks 
are too light for the load that they are rated to carry. That this is true is 
abundantly proved by the records of many light trucks which show that the 
average life of a light delivery truck is about 35,000 miles, whereas the 
heavier trucks when properly driven; and cared for can be depended upon 
to give 80,000 to 100,000 miles, or even more for the better grade of trucks, if 
they are carefully driven and ordinary maintenance is kept up. 

Table XII is an itemized cost statement for various sizes of gasoline trucks 
under average service conditions on the roads of southern California. That 
these costs are somewhat lower than averages for other localities may be 
largely credited to good roads and an equable climate. In making this table 
three conditions of operation are assumed : the costs for each size of truck are 
computed for a daily run of 25, 50 and 75 miles, and for each condition the life 
of the truck is estimated, and depreciation is based on this life. Costs are 
given in dollars for the entire life of the truck. First costs are average chassis 
costs in Los Angeles, as f olio ws ; Light delivery wagon, 18 h. p., $600.; 1,500 
11 



162 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 






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HAULING 



163 



lbs. truck, 22 h. p., $1,100; 1 ton truck, 24 h. p., $1,875.; IH ton truck, 25 h. p., 
$2,150; 2 ton truck 26 h. p., $2,625.; 3>^ ton, truck 32 h. p., $3,500.; 5 ton 
truck, 35 h. p., $4,600; 63-^ ton truck, 40 h. p., $5,000. 

In California distillate is being used to quite an extent as a substitute for 
gasoline. The cost per gallon is about half that of gasoline at the present 
time (1916), and the b. t. u. content somewhat greater. A supply gasoline 
is carried and used in starting. The consumption of distillate is about the 
same as that of gasoline. The success which has attended this innovation 
would seem to justify the claims that the use of distillate does not increase 
carbon trouble. The question of a lessened volumetric efficiency is a negligible 
consideration. 




Fig. 6. — Division of truck costs. 



Tires will outwear the manufacturers' guarantee at least 25 per cent when 
used on the good roads of southern California. Smooth roads, dry surfaces 
and an equable climate all contribute to this result. Overloading and over- 
speeding are the things that shorten tire life. However, the important con- 
sideration is not tire economy, but economy of truck operation per ton of 
material carried; therefore, durability is only one factor that must be taken 
into account. Resilience, which prevents the wasting of truck power; 
cushioning effect, which keeps the maintenance charges low on the whole 
truck; a good tractive grip and a reasonable cost are all properties which are 
required in a truck tire. 

Operating Costs. — Fig. 6 gives a graphical view of percentage costs for a 
light, a medium and a heavyweight truck, each averaging 50 miles a day. 
The higher proportion whic^ the li^ht truck has in the items of labor, deprecia- 



164 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



tion and maintenance is noticeable. Against this increase is the lower per- 
centage of the entire cost charged to fuel and tires. 

In discussing motor truck costs it is not possible to neglect the human factor, 
which here more than in most cases of machinery handling is one of the princi- 
pal items. It is hardly too much to say that maintenance costs are chiefly 
driver. An expensive and intricate machine is put in charge of a low-paid 
employe who is not the owner and who ordinarily has but a limited knowledge 
of machinery. This is one reason why the life of a light truck is usually about 
two or three years. 

Ownership of eight or ten trucks will justify an owner in employing 
a mechanic who, with a small outfit of tools and a helper, can keep the trucks 
clean and in adjustment and make many of the smaller repairs. Reliable 
service garages are now to be found which will do the same work for a reason- 
able charge, and this is more satisfactory than to leave it to the driver. 




Fig. 7.- 



tO Z5 30 40 50 60 

Miles per Day. 
-Cost of operating gasoline motor trucks 



70 7S' 



Operating costs for the same make and capacity of truck engaged in exactly 
the same kind of work for one firm will frequently show a variation of 40 per 
cent in the items of gasoline, oil, tires and maintenance. It is easy to see how 
a poor driver will shorten the life of a truck. 

The truck governor has helped to solve the speeding problem. Another aid 
is the recording speedometer, which gives a graphical log of each day's run — 
velocity plotted against time: thus every minute of the day is accounted for; 
the number of stops and time of each, maximum speed, etc. The chart 
will show, for example, whether it will pay to put on a second man to hasten 
deliveries or whether a rerouting of existing lines will give a better all-around 
service. A driver's record sheet, if it is brief and informing and filled out each 
day, is frequently helpful. It must be drawn off at the office and kept up to 
date. Records are of little use unless changed conditions can be recognized 
at once. 

Fig. 7 gives curves for gasoline trucks plotted from the data of Table XII. 
These curves, if continued out to the line of zero miles per day, show the daily 
fixed charges for each truck. The cost per day increases quite uniformly 



HAULING 165 

with the increase in size of the truck, whether the daily run be a large or a 
small one. The cost per ton mile is based on a full load each way. This chart 
shows that under such favorable conditions of haulage a heavy truck may 
reach a ton-mile cost of as low as 5 ct., provided that the nature of the work is 
such that the truck can be run daily at the rate of 50 or 60 miles a day. This is 
a heavy mileage for a big truck, and such an ideal service as would be repre- 
sented by a full haul each way on level roads, with loading and unloading 
time minimized so that the truck could be under way for six or seven hours 
each day and with no extra helper required, is not often found. 

In deciding upon a truck one of the most important questions to settle is 
that of size. On the good roads of this section (California) it is more 
disastrous to buy a truck too large for the work than to buy one that is too 
small. A 5-ton truck costs some 25 per cent more to operate than a 3-ton 
machine, nor is this cost reduced very much by taking a lighter load on the 
heavier truck. Interest, depreciation, maintenance, taxes, insurance and 
fuel — all are higher. Until very recently the tendency has been for owners to 
buy trucks too large for their needs. Now the buyers have commenced to 
realize that it costs too much to "deliver the- vehicle." 

The writer does not wish to encourage overloading, which has been 
responsible for many truck failures and against which much has been written, 
but he does wish to point out that an occasional overload of 25 per cent, or 
even 50 per cent when handled carefully on a good road is not a serious matter, 
while to haul a heavy truck day after day, loaded at half capacity, is a very 
serious matter if one would haul cheaply. 

Methods of Reducing Trucking Costs. — To get a low cost per ton it is neces- 
sary to keep the truck moving. Devices which cut down the time of loading 
and unloading are very important. Among these are self -dumping bodies of 
various kinds for stone, hot asphalt or lumber; loading chutes or bins which are 
filled by elevator or conveyor; there is also a movable steel tipple which can 
be run alongside a train of flat cars and be filled by shovelers while the truck 
is out on the road, so that the actual time required to fill the truck is very 
little. Another device is the use of extra truck bodies, which are loaded while 
the truck is on the road and swung onto the truck by an air lift or other hoist. 
A firm of wholesale grocers in Los Angeles is using this method very satisfac- 
torily." In interurban delivery service loading nests or cartridges are being 
used. These are filled in the store and run out onto the truck. There is some 
promise in the extension of this device for relieving the congestion around 
freight stations and also for interurban service where a heavy truck can bring 
over all of the orders for an entire community and local deliveries be taken 
care of by light trucks, each with its especial cartridge. A scheme somewhat 
similar to this is now being tried out by the city of Los Angeles. The incom- 
bustible rubbish is gathered by a house-to-house collection, using wagons. 
The material is put in large cans which are carried to a central point and a 
heavy truck is used to haul all of the cans to the city dump. 

Comparisons of Operating Costs of Horse-Drawn and Motor Trucks. — The 
use of an extra man to facilitate deliveries will often save enough time to make 
a good investment. One of the large department stores in Los Angeles found 
that on a certain route where one man had averaged 1 10 stops a day two men 
were able to make 190 deUveries. The use of self-starters on trucks of this 
type is also becoming common. These save a little time on each stop and 
also keep the driver out of the dirt, and particular customers appreciate this 
feature. At the plant of the Southern California Gas Company the night 



166 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



man unloads the trucks and stores the pipe and old meters that have been 
collected during the day, and then puts onto the truck the new supplies that 
have been requisitioned for the coming day. 

Fig. 8 and Table XIII show a comparison between the cost of running a 
light gasoline delivery truck such as is used for close-in delivery work by 
grocers and the cost of running a one-horse delivery wagon. The costs are 





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Miles Run perDai^ 
Fig. 8. — Comparison of single horse and wagon and light delivery truck costs. 

from actual costs gathered in Los Angeles and vicinity and averaged. For 
each vehicle the cost is figured for the vehicle idle and again when running 
at a fair maximum daily average. The figures show that there is no excuse 
for using a horse for this kind of work, whether the number of deliveries be 
large or small. Twenty miles a day is a maximum for any delivery horse if 
used 300 days a year. If more than 20 miles a day are to be covered, it is 
necessary to duplicate equipment. 

Fig. 9 and Table XIV give a similar comparison between the cost of oper- 
ating a 5-ton gasoline truck and heavy teams used for such work as rock and 
dirt haulage and heavy transfer work generally. As in Fig. 9, the costs are 
figured from actual costs based on a maximum of service per day and an 



HAULING 



167 



assumption as to what the costs would be if the vehicle did no work. The 
curves show that the truck should have enough work to do to occupy the time 
of more than one team, if it is to be the cheaper vehicle. The Pacific Electric 
Railway Co. uses heavy trucks for patching and paving along the line. They 
find that for work outside the business district the truck will do the work of 
two or three teams, depending upon the length of haul and the size of the 
job ; for long-distance hauling the truck will do the work of four or five teams. 
In paving Vernon Ave. the rock and crushed stone were delivered by teams, 
the average haul being about two miles. Each team delivered a 3-ton load 

Table XIII. — Comparison of Operating Costs of a Single-Horse Wagon 
AND A Light Delivery Truck 

$140; harness, $40), $430. 



Cost of wagon equipment (horse, $250; wagon 
Cost of 700-lb. capacity gasoline truck, $600. 

— Wagon costs — 
20 miles 
Idle 

Estimated life, years 10 

Depreciation $0. 108 

Interest at 6 per cent . 086 

Taxes 0.009 

Stable and garage rent . 200 

Insurance (fire and theft) 0. 030 

Driver (^ time when idle) 0. 666 

Feed- 
Hay, 10 lb. and 15 lb 0. 102 

Oats, 10 qt. and 15 qt 0.200 

Gasoline, at 16 ct. per gal 

Lubricating oil, at 40 ct 

Hostler (1 man to 12 horses) 0. 200 0. 300 

Cleaning and oiling * 

Shoes and veterinary 0.095 0. 135 

Tires and tubes 

Repairs to wagon . 090 

Maintenance 

Water, bedding, etc 0.045 0.045 



per day 
10 

$0,156 
0.086 
0.000 
0.200 
0.030 
2.000 

0.153 
0.300 



Truck costs — 
60 miles 
per day 

2.5 
$0,760 
0.120 



Idle 

10 
$0,200 
0.120 
0.012 
0.166 
0.045 
0.666 



0.012 
0.166 
0.045 
2.000 



0.640 
0.130 



0.400 
6! 625 



1.200 
0.005 



Total cost per day. $1,741 $3,404 $1,209 $6,103 



Table XIV.- 



-COMPARISON OF OPERATING CoSTS OF A 5-TON GaSOLINE TrUCK 

AND A Heavy Two-horse Wagon 



Cost of wagon equipment (2 draft horses, 

$1,000. 
Cost of 5-ton gasoline truck, $4,800. 



$600; wagon, $300; harness, $100), 



Depreciation 

Interest 

Taxes 

Stable or garage 

Insurance (liability) 

Driver 

Helper 

Feed or gasoline 

Oil, grease, waste, etc. ...... 

Shoes and veterinary, or tires. 

Repairs, maintenance 

Water, J3edding, etc 

Hostler 



Wagon costs — 
16 miles 
per day 
$ 120 



Idle 

$ 60 

60 

6 

120 



250 
"96 



25 



25 
100 



T«4.«i «^o+ / Per year $736 

Total cost I p^^^^y ^2.45 



60 

6 

120 

26 

750 

600 

135 

5 

40 

25 

25 

100 

$2,012 
$6.70 



-Truck costs — 
50 miles 
per day 

$ 480 



Idle 
240 
288 
30 
120 



360 



$1,038 
$3.46 



288 

30 

120 

140 

,080 

600 

686 

150 

550 

600 

20 



$4,744 
$15.81 



168 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



and averaged 5}4 trips per day. When work on other contracts took the 
teams awaj'^ the work was sublet to another contractor, who took the job at 
the same price per ton as the teams were figured to have cost. Three 5-ton 
trucks averaged 12 trips per day eaeh, and carried an average of 54.7 tons 
per day apiece. This makes each truck equivalent to 3.3 teams, which would 
represent a considerable saving by the use of trucks, provided they could be 
kept steadily employed. 

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Fig. 9. — Comparison of costs for 5-ton gasoline truck and heavy teams. 

The use of electric trucks for delivery service is not so general in Los Angeles 
as in most large cities. Two of the largest department stores in Los Angeles 
use no electrics, and other stores which do use them have usually a smaller 
percentage of the entire fleet of this type. There are two reasons for this: 
First, a smaller congested area than cities like Boston or Chicago; and, second, 
a smaller number of stops per mile. For light delivery service where the 
Vehicles carry 1,000 lb. or less the higher first cost of the electrics is a serious 
objection; for vehicles in the 1,500-lb. class the difference in first cost is not so 
great, and the electric vehicle will show a lower cost per delivery than the 
gasoline truck where the latter is held down to the same number of miles per 
day. Table XV gives the average work and costs for one month for both 
classes of vehicles for one of the large department stores in Los Angeles. From 

Table XV. — Comparison of Gasoline and Electric . Delivery Trucks 

(Averages for 1 month) 

Type of truck Gasoline Electric 

Miles traveled per day 75 36 

Stops per mile 1.96 2.74 

Stops per day 147 104 

Cost per mile, cents 12 15.3 

Cost per stop, cents 6,12 5 . 29 



HAULING 



169 



this it will be seen that, where the electric truck gives a cheaper delivery, it has 
the advantage of more stops per mile. It is probable that in spite of the close- 
in traffic conditions the gasoline truck would cover the same route in less time 
or give a larger number of deliveries per day in the same territory. These 
costs are based on the use of two men with the gasoline truck and one man on 
the electric. The comparison shows that the advantage in favor of the elec- 
tric truck is a very small one, and may vanish altogether under comparative 
tests. On the other hand, there is an advantage for the electric in its quieter 
operation and greater cleanliness that is worth something in delivery service. 
Operating Cost of 5 -Ton Dump Truck (Engineering and Contracting, Aug. 
6, 1919). — As the result of a questionnaire the Motor Truck Owners' Associa- 
tion of Philadelphia ascertained that the average daily cost of operation for a 
5-ton truck of dump body type working under (1919) Philadelphia conditions 
was $26.09, itemized as follows: 



Depreciation 

Interest 

Insurance 

License 

Gasoline 

Oil and grease 

Repairs 

Garage fees 

Overhead expense. 

Driver 

Tires 



Per day 


Per cent 


$5.29 


20.3 


0.76 


2.9 


1.25 


4.8 


0.11 


0.4 


3.42 


13.1 


0.42 


1.6 


5.11 


19.6 


0.74 


2.8 


1.74 


6.7 


4.96 


19.0 


2.29 


8.8 



Total $26.09 100.0 

It also was found out that the fixed charge costs should be based on a 265- 
day year, and that the average daily mileage was 40M miles. 

Operating Costs of Motor Truck Delivering Sand and Gravel (Engineering 
and Contracting, March 21, 1917). — A Pacific Coast sand and gravel company 
is using a 5-ton truck for delivering sand and gravel. The material is nearly 
always mixed and usually is quite wet. It runs 4 yds. to the load and 3,400 
lbs. to the yard, and is hauled over country roads of various kinds, about 
equally divided between gravel and dirt. There are many hills, some of them 
quite steep, necessitating going in first and second gears. Most of the 
trucking was for delivering gravel on county roads, and spreading it with 
the attachment on the truck. The operating costs, furnished by the company 
for a 5-months period are given in Table XVI. 

Table XVI. — Operating Costs, 5-Ton Truck, 4- Yard Capacity 

Miles 
Amount per gal. 
gal or lb. 

. 1 655 3.494 " 
606 3.494 
133 59.4 
. 249* 31.7 
144 55 
100* 79 



Article used 

Distillate 

Gasoline 

Motor oil 

Transmission oil 

Sprocket oil 

Cup grease . 



Tire replacements and de- 
preciation . . . 

Repairs and parts 

Wages 

Interest (8 per cent) 

Depreciation (20 per cent) . . 



* Pounds, t Cts. per gal. J Cts. lb. 



iv cost 


Total 


Cost 


article 


cost 


per mile 


11 ■ 


$ 182.05 


$0.0153 


21-- 


121.20 


.023 


31- 


41.23 


. 0052 


53^a 


13.48 


.0017 


7t 


10.8 


.0012 


51: 


5.00 


.0006 




154.93 


.0196 




23.06 


.0026 




508. 75 


.057 




218.78 


.0276 




394.66 


.05 




$1,671.22 


$0.2038 



170 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

For the Season 

Average distance of delivery, miles 6.1 

Cost per yard mile $0 . 1055 

Cost per ton mile 0617 

Total mileage 7 , 900 

Yards delivered 5 , 190 

Weight of gravel, 1 yd., lb 3 , 400 

Yard miles hauled 15 , 800 

Ton miles hauled 28,835 

The truck was new last year. The driver was paid for an extra hour each 
day the truck was operated. This extra time he put in screwing down the 
grease cups and inspecting parts on the truck. The driver was, therefore, 
held responsible for anything happening that could have been prevented by 
his inspection. In several instances he discovered that there was a loose nut, 
missing bolt, cup gone or something of minor importance, which if neglected 
might cause lost time and more or less expense. These things were immedi- 
ately attended to and as a consequence no time was lost on account of truck 
trouble. 

Cost of Hauling with Motor Trucks. — The following figures, given by 
J. A. Broad, Luce County Engineer, in a paper presented at the Michigan 
Road School (1919). are published in Engineering and Contracting, April 2, 
1919. 

The cost of hauling with motor trucks in highway work in 1918 in Luce 
County, Michigan, averaged about 10 ct. per ton mile. Two 5-ton White 
trucks were employed. The interest on the truck investment was taken at 
6 per cent per year and amounted to $288 for each truck, There was no 
insurance. 

The charges for Truck No. 1 were as follows: 

Depreciation 100,000 miles (truck value minus tires) $ 255. 16 

Total wages of driver 319. 74 

Gasoline, 1,377 gal, at 25 ct 344. 25 

Lubricating oil, 117 gal. at 56 ct 65. 52 

Hard oil, 128.5 lb. at 6 ct 7. 71 

Waste, 20 lb. at 20 ct 4. 00 

Tire depreciation — 5,316 miles at 3 ct 159. 48 

Repairs and renewals 160. 00 

Total operating charges $1 , 315. 86 

Fixed charges (interest) 288. 00 

$1,603.86 

Average haul in miles 5. 54 

No. of yds. hauled 1 . 863 

Total number of yd. miles performed, 10,321 $0. 155 yd. mile 

Total number of ton miles performed, 15,481 0. 104 ton mile 

The charges for Truck No. 2 were: 

Depreciation 100,000 miles (truck value minus tires) $ 237. 40 

Total wages paid driver 297. 00 

Gasoline, 1,235 gal. at 25 ct 308. 75 

Lubricating oils, 117 gal. at 65 ct 68. 88 

Hard oils, 128.5 lb. at 6 ct 4. 08 

Waste, 21. 5 lb. at 20 ct 4. 30 

Tire depreciation, 4,946 miles at 3 ct 148. 38 

Repairs and renewals 131. 00 

Total operating charges $1 , 199, 79 

Fixed charges (interest) 288. 00 

$1,487.79 

Average haul in miles 5, 54 

No. of yards hauled 1 . 780 

Total number of yd. miles performed, 9,861 $0. 151 yd. mile 

Total number of ton miles performed. 14^791 0. 101 ton mile 



HAULING 171 

operating Costs for 3H-Ton Truck (Engineering and Contracting, Aug. 
6, 1919). — In an address before the Detroit Transportation Association, 
C. E. Stone gave the following figures taken from the cost records of a Detroit 
owner for the operation of a 3>^-ton stake body truck: 

INVESTMENT 

Chassis $3,800.00 

Body 350.00 

$4,150.00 
Less tires ($74.25 each, 7,000 miles guaranteed) 445. 50 

. $3,704.50 

Costs are based upon 300 working days in the year 

YEARLY FIXED CHARGES 

Interest on $3,704.50 at 6 % $ 222. 27 

Insurance — 

Fire, 75 ct. per hundred 31 . 13 

Collision, fuU coverage $152, $50 deductible 102. 00 

Liability (truckman) 135 . 00 

License — 

15 ct. per horsepower (4K X 5>^ - 32.4) 4.86 

Weight, 15 ct. per 100 lb., chassis 7,000 lb., body 1,800 lb., total 

8,800 lb 13.20 

City dray. 1 . 00 

Tax 3% on 70% of $4,150 ($2,905) 87.15 

Garage, $15 per month 180 . 00 

Driver, $5 per day (300 days) 1 , 500. 00 

Per year $2,276.61 

300 days $2,276.61, per day cost $7.58 

OPERATING COSTS 

Fuel (25 ct. per gal., six miles per gal.) per mile $ 0, 040 

Lubricants (60 ct. gal., 150 miles per gal.) per mile .004 

Tires (7,000 miles set, $445.50) per mile . 064 

Depreciation ($3,704.50 on 100,000 miles) per mile .037 

Per mile $ 0. 145 

Overhauling ($300 per year) per day 1 . 00 

60 miles per day at .145 8.70 

Total daily cost $ 17.28 

Per ton mile cost . $ 0. 288 

It will be noted that the above figures contain no allowance for the "cost 
of doing business," which includes general expenses, accidents, bad accounts, 
etc. To meet these charges this owner charges up $1 a day per truck which he 
finds about meets the figures. He also has a general sinking fund of 10 per 
cent of the daily gross receipts of each truck to take care of this matter. 

Economic Motor Trucking over very Bad Roads (Engineering and Contract- 
ing, Dec. 20, 1916). — The Haskins Dolomite Co., of San Francisco, operates a 
5-ton White truck with a Troy trailer from their dolomite quarry to the 
railway a distance of 10.5 miles, and the truck makes four round trips every 
24 hrs., working two shifts. The road is one of the worst of mountain roads, 
full of chuck holes, covered with dust often 6 ins. deep, with grades up to 10 
per cent, one of which (10 per cent) is 1.5 miles long. The truck requires 
44 gals, of gasoline and 4 gals, of oil for the day's work of 84 miles. The 
daily operating expense is about $30, which is equivalent to 7 ct. per ton-mile, 
exclusive of interest and depreciation, but inclusive of tire renewals and 
current repairs. 

Trailers for Use with Contractors' Motor Trucks. — According to Engineer- 
ing and Contracting, Dec. 3, 1913, extensive experiments, made by the Troy 



172 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Wagon Works Co. in studying the problem of the ability of motor trucks 
to pull one or more trailers, show that the average truck loaded to its rated 
capacity, in addition to carrying its rated load, develops a drawbar pull 
equal to about one-half of its rated load. A team of horses will develop a 
maximum sustained drawbar pull equal to about one-fourth of their weight. 
It was estimated from the tests that the drawbar pull required to move a ton 
of material varies from 50 lbs. on a brick street to 150 lbs. on a hard surfaced 
country road, no grades of consequence considered. Further variations are 
in proportion to grades, road conditions, etc. On average roads with average 



200 



m 



^Average Drafts in Pounds per Ton of 
Total Live ond Dead Load Hauled 




'1.0% Level H.0% +2.0%. *J0% 

Crode* 
Fig. 10. — Draft per ton curves for various road conditions, 



grades the drawbar pull required is about 250 lbs. per ton of live load moved 
on a properly constructed vehicle. This was another conclusion drawn from 
the tests. On this basis an average 3-ton truck will pull 10 tons live load in 
addition to the rated load on the truck proper, in other words the drawbar 
pull of the average 3-ton truck equals that of three 3,000-pound teams. 

Fig. 10 shows " draft per ton curves for various road conditions " from actual 
tests. In order to take care of possible conditions not obtained in the actual 
tests, the per ton drawbar pull given in the paragraph above is placed con- 
siderably in excess of that shown by the tests. 

The Troy Wagon Works Co. decided from the results of their tests that an 
average motor truck could develop the tractive power necessary to pull one 
or more loaded trailers. In the tests, in order to keep the motor truck from 
being delayed the trailer plant was three times the number being pulled, 
yi of the plant at the loading point, >i in transit and Vz being unloaded. 



HAULING 



173 



Table XVII shows the results of actual tests in tons delivered, comparing 
teams with motor alone, with motor hauling one trailer and motor hauling 
two trailers. In connection with Fig. 11, Table XVIII indicates ton-mile 
cost for various outfits and shows considerable economy by the use of trailers. 




'Q I 2 S 4 6 6 7 

Distance of Loaded HauMn Mi!e$ 

Fig. 11. — Curves showing comparative ton-mile costs for various outfits. 





Table XVII.- 


—Daily Tonnage Delivered 






One team 




Motor hauling 


Motor hauHng 


Length of haul 


One wagon 


Motor alone 


one trailer 


two trailers 


yi mile 


27 


42 


160 


280 


1 mile 


18 


36 


140 


260 


2 miles 


12 


30 


85 


160 


3 miles 


9 


21 


60 


110 


4 miles 


6 


18 


50 


100 


5 miles 


6 


18 


35 


70 




Table XVIII.- 


-Comparative 


Ton-mile Costs 








Distance of 










loaded haul in 


One team 








mines 


One wagon 


Motor alone 


One trailer 


Two trailers 


H 


$0,444 


$0,480 


$0,210 


$0,258 


1 


0.319 


0.319 


0.154 


0.167 


2 


0.256 


0.240 


0.143 


0.118 


4 


0.221 


0.200 


0.137 


0.106 


6 


0.214 


0.186 


0.135 


0.104 


8 


0.209 


0.179 


0.134 


0.103 


10 




0.176 


0.134 


0.103 



174 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Distribution of Average Operating Costs of Gasoline Trucks. — Table 
XIX, given by Ralph W. Home in Engineering News-Record, Sept. 20, 1917, 
is prepared from data collected on the cost of motor-truck operation covering 
periods of from one to several years, and it is believed that all factors which 
might be affected by seasonal variations are properly averaged. 

Table XIX. — Operating Costs of Motor Trucks 

Capacity of truck, tons 2 3 33^^ 4 5 7 

Average load carried, tons 2 3.3 3.8 4.15 5.2 6.5 

Total operating cost, cents per ton-mile 21.5 19,0 18.117.8 16.5 15.0 

Per cent of total cost per ton-mile of 

cost of: 

1 Gasoline, 25 ct. per gal 13.6 15.2 17.3 19.7 18.6 17.0 

2 Lubricants 4.7 4.2 2.0 1.4 2.2 2.2 

3 Tires 18.0 14.8 13.5 10.8 16.7 20.2 

4 Repairs and sundries 9.1 9.4 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.1 

5 Depreciation — 5.5 % per annum 23.5 22.0 20.5 21.0 20.0 20.0 

6 Chauffeur 18.1*20.6 24.0 21.7 17.3 15.4 

7 License, insurance and taxes 4.3 4.4 4.6 5.4 5.0 4.8 

8 Storage, $20 per mo 5.2 4.8 3.0 3.6 3.7 4.0 

9 Interest (at 5H % per annum) 3.5 4.6 5.1 5.9 5.5 5.3 

In the table the items may be grouped into two classes. The first classi- 
fication contains items 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, which are found to be more or less 
constant regardless of the total ton-mileage; while items 6, 7, 8 and 9 are seen 
to fall under the second class, wherein all items decrease directly as the total 
ton-mileage increases, so that it is very desirable that as large a total as 
possible should be accomplished in a given period of time. With these 
figures it is possible to study the relation which each of the individual items 
bears to the whole if the total cost per ton-mile is obtained. 

Five Mechanics Keep 25-Truck Fleet in Good Conditign. — According to 
Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 4, 1918, the Knutsen Motor Trucking 
Co. of Cleveland, O., operating 25 trucks, of which 10 or more are continually 
used on the 40-mile haul between Cleveland and Akron, employs five mechan- 
ics to keep the fleet in good mechanical condition. One of these men is an 
expert capable of supervising all kinds of truck repair work, while the other 
four men are less skilled. The expert and three of the men work at the 
Cleveland repair shop and warehouse during the day. The other man is 
kept on duty at night to fix any emergency troubles that might arise, as the 
company operates a night service between Cleveland and Akron during the 
summer. 

Cost of hauling stone with a 22-h.p. traction engine and stone spreading 
cars is given by John F. Hammond in Engineering and Contracting, March 
27, 1912. 

In building the Gatchellville Road, York County, Pa., 14,000 tons of 2-in. 
stone were required. Because of grades, team hauling was exceedingly expen- 
sive and slow, as a team of average weight usually found among the farmers 
could not move over two tons per day, for a wage of $3.50 or $1.75 per ton. 
An expert from a prominent traction engine company, who was called in and 
driven over the route, expressed himself as very doubtful if we could succeed 
with a traction engine, as the grades on the pitches of some of the hills'were 30 
per cent, and the traction surface was of a soapy clay nature. He advised us to 
begin our work at the southerly end beyond New Park and work over the 
finished road with the traction outfit; this course was finally adopted. The 
grades of the finished road were approximately 7 per cent on some of the hills 



HAULING 175 

for a considerable distance. Ttie records on which this article is based were 
started on Aug. 1, 1910, after 2 miles, one-half of the road, had been built, 
and continued up to Nov. 14, 1910, when the road was completed. These 
records were kept as a means of information and to promote efficiency by com- 
pelling daily report of the materials used, wages paid and work done. The 
card report was made as simple as possible so that no excuse could be offered 
for not using it. No writing was required of the men, only figures. The use 
of the cards produced immediate reform on the work and very largely in- 
creased the output of the plant. All repairs and renewals of parts for engine 
and cars were made on holidays or at night. 

From the constant passage of the engine and heavily loaded cars over the 
road, its surface became about as hard as solid rock, and the continued 
dry weather made a deep dust, composed of too abundantly used screenings 
required by the specifications, gave us much annoyance, making the engine 
look like a heap of junk, the crew like negroes, and causing the repairs to be 
excessive; as nuts, bolts and the parts held in place by them would be loosened 
in an incredibly short space of time, and the gears would be like grindstones 
from the grit deposited on them. 

It is necessary in operating an outfit af this kind, to maintain a supply of 
the extra parts that are most likely to be broken ; and it is advisable to have on 
hand even some of the larger castings, as a break, when you are working some 
distance from the factory, may result in a delay of several days and completely 
tie up a piece of work which is dependent on the stone hauled by the engine. 
We maintained a storehouse for oils, waste and odd parts; also a portable 
forge, bench, vice, jacks, and other tools ready to take to the side of the 
engine in case of necessity ; by these precautions we did not lose one workable 
day between Aug. 1 and Nov. 14, 1910. Another important consideration is 
the water supply which must be not only pure but readily accessible and quickly 
gotten from the supply into the engine tanks. We pumped directly from a 
barrel sunken in the bed of a brook into a large tank placed on the road side, 
high enough to fill the engine tanks by gravity ; but made the mistake of not 
having our outlet from the large tank of sufficient size to fill our engine tanks 
as quickly as we might have done, and delays occured at the tank that were 
needless and anoying. Water was pumped into the supply tank by a small 
one-cylinder gasoline pump which operated very cheaply, and only required 
the services of the engine driver to start and stop it as he passed on his trips. 
The wages paid to the engine crew was; Engineer, $3.50 per day; fireman, 
$1.75 per day, steady time for ten hours daily; overtime at same hourly rate. 
The fireman operated the stone spreadnig cars, making the spread of even 
thickness, which requires considerable experience and should be closely 
watched by the overseer as the tendency is to spread too deeply, and super- 
fluous stone would have to be removed at an extra expense. Supervision 
in our case was figured at one-third of the superintendent's time, or $2.28 per 
day with no extra time allowance. Interest and depreciation are figured 
on the new value of the machinery — $5,050 on June 1, 1909, and on an esti- 
mated life of four years, or 25 per cent depreciation per year, with an interest 
charge on the capital invested of 5 per cent. The sum of the interest and 
depreciation, however, are figured for the whole year and divided into the 
days that we actually worked. This is hardly fair to the machine, as it might 
have done more days' work and thus reduced this item. The life of the 
machine is also very conservative, and probably should be eight to twelve 
years instead of four years. 



176 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The following tabulations show our conclusions and we think may be con- 
sidered quite accurate. I have not thought it necessary to make an analysis 
of the repair account, which consisted of castings, bolts, nuts, valves, pipe 
elbows, engineer's and fireman's time and many small items: 

Total Cost of Operation — 93 days. 

Operating $ 945. 67 

Repairs. 310. 17 

Depreciation and interest 686. 15 

Supervision 239 . 40 

Total $2,181.39 

Analysis of Operating Account. 

4.70 tons coal at $4.50 $ 21.15 

3.49 tons coal at $5 : 17 . 45 

913.4 tons coal at $3.26 297.77 

Water 66 . 27 

67 gal. cylinder oil at 30 cts 20. 10 

30H gals, black oil at 9 K cts 2 . 94 

3333-^ lbs. grease at 5 3^^ cts 18 . 77 

71 lbs. of waste at 7}i cts 5 . 35 

Engineer's wages on operation 330, 41 

Fireman's wages on operation ' 164.83 

3H gals, kerosene at 10 cts .35 

1 can of tar at 28 cts .28 

Total _. . . $ 945. 67 

Daily Expense. 

Supervision wages $ 2 . 28 

Engineer's wages 3 . 50 

Fireman's wages 1.75 

Coal 3.55 

Cylinder oil .21 

Black oil (gears) .03 

Grease (cups and gears) • .20 

Kerosene . 003 

Tar .002 

Waste .06 

Depreciation 6 . 417 

Interest 0.961 

Repairs 3.33 

Total $22 . 293 

Tonnage Hauled. 

August 1. 1910 1 ,681 

Sept. 1, 1910 1,525 

Oct. 1, 1910 1, 176 

Nov. 14, 1910 284 

Total tons " 4,666 

Cost Per Ton Hauled. 

Operation 945.67 $ 0.202 

4 , 666 

Repair 310.17 0.066 

4,666 

Depreciation 596.78 0. 128 

4,666 

Interest 89.37 0.017 
4,666 

Supervision 239.40 . 051 

4,666" 

Total $0 . 464 or 6.4 cts.- per ton mile. 

Extreme haul, 9.44 miles. Start, 5.00 miles. 

Average length of haul, 7.22 miles round trip. 2.24 trips daily; 209 trips, or 
1,508.98 miles in 93 days. 



HAULING 177 

Costs of Industrial Railway in Road Building. — The following matter, 
given by R. P. Mason in a paper presented before the Road School of the 
University of Michigan (March 1919), is published in Engineering and Con- 
tracting, March 5, 1919. 

The conditions necessary for the successful operation of an industrial rail- 
way in highway construction are as follows: 

First fairly level country. We haul 30 car trains over grades up to 3 per 
cent and have worked over a 1,000-ft. hill of 5.1 per cent by cutting the train 
in three parts at the foot; in other cases we have used a roller to tow up, but 
many such hills would make it out of the question. If the hills were not too 
frequent other power could be provided. 

Second, sufficient and continuous supply of material. As such an outfit 
will handle a large daily volume (at 8 trips per day 300 yd.) and as it requires 
a considerable crew to keep the work moving, it will not pay if there is much 
delay in the delivery of road material, or if the loading facilities are inade- 
quate. I am considering the question of stock piHng some matreial in order 
to keep going when deliveries are delayed, but this presents the further prob- 
lem of loading from the stock pile. Our loader could not be utilized 
and another rig would have to be provided. 

Third, a considerable mileage to be constructed from one set-up to avoid 
the expense of numerous moves. We figure on at least 8 miles at one set-up 
4 miles each way. If the road is continuous and the move is only from the 
end of a completed section to a point 4 miles beyond, the moving cost will be 
a completed section to a point 4 miles beyond, the moving cost will be a 
minimum, but if the outfit has to be moved to a distance, the cost is heavy. 
Our maximum haul so far has been 4 miles as we have been fortunate in having 
our work along the railroad with frequent stations. Our outfit consists of 
a 30-HP. locomotive with underslung tank, 60 1^^-yd. side dump steel cars, 1 
tracklaying car, 1 hand car and 4 miles of 24-in. gage portable track with 
curves and switches. The track is 30-ft. rail made up in 15-ft. sections with 
7 steel ties to the section. 

The outfit cost about $16,000. We depreciate 10 per cent on all the 
machinery, but only 5 per cent on the track as, at the end of 10 years the sal- 
vage value will be at least half the first cost. It is also evident that there will 
be considerable value in the rest of the outfit at the end of the 10-year period. 
It is now 5 years old and practically as good as new. 

Tracklaying is one of the large items in operating and this will vary consider- 
ably according to the character of the soil. In swamp sections where the 
shoulders have not much stability it is necessary to shim up frequently to keep 
the track in safe condition, but on a firm soil such as sand or gravel, it does 
not need much attention after laying. Our cost has varied from $100 to $150 
per mile, with an average of about $132. 

When the outfit is also used for grading it cuts the tracklaying cost as the 
track is then in position for the stone work. During a move and while the 
macadam work is on the short haul, some of the cars and track can be spared 
for grading without delaying the other work, using a team to haul the train. 
Especially in soft sections it is very useful and in heavy cuts, working with a 
small shovel it shows great economy. The fact that the outfit has to be there 
anyway should be considered as it involves no transportation to and from 
the job. 

Hauling 30 car trains and loading one while the other is making a trip, 
should admit of an average of 10 trips per day on a haul up to 4 miles — 2 
12 



178 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

miles average haul — and we have made this at times, but various delays, 
principally in the delivery of stone, have combined to cut the average down 
to 8 trips. I think the train should average 6 trips on a haul up to 8 miles 
as the delays in unloading and at the loader would be less and it would only 
mean an average of 48 miles per day actual running. At this rate, hauling 47 
tons per trip would equal 282 tons per day. Speed of train is 8 to 10 miles 
per hour and time of unloading 10 to 15 minutes. Time of loading is about }^i 
hour, but of course this does not delay the train. At times when our stone 
supply was sufficient we have averaged - over 400 yd. per day, or at the 
rate of a mile of road built in 6 days. 

The following costs are an average of 3 years, 1914, 1915 and 1916, and 
cover about 20 miles of 16-ft. macadam construction: 

Per cu. yd. 

Tracklaying $0. 055 

Engineer . 025 

Brakeman . 013 

Watchman .010 

Fuel .010 

Oil, grease and waste . 002 

Repairs .015 

Moving . . 025 

Total operating '. . . $0 . 155 

Depreciation . 055 

Interest ; . 035 

Total hauling $0. 245 

Cost per yard mile $0. 1225 

Cost per ton mile $0 . 098 

Delivering the stone on the road as above affords an opportunity of keeping 
the other construction costs at a minimum. Loading with an elevator is 
about the cheapest method and spreading the stone with a road machine is 
cheaper than by hand and planes the road at the same time, avoiding minor 
inequalities which so often occur. Rollers and sprinklers are kept up to their 
full capacity. 

The other costs of the macadam construction follow: 

Per cu. yd. 

Loading $0. 070 

Spreading .160 

Sprinkling .065 

Rolling .021 

$0,505 
Hauling as above . 245 

Total $0,750 

Portable Railways for Hauling Materials for Road Construction. — The 
following information concerning the method and cost of operating a portable 
railway on road construction near Lockport, N. Y. is given by Orenstein- 
Arthur Koppel Co., in Engineering and Contracting, March 14, 1914. 

The equipment consisted of about four miles of narrow-gage portable track, 
40 36 X 24-in. dump cars and two 5-ton dinky locomotives. The cars were 
hauled in trains of 12 cars each, the arrangement being so made that there 
was always one train of loaded cars on the way to the site of the work, one 
train of empties returning for material and one train of cars being loaded. 



HAULING 179 

The cars were loaded from over-head bins at the crusher and the average 
amount transported was 80 cu. yds. per day. 

Item — Per 

Materials: Amount cu. yd. 

Fuel and oil for locomotives and cars $ 8. 00 $0. 100 

Labor: 

2 engineers at $2.75 5.50 0.069 

2 brakemen at $1.75 3.50 0.044 

1 track foreman at $3 3 . 00 0. 037 

1 track laborer at $1.75 1.75 0.022 



Totals $21.75 $0,272 

As the material was hauled three miles the unit cost was 9 cts. per cubic 
yard per mile. The average cost of grading the shoulder or berm of the 
road ready for track laying and laying track was between 2 and 3 cts. per 
foot of track. 



CHAPTER IV 

EXCAVATION ECONOMICS 

The matter included in this chapter deals with the economics of excavation 
and does not give costs for particular kinds of work. As most construction 
work requires excavation at some stage, by referring to the index, under 
excavation, itemized costs of many different kinds of work may be found. 

For further data, on cost of excavation, the reader is referred to Gillette's 
"Earthwork and Its Cost," Handbook of Rock Excavation" and "Handbook 
of Clearing and Grubbing." 

Rating Table for Excavation with Pick and Shovel. — L. K. Sherman gives 
the following data in Engineering and Contracting, May 27, 1914. 

The accompanying diagram and tables represent the amount of excavation 
of various materials which will be performed in a ten-hour day by the average 
laborer working under good supervision. In making this compilation the 
writer has compared a large number of data from many sources with figures 
obtained in his own experience on construction. As might be expected there 
is wide divergence in such published data. 

The curves in the diagram based on a rational relation of one class of 
material to another as regards the amount of work or power required in pick- 
ing or shovel cutting and the power required in casting up materials of differ- 
ent weights. The output of excavation is proportional to the amount of power 
or work required to move a cubic yard of the material. Let the amount of 
work or power to cut into and fill the shovel with sand be called unity. Then 
for other materials the relative power to cut out and place on the shovel will 
from experience be as in Table I. 

Table I. — Power to Pick, Loosen and Cut onto Shovel 

Sand : P=1.0 

Gravel, loose P=1.5 

Earth, medium P = 2.0 

Clay, light : P=3.0 

Clay, dry, hard P = 4.5 

Clay, wet, heavy P =5.0 

Hard pan * P = 6.0 

The work or power to lift or cast up the material after the shovel is filled is 
proportional to the weight of material and height cost or which is the same, the 
depth of cut. Then if W is the weight, the relative power to cast up material 
to different heights H will be as follows : 

Sand. W H where W = 1 . 

Gravel W H where W = 1 

Earth, medium W H where W = 0.8 

Clay, light W H where W = 1 . 1 

Clay, dry W H where W = 1 . 1 

Clay, wet W H where W = 1 . 3 

Hard pan W H where W = 1 . 12 

The total power to shovel and cast any material is P -|- WH. The output 

is inversely proportional to the power or work required. The output of any 

material by hand excavation in cubic yards per man per 10 hours is 

30 

Cubic yards = 

P + .3TF// 

180 



EXCAVATION ECONOMICS 181 

The constants 30 and .3 are empirical and like the relative values of P have 
been selected to correspond with the best data available on excavation of 
various materials at different depths of cut. 

The curves in the diagram Fig. 1 are platted according to the above formula 
with coefficients P and W as previously noted. The letters represent observa- 
tions from various published statements and are not equally reliable or compar- 
able. The curves do not attempt to average the data but correspond with the 
writer's experience and some of the most definite of the published data. Table 
II shows the number of cubic yards an average laborer should excavate and 
cast out, at various depths in ten hours while working at the depths stated. 
Table III shows the average number of cubic yards per 10-hour day than an 
average laborer should excavate working from the surface to the depth stated. 
This figure for the same material is naturally somewhat greater than given in 
Table II. These figures may be increased by 30 per cent for rapid workers 
and may be decreased 30 per cent for inefficient workmen. The foregoing 
material may be now definitely classified as follows : 

Sand. — Weight, 3,000 lbs. per cubic yard slightly damp. In natural bed. 
Not over 15 per cent clay. 

Gravel. — Weight, 3,000 lbs. per cubic yard. Loose, as excavated material. 

Earth. — Weight, 2,400 lbs. per cubic yard. Slightly ddmp, in natural 
bed, easily plowed, little or no pick work required. Would require some sheet- 
ing in trenches over 6 ft. deep. 

Clay (light). — Weight, 3,300 lbs. per cubic yard. Slightly damp, easily 
plowed. Not stiff or very cohesive, corresponds to yellow clay lying below the 
black soil and above the blue clay in vicinity of Chicago. Would require 
some sheeting in trenches over 6 ft. deep. Little pick work required. 

Clay (dry, hard). — Weight, 3,300 lbs. per cubic yard. Requires pick work 
equal to one-third time spent in shoveling and casting. No sheeting required 
at any depth. Corresponds to material on top of ravines along the lake shore 
in Lake County, 111. Hard plowing. Abode in this class. 

Clay (wet). — Weight, 3,900 lbs. per cubic yard. Tough and cohesive, has 
to be cut out in pieces. Slightly sticky, would require substantial sheeting. 
Corresponds to the underlying "blue clay" of Chicago. Gumbo in this class. 

Hard Pan. — Weight, 3,360 lbs. per cubic yard. Requires picking equal 
to one-half the time spent in shoveling and casting. 

The use of the relative coefficient P is suggested as a simple and definite 
means of describing or designating any class of earth excavation. 

The jog in the curves (Fig. 1) at depth of 9 ft. represents an allowance of 
P = 1 on account of extra labor of shovel cutting done to recasting from a 
platform. As a matter of fact no recasting may be done at the 9 ft. depth or 
even 14 ft. depth but the output per man will not be increased over the quan- 
tity shown by the diagram. 



Table II. — Cubic Yards Per Man Per 10 Hours at Stated Depths 
ft. to 3 ft. to 5 ft. to 8 ft. to 10 ft. to 
3 ft. 5 ft. 8 ft. 10 ft. 15 ft. 

Sand 21.2 

Gravel, loost' 15.4 

Earth 12.8 

Lig-ht clay 8.9 

Dry clay 6.4 

Wet clay ' 5.4 

Hard pan 4.6 



14.5 


10.7 


8.5 


5.2 


11.8 


9.2 


7.7 


4.9 


10.5 


9.0 


7.5 


4.9 


7.3 


6.0 


5.2 


3.8 


5.3 


4.7 


4.1 


3.2 


4.7 


4.2 


3.5 


2.7 


4.2 


3.7 


3.3 


2.7 



182 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table III.- 



- Aver AGE Excavation in Cubic Yards Per 10 Hours for Cuts 
FROM Surface to Stated Depths 



ft. to 
3 ft. 

Sand 21.2 

Gavel, loose 15.4 

Earth 12.8 

Light clay 8.9 

Dry clay 6.4 

Wet clay 5.4 

Hard pan 4.6 



ft. to 



ft. to ft. to 



ft. to 



5 ft. 


8 ft. 


10 ft. 


15 ft. 


18.1 


15.1 


13.6 


10.7 


13.7 


11.8 


10.8 


8.8 


11.7 


10.5 


9.7 


8.1 


8.1 


7.3 


6.7 


5.8 


5.9 


5.4 


5.1 


4.5 


5.1 


4.7 


4.4 


3.8 


4.4 


4.2 


3.9 


3.5 







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EXCAVATION ECONOMICS 183 

The recorded data platted on Fig. 1 are designated by a letter for the class 
of material. The number following the letter refers to the source from which 
the data were obtained, as follows: (1; American Engineers' pocket Book; 
(2) Cost Data, Gillette; (3) Earth Work Cost, Gillette; (4) L. K. Sherman; 
(5; Windette. Journal West. Soc. Engrs. ; (6) Concrete Costs, Taylor & 
Thompson; (7) Orrock; (8) Prelini; (9) Engineering and Contracting (Decem- 
ber, 1908), Atlantic, Iowa, Sewers, M. A. Hall; Centerville, la., Sewers, M. 
A. Hall; (10) Engineering and Contracting; (11) Engineering and Contracting. 

Application of Eflaciency Engineering to Shoveling. — The following abstract 
of a paper, presented before the Feb. 1919 meeting of the A. I. M. E. at New 
York, by G. Townsend Harley is given m Engineering and Contracting, June 
18, 1919 

At the mines of the Phelps Dodge Corporation at Tyrone, N. Mex., the cost 
of shoveling in all stopes during 1917 amounted to 24 ct. per ton. In the 
top-slice stopes for the same period shoveling cost 27 ct. per ton, or 16 per cent 
of the total cost of these stopes. The average wage per laborer shift was $2.67 
during the year under review. The tonnage for shovelers from all stoping 
was 9.3 tons per man, and for top-slicing 8.2 tons per man per day. These 
stopes were not unduly hot, and there was not more than the usual amount of 
timber to interfere with the woik of the men. The tonnages obtained per 
shoveler were considered low; first, because of a poor grade of Mexican labor, 
many of the men having come in from railroad-grading camps; and, second, 
because of a poor spacing of raises, especially in the top-slice stopes, where, 
in general, they were spaced 25 ft. by 66 ft. centers. 

Preliminary Steps far Determining Shoveling Efficiency. — As a first step 
toward determining how the general efficiency of underground shoveling could 
be improved, several weeks were spent in a general survey of the field and 
making time studies on various men, to see what points would need to be 
determined for a full consideration of the subject. The following factors were 
soon recognized: The type, weight, size, and design of shovel giving the great- 
est shift tonnage without too much wear and tear on the man would have to 
be determined ; a standard of comparison would be necessary if the ill effects 
of mine air, powder gas and smoke, temperature, humidity and poor light were 
to be estimated, and the layout and spacing of chutes would have to be studied 
with regard to their effect on shoveling directly into the chutes, or loading into 
wheelbarrows or cars and tramming to them. This latter work would deter- 
mine the proper distance at which shoveling into a chute should cease and 
loading into a wheelbarrow or car would begin, and the information would 
also be of great value in planning the development of a stope. C Further con- 
siderations were: Hindrances to work, such as timber standing in line of 
throw or closely spaced, and men and supplies passing back and forth through 
working space; manner of placing the shovelers to obtain maximum results 
from them, number of men in one working place, and size of working place 
required per man ; the hours of actual work and the cause and amount of delays ; 
capacity of a man for work as the day progresses; proper rest periods for men 
to maintain maximum efficiency; best means for instructing men and super- 
vising work, and compensation received and manner of payment. 

Three types of shovels were in general use at the mines: A No. 2 scoop, a 
No. 2 or No. 3 square-point D-handle shovel, and a No. 2 round-point long- 
handle shovel. In determining the average load that the various types and 
sizes of shovels would handle, so as to be able to decide the best load for the 
average Mexican laborer of the Southwest, average capacities were obtained 



184 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

by repeatedly shoveling a weighted pile of ore with each of the shovels and 
counting the number of shovel loads required to move it. It was determined 
that with Burro Mountain ore a specially made shovel with a 10 by 13-in. 
blade would hold a 21'-lb. load, or 363 cu. in. In practice, however, a No. 4 
square-point shovel holding 373 cu. in. and a No. 5 round-point shovel holding 
340 cu. in. were used. 

A time-study sheet was developed, which was used for all tests. In addition 
to the data placed on this sheet, an extensive log of the work was carried on, 
which undertook to explain, in detail, all delays, changes of work, rest periods, 
changes in conditions that would affect speed, high and low efficiency periods 
during the day, and other points to be considered. 

Motion Studies Establish Standard Time and Performance of Structures. — 
During the period of preliminary work, it was discovered that the work of a 
shoveler can be classified into several divisions, each susceptible to compre- 
hensive study and analysis, and to each of which a definite relative time value 
can be given. 

These divisions, in general, may be classified into time spent actually shovel- 
ing, time spent other than shoveling, delays and resting periods. By studying 
each motion separately, it was possible to establish a standard time for each, 
and, consequently, a standard of performance for the whole. It was possible, 
also, to discover which were the most tiring motions and how each was affected 
by length of time worked, length and distribution of rest periods, size of shovel 
design of shovel, and length of throw. 

To obtain some standard of comparison for the underground work, gome of 
the mine shovelers were brought to the surface and a record of their work was 
made under ideal conditions; that is, with good air, good light, no timber to 
interfere, steady shoveling for various lengths of time and standard lengths 
of throw for the muck. In addition to obtaining the comparison standard, 
it was possible to form definite conclusions, which were later checked satis- 
factorily under actual conditions in the mine, as to the most advantageous 
size, type, weight, and design of shovels for general mine use, under the various 
conditions encountered . 

Tests of Shoveling Performance. — Tests were carried on for two months, 
three different shovelers, taken from the mines, being observed. Each of 
these men was warned that he had to work at his best speed, all during the 
job, but that he was not to overtax himself. He was told that when he became 
tired he was to take a few moments' rest, as it was better for him to rest at 
intervals than to try to work all the time, at the expense of speed and capacity. 
Later the rest periods were regulated, to obtain the proper intervals at which 
they should occur, and their length. 

All of the underground shoveling tests may be classified under one of three 
headings: Shoveling directly into chutes; shoveling into wheelbarrows and 
tramming to chutes, and shoveling into cars and tramming to chutes. Each 
of these series was conducted independently of the others, and was complete 
in itself. The men under observation worked for periods varying from 1 to 
8 hours, and for each length of job they threw or trammed the muck over a 
wide range of distances, with various types and sizes of shovels. In all the 
underground tests, the work was done under the actual mining conditions, 
with the one exception that the men were always under observation, and, 
consequently, were working at a good speed for the full period of the test. In 
no case did the men overtax themselves, and it is believed that all tonnages 
recorded are easily obtainable by a good but not exceptional Mexican laborer 



EXCAVATION ECONOMICS 185 

after he had been properly instructed, and under close and intelligent super- 
vision together with a wage paid in such a manner as to provide an adequate 
incentive to do good work. 

It soon became evident that the great majority of shovels being tested were 
not suitable for efficient work, and only the work of the No. 4 shovel, which 
handles the 21-lb. load, together with that of the No. 2 scoop, which was held 
In high esteem by many of the men in the operating department was plotted 
on charts. The results obtained during the surface tests were plotted along- 
side of corresponding results from underground, to accentuate the adverse 
effects of underground conditions on shoveling capacity. 

Effect of Type of Shovel and Length of Throw on Shoveling Speed. — The 
number of shovels per minute thrown into a chute at a distance of 8 ft. from 
the ore pile, for jobs varying in length from 1 to 8 hours, is greater with the No. 
4 shovel than with the No. 2 scoop. Both on the surface and underground, 
the speed of shoveling decreases more rapidly with the scoop than with the 
shovel, as the length of the job increases. A man working with a scoop under- 
ground can perform at only 72 per cent at his speed on surface for 8 hours, 
whereas with a No. 4 shovel he can work at 82 per cent of his surface speed. 
The percentage reduction in speed between surface and underground work is 
the measure, in part, of the effect of mine air, powder gas and smoke, temper- 
ature, humidity, and poor light. Under the same condition of work, the 
difference in speed between the No. 4 shovel and the No. 2 scoop is due to the 
difference in the load handled. 

The manner in which the length of throw will affect the speed of the shoveler 
was worked out for a uniform length of job of 6 hours and 12 minutes, and for 
varying distances. The decrease in shoveling speed on the surface amounted 
to an average of 2.5 per cent for every foot increase in distance thrown in the 
case of the scoop, and 1.8 per cent for the No. 4 shovel. Underground, the 
working speed was decreased more rapidly, being respectively 4.4 per cent and 
3.2 per cent per foot increase in throw. The rate of decrease in shoveling 
speed, both on the surface and underground, was greater for the heavily 
loaded scoop than for the shovel. 

In determining the amount of rest required for shoveling jobs of various 
lengths it was found that the scoop again has a; negative effect both on surface 
and underground, causing a man to use up more time in resting than when 
working with a No. 4 shovel. The rest period, as considered, was made of the 
time consumed in delays, the time actually spent in resting, during which the 
man may smoke a cigarette and sit down for a few minutes, and the time used 
in loosening the muck pile, scraping up the dirt on the shoveling plat, or doing 
other light work, not actually shoveling, but closely related to it. 

Determination of Actual Time Devoted to Shoveling. — Over a long period it 
was possible to demonstrate the feasibility of accurately determining the 
percentage of the working day that a man will .actually devote to shoveling. 
The working day at the Burro Mountain mines is 8 hours, ^^ hour of which 
is given up to the lunch period, leaving 7>^ hours as the total possible working 
time. It was found that of this 7H hours the man actually worked at shovel- 
ing for 82.5 per cent of the time. The remainder of the possible working 
time, or 17.5 per cent, is spent on other work, the man quitting early for 
lunch or leaving the mine or commencing to work late at beginning of the shift 
or after luiich. Observations of this character were gathered by some of the 
shift bosses, on several hundred-man shifts, and it is surprising how little the 
figures obtained by each have varied from the average finally obtained. 



186 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



The average tonnage per hour to be expected of a man throwing the muck a 
distance of 8 ft. over any period of time is shown in Fig. 2. Experiments to 
determine the total tonnage shoveled for any period over the same distance 
showed that for a job lasting 5 hours and 30 minutes, with a No. 4 shovel 
underground, a man would be expected to shovel 26.0 tons a distance of 8 ft. 
Five representative tests actually gave the following tonnages under average 
conditions: 

Tonnage 

Length of job 5 hours and 40 minutes 28 . 

Length of job 5 hours and 10 minutes 23. 

Length of job 5 hours and 25 minutes 26. 

Length of job 5 hours and 50 minutes 34. 

Length of job 5 hours and 30 minutes 25. 

Average, 5 hours and 30 minutes, average 27 . 4 

Comparison of Work Done with Scoop and by Shovel. — A careful study of Fig. 
3 shows the following conditions: (1) The difference in tonnage handled by the 
same shovel, on the surface and underground, for any length of job, is the 

^9 



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£ 0, 



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Length of Job in Hours 



Fig. 2. — Average tonnage shoveled per hour. 



measure of the bad effects of underground conditions. For a job of 6 hours 
and 12 minutes, with a No. 4 shovel, the underground work is 20.5 per cent 
less than on surface. (2) The difference between the amounts shoveled with 
the No. 2 scoop and the No. 4 shovel, under same conditions, is the measure 
of the effect of the difference in load handled by the man. (3) Each line on 
this chart shows a peak at some particular length of job, and the total tonnage 
shoveled for any greater period than this is actually less. (4) The presence 
of this peak accords with the experience of many superintendents and man- 
agers, who state that their men do more work in an 8-hour day than they did 
on the old 10-hour basis. (5) The "economic shoveling day" is about 6H 
hours, with a No. 2 scoop on the surface, and 5H hours underground. With 
a No. 4 shovel, on the surface 8 hours is about the proper length of day, 
whereas underground 6^ hours seems to be about correct. As the men 
actually shovel only 6>^ hours per day on an average, and as their other work 
is generally of a light nature, the 8-hour day with the correctly proportioned 
shovel is probably the best ; but with a scoop it is certainly too long. (6) For 
work on the surface, on jobs lasting longer than 4^ hours, the No. 4 shovel is 
superior to the scoop. Underground the No. 4 shovel demonstrates its 



EXCAVATION ECONOMICS 



187 



superiority for jobs longer than SH hours. The scoop thus may be con- 
sidered as a task shovel for short-time jobs, but even here its value is only 
slightly greater than the No. 4 shovel and it tires the man so that he is unfit 
for other work when the shoveling task is finished. 




Pig. 3.- 



3 4 5 

Length of Job in Hours 

-Comparison of work of No. 2 scoop and No. 4 shovel. 



Effect of Height and Length of Throw on Shoveling Speed, — The following 
formulas show the manner in which use is made of the figures presented In the 
preceding diagrams: 

Let W = weight of load on shovel, in pounds; 
N = number of shovels per minute; 
P = per cent time actually shoveUng; 



188 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



L = length of job, in minutes; 
T = total tonnage shoveled; 

n = number of shovels per minute for an 8-ft. throw; 
p = per cent increase or decrease due to various lengths of throw. 
W X N X P X L 



2000 



= T 



n == N(1.00± p) 



24 
?? 

10 
18 
16 

s 14 



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4 

e 


Fig. 4.- 



NoASq.Ft.D-Handle Shovel Underground 


/ 


^ 


■ Ore Jnrowndrtmto Wneellparrow^ 
Length of Tram 20 Fi for All Tests 
Capacity of Wheelharrow^5l 5 Lb. or 


* 

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wveltul 


5 of 211 


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12 3 4 5 7 8 

Len^tti of Job in Hours 

-Capacity of shoveler using wheelbarrow for various jobs. 



In using the No. 4 D-handle shovel it was discovered that a throw of 3 ft. 
to the wheelbarrow gave the best results as far as number of shovels per 
minute and rest periods required were concerned, and in all subsequent work 
the ore was thrown into the wheelbarrow from this distance. For any length 



EXCAVATION ECONOMICS 



189 



of job, the number of shovels per minute is less than when throwing 8 ft. into 
a chute, and this is due to the fact that the shoveler must place each shovelful 
carefully to keep the wheelbarrow from spilling its contents and to make it 
ride easily. 

Fig. 4 shows the tonnage to be expected of a man for any length of job, the 
length of tram being constant at 20 ft. This chart shows that the shoveler 
has not quite reached his maximum capacity at the end of 8 hours. Two 
reasons are advanced for this: (1) As long as a man can throw the ore into a 



20 


































18 


No.4-Sq,Pt. D-Handle Sbovel,UndergTOun( 
Ore Xbrowa 4-FUato.Car 42 In High. 
Length of Tram 100. Ft. for all Tests, 
Capacity of Car l-T. or 95 Shovelfuls 

of 21 Lb. Capacity. yt 


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12 3 4 5 6 7 

i.engTh of Job In Hours 
Fig. 5. — Capacity of shoveler using car for various jobs. 

chute, he has a fairly direct throw from the ore pile to the chute, and with a 
car he has a definite path to traverse each trip. With a wheelbarrow, how- 
ever, the direction and length of tram are constantly varying, as is also the 
amount of interference from other trammers, timbermen and machine men. 
The retarding influence of these factors increases as the length of the tram 
increases. (2) The sequence of operations, shoveling, tramming and dump- 
ing, is of such short duration and changes so often from one to the other than 
it is hard to keep up any pace that may be set, and probably an unnecessary 
amount of rest is indulged in for all periods. 

From a series of tests during which the ore was thrown into a mine car 
42 in. high, it was determined that a horizontal interspace of 4 ft. was the best 



190 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



distance to maintain between car and ore pile in order that a man might work 
to the best advantage. Owing to the height of the car, the capacity of a 
shoveler is decreased, as compared to his capacity in shovels per minute when 
loading into a wheelbarrow. This decrease in shoveling speed amounts to 
about 8 per cent per foot of height. The best type of car for a shoveler to use 

















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holds about a ton of ore, is as low as is consistent with good design — certainly 
not over 45 in. in height — and is equipped with roller bearings, which should 
be kept in the best of condition. Cars much larger than this are too hard to 
tram and cars much smaller use up too much of the shoveler's time tramming 
back and forth. 

Tonnage to be Expected under Average Shoveling Conditions. — Fig. 5 shows 



EXCAVATION ECONOMICS 191 

the tonnage to be expected of a man mucking into a car and tramming a con- 
stant distance, for various lengths of jobs. It will be noticed that the eco- 
nomic shoveling day is between 7 and 8 hours long, and that the maximum 
average results to be expected of a mine shoveler under the given conditions 
have probably been reached. The tonnage to be expected under average 
shoveling conditions during a uniform shoveling day of 6 hours and 12 minutes 
and for any distance that the ore must be thrown or trammed is shown in 
Fig. 6. The graph representing the tonnage to be expected of a man with a 
wheelbarrow may not be entirely correct, especially as the length of tram 
increases. On the other hand, the wheelbarrow is generally used where 
neither direct shoveling nor the use of a car, with its attendant track expense, 
is feasible; consequently, the wheelbarrow is always at work under adverse 
conditions in a stope, and no improvements over the results here tabulated 
are to be expected. 

The calculation of tonnage to be expected when tramming either with a 
car or wheelbarrow, for any length of job and distance trammed, is expressed 
in the following formulas : 

Let W = weight of load on shovel, in pounds ; 
N = number of shovels per minute; 
P = per cent of time actually shoveling; 
L = length of job, in minutes; 
T = total tonnage shoveled ; 
a = time to load one car or wheelbarrow; 

b = time to tram and dump one car or wheelbarrow, in minutes; 
c = load on one car or wheelbarrow, in pounds; 



W X N 
L 



;(CXP) 



2000 

Effect of Size of Shovel or Scoop on Shoveling Capacity. — To determine 
the relative wearing qualities and the cost per ton for supplying the men 
underground with new shovels, different places in the mines were equipped 
with different makes and styles of shovels, and the results carefully noted. 
At frequent intervals these shovels were measured to detect the wear of each 
blade, and checked up to see that all were being used in the proper places 
underground ; the tonnage coming from each place and the number of shovelers 
employed were also noted. 

Tests were conducted with square and round-point shovels varying in 
size from No. 2 to No. 6 and with standard No. 2 scoops, to determine what 
size of shovel was best adapted to the work. For short jobs of less than 4 
hours' duration, the No. 2 scoop and the No. 5 and 6 shovels were slightly 
superior from the standpoint of tonnage handled; but for jobs requiring 
more than 4 hours for their completion, the No. 4 shovel was greatly superior. 
From the standpoint of "number of shovels per minute," work with a scoop 
is at all times slower than with a No. 4 shovel, and as the day progresses the 
percentage of time required for resting becomes greater with the scoop than 
with the shovel. The result is that although, for short work periods, the 
larger capacity of the scoop brings the total tonnage handled above that of a 
No. 4 shovel, for long periods the increased amount of rest required when 



192 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

handling the heavier load serves to put the No. 4 shovel considerably in the 
lead as a tonnage mover. In general it may be said that for shovels smaller 
than the 24 -lb. load shovel, the tonnage handled per shift is approximately 
directly proportional to the shovel capacity; that is if a man using a No. 4 
shovel will handle 26 tons in an 8-hour shift, with a No. 3 shovel, which holds 
91 per cent of the load of a No. 4 shovel, he would be expected to shovel about 
24 tons a shift. If the increased cost of shoveling with a smaller shovel, or 
one that has been worn, is balanced against the cost per ton of putting a new^ 
shovel underground and discharding the old one, it will indicate economic 
limit of wear of the shovels in use. 

Design of Shovel Best Adapted to Mining Work. — The design of shovel which 
was considered as being the best adapted to mining work, conforming to 
conditions under which the tests under review were made, should hold 21 lb. 
of broken ore as an average load. Both the square and the round-top blades 
should be of standard shape, of No. 15 gage at the point, and of such composi- 
tion that the shovel will handle not less than 1,100 tons of medium hard ore 
when shoveled off a wooden mat. All blades should be of the plain-back type 
without rivets, the back strap being welded to the blade. Only best-grade, 
second-growth, northern white ash should be used for the handle, which 
should be bent to the proper shape and dimensions. On short-handle shovels, 
the Dirigo, or split D, handle is preferred, as it is much stronger than the 
ordinary D handle. 

How to Obtain Greatest Shoveling Effi,ciency. — To obtain the highest shovel- 
ing efficiency underground, every man hired as a shoveler should be in a 
particular stope or working place that is directly in charge of a shoveling 
boss. This boss should have had considerable experience in shoveling. 

Economic Choice of Shovels for Construction Work. — C. W. Hartley in 
Engineering and Contracting, March 31, 1915, gives the results of a study 
made to indicate the economic choice of shovels for handling different classes 
of material, from which the following is taken. 

It is the custom, or has been in the past, among many large contracting 
firms and companies in New York City employing a great number of laborers 
on trench work, to require the men to furnish their own shovels. The princi- 
pal reason for this is claimed to be that shovels furnished by the employers 
are very rapidly lost or stolen. While this may be true, it would appear that 
such procedure is a false economy, as I shall endeavor to show. 

Frank B. Gilbreth, in his work on " Motion Study" (page 59) says: 

No worker should ever be obliged to furnish his own tools, if large output is 
expected. When workmen are obliged to furnish their own tools (due to 
their having too much thrift, lack of money, or fear of having them stolen; they 
usually use one size only of the same kind of tool. On many kinds of work, 
greater output can be obtained by using two or more sizes of a tool. 

Again, where workmen furnish their own tools, they use them after they are 
too much worn. A shovel with a worn blade will require several motions to 
push it into the material to fill it. It is cheaper in this case to cut off the 
handle of the shovel, so that the men cannot use it. Where no records are 
kept of their individual outputs, the men always choose the shovel with the 
small blade. 

The statements contained in the last paragraph quoted have been most 
strikingly forced upon the writer's attention by reason of the following dis- 
covery : 

In a gang of 38 men, at work in a trench, with shovels furnished by them- 



EXCAVATION ECONOMICS 193 

selves, it was found that 92 per cent were using the smallest size shovel on the 
market, a No. 2, while the remaining 8 per cent were using the next size larger, 
a No. 3. These shovels, as will be shown later, are incapable of holding near 
the amount of material (if it be earth) that should constitute a shovelful. It 
was further observed that 50 per cent of these men were using shovels, the 
blades of which were worn down approximately 3 ins. from the point, or 
until but little over half the original blade remained. 

By critical time observations it was demonstrated that the men using the 
worn shovels worked no faster than those using the good; further, that men 
will shovel at approximately the same speed whether they are working with 
a No. 2 shovel, or a No. 4, and, as a general rule, will fill the blade full when- 
ever possible to do so. This being the case, it is self-evident that the use of 
small or worn shovels will entail the handling of less material, as follows: 

A No. 2 shovel, in good condition, was found by many trials to hold, as an 
average load, 13 lbs., the material being common loam or earth, loose and dry. 
This same size shovel worn down, as were half of those in use by this afore- 
mentioned gang, was found to hold but 7 lbs. of earth or loam, which is, as will 
be noted, only one-third the amount Taylor has shown to be productive of the 
greatest shoveling efficiency. 

These same data were obtained for shovels of other sizes, namely No. 3, 
No. 4, and No. 5, and Table IV gives the results of the tests made to determine 
the average amount of earth, sand, and stone that constitutes a shovelful. 

Table IV. — Shovel Loads of Various Materials in Pounds for Shovels 
OF Different Sizes 



Earth 


V oru 

Sand 


H-in. 
stone 


Earth 


— ix ew — 
Sand 


^i-in. 
stone 


7.0 


9.0 


7.0 


13.0 
15.5 
18.0 
22.0 


14.5 
17.0 
19.0 
22.5 


9.5 
11.0 
12.0 
15-5 



Dimensions 
of blade 
Number (inches) 

2 9K by 12^ 

3 93-^ by 133^ 

4 9^ by 13^ 

5 103^2 by 14:H 

It has been my observation that the shovel most used in general contracting 
work is a No. 2, whether it is supplied by the employer, or by the laborer. 
That this is the fact is due, probably (in the case of the employer), to lack 
of consideration of the subject, and also to the fact that the use of this parti- 
cular size is sanctioned by custom. 

It will be noted, from Table IV that the No. 4 and No. 5 shovels approach 
most nearly, in the amount of material handled, the 21-lb. load. For trench 
and general shoveling work, however, the No. 5 is a trifle wide and cumber- 
some, while the No. 4, though appearing large and heavy in comparison with a 
No. 2, we found to be well adapted to use in the trench. Fortified, therefore, 
with: the data presented at the beginning of this paper, it was decided to equip 
the laborers in the construction department with the No. 4 shovels, and at the 
beginning of the season, in April, 1914, this was done. 

To quote from a report presented to the chief engineer: 

I find that we started the season, on April 15, 1914, with 606 round-pointed 
No. 4 shovels, and 150 square-pointed No. 4 shovels, or a total of 756, 

At the present time, Nov. 10, 1914, there are at the storeyard 311 round and 

92 square shovels, leaving 295 round and 58 square, or a total of 353 shovels 

used during the season. Of these 353 shovels, 57 have been returned as worn 

out, and there are at present 251 in use on the work. The majority of these 

13 



194 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

shovels now in use show considerable signs of wear, and might well be classed 
as worn out, so we have a total of 308 shovels worn out during the season. 
This leaves 45 shovels to be accounted for as lost, stolen, broken, etc. 

In a season of 168 working days (up to the first of November) therefore, 
we have used 353 shovels, or an average of 2.10 per day. These shovels were 
of two different grades, costing $8,60 and $5.25 per dozen, respectively. The 
fact that the higher priced shovels outwear the lower has not been apparent, 
however, at least, not sufficiently so as to warrant the difference in cost. 

Assuming, for sake of argument, that all the shovels cost us 72 cts. apiece 
(or at the rate of $8.60 per doz.) we find that it has cost $1.51 per day to supply 
our laborers with these No. 4 shovels. The daily^ average number of laborers 
at work during the season was 178, and the cost of the shovels per man per 
day was therefore .85 cts. 

It was shown, by my previous reports, that the use of a No. 4 shovel, in 
place of a No. 2, increased the efficiency, and consequently the output of the 
shoveler, approximately 27 per cent. While it is practically impossible, on 
our work, to figure the actual increase in yardage shoveled, the balance seems 
to be unquestionably in favor of the No. 4 shovel. The cost of these shovels, 
as shown above, was less than 1 ct. per man per day, and there can be no doubt 
but that their use effected an increase in output far greater than that amount. 

The item of 45 shovels lost, stolen, or unaccounted for is worthy of note. As 
remarked before, the statement has been made that shovels furnished by the 
employer are lost and stolen in great numbers. The fact that out of a total 
of 353 shovels used by 178 men through a season of over five months, only 45, 
or a percentage of 12:7, were unaccounted for, would tend to refute the 
argument. 

There may be some who might question the practicability of equipping with 
the No. 4 shovel a number of men who have never used any other than a No. 
2. This was done, however, and without the offering of any explanation, or a 
bonus for increased output. Such a step quite naturally created a great deal 
of comment and discussion among the men, for a few days, but after that time 
they apparently forgot that they were using a shovel which would hold half 
as much again as the one to which they had been accustomed. 

A Study of the Application of Scientific Management to Trenching. — The 
following is a portion of an abstract, of a paper by B. M. Ferguson before the 
Michigan Gas Ass'n., Sept., 1911, given in Engineering and Contracting, Nov. 
29, 1911. 

"High Wages and Low Labor Cost'' is Mr. Taylor's theme of scientific 
management. To increase the entire working efficiency of any industrial 
establishment, by putting into the hands of the management exact knowledge 
of how long it takes to do work, and carefully selecting and training men for 
each particular kind of work, together with improved methods of operation 
and a reward or bonus going to the operator, workman, mechanic, or laborer 
for an extra hard day's work, is the essence and direct object of the Taylor 
System of Scientific Management. "An extra hard day's work" must not 
be interpreted as meaning that men shall be worked to their limit of capacity 
or beyond that rate of speed which a man can maintain daily and throughout 
the year. It simply means a full day's work minus the tim.e lost due to the 
evils connected with day work or the older and less efficient systems of man- 
agement and the handling the labor. 

The writer was assigned the task of studying the Taylor system with a view 
of testing its applicability to gas manufacture and distribution. A little study 



EXCAVATION ECONOMICS 



195 



and investigation will develop the 
fact that system and scientific or 
ejfficiency management find just as big 
a field of application in the gas busi- 
ness as they do in any other indus- 
trial enterprise. What is necessary 
is a thorough investigation of the 
working conditions, and a time study 
of all the elements entering into 
each particular kind of work under 
consideration. 

The Street Department, or more 
strictly speaking the laying of mains 
and services, offered the most prolific 
field of investigation to begin with, 
since upwards of 400 men were en- 
gaged in this kind of work. With 
the aid of a stop watch and note 
book the following data were 
gathered — Table V: 

The time for removing this dirt 
wag much too slow, and this for the 
following reasons: 

1. The working capacity of the 
different men varies greatly due to 
lack of experience, old age, and a 
slow natural gait acquired by years 
of such work. 

2. Good men, natural-born work- 
ers, and capable of much work, are 
slowed down or work at the pace set 
by the men next to them. 

3. Men will soldier at every op- 
portunity. They will work at a 
reasonable gait while the foreman 
stands over them and watches them, 
but just as soon as he turns his back 
and leaves the gang, the men will 
soldier. The foreman purposely 
picks a crew of mixed nationalities 
so as to avoid soldiering and waiting 
for each other as much as possible. 

Two days later, after spending 
most of the time with the gang, I laid 
off 14 10-ft. sections, and timed the 
men on each section, with the results 
given in Table VI : 

The average would be 59.8 
minutes. The two men digging 
sections 4 and 5 are ^ood men and 
work fast. They could easily earn 
$2.50 per day on the basis of $2 for 















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196 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

the average man. All the men knew that I was watching them closely, 
and hence worked more steadily than they would have had I not been there. 
I marked the sections off for them at the start, and measured them at the 
finish. Of course, there is always some variation in soil, and temperature 
conditions have a good deal to do with the manner in which the men can work. 
It grew hotter in the afternoon, and the men naturally weakened a little. 

Similar observations were made with another gang working on the laying 
of a 4-in. main on Cameron Ave., north of Woodland. 

Number of hours digging: 84. Yards of dirt removed: 86.85 = .967 hours 
or 58 minutes per yard as the average of 17 men digging. 

When I came to this job I told the foreman that I was doing some inspecting 
for the Street Department. When he saw me taking notes in my book and 
frequently looking at my watch, he began to push the men along, muttering 
to them in their own language, most of them being Polish. He complained 
about the short run jobs, and said it was difficult to know how to place his 
men. The soil here is softer than that on Jefferson Ave., but wet and heavier 
below the first foot or two. In two different places the banks caved in in the 
same half block, while nothing like this happened on Jefferson Ave. in about 
four blocks or more. 

Ratio of Time Required to Dig and Throw One Shovelful of Dirt to the Time 
Required to Backfill One Shovel of Dirt. — Allowing for variation in soil of section 
by considering the section as composed of yi soft soil and % harder soil, and 
multiplying observed times by this ratio: 

On Jefferson avenue, 1 ft. below surface: 

Mean time per shovel 11.5 seconds 

Do., 3 ft. below surface: 

Mean time per shovel 16.41 seconds 

11.5 X K = 3.83* 
16.41 X % = 10.95 



14. 78 seconds per shovel. 

Mean of 51 other observations taken at random, 13 seconds per shovel. 
Average of the two (about) , 14 seconds : 

Time per shovel on backfilling: 
8-in. main gang (mean of 180 observations), 5 seconds. 
4-in. main gang (mean of 190 observations), 4.8 seconds. 

Time required to dig 14 _ „ j. 

Time required to backfill .. 5 

or a yard of dirt should be thrown back in .357 times required to dig it. 

Taking the following as the average cross-section: One cubic yard = 33.4 
lin. ins. or .928 lin. yds. Total time required to dig and backfill .928 lin. yds. 
of ditch of the above section = 59 minutes digging + 16.5 minutes backfilling, 
or 75.5 minutes per cubic yard. 

Soil fairly hard, weather warm but not hot. Nos. 1026, 1031, 1655, 1001 
and 1027 received bonus on the basis of 13^ hours overtime ($1.30 on basis of 
$1) for each 21-ft. section dug. No. 1655 was not a very good worker and 
it was too much physical exertion for him to keep up his pace. All others 
showed no special signs of fatigue, and were quite satisfied to apply the extra 
effort for the bonus offered. (Table VII.) 

No. 1031 said he disliked " Piece-work," so took him off. No. 1001 dug two 
hard sections at a good rate but claimed too much was wanted for the bonus. 
In the afternoon, he slowed down (Table VIII ). His particular sections 



EXCAVATION ECONOMICS 



197 



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198 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

were harder than the average on account of the many tree roots and this 
necessitated the use of the pick and axe quite considerably. No. 1026, who 
is the best worker in the gang, also slowed up in the afternoon, but more on 
account of the influence of the other men than any other reason. The foreman 
had always given them 9-ft. sections to dig, and consequently the larger sections 
were not very popular at the start. For this reason I made the sections 
smaller temporarily. 

Digging of the Average Man Under Close Supervision. — Soil rather hard, and 
ditch located about 5 ft. from row of trees. Digging in the morning — Table IX , 

(1; Avera'ge time per yard for good men, 47.3 minutes. 

(2) Average time per yard for average men 57.4 minutes. 

(3) Average time per yard for good men with bonus, 38.3 minutes. 

(4) Average time per yard for good men without bonus, 59.3 minutes. 

Amount of work done by bonus men = 1.51 times work done by average 
man. This is equivalent to $3.03 on a basis of $2 per day. The bonus 
allowed was three hours overtime, making the day's pay $2.60 instead of $2. 
On the basis of 60 minutes for the average man and 40 minutes per yard for 
the bonus man, the men would be doing an excellent day's work. Even 
allowing this bonus for work at the rate of 45 minutes per yard ($2.66 on the 
basis of $2) would pay because of the influence of the good men on the other 
men. 

Method of Keeping Cost of Earthwork so as to Show the Daily Unit Cost 
of Each Gang. — W. A. Gillette in Engineering and Contracting, July 24, 1912, 
gives the following: 

Every dirt moving contractor knows the difficulty of ascertaining the unit 
cost of excavation during its progress, that is, before he secures his monthly 
estimate. I venture to say that not one contractor in fifty knows closely the 
cost per cubic yeard of the earth he moved yesterday or last week, unless it 
was moved in cars or wagons. Even then few contractors have adequate 
records of daily output. 

Some time ago I conceived the idea that I would have my timekeepers 
"keep tabs" on the number of loads hauled by each gang during a period of 
about 20 minutes during the forenoon and for an equal period in the afternoon. 
Upon these two relatively short-time records, I determined to base an estimate 
of the full day's work of each gang and to test the accuracy of this method by 
comparison with the monthly estimates based on the engineers' cross-sections. 
I was astonished at the accuracy of my estimates of yardage. The first 
month I moved about 70,000 cu. yds., and my estimate was about 5 per cent 
higher than the engineers' estimate. The next month I was about an equal 
amount too low, so that I checked almost exactly with the engineers on the 
total yardage of the two months. 

The timekeeper was given a statement of the estimated size of load of each 
kind of scraper and wagon. Thus, a No. 2H wheeler was estimated to hold 
one-third cubic yard, measured in place. A three-up dump wagon was esti- 
mated to average 1% cu. yds, Fresnos were estimated at different capacities, 
according as the pull was up hill, or down hill, or level; and, in some cases, it 
might be desirable to vary the estimate according as the haul is short or long. 

The important new feature of this method of cost keeping is the practice 
of counting the loads hauled by every gang during at least two periods of the 
day. One timekeeper can cover a lot of ground if he is provided' with a 
saddle horse; and thus can report the output of a great many separate gangs. 



EXCA VA TION ECONOMICS 199 

His report is made out daily for each gang, and he also makes a summarized 
total daily cost report for all the gangs. 

By following this plan I was able quickly to discover that my wheeler work 
was costing more than my fresno work. I also saw at once that for hauls of 
more than about 150 ft., the cheapest method was to load wagons with fresnos 
through a trap. 

Methods of Analysis of Costs of Steam Shovel Work, — The following 
matter, published in Engineering and Contracting, Dec- 13, 1911, is an 
abstract of pages 5 to 30 of " Handbook of Steam Shovel Work" a report by 
Construction Service Co., to the Bucyrus Co. 

There are so many factors entering into steam shovel work that the problem 
of determining the details of cost seems at first highly complex, but syste- 
matic analysis has resulted in so simplifying it that any man of field experience 
ought to be able, with the help of the data contained in these pages, to put his 
shovel work on a scientific basis. ■ To determine what the work is costing day 
by day, is half the problem; to determine what it ought to cost is the other 
half. 

To establish these factors it was necessary to observe a large number of 
shovels in operation, and the data given are the results of the observation of 
nearly 50 different shovels at work in various kinds of earth and rock. 

The unit costs of working by hand will be nearly the same, field conditions 
being equal, whether the job is a large one or comparatively small. The 
steam shovel is dependent for its work upon so many factors, any one of which 
may greatly help or hinder it, that there is a far greater diversity of results 
than in the case of handwork. The question of how much work there must be 
to economically justify the use of a steam shovel is vital in a large percentage 
of all excavation contracts. To answer it, simply calculate the total cost, 
including the cost of installing the plant, and divide this by the number of 
cu. yds. of material to be handled. 

General Conditions. — Repair costs should be apportioned to the work rather 
than considered a function of the age of the shovel. It will be higher for rock 
than earth and higher for poorly broken rock than for. well blasted material. 
Time alone doesn't affect the unit cost of repairs. 

In the item of depreciation the reverse of this proposition obtains. If the 
machine be kept in proper repair the depreciation is effected by time alone, 
regardless of the work the machine is doing. Many concerns class this item 
and repairs under one account, but this practice is inaccurate and misleading. 
There is a great disagreement among accountants as to how depreciation 
should be figured and there are many so-called depreciation formulae and 
curves. The simplest to use, and one which for steam shovel work is satis- 
factory if proper allowance is made for repairs, is the "right-line formula," 
which is as follows : 

(a - b)c/d 
X = , where a = original value, 

^ b = value on removal, 

c = time in use, 

d = estimated life, 

X = % of depreciation. 

Then X divided by the output for the period c will be the cost of depreciation 
per unit of performance. 

The working life of a shovel may be assumed to be 20 years, and assuming 



200 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

the first cost at $150 per ton, and its scrap value at $10 per ton, the value for X 
with a 10-year-old shovel, would be 

10 
($150 - $10) X — 

= 46.67% in the 10 years or 4^i % per year. 

$150 

The interest on all money invested in the work must be included in the 
costs of the work. In this discussion the interest is assumed as 6 per cent. 

The height of bank to which a shovel can work has an important bearing 
upon the costs. The reason for this is that the higher the bank the larger 
amount of material that can be removed without moving the shovel. 

Formulas. — The following analysis of steam shovel work is based on the 
results of observations of about 50 shovels at work. The wages of the 
different classes of men were standardized as listed below for purpose of analyt- 
ical comparison. In connection with this analysis the accompanying curves of 
cost are useful in enabling a rapid estimate to be made of the approximate cost 
of steam shovel work in progress or proposed: 

d = time in minutes to load 1 cu. ft. with dipper (place measure). 
c = capacity of 1 car in cu. ft. (place measure). 
f = time shovel is interrupted while spotting 1 car. 
e = time shovel is interrupted to change trains. 
g = time to move shovel. 
L = distance of 1 move of shovel. 
N = number of shovel moves. 

M = minutes per working day less time for accidental delays.. 
A or B = area in sq. ft. of section excavated. 

R = cost in cents per cu. ft, on cars, for shovel work only (place 
measure) . 
LAN = cu. ft. excavated per day. 

C = shovel expense in cents in 1 day, not including superintendence 
and overhead charges and not including preparatory charges 
n = number of cars in train. 

(1) Time to load 1 car = dc. 

(2) Time to load 1 train = ndc -|- nf + e. 

LA 

(3) Number of trains for 1 shovel move = 

nc 

(4) Time between beginning of 1 shovel move and beginning of next = 

LA 

(ndc+nf-l-e) 1- g. 

nc 

M 

(5) N = -7 



^ e\LA 

Idc + f -f -I— +g 

27Cd 27C/f e g \ 

(6) R = —— + -r7 I - + — + ^ I 

M M \c nc lA/ 

This is equivalent to the equation R = md -f b. 

27C 

(7) Where m =« , and 

M 

(8) b = m ( - -f- ~ + ^1 

\c nc LA/ 



EXCAVATION ECONOMICS 201 

It appears that the equation R = md + b is that of a straight hne. Now 

27C /f e g \ 

since the equation in = -~-andb = ml - + h --— fall quantities involved 

M \c nc LA/ 

in the equation excepting d are, or are assumed to be, constant. Tiie data 

upon the value of these quantities have been represented in graphic form 

with all influencing factors by the Figures 7 to 10 incl. 

The following standards have been assumed for a shovel valued at, say 

$14,000: 

Per year 

Depreciation, 4% % $ 653. 34 

Interest, 6 % 840. 00 

Repairs, when working one shift 2 , 000. 00 

$3,493.34 

Per day 

Assuming year of 150^ working days $ 23. 29 

Shovel runner 5. 00 

Craneman 3. 60 

Fireman 2.40 

^ watchman at $50 per mo 1. 00 

6 pitmen at $1.50 9. 00 

1 team hauling coal, water, etc., }^i day, say, at $5. 00 2. 50 

2^ tons at $3.50 . 8. 75 

Oil, waste, etc., say 1. 50 

$ 57.04 
1 For various reasons, such as lack of continuous work, weather, etc., 150 
working days per year is assumed. This will vary greatly with local conditions. 

Table X. — Data for Use with Cost Curves 

Values of e, n, c, f, involved in ordinary contracting work with side dump 
cars. 

e = Average time shovel is interrupted to change trains, 
n = Number of cars per train. 

c = Capacity of cars in cubic feet (place mueasure) . 
f = Time to spot one car. 
c' = Capacity of cars in cubic feet (water measure) . 

Values of n Values of c — - 

Min. Avg. Max. Min. Avg. Max. f c' 

Brick yard clay 1 1-2 2 54 72 81 

R. R. borrow pits 7 11 15 83.7 126 270 151 

Rock cuts 7 9 12 54 75 97. 2 ^ 188 

Crushed stone quarries 1 10 10 108 124 189 ^ 162 

Earth and glacial drift 10 10-11 13 70 108 141 o 157 

Iron ore 3 7 12 270 540 675 540 

Sand and gravel pit 1 7 15 67. 5 598 891 

General average of e, n, c, f, c', as follows 

No. of obs. Minimum Average Maximum 

c 35 . 25 min. 4.00 min. 13. 5 min. 

n 35 5.0 cars 10. 00 cars 15. cars 

f 

c 35 2 yards 4. 00 yards 10. 00 yards 

c' 27 4 yards 5. 00 yards 12. 00 yards 

c/c' 27 0.5 0.8 0.95 

Fig. 7 indicates the time to load 1 cu. yd. place measure, in various kinds of 
material. Fig. 8 deals with the quantities e, average time shovel is inter- 
rupted to change trains. For use in plotting the equation above, those 



202 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



S70 




VALUES OF 270 






DIPPER r.APAriTV 


■^ 


niPPFR rADAriTV 


— iro 








IN SECONDS W,M. IN YDS. P.M. IN YDS. 




III 


MIN. AVQ. MAX. M.IN. AVO. MAX. MIN. AVQ. MAX." /| 

fRON 6.1 10.B 15.4 2.25 2.47 2.6 1.75 ;2-33 2.67 1 

8AN0 6.9 12.1 19.8 1.22 2,01 2.8 1.25 1.25' 1.25 f 

——CLAY 10.0 18.3 20.0 2.00 2.41 8.Q 1.18 1.61 1.80— f- 60 
EARTH 10.8 18.4 28.6 2.00 2.66 ^.0 1.02 1.26 1.65 _J- 
ROCK 12.8 30.7 68.0 2.17 2.34 3.44 .28 1.01 1.80 / 




Dt H/HC »eA<...r..- /„..\ 


|y 


<^ 




RA1 


^^ ° WATER MEASURE lW^ 

MIN, AVQ. MAX 

ON 0.7 0.94 1.0- 


") 






rtfin 






- -A 




in 




J 


^-j- oO 




8AND 0.66 0.58 


0.56 


^ 




?. 




~ CLAY 0.47 0.61 


0.77 


f\ 




^ Af\ 






3CK 0«12 0.43 0.79 - 


/w 




" 


A\\ 


ACi 




KIM! 




«0 


NOTE-VALUES OF 270 ARE GIVEN IN SECONDS AND MUST BE 






z 


REDUCED TO MINUTES FOR USE vy^lTH CURVES OF COST. 


' 




z 
»=30 


< 


r 




»lsan30.7j 




_ _ _ 






/ 






1 


y 




/ 






y 


1 


t 






/ 


J 


l\ 






uOA 


/fi 


f 




^ 










1 


Meas^l 


8.34 1 




«nJ8.4 > 


r 










X 


1 


r 






IT 


^ 


i^ 














J 


i 


/ 


/ 










y 










ROCKI i 1 1 




< 


, , J 


Mea./I 


*2-* I 








J^?' -J 


1 
















5? 10 


— ■* 


rTT 






1 


/ri\ 








- .^?. . 


















>rT 






1 




\ 










^^ 


















5 


At 


CN 




J 


to 




?'-i^y 




"Is " 


























.1. 

























Fig. 7. — Diagram for use with cost curves. 
(Value of 27d shown graphically.) 




Fig. 8. — Diagram for use with cost curves. 
(Value of e shown graphically.) 



EXCAVATION ECONOMICS 



203 



average values of e, n, c and f involved In ordinary contracting work where 
side dump cars are used, have been tabulated separately In Table X. It 
will there be seen that the average value for e, the time between trains Is 
4 minutes. The average number of cars per train, or n = 10. The com- 
monest form of contractors' dump car is 4 yards water measure or 2.5 yards 
place measure, and therefore c is taken as 67.5 cubic feet. The ordinary 
value of f is zero, since the cars are almost invariably spotted while the shovel 
is swinging and digging. Fig. 9 deals with the value of M or the working 




Fig. 9. — Diagram for use with cost curves. 
(Idle time shown graphically in per cent of total time per day. Values of "M " 
to be taken from this diagram. To find "M " take value plotted below subtract 
from 100 per cent and multiply result by total working time per day (generally 
10 hours). 

time, including actual shovel time waiting for trains and moving up, but not 
accidental delays. Fig. 10 deals with the time of moving up, an average 
value for which is 8 minutes. 

The constants having thus been established, three sets of curves have been 
plotted. Figs. 11, 12 and 13, which are cost curves. Each plate is plotted, 
with one of the three values of LA 1,500, 3,000 and 6,000 cu. ft. (L being 
the average shovel move, 6 ft. and A the area of the dug section in sq. ft.) 
Each of these sets of curves has been plotted for values of M, ranging from 
2 hrs. to 10 hrs. by hourly intervals between which intervals the observed 
values (see Table X) fall. 

Estimating. — There are two important uses to which these cost curves can 
conveniently be put, (1) estimating the cost of proposed work and (2) check- 
ing up the cost of work under way. In estimating we may proceed as follows: 
Assuming that the proposed work is to be a railroad cut in rock, with average 
equipment, there are then only three quantities to decide upon, namely, LA, 
27d, and M. The area of the shovel section being assumed at 250 sq. ft. and 



204 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



TIME MUST BE READ IN MINUTES 




Fig. 10. — Diagram for use with cost curves. 
(Values of g shown graphically. Read time in minutes.) 



WHERE LA = 1500 CU.FT. EXCAVATION TO EACH SHOVEL MOVE 




10 20 80 40 60 CO 70 80 » 100 

TIME TO LOAD 1 CU.YO., PLACE MEASURE WITH DIPPER WORKING FREELY IN 8EC0N08 



Fig. 



Formula R 



11. — Cost curves. 
27Cd 

M 



Assume 



M Vc 



+ nc + 



LA/ 



f = 0, interruption of shovel while spotting cars, 
e = 4 min. time between trains, 
n = 10, number of cars per train. 
c = 2.5 yds. place measure = 67.5 cu. ft. 
C = 5704 cents, daily cost. 
M = actual working time of shovel, 
g = 8 minutes, see Fig. 4. 
d = Minutes to load 1 cu. ft. place moasure. 



EXCAVATION ECONOMICS 



205 



the average distance of move being 6 ft., LA will equal 1,500 cu. ft. Now 
refer to Fig. 7 and select a fair value for the time of loading 1 cu. yd. In rock 
work. Suppose 30 seconds be chosen. Next refer to Fig. 9 for the proper 
value of M to use in rock work. The average value is 8 hrs. (80 per cent of 
10 hrs.). The cost per yard in cents can now be read directly on cost curves 



WHERE LA = 8000 CU.FT. EXCAVATION TO EACH SHOVEL MOVE 




CO 1 i 1 1 1 IT 




--^ 60 


PLATE 2 


XL 


^"^ 




t - - ^^' 






I I i -- . M^ ' 






.:: iS:---. 












: : : _ i^!^*"- " : 






^g_ 






^■' X 






:::-:.:-::::;; i::::±:::ii; 


"..l. 40 










'--.'-- ^^ ~ "i" ^ 'X " " 






- ,-^ ,^ i . 






jf -j^ ,J»l5;- 






>ri J^T 1. ^ is^^rr 


--- _ 30 








- -- - . . _,^i 1 1 1 1 i^pr>.ii-j-n IJ-+-M 1 i,«o»*i:;-»-i 






iL'-i^ -' -wTs =rO,H. - 






,^--^ -"' :-Ir-^i.20,.!*:Il- - 










20:::"::::-:;;!'::^?! 




= = = ' 


::::: :::^::i^:: := = r 


--'■'";,-■'■" ,-■"' -■?'''' i-Qdr 






|^.--'-"'---''---''---'^sep9 ' 










',i^t' 'is'' -s5-^-^ 




















::::::::::::":::::-::x::: 





Fig. 12. — Cost'curves. 
(From daily cost "C" itemized in text.) 



WHERE LA «=i 6000 CU.FT. EXCAVATION TO EACH SHOVEL MOVE 




10 20 30 

TIME TO LOAD 1 CU.YO., PLACE 



40 50 

MEASURE WITH 



60 70 80 90 100 

DIPPER WORKING FREELY, IN SECONDS 



Fig. 13. — Cost curves. 
(Values same as Figs. 11 and 12.' 



Fig. 11. With abscissa (27d) as 30 seconds glance upward till the vertical line 
through 30 seconds intersects the 8 hr. M line. Then on the left, opposite 
this point of intersection read 9>^ cents as the cost per cu. yd. loaded, place 
measure. 

It may be noted here that with respect to the two important items of time 
to load 1 cu. yd. with dipper and values of M, the cost curves are perfectly 
flexible. Variation in the value of the constants may be allowed for by proper 



206 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

choice of M% In connection with the formula it is interesting to note the effect 
of decreasing the carrying capacity of each train, other conditions remaining 
the same. Suppose the carrying capacity be decreased from the average 
10 X 2.5 yds. = 25 cu. yds. to 8 X 2 = 16 cu. yds., place measure, what would 
be the effect upon the cost per cu. yd. The new cost would be 10.6 cts. per 
cu. yd. as against the former 9>^ cts., an increase of 10 per cent. 

To use the cost curves for checking up the cost of work in progress, proceed 
as follows: The field operations are few and simple. Find the average time 
per dipper swing. Knowing the rated capacity of the dipper and the charac- 
ter of the material, a glance at the tabulation near the top of Fig. 7 will give 
the ratio of dipper capacity place measure, to dipper capacity, water measure 
and by using this factor the average factor of dipper, place measure, can be 
obtained, and thence the time to load 1 cu. ft. or yard. Suppose for instance 
the average time per swing to be 25 seconds, in earth material, and the capacity 
of dipper, 2}^i yds. On Fig. 7, under ratio of place measure: water measure, 
we find the average value is given as 0.53. Therefore, 234 X 0.53 = 1.2 cu. 
yds. per swing or 2.88 cu. yds. per minute or 0.35 minute per cu. yd. Make 
some rough measurements to determine the approximate area of the shovel 
section and multiply this area by the length of move, and get LA, say 3,000. 
Then, from previous observations or by an estimate of M, get the time worked 
per day, less accidental delays, say 9 hours. Now take the cost curves. Fig. 
12, and with 21 as abscissa, read opposite the line, for M = 9hrs., 6 cents as 
the cost per yard, place measure. If the contents in the formula do not 
agree close enough with the actual conditions, allow for this by choosing a suit- 
able value of M, or substitute directly in the equation for cost. 

It should be noted that the above does not include superintendence or 
overhead charges and cover only the cost of loading. It should be particularly 
noted that for plotting the two co-ordinates certain assumptions are necessary 
because there are a large number of variables in the theoretical steam shovel 
formula. Thus, the three plates are given — one for LA = 1,500, one when 
LA is 3,000 and one where it is 6,000. Also an assumption of $57.04 for the 
value of C is made. Where the shovel differs very much in type from the 
one mentioned, or where the rates of wages are very different from those 
assumed, it will be necessary to compensate for the difference between the 
new value of C, and the one used here. The easiest way to do this is to 
multiply the figures taken from the diagram by the ratio between the new 
value of C and the assumed one. Thus, if the shovel costs per day are $65 
instead of $57.04, and the diagram should give a cost for loading of 12 cents, 
we would have for our charge 12 cents multiplied by $65 and divided by 
$57.04 or 13.67 cts. per yard. 

The general arrangement of working is a feature which receives great 
attention from skillful managers; the "old line" contractor comes on a job 
and looks it over from the seat of his buggy, deciding on the ground, where he 
will begin operations and how he will transport the material from the shovels. 
The modern manager undertakes a job much as a professor attacks a mathe- 
matical problem. Sometimes there is only one place to "cut in" and only 
one way to handle the earth or rock, but generally there are several 
places to cut in and many ways available for handling the material. If there 
were only 3 ways — and there are seldom less than 23 — he is a bold man who 
would decide offhand which is unquestionably the best of the three, until 
an economic study has conclusively established the facts. 

The quality and amount of superintendence will greatly affect the unit costs 



EXCAVATION ECONOMICS 207 

of the work; and by superintendence is meant, not only the man in charge, 
but his whole directing organization. The work in the iron ore country is an 
example of the work which may be accompUshed in the way of skilled organi- 
zation. Pure observation alone without actual timing will not show a super- 
intendent whether it is more economical for him to use 9 car or 10 car trains 
to haul material away from his shovel. He will generally favor the use of 
long trains if his engines will haul them. Yet money has been saved by 
shortening trains even when the engines could easily haul the longer ones. In 
this case the key to the situation was the time required to dump and transport. 



CHAPTER V 

CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 

This chapter is comprised of articles dealing with the economics of plain 
and reinforced concrete, in general. For costs on particular types of construc- 
tion the reader is referred to chapters of this volume covering the subject in 
question and to the index at the back of the book. Further costs on concrete 
construction may be found in "Concrete Construction Methods and Cost" 
by Gillette and Hill and "Handbook of Cost Data" by Gillette. 



^ v^v^v^\ 


^ X ^ ^M^^ ^ "^ H- 


V ^ 53 ^ \^ ^ 


3 I i ^3 ^ ^_ 


so V S ^ A\ ^ ^ 


V^^^V^V^^ -P 


\ \, ^ % ^ ^ \±\ 


5 3 V -t V ^ ^ '^^ 


3v-^^^V^5 


^ X. IS xt^itvirs iR -^ 


4^ xt^ V ^ v-^ V ^ K ^^ 


^ \ ^ C^-5 V 3 It ^^^m^^ 


K ^ V ^ V ^ V ^ ^W^ 


\ \ \ \ \ \ \<- %.yk^^\ 


t, 4ff \ \ \ ^ \ u^''' \4,'^. '«--V&*A 


1 I X V i \ ^:^ C^ i^^^|i 


"2 it V V ^ -t -S?^^ ^^ 1^^ 


•^ V ^ ' vJV %^^^ %^^ ^5 


"§■ X V4^3:^s^ $^^ ^^ V 


s<i j5 V \^ d, A^ U^\^ ^^\, \ ■ \ 


V 2^^^ i^^ l^s V ^ V 


^i "^M, ^^ 1^^ V 5 V ^ 


^^ %.M ^% 1^3 s: ^ giN^ \ 


-^^ t>^=^ \v^ \ \ \ ^ V ^ 


JO ^^ ®^^ l<;3 1^ 3 V 3 V 3 V- 


% ^^ ^3 V^ V-^ V-^ \5 


^S ^3 V3 vl^ L3 V-tv 


_^ S22 VA V3 v3 l3 ^A 


%^'\ \ \ \ \ V \_ \ \ \ \ V 


?5 "^L3^2l^^3 _\._2 \._2 



20 



35 



50 



ss 



60 



40 45 

Voids in Sione 
Fachrs Expressed in bbJs cemenf cu. uds. sand and s^one dependent- on 
sand and sione void percenhiQes. Mix hZ-^Cemenf per bbl. fogiveSDcufh 
Noal/oivance for wash or hydraiion. 

Fig. 1. — Diagram for obtaining interpolated values of factors when the voids 
in either of the coarse aggregates vary from a multiple of 5 per cent. Mix 
1:2:4. 

Value of Determining Void Percentages in Coarse Aggregate for Concrete. — 
W. G. Crandall gives the following discussion in Municipal and County 
Engineering, Dec. 1919. 

In the New York State Highway Department, it has been and is the custom 
in preliminary estimating of concrete pavement for a mix of 1 :1H • 3 to figure ; 

208 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 



209 



1.9 bbls. cement, 0.84 cu. yd. stone, and 0.42 cu. yd. sand as the factors to use 
in obtaining the cubic yard price of concrete. Inasmuch as the percentage of 
voids in the aggregates determines the value of the factors, and a variation 
in the factors means a difference in the cubic yard cost of concrete, it would 
seem that a field investigation of the voids in the aggregates would warrant 
itself, to determine whether or not a contractor would increase or decrease his 
bids on the engineer's estimate of the concrete pavement by varying the 




30 35 40 45 50 55 60 

Voids in Sfone 
Fachrs expressed in bbJs cemenf, cu. uds. sand and sione dependent on sand 
and shne void oercen-f-ages. Mix J-l^ -J. Wf. cement per bbl. iogive 3,3cuf^. 
No allowance tor wasie orhydrah'on. 

Fig. 2. — Diagram for obtaining interpolated values of factors when the 
voids in either of the coarse aggregates vary from a multiple of 5 per cent. Mix 
1:1M:3. 



factors, all other items in the analysis being considered equal for the purpose 
of comparison. Before working out a comparative analysis to show in 
dollars and cents what this difference means, it is necessary to explain the 
accompanying tables and curves. 

Tables and Curves. — The tables show the quantities in 1 cu. yd. of concrete 
based on 3.8 cu. ft. cement per barrel for proportions of 1:2:4 and 1:1M : 3, the 
two mixes used by the New York State Highway Department in concrete ' 
pavement construction. . 

The purpose of these tables is to show at a glance what proportions of coarse 
and fine aggregate to use for either of the above mixes, based on the void per- 
centages in the coarse aggregates. In the tables, the sand voids range from 
25% to 45% and the stone voids from 30% to 50% by increments of 5% and 
14 



210 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



the accompanying curves are used to obtain interpolated values of factors 
when the voids in either of the coarse aggregates vary from a multiple of 5%. 
The tables and curves show also the cubic yard and percentage excess of 
cement in sand and mortar in concrete. 

Table I. — Quantities in one Cubic Yabd of (1:2:4 Mix) Concrete Based 
ON 3.8 Cu. Ft. Cement per Bbl. 



V-: j_ 


— Cement — 


Sand 


Stone 


Cement in sand- 


—Mortar in stone 




















% comp. 




% comp. 


Sand 


Stone 


BBls. 


C. Y. 


C. Y. 


C. Y. 


C. Y. 


to sand 


C. Y. 


to stone 


25 


30 


1.34 


.189 


.377 


.755 


.095 


25.2 


.245 


32.5 


30 


30 


1.36 


.192 


.385 


.768 


.077 


20.0 


.231 


30.0 


35 


30 


1.39 


.196 


.392 


.784 


.059 


15.1 


.216 


27.6 


40 


30 


1.42 


.200 


.400 


.800 


.040 


10.0 


.200 


25.0 


45 


30 


1.45 


.204 


.408 


.816 


.020 


4.9 


.184 


22.5 


25 


35 


1.39 


.196 


.392 


.784 


.098 


25.0 


.216 


27.6 


30 


35 


1.42 


.200 


.400 


.800 


.080 


20.0 


.200 


25.0 


35 


35 


1.45 


.204 


.408 


.816 


.061 


15.0 


.184 


32.5 


40 


35 


1.48 


.208 


.417 


.833 


.041 


9.8 


.167 


20.0 


45 


35 


1.51 


.213 


.426 


.851 


.021 


4.9 


.149 


17.5 


25 


40 


1.45 


.204 


.408 


.816 


.102 


25.0 


.184 


22.5 


30 


40 


1.48 


.208 


.417 


.833 


.083 


19.9 


.167 


20.0 


35 


40 


1.51 


.213 


.426 


.851 


.064 


15.0 


.149 


17.5 


40 


40 


1.54 


.217 


.435 


.870 


.043 


9.9 


.130 


14.9 


45 


40 


1.58 


.222 


.444 


.889 


.022 


5.0 


.111 


12.5 


25 


45 


1.51 


.2'13 


.426 


.851 


.106 


24.9 


.149 


17.5 


30 


45 


1.54 


.217 


.435 


.870 


.087 


20.0 


.130 


14.9 


35 


45 


1.58 


.222 


.444 


.889 


.067 


15.1 


.111 


12.5 


40 


45 


1.61 


.227 


.455 


.909 


.045 


9.9 


.091 


10.0 


45 


45 


1.66 


.233 


.465 


.930 


.024 


5.2 


.070 


7.5 


25 


50 


1.58 


.222 


.444 


.889 


.111 


25.0 


.111 


12.5 


30 


50 


1.61 


.227 


.455 


.909 


.091 


20.0 


.091 


10.0 


35 


50 


1.66 


.233 


.465 


.930 


.070 


15.1 


.070 


7.5 


40 


50 


1.69 


.238 


.476 


.952 


.048 


10.1 


.048 


5.0 


45 


50 


1.73 


.244 


.488 


.976 


.024 


4.9 


.024 


2.5 


Table 


II. — Quantities in 


One Cubic Yard of 


(1:U^:3 


Mix) Concrete 






Based on 


3.8 Cu 


Ft. Cement 


Per Bbl. 


.1,.^ 






















% Voids 


— Cement — 


Sand 


Stone 


-Cement in sand— 


-Mortar 


in stone 
















% comp. 




% comp 


Sand 


Stone 


Bbls. 


C. Y. 


C. Y. 


C. Y. 


C. Y. 


to sand 


C.Y. 


to stone 


25 


30 


1.68 


.237 


.355 


.710 


.148 


41.7 


.290 


40.8 


30 


30 


1.71 


.241 


.361 


.723 


.133 


36.8 


.277 


38.3 


35 


30 


1.74 


.245 


.368 


.736 


.116 


31.5 


.264 


35.9 


40 


30 


1.78 


.250 


.375 


.750 


.100 


26.7 


.250 


33.3 


45 


30 


1.81 


.255 


.382 


.764 


.083 


21.7 


.236 


30.9 


25 


35 


1.74 


.245 


.368 


.736 


.153 


41.6 


.264 


35.9 


30 


35 


1.78 


.250 


.375 


.750 


.137 


36.5 


.250 


33.3 


35 


35 


1.81 


.255 


.382 


.764 


.121 


31.7 


.236 


30.9 


40 


35 


1.85 


.260 


.390 


.779 


.104 


26.7 


.221 


28.4 


45 


35 


1.88 


.265 


.397 


.795 


.086 


21.7 


.205 


23.8 


25 


40 


1.81 


.255 


.382 


.764 


.159 


41.6 


.236 


30.9 


30 


40 


1.85 


.260 


.390 


.779 


.143 


36.7 


.221 


28.4 


35 


40 


1.88 


.265 


.397 


.795 


.126 


31.7 


.205 


25.8 


40 


40 


1.92 


.270 


.405 


.811 


.108 


26.7 


.189 


23.3 


45 


40 


1.96 


.276 


.414 


.828 


.090 


21.7 


.172 


20.8 


25 


45 


1.88 


.265 


.397 


.795 


.166 


41.8 


.205 


25.8 


30 


45 


1.92 


.270 


.405 


.811 


.149 


36.8 


.189 


23.3 


35 


45 


1.96 


.276 


.414 


.828 


.131 


31.6 


.172 


20.8 


40 


45 


2.00 


.282 


.423 


.845 


.113 


26.7 


.155 


18.3 


45 


45 


2.05 


.288 


.432 


.863 


.094 


21.8 


.137 


15.9 


25 


50 


1.96 


.276 


.414 


.828 


.172 


41.5 


.172 


20.8 


30 


50 


2.00 


.282 


.423 


.845 


.155 


36.6 


.155 


18.3 


35 


50 


2.05 


.288 


.432 


.863 


.137 


31.7 


.137 


15.9 


40 


50 


2.09 


.294 


.441 


.882 


.118 


26.8 


.118 


13.4 


45 


50 


2.14 


.301 


.451 


.902 


.098 


21.7 


.098 


10.9 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 211 

Method of Figuring Quantities.— Following is the method of figuring quan- 
tities in one cubic yard of (1:2:4 mix) concrete based on 3.8 cu. ft. cement per 
barrel. 

Take for instance a 40 % sand and a 45 % stone 

Mix 1 Void % Void Swell 

2 X 0.40 = 0.8 0.2 , 

4 X 0.45 = 1.8 0.2 

Stone Factor = 4^ (4 +0.2+0. 2)= 0.909 cu. yd. 
Sand Factor = }^ x .909 = .455 cu. yd. 
Cement Factor = H X .909 = .227 cu. yd. 
Cement Factor = (0 .227 X 27) -^ 3 .8 cu. ft. = 1 .61 bbls. 

Method of Figuring Surplus. — Cement 0.227 cu. yd. 

0. 182 Voids in sand (0.455 X 40%). 



0. 045 Cement swell. 
0.455 cu. yd. sand. 



0. 500 mortar. 

0.409 Voids in stone (0.909 X 45%). 



0. 091 mortar swell. 
0.909 cu. yds. stone. 



1,000 cu. yds. (check). 

As stated above, the usual practice in the New York State Highway Depart- 
ment is to use in figuring a 1:1).^: 3 mix for concrete pavement, 1.9 bbls. 
cement, 0.84 cu. yd. stone and 0.42 cu. yds. sand. While this may be good 
practice in preliminary estimating to disregard void percentages entirely, still, 
the same practice may be followed in the field. 

In testing voids in stone and sand, especiaUy the latter, there may be a 
vaiiation of as much as 25%, depending on the physical condition of the 
aggregate. 

Time to Take Void Percentages. — Different void percentages may be obtained 
from sand in the bank and loose in piles, dry sand, sand containing different 
degrees of moisture, dry sand shaken or tamped, and sand being treated with 
water after the sand, cement and stone is mixed together. Therefore, especial 
precaution should be taken by the engineer on the road to take void percent- 
ages at the time directly previous to the actual mixing of the ingredients and 
in the physical state that the coarse aggregates exist directly previous to their 
incorporation to form the concrete. These void percentages should be taken 
every day and also when the character of the aggregate would tend to show a 
variation, as when a coarse pocket of sand would be evident in a bank from 
which a fine grade was being taken. 

After these void percentages of sand and stone are derived the factors enter- 
ing into the mixture may)])e obtained at a glance from the curve. 

Example of Value of Void Determination. — Assume the following analysis 
of cement concrete pavement: 

Cement Stone Sand 

F. O. B. $2.35 Bin $2.25 Royalty $1.25 

Handling 08 Haul, 1 mi 45 Wash, screen, 

Haul, 1 mi 08 Haul, 1 mi 45 

$2. 70 

$2.51 $1.70 



212 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

For 1:^: 3 mix use 1.9 bbls. cement, 0.84 cu. yd. stone and 0.42 cu. yd. sand. 

Cement $2.51 at 1.9 $ 4. 77 

Stone $2.70 at 0.84 2. 27 

Sand $1.70 at 0.42 71 

Manipulation 2. 50 

Water and joints .30 

$10. 55 

Profit, 20% 2.11 

Waste and overhead, 10% 1. 06 

$13.72 
Say $13.75 

Suppose a contractor made a void test of the coarse aggregates in the field 
under approximately the physical conditions the stone and sand would be, 
when mixed, and determined a sand void of 35% and a stone void of 40%. 
From the curve the factors entering into the computation would be cement, 
1.88 bbls.; sand, 0.397 cu. yd.; Stone, .795 cu. yd. 

Applying these factors to the above prices we have 

Cement $2.51 at 1.88 $ 4. 72 

Stone $2.70 at 0.795 2. 15 

Sand $1.70 at 0.397 67 

Manipulation 2. 50 

Water and joints .30 

$10. 34 

Profit, 20% 2. 07 

Waste and overhead, 10% 1. 03 

$13.44 
Say $13.45 

The difference is .30 per yd. 

In a road 5 miles long, 18 ft. wide, section 6 in.-8 in.- 6 in.. Parabolic, the 
number of cubic yards, 10,756, at $.30 would mean a saving of $3,226.80, 
which it seems would be worth a preliminary investigation before submitting 
bid on a concrete pavement. 

Diagram for Cost of Placing Steel Reinforcement. — Labor cost in placing 
steel is usually estimated in dollars per ton, although it is recognized that such 
unit costs increase when light steel is being placed. The accompanying 
diagram Fig. 3, devised by Dan Patch of the Aberthan Construction Co., and 
published in Engineering Record, Aug. 26, 1916, shows chearly the effect of 
sizes of rods on the unit cost per ton. 

Mr. Patch says: 

The unit costs are usually obtained by dividing the labor cost figured from 
the time-keeper's sheets by the tons of steel reported placed by the quantity 
man. In order to obtain data for studying the effect of size of bars, only one 
more item must be recorded — the total length of bars placed. This is easily 
done by the use of a listing adding machine, by which the total running feet 
of each diameter of rods placed can be obtained. The daily totals are tabulated 
in terms of rod sizes and linear feet placed, the total length and total weight 
computed, and the average weight per running foot easily obtained. Know- 
ing total cost and total tonnage, the cost per ton is found, and plotted on the 
diagrams as shown in Fig. 3. 

The curves A, B and C, which are drawn through the fields of plotted points 
obtained for costs of placing in wall, columns, stairs, etc., in floor and roof 
slabs, and of bending and cutting respectively, indicate the large effects of 
average weight upon the cost of labor per ton. 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 



213 



If additional argument in favor of accounting for the weight variable is 
necessary it will be found in the curves of Fig. 4. This diagram shows on a 
larger scale the plotted costs for the same kind of work, but for different dates, 
the steel growing lighter as the roof is approached. Sections of the typical 

20 



12 



t 



v> 8 

s 





T 














Legend 














: 




\ 






A + Placing In Walls, Columns, efc. 
B • Placing in Floor and Roof Slabs 
Co Bending and CuHing 




\ 








\ 








V 




































\ 




































♦ 


I 




































\ 




































) 






































U 










































































V 




■f 


























♦ 


♦ 




^ 


























"X 






+ 






\ 


• 
























*v« 


^ 






f 




^J 


4- 
























• 


V 


V 


K 






^ 


h 


+■ 
















■^ 


^ 


o 








■>» 


< 


H 


s 


^ 


1 




















'^ 


■^ 


^ 


sJ 


O 




^ 


J 


^ 




.+ 




..^ 
















3 




>8 




^ 


N 


O 
"-0 












































n 







Fig. 3.- 



0.0 1.0 2.0 ^ .„ 5.0 

Average Weighf In Pounds per Running Foot 

-Chart for cost of reinforcing steel based on weight per foot. 



K5- 
12 

tS4 















































7 


P/Cc 


Tcc 


- 




+ + 


+ 


^ 




















r^^e 


fc: 


m 


mf, 


Rj" 




— 
























Oo 


o 


£oC 


Uk 


n/rn 


/r,, 


















_ J^f^-^^.^ ^^ 


^e luf D rrom n 


\L 












_ 


[_ 


1 1 1 



Q^l.40 1.50 1.60 ^ 1.70 

Average Weight in Pounds per Running Foot 

Fig. 4. — Typical examples of costs at various dates compared with curves in 

Fig. 3. 

curves of Fig. 3 to this enlarged scale are shown, the costs of placing in walls, 
columns, etc. (Curve A), giving the clearer illustration. 

C/se of Typical Curves. — As an example of the value of these curves, consider 
the figures on the work recorded in Fig. 4. On Nov. 23 the cost per ton was 
$4.83. By Jan. 19 this cost had risen to $5.34 per ton. With these figures 



214 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

only and no knowledge of the weight of steel it would be assumed that the work 
was being less efficiently done, but with the typical curve as a basis of compari- 
son it will be noted on Fig. 4 that while there has been a lO-per cent increase 
in the cost per tori, the typical cost curve A has been more nearly approached, 
indicating the increased efficiency that can reasonably be expected as a job 
progresses and the men become more accustomed to their work. 

Cost of Cement Bags. — Precise figures of value of the cost to users of cement 
sacks are given by L. C Wason in Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 9, 1916. 
They are based on exact records on several jobs for which 403,576 bags of 
cement were received and 390,458 cement bags were returned and credited. 
The figures are: 

Bags lost or worthless, 3,586 at 73^^ ct $ 268. 50 

Bags lost or worthless, 9,538 at 10 ct 953. 80 

Return freight 725. 06 

Labor, shaking and bundling 1 , 590. 00 

Wire, marlin, etc 66. 50 

Total loss and expense $3 , 603. 86 

There being 100,894 bbl. of cement the cost of bags to user per barrel was 
3.6 ct. 

Cost of Cleaning Cement Sacks with Blower. — A method of cleaning cement 
sacks which not only reduces the cost of this work, but also has resulted in 
recovering much cement, is employed at the store yard warehouse of the 
United Railways of St. Louis. The scheme is described in the Electric Rail- 
way Journal, from which Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 22, 1920, 
abstracts the following: 

A No. 5 Buffalo blower is installed overhead with the intake pipe extending 
down to a point about waist high. The discharge from the blower is piped 
a short distance along the wall, where it connects to a cyclone separator. A 
cement sack is put over the mouth of the intake pipe. The suction draws the 
bag up into the pipe and turns it inside out. The workman then pulls it out 
and again puts it over the end of the intake, which turns the sack the other 
way out and sucks the cement from the opposite side. This process leaves the 
sacks cleaner than it is possible to get them by hand. The cement recovered 
is deposited in a sack attached to the bottom of the cyclone. By this means 
from one and one-half to two sacks of cement are recovered per 1,000 sacks 
cleaned. Two men can clean 2,000 sacks a day, besides sorting, counting and 
bundling them. The cement recovered makes a credit to the cost of handling 
of about $2.50 a day. The use of this machine makes the bag cleaning not a 
particularly undesirable job, and furthermore largely overcomes the spreading 
of cement dust over everything in the warehouse. 

Cost of Manufacture of Sand Cement. — The following is taken from an 
abstract in Engineering and Contracting, May 21, 1913, of a discussion in 
the Proc. Am. Soc. of Civil Engineers, Vol. XXXIX, p. 271, by Charles H. 
Paul. 

The use of sand-cement in mass work, where the requirements are enough 
to justify the installation of the necessary grinding machinery, where suitable 
blending material is available, and where the transportation charges on Port- 
land cement amount to a considerable portion of its cost laid down, will result 
in a marked saving in construction costs, and will give a product which is at 
least the equal of the Portland cement from which it was made, in fact, one 
which, for ordinary requirements, is not open to the least suspicion. 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 215 

In the construction of the Arrowrock Dam — by the U. S. Reclamation 
Service to store the flood waters of the Boise River — about 550,000 cu. yds. of 
concrete will be laid, and the cost of cement is, of necessity, a most important 
item. The dam is about 22 miles above the city of Boise and 17 miles above 
Barberton, the nearest point on the Oregon Short Line R. R. A railroad from 
Barberton to Arrowrock has been built by the United States Government, 
over which the freight rate on cement charged against the work is 23 cts. 
per barrel. The commercial freight rate on cement from Utah mills to Bar- 
berton is $1.14 per barrel, from California points $2 per barrel, and from Kan- 
sas points $2.09 per barrel, so that the total freight charges on cement to t|ie 
Arrowrock work are from $1.37 to $2.32 per barrel. 

A sand-cement plant, with a capacity of 1,000 bbls. per 24 hours, consisting 
of a crusher and sand rolls, rotary dryer, ball mill, mixing machine, and three 
tube mills, all electrically operated, with the necessary bins, hoppers, and 
conveying machinery, has been erected and has been in operation for about 
2 months. The cost of this mill, complete, was about $46,000, itemized as 
follows: 

Excavation $ 1 , 500 

Foundations 3 , 750 

Erection of building, chutes, etc 8, 150 

Equipment, including freight 23 , 000 

Installation of equipment 7 , 850 

Electrical work 1 , 750 

Total $46,000 

The total output of the mill to date (February, 1913) has been about 25,000 
bbls. and about 20,000 cu. yds. of sand-cement concrete have been placed in the 
dam up to the present time. 

A representative cost of manufacturing 1 bbl. of 45 per cent by weight 
blend of sand-cement at Arrowrock is given in Table III which includes 
depreciation on the plant and installation, at a rate which will wipe out the 
total cost at the time that a total ouput of 500,000 bbls. is reached. It does 
not include sacking, as most of the sand-cement will be used in bulk. 

Table III. — Cost op Manufacturing Sand-cement 

Unit cost of 
sand-cement 
Items per barrel 

Granite delivered to crushers $0. 02 

* Portland cement, including freight and storing 1 . 35 

Handling and storing Portland cement . 08 

Labor, operating 0.10 

Power and lights, including maintenance, etc 0.16 

Installation, depreciation, supplies, repairs, etc 0. 14 

Total cost ' $1.85 

* Portland cement at $2.36 per bbl., f . o. b. Arrowrock. 

Heating Concrete in the Drum with an Oil Burner. — Engineering and Con- 
tracting, Jan. 3, 1917, states that a concrete mixer with Hauck Oil Burner 
attached, designed and built at the request of several contractors engaged on 
the subway in New York City, gave the following results in the winter work of 
1916: 

H cu. yd. batch heated to 50°F. in 2 minutes 
H cu. yd. batch heated to 60°F. in 3 minutes 
}4 cu. yd. batch heated to 80°F. in 4 minutes 



216 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The heater uses fuel oil or kerosene and is made in two types. The com- 
pressed air type is equipped with a 25-gal. oil storage tank and air regulating 
valves, fining pipe with plug and full union. The approximate oil consump- 
tion is l}i gal. per hour. 

The other type of heater is designed for use where compressed air is not 
available. It consists of a 20-gal. oil storage tank equipped inside with a 
powerful hand pump. The tank can Ke placed on the ground or on the engi- 
neer's platform. It is necessary for operating this vaporizing type of burner 
to carry oil pressure from 12 to 75 lb., which is obtained from the hand pump 
placed inside the tank and which requires about 90 seconds of pumping to 
obtain the above mentioned pressure. No air from the tank is necessary for 
vaporizing the kerosene in the burner and pressure is only used for forcing 
the oil to the burner. The burner is attached to a steel pipe, oval shaped at 
the lower end and bent so that flame shoots diagonally into the mixer. It is 
fastened to the frame of the mixer. 

Additional Cost of Concreting in Winter. — In constructing ore dock No. 2 
of the Duluth & Iron Range R. R. at Two Harbors, Minn., the Engineering 
News-Record, Aug. 9, 1917, states that an item of interest in connection with 
the winter concrete work on the deck slab was the extra cost of this over 
concrete placed in more favorable weather. Aside from the initial delay due 
to very severe cold, no unfavorable conditions were encountered. When 
started, the concreting progressed at the maximum rate, very smoothly and 
with an unusually efficient crew of men. Yet the extra cost amounted to 
about $2.50 per yd. This was due chiefly to the cost of the housing, the 
fuel and boiler-plant attendants increased concrete labor cost due to de- 
creased production, cost of moving housing and cost of canvas. This is not 
considered excessive in view of the results achieved. 

- The heating plant consisted of a 40-hp. return-tubular boiler and two 
water tanks installed on a flat-car. One tank was for the boiler feed and the 
other, heated by steam, for hot-water supply for the concrete mixer. A 
locomotive tender delivered water to the tanks by means of a steam 
ejector. A steam connection was made to the mixer drum to inject live 
steam there. 

With this equipment it was possible to turn out concrete heated to almost 
any temperature desired. If concrete is too hot, however, it will set up badly 
in the mixer, clogging this rapidly, and will also cause checking in the finished 
slab work. The contractors consider 90 to 100° about as warm as it is 
desirable to go. 

Although a comparatively thin concrete slab on top of a high structure 
extending into Lake Superior would not seem a very favorable place for 
cold-weather concrete work, there were several advantages for this work. 
The bottoms, fronts and dividing walls of the pockets were all in place, thus 
shutting off the under side of the slab very effectually, 'rtie dock was pro- 
vided with the four railway tracks, and there was also a substantial steel 
railing on each side of the dock. These points were all used to assist in housing 
in the deck-slab work. 

The housing, 70 ft. wide and 75 ft. long, was mounted on 4 wooden ore 
cars. The roof and ends of the house were made of 1-in. boards covered with 
tar paper, the sides being closed with canvas. Steam coils were built com- 
pletely around the sides of the house and connected to the boiler car. 

A move of 72 ft. could be made in 5 min. after the canvas was loosened at 
the bottom. With weather varying from zero upward, it was found entirely 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 217 

feasible to put in the deck-slab concrete. With weather much below zero 
it was not found advisable to handle that class of work. 

An Inexpensive Method for Testing the Strength of a Reinforced Concrete 
Floor Slab. — The following abstract, of an article by C. H. Weitz in the 
"Purdue Engineering Review," is taken from Engineering and Contracting, 
Jan. 17, 1912. 

A number of materials have been tried out for loading floors to be tested ; 
such as pig iron, rubble stone, and bags of cement, gravel or sand. Where 
cartage charges and wages are high, the cost of a single test, using any of the 
above materials, will run from $200 to as high as $700. The latter figure may 
look very high, but a little figuring will show that the amount is not excessive 
or unusual. In the first place two slabs which measure 18 X 20 ft. each, live 
load 250 lbs. per sq. ft., will require about 200 tons of material for the test 
load. Cartage on this material to and from the job will cost 

Per ton $1. 00 

Unloading and hoisting 1 . 50 

Taking down and reloading 1 . 00 

Total cost per ton " $3. 50 

This makes a total of $700 for handling the 200 tons of material and is a 
very low estimate of the cost where laborer's wages are $3 per day, hoisting 
engineers get $5.60 and teams cost $7 per day. 

It was while casting about for some cheaper method for making these tests 
that the writer hit upon the use of torpedo sand in the bulk. Damp torpedo 
sand weighs about 110 lbs. per cubic foot as it is shoveled into a bin or pile. 
A 2 -in. plank enclosure was built on the center line of columns, enclosing 
floor panels. The height of this enclosure in feet was just Ho of jihe hundreds 
of pounds per square foot of the test load. For instance, a test load of 400 lbs. 
per square foot requires a bin 3 ft. 7 ins. high. 

The sand can be loaded into wheelbarrows and hoisted on a brick hoist, or, 
more cheaply, in a concrete skip; or, still more cheaply, if conditions permitt 
by means of a bucket elevator. The sand should be hoisted first to the highest 
floor to be tested, thrown into the bin and leveled off even with the sides of the 
bin with a straight edge. The cost of hoisting the sand by the first method 
will run about 75 cts. per ton; by the second method 30 cts. per ton; and, by 
the third method 15 cts. per ton. These prices include placing the sand in 
the bin provided it is located within 30 ft. of the place where the sand is 
delivered by the hoisting apparatus. There is usually one or more of the 
above mentioned hoisting mechanisms available on a job, so that it is unnec- 
essary to erect a hoist especially for testing purposes. 

As soon as one floor is tested and the load is wanted on a lower floor, it is not 
necessary to lower the sand by means of a hoist or to carry it down a stairway 
as is the case when pig iron, rubble, or ballast in bags is used. Instead, all 
that is needed is to cut a small hole in the slab from beneath and let the sand 
run through. The hole can then be patched at slight expense. 

When as many tests are made as is required the sand may be dropped down 
a stair or elevator shaft, through a window, or down a rubbish chute directly 
into wagons. However, there are usually a number of things remaining 
to be done, such as basement floors, sidewalks, etc., for which a quantity of 
torpedo sand is needed so that it is seldom necessary to remove any of the 
sand from the premises. 

On a recent job about 150 tons of sand were hoisted by means of a bucket 



218 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



elevator to the third floor and spouted through a window on to the floor. 
This sand was then shoveled into a bin covering two panels to the required 
depth. The load was allowed to remain 24 hours for the city Inspector to 
make his observations. A hole was then cut in the slab and the sand allowed 
to run down to the second floor where a bin had been prepared. After the 
test of the second floor the sand was dropped to the ground and was all used for 
cinder concrete and for the first floor which was laid directly on the ground. 
The entire cost of these two tests, which involved the handling of 150 tons of 
material three times, was slightly less than $50. 




Fig. 5. — How to admit air to pneumatic concrete mixer. 

Operating Cost of Concrete Mixer Reduced by Electric Motor. — Engineer- 
ing and Contracting, May 2, 1917, gives the following: 

By attaching an electric motor to a concrete mixer Ryberg Bros., contract- 
ors. Salt Lake City, Utah, effected an economy in the first month's operations 
amounting to more than the cost of the motor. The contractor had a Ran- 
some 10-cu. ft. batch load mixer with a steam engine and boiler. The motor 
was mounted on timbers extending across the bed frame of the mixer and was 
connected by a belt to the flywheel of the engine, the piston rod and eccentric 
of the latter being disconnected from the crankshaft. The boiler was removed. 
The motor cost $65, and its installation and other work cost $6. The operat- 
ing cost by electricity for a 25-day month, with the mixer averaging 60 cu. yd. 
per 8-hour day, was $45. When operating by steam, with coal at $1 per day 
and engineer at $3.50 per day, the cost was $112.50 per month. 

Operation of Pneumatic Mixers. — H. A. Leeuw gives the following discus- 
sion and data in Engineering Record, Oct. 9, 1915. 

Proper application of an ample supply of compressed air has overcome 
clogging in the conveying pipe in placing concrete by the pneumatic method.- 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 219 

This clogging has been the most serious drawback to the use of this method for 
mixing and placing concrete, which has developed until concrete has been 
placed at a distance of 2,800 ft. at the Mile Rock tunnel in San Francisco, and 
raised to a height of 60 ft. in building piers for a bridge at Magnolia, W. Va. 
Owing to the way in which different aggregates behave in feeding into the 
conveying pipe, the air has to be supplied differently for stone and gravel. 
The illustration shows a cross-section of the mixer and inlet pipes, which are 
designated by X and Y. To illustrate the above statement, when gravel is 
used, it has been found that it was necessary to admit air only through the 
inlet marked Y, as an application through both would cause the material to 
feed too fast into the conveying pipe, and would result in a clogged pipe. 
When stone is used, however, it is necessary to apply the air through both 
inlets. If only the inlet Y is used, the material will arch and then suddenly 
all down to the discharge pipe, causing it to clog. 

It is very important to have a sufficient volume of air to carry the concrete 
through the delivery pipe to the forms. When this has not been properly 
taken care of, the concrete will drop in the delivery pipe and the next batch 
will stick on this and clog the pipe. The tendency has been to under-estimate 
the number of cubic feet of free air per minute required. The following table 
shows the result of three years of study and practical experience. Present 
satisfactory installations are proving the correctness of these figures. 

Cubic Yards of Concrete Per Hour, Mixer Capacity H Cu. Yd. 

Length of horizontal discharge 

Actual amount of compressed 100 300 400 600 800 1,000 
air required. Cu. ft. of free Lin. Lin. Lin. Lin. Lin. Lin. 
air per minute ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. 

600 20 15 10 

800 30 20 18 12 6 

1,200 40 30 25 20 12 8 

It has been found that the character of the sand plays a more important 
part, with reference to the speed with which the mixture is carried through the 
pipe, than does that of the stone or gravel. A sharp, clean sand will require 
less air to move concrete mixed with it than one in which the percentage of 
loam or oxide of iron is high. 

It has also been found that a pressure of 90 lb. per square inch gives the 
best results. This pressure, expanding into a 6 or 8-in. pipe, depending on 
the size of stone or gravel used, is reduced to a pressure averaging about 25 lb. 

Hose at Delivery End Reduces Kick.— rThis high pressure has presented an 
obstacle to be overcome, as the delivery end must be securely fastened to take 
care of the kick resulting from this pressure. After considerable experi- 
menting, it has been found that a hose, the lining of which is made of pure 
rubber to withstand the wear, and reinforced to take care of the thrust, when 
connected a short distance from the delivery end, acts as a shock-absorber, 
and allows the discharge end to be handled, so that the concrete is not all 
deposited in one place, but may be distributed in even layers. 

The mixture of the concrete placed in this way has been found to be as 
perfect as that delivered by any of the mechanical mixers on the market. 
When, however, the volume of compressed air falls below the amount required, 
as shown in the table, the mixture shows a tendency toward segregation. 

The pneumatic method is well adapted to tunnel Hning, as it is possible 
to secure an increase of at least 50 per cent in speed with a corresponding 
decrease in labor. Accurate cost data are difficult to get, but the following 
represents the average case: 



220 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Cents per 
cubic yard 

Labor 12 

Compressed air 20 

Pipe and equipment 10 

Overhead 3 

Cost for mixing and placing 45 

The usual labor crew consists of six men for an outfit which is placing 
concrete at the rate of 100 cu. yd. in a 10-hr. day. 

Placing Concrete in Wall and Dam of Water Supply Reservoir at Montreal 
by Compressed Air Method. — Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 10, 1915, 
gives the following: 

Fig. 6 shows the arrangement of material handling plant employed in 
placing the concrete in the walls and dam of the new reservoir of the Montreal 




Sand and 
'?\ Stone Bins/ 

CemenfChufe 

^^o Meas.hopn 

Sliding 

\ Gores 



Gate levers operated from -— 
platform \ 

Air piping to valves on platform ^^ 




Fig. 6. — Sectional diagram showing arrangement for material handling plant 
and mixer for placing concrete walls and dam of new reservoir at Montreal by 
compressed air method. 

Water and Power Co. by the compressed air (Mac Micheal) method. The 
cement used was unloaded from trolley cars on the track as shown. The 
sacks were unloaded by hand and were placed in the chute which carried them 
to the cement storage shed. A short siding on a trestle carried the aggregate 
past the cement shed. The crushed stone was dumped directly into the 
storage bin, over the mixer, from side-dump cars. The capacity of this bin 
was 80 and of the cars 6 cu. yds., respectively. The sand was shoveled from 
box cars into an auxiliary bin, at one side of the pneumatic mixer, of a capacity 
of 500 cu. yds. The 80-cu. yd. working sand bin, over the mixer, was gravity 
fed from the auxiliary sand bin mentioned. The sliding gates, hand operated, 
regulated the discharge of stone and sand into the proper compartments of the 
measuring hopper shown. Cement was gravity fed from its storage shed into 
the stone compartment of the hopper. Water was applied to the contents of 
the hopper as they were discharged into the mixer. 

The discharge pipe from the mixer extended to the forms and varied in 
length from time to time. This was an 8-in. steel pipe provided with flange 
joints of a special design to facilitate adding or removing sections. The mixed 
concrete was discharged directly into the forms from the end of the conveying 
pipe or from a boot at the end of the pipe. At bends the pipe line was firmly 
secured to rasist the side thrust produced by the inertia of the heavy moving 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 221 

mass of concrete. The sections were poured in three lifts of 15, 30 and 37 
ft., respectively. The maximum length of discharge pipe was 600 ft., which 
included the 37-ft. ft. In this line the total curvature aggregated 400**. At 
this distance pauses were necessary between the discharge of successive 
batches to allow the air receiver to fill sufficiently. The wall was poured in 
alternate sections containing about 30 cu. yds. and this necessitated many 
shifts of forms and discharge piping thus delaying the work. Concrete was 
placed by the method described in zero weather without difficulty, the aggre- 
gate being heated. 

Table IV. — Data on Placing Concrete in Dam of Montreal Reservoir 
BY Compressed Air Method 





2 
2 




13 




1 






1 


4J 


1^ 


I 


I 

4 


n3 


o 
1" 


is 


o 
6 


. ft 

O 

* 




>> 


>> 
d 




ti 


Z 


Qa 


Q 


Q 


o 


Ph"^ 


< 


32 


180-300 


227 


4,181 


18.5 


130 


70% 


21 


22 


100-180 


126 


3,941 


31 5 


180 


58% 


17 


54 


100-300 


353 


8,122 


23 


150 


65% 


19 



* Includes pipe repairs and minor changes. 

Concreting Dam. — Table IV gives a summary of the progress of the work 
in concreting the dam of the reservoir. Work was carried on in day and night 
shifts. In the work on the dam there were 54 shifts to place 8,122 cu. yds., 
or 150 cu. yds. per shift. The cost of labor on the day shift averaged $19 
and on the night shift $27, or an average of $23 per shift. Thus the labor cost 
was 15^^ cts. per cubic yard of concrete placed; the corresponding figure for 
power was 4.7 cts. per cubic yard. The average gang consisted of six men 
charging the mixer, including the operator, an extra cement wheeler, a foreman 
and from two to eight men on the pipe and forms. The best day's rim was 436 
cu. yds. in 7H hours. On this run the cost of labor per cubic yard was 6.1 
cts. and the cost of power was 1.6 cts. 

Concreting Wall. — The wall contained 2,600 cu. yds. and was poured in 26 
shifts. The average daily cost for labor was $17,50 and for power $7. This 
gave a cost for labor and power of 24H cts. per cubic yard. The average 
gang on the wall concreting consisted of two men handUng cement, three 
handling aggregate, one mixer operator, one water man, one foreman and one 
to three men on forms and pipe line. The distance transported ranged from 
100 to 600 ft. All wall concrete was lifted 40 ft. Pouring was actually in 
progress 50 per cent of the time. 

Plant. — The compressor used was a W. B. 2 Sullivan, steam driven, 705 cu. 
ft. machine. There were 1,100 ft. of 6-in. air pipe between the' compressor 
and the mixer. There were two air receivers, one of 150-cu. ft. capacity at 
the compressor and one of 50 cu. ft. capacity at the mixer. The compressor 
was run from the boilers of the stone crushing plant and the cost of steam was 
prorated to the different engines on the basis of the horse-power required. 
Under this arrangement the power cost for the compressor per shift was $7. 

Labor Saving Equipment for Depositing Concrete. — The following data 
are taken from an article in Engineering Record, Jan. 27, 1917, by W. P. 
Anderson. 



222 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The object of the two installations considered was to reduce the number of 
common laborers required by doing away with all hand shoveling, charging the 
mixers by gravity and decreasing the amount of labor needed in handling the 
chutes used to place concrete directly in the forms. At the plant of the Ubiko 
Milling Company this was accomplished by dumping the cars of concrete 
materials into a small bin under the track, from which a bucket elevator 
carried them to overhead storage bins feeding the mixer by gravity. Both 
sand and gravel were dumped into the track pit, the material being deflected 
at the top of the elevator into the sand or gravel compartment of the bins, as 
the case might be, by a gate between the bins. 

At the East Side High School the concrete materials were unloaded from 
railway cars to overhead bins or into reserve storage piles by a derrick with a 
clamshell bucket. Stone and sand were drawn from the bins into a small 
measuring car with two marked compartments which ran along an elevated 
track in front of the bins and dumped directly into the charging hopper of the 
mixer. The cement at this plant was unloaded and handled on gravity rollers, 
and the form lumber, tile and other materials were unloaded in the same way. 

Movable Hoppers on Concrete Towers. — At both plants the concrete, after 
being mixed, was hoisted to movable hoppers, which could be set at any 
desired height on the tower, and thus spouted to place. The main tower at 
the East Side High School plant was provided with two hoppers so that con- 
crete could be spouted alternately for long and short distances without materi- 
ally changing the rigging of the chutes. The amount of rigging required at 
this plant was further reduced by having drop chutes set in the main chute 
lines at convenient points. At both plants, the first length were supported 
from split booms. The upper chute line for the high-school buildings, how- 
ever, which remained fixed during most of the work, was hung from a guy 
cable between the main tower and a centrally located tail tower. For support- 
ing the lengths of chute within the lines of the buildings, tripods mounted on 
iron wheels about 30 in. in diameter were used. The large diameter of these 
wheels made it possible to roll the chutes around over reinforcing steel already 
in place, or on the forms or finished surface, with little labor. In addition to 
the wheeled towers a low "bicycle" frame on two similar wheels was used to 
carry the delivery end of the chute line at the Ubiko plant. 

Table V. — Labor Cost op Concreting 

—Ubiko Plant- 
Ware- East Side 
Mill house High School 

Installing and wrecking equipment $0. 426 $0. 426 $0. 350 

Unloading sand, cement and gravel 265 . 265 .171 

Mixing concrete , . 272 . 204 . 263 

Hoisting and placing concrete and handling 

chutes 340 .356 . 475 

Cleaning up, care of sacks, and miscellaneous ... . 176 . 140 . 040 

Protection on account of winter work 003 

Labor cost per cubic yard 1. 482 1. 391 1. 299 

Total yardage 2267 907 *4661 

* Partial yardage; work not yet completed. 

The labor costs given in Table V were realized with common labor at 25 
to 30 cents per hour on the Ubiko job, most of the men receiving the lower rate, 
and at an average of 28.5 cents per hour on the high-school job. The yardage 
indicated in the table so far placed at the high-school job is considerably below 
the total quantity of concrete required; but as the total yardage has been 
considered in estimating the cost for installing and wrecking the equipment 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 223 

and for cleaning up and miscellaneous work, it is expected that the unit 
figures given will prove approximately correct at the close of the work. It is 
interesting to note that with the higher unit cost for installation on the smaller 
contract a lower cost for mixing and placing concrete was realized The 
figures make it appear also that the grab-bucket rig has a considerable 
advantage over the bucket conveyor. It must be considered, however, that 
it was not always possible to secure materials in bottom-dump cars. More- 
over, the design of the conveyor in this plant proved faulty, and a heavier one 
is now in use on the second contract. 

Labor Costs on Foundation Work, Using Portable Plant. — The following 
data, published in Engineering and Contracting, July 5, 1911, are given in a 
table appended to a paper by Victor Windett, presented to the Western 
Society of Engineers on June 7th, 1911. 

A portable concrete mixing and conveying plant, which was used by the 
Great Lakes Dredge & Dock Co. on foundation work for a blast furnace plant 
near Chicago, is built on a platform 20 ft. square which is mounted on rollers. 
On the platform a 75 h.p. horizontal boiler is mounted which furnishes steam 
for the operation of the Ransome mixer and Lidgerwood hoist. The 1-yd. 
mijcer is placed near the rear of the platform and a hopper bin is erected above 
It, which has a capacity of 10 cu. yds. of stone and 5 cu. yds. of sand. 
The bins were filled from cars on a parallel track, by means of a locomotive 
crane and clamshell bucket. Storage is provided for 500 bags of cement on the 
platform at one side of the mixer. The material from the storage bins is 
dumped into a 1 yd. batch hopper. From the mixer the concrete is delivered 
to a Ransome tower bucket which is raised 75 ft. and delivered into the 
chute. The chute consists of a 12-in. galvanized pipe, supported by two 
80 ft. booms. From the ends of the booms lines run to equidistant points on 
the chute thus supporting it uniformly and keeping it in a straight line. The 
booms are swung horizontally over the work by hand. The lower 60 ft. of 
pipe is made in movable lengths of 8 ft. The plant itself is pulled along on 
its rollers by attaching a line to a deadman and taking it in on the hoist. 

The concrete work consisted of foundations for power house and blast 
furnace buildings. The work was started in 1910 and continued through the 
winter and spring of 1911. 

Table VI gives data on 6 different operations in connection with this work 
designated as A, B, C. etc. The total work done amounted to 36,146 cu. yds. 
of concrete. The labor costs given include the placing of 500,000 lbs. of 
steel reinforcement or about 14 lbs. per cu. yd. of concrete also the labor for 
erecting and dismantling the plant for handling the concrete. 

The rate of wages paid averaged $0,344 per man per hour including the 
entire force employed. 

Table VI. — Data on Concreting Foundations 

General 

A B C D E F average 

Sq. ft. of forms per cu. yd . . . 7. 57 9. 74 12. 8 14. 2 6. 1 8. 69 9.0 

Sq. ft. surface, without forms 8. 54 16. 1 14. 4 14. 7 13. 

Total days worked 110 79 75 17 24 70 375 

Actual concreting time, days . 88 57 36 14 20 62 277 

Total labor-days of 9 hours . . 5,020 3,977 2,310 922 1,290 3,900 17,419 
Cu. yds. of concrete per day 

(total time) 98.5 128 49.6 72 139 100 96.5 

Cu. yds. of concrete per day 

(cone, time) 123 172 103.5 87.5 167.5 113 130 

Labor days per cu. yd 0.46 0.40 0.62 0.75 0.39 0.56 0.482 

Labor cost per cu. yd., dollars 1.43 1.24 1.92 2.32 1.21 1.74 1.49 



224 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST ' 

A. The work on the blast furnace building was massive concrete work 
the blast foundations consisting of concrete slabs 50 X 70 ft. square, and 
having a firebrick core averaging 23 ft. in diameter. There were 10,809 cu, 
yds. of concrete placed at a complete labor cost as given above: 

B. The work on the hot blast stove and boiler foundations was 
massive work, including 10,064 cu. yds. of concrete placed during the 
summer. 

C. The power house foundations consisting of light piers, floors and some 
massive piers, including in all some 3,733 cu. yds., were placed. This work 
was done in the winter. 

D. The casting machine building foundations were built in the spring. 
These consisted of light piers and walls amounting in all to 1,225 cu. yds. 
This concrete contained no reinforcement. 

E. The work on the wharf consisted of 3,344 cu. yds. of concrete in massive 
work. Two rows of piles were capped with concrete forming a base for the 
walls supporting the rails of the unloading crane. This work was done in the 
winter and early spring, 

F. The construction of the piers for the steel trestle consisted of moderately 
heavy work amounting in all to 6,971 cu. yds. of concrete. The work was 
done in the winter and the chuting system was not used. Instead the concrete 
was delivered in hand pushed Koppel cars of 1 cu. yd. capacity. 

Wear of Pipe and Trough Conveyors for Concrete and Concrete Mate- 
rials. — The following is taken from Engineering and Contracting, March 
17, 1915. 

In lining pressure tunnels on the Catskill Aqueduct concrete materials 
were in several places fed down shafts through steel pipe to mixers at the 
bottom. In one case an 8-in. pipe was used and in another case a 15-in. 
spiraly rivited steel pipe. In both cases excessive wear put pipe delivery out 
of competition as an economic means of conveying concrete aggregates great 
vertical distances. Incidentally clogging occurred so frequently that, putting 
excessive wear aside, pipe chutes were a failure. 

On recent tunnel work in San Francisco, placing concrete lining by pneu- 
matic mixer and conveyor, very interesting studies of pipe wear are reported. 
An 8-in. steel pipe was used for conveying and 16-cu. ft. charges were forced 
through the pipe under 120 lbs. air pressure with velocities of 75 to 100 ft. 
per second. On level straight lines ordinary 8-in. flanged connection steel 
pipe not quite new had a life of about 6,000 cu. yds. of concrete conveyed. 
The same pipe on an upgrade of 7 per cent wore through first on the top. 
Threaded connections proved least durable; the thinning of the section by 
threading resulted in rapid cutting through at the joints. At bends, 4-ft. 
radius, ^^-in. steel pipe cut through in instances in 12 hours continuous 
conveying and averaged only 60 hours life. 

Records of gravity conveying of concrete in open trough inclined chutes 
may be summarized about as follows: No. 14 gage blue annealed steel open 
trough chutes have in instances cut through small holes with 1,500 cu..yds. 
of concrete conveyed, and there are recorded instances of such chutes having 
carried 20,000 cu. yds. without wearing holes. 

The examples selected, it must be remembered, are purposely examples of 
failures. They are chosen to show the worst results likely to be experienced 
in wear of pipe and trough conveyors. Ordinarily the contractor will not 
experience anything like such adverse conditions. Were this not true these 
conveying methods would never have attained the extensive use that they 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 225 

have. When excessive wear occurs the records, though they are un- 
fortunately very meager, indicate that it occurs because of exceptional 
circumstances. 

As indicated by the example cited, pipe line wear is greatest at bends, at 
thin spots like threaded joints and on up-grades. Trough chutes cut through 
first at dents or bumps or where there are "soft spots" in the rolled plate. 
Again the character of the aggregates affects greatly the rate of wear. For 
example pit run gravel will cause least wear, broken stone causes more rapid 
wear, and slag causes extremely rapid wear. Velocity of travel of the con- 
crete is another factor of importance. Driving a batch of concrete through a 
closed pipe under crowding pressure at a speed of over a mile a minute is a 
severe abrasive action for any steel to resist. The wonder is that the destruc- 
tion is so small as it is. Speed and pressure of flow increase materially the 
rate of wear of pipes and chutes. 

The causes named for excessive wear indicate the possible remedies. At 
bends in pipe lines, for example, elbow sections of special pipe may be used. 
Cast manganese steel bends were finally adopted on the San Francisco tunnel 
work previously named and despite their greater expense proved more 
economical than ordinary steel elbows. It might even be economical when 
long use is expected to adopt alloy steel or special steel pipe for the line as a 
whole. Another remedy is a special joint construction, one which will not 
produce a thin spot or an irregularity which will intensify the wear 
locaUy. 

Open trough chutes, inclined so that flow is by gravity, present a different 
problem. Good uniform quality steel plate shaped smooth and kept undis- 
torted by denting or buckling is the flrst requisite. Where this will not 
serve, resort to interlining or to alloy steels is probably the only solution 
unless change is possible to a smoother aggregate or to reduced chuting speeds. 
Inquiry of one of the leading makers of concrete chutes, brings out data on 
relining chutes which contractors will be interested in noting. 

For the ordinary job the relined chute is not advisable because of the 
increased weight. The standard untrussed unlined chute of No. 14 steel 
weighs from 20 to 30 lbs. per lineal foot so that the ordinary 30-ft. section 
weighs about 450 lbs. A 50-ft. trussed section without lining weighs 905 lbs. 
These weights are about as great as the contractor can handle well. No. 14 
bottom liner plates 12 ins. wide add about 3>^ lbs. per lineal foot or 165 lbs. 
to a 50-ft. section. Taking into account all the factors causing wear it is 
probable that a lined chute will wear three times as long as one without 
lining. Also relined chutes are less liable to become dented and if the 
plates contain soft spots they are not likely to coincide in locations. 
For work of considerable volume lined chutes are practically always 
advantageous. 

Depositing Concrete in Bags Under Water, — H. R. Ferriss gives the follow- 
ing data in Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 10, 1915. 

A 20-in. cast iron outfall, Fig. 7, was laid from a point on shore to a dis- 
tance of 720 ft. out from shore, at which point the end was in 18 ft. depth and a 
swift off shore current. The outfall follows a channel between high rock 
reefs, and the pipe for its entire distance — with the exception of 120 ft. of the 
outfall end — is laid in a ditch dredged in clean sand. At the outfall end, the 
floor of the sea falls away somewhat faster than the grade of the pipe, and 
advantage is taken of this to hold the end of the pipe line off the floor 
of the sea. It was considered advisable by the engineer in charge to rest 
15 



226 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



the pipe on concrete deposited in bags, and the outermost end, owing to the 
swift current and heavy winter storms, is heavily anchored with concrete 
in bags. 

A 1:3:6 mixture was used. A scow was anchored near the outfall end, and 
aboard it the concrete was mixed and sacked dry. The sacks of concrete 
were then lowered in a sling, and placed one at a time, by the diver, who 
afterwards ripped them open with a knife as placed. The concrete showed no 
sign of setting up for two days. After the seventh day it was fairly well 
bonded. It is now, after one year, a fairly good mass of concrete, which 
shows no damage, either from the swift current or from storms, from whose 
action, except the fiercest, however, it is probably protected by its depth. 



^Manhole 




^OC.I.P/i 

Concrete in Bags-'' 

Fig. 7. — Anchorage of concrete in bags for submerged outfall. 



It will be noted that the costs of labor only are given, and they depend 
considerably on locality and weather, which in this instance was exceptionally 
fine. The costs of materials are easily ascertained for any locality. The 
costs for the use of scows, engines, etc., will depend entirely on locality and 
weather conditions. The amount of concrete deposited was 80 cu. yds. and 
cost as follows: 



Per 

Sacking and mixing concrete: Total cu. yd. 

Foreman, 19 hrs. at 35 cts $ 6. 65 $0. 082 

Labor, 400 hrs. at 30 cts 120. 00 1. 500 

Placing: 

Diver, 120 hrs. at $1.00 120. 00 1. 500 

Tender, 120 hrs. at $0.50 60. 00 0. 750 

Compressor eng., 60 hrs. at $0.40 24. 00 0. 300 

Labor, 250 hrs. at $0.30 75. 00 0. 938 

Total $405. 65 $5. 070 



Labor Cost of Forms for Reinforced Concrete Construction. — In a paper 
read before the American Concrete Institute, Feb. 14, 1916 and abstracted in 
Engineering and Contracting, Mar. 1, 1916, Sandford E. Thompson gives 
the following: 

In reinforced concrete construction, the greatest discrepancy lies in the cost 
of forms. It is here that the contractor and also the engineer are apt to be 
fooled, unless either they are well provided with unit costs or else have handled 
work previously of an identical nature. 

To illustrate the variations in labor costs of different members in form con- 
struction. Table VII presents a few values selected from " Concrete Costs" by 
Taylor and Thompson. 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 227 

Table VII. — Labor Costs of Forms for Columns, Beams, Girders, and 

Slabs 
Costs include 10% for foreman and 15% for superintendence, contingencies, etc., 
but do not include profit or home office expense. Carpenter labor, 50c per 
hour; ordinary labor, 25c per hour. Material, 1-in. lumber. 

Place 
and re- 
Place and move Remake, 
remove form place 

form, after and re- 

Make first first move 

Size form time time form 

12-Foot Columns — Labor Cost per Member, Iron Clamps 

'8-in. by8-in $1.16 $4.68 $3.77 $5.53 

16-in. by 16-in 1.46 5.45 4.40 6.16 

24-in. by 24- in 1.80 6.20 5.14 6.86 

36-in. by 36-in 2.61 7.64 6.33 8.14 

20-Foot Beams — Labor Cost per Member, Size Measured Below Slab 

4-in. by 8-in $0.92 $2.42 $1.97 $2.79 

6-in. by 12-in 1.09 2.75 2.31 3.23 

8-in. by 16-in 1.26 2.99 2.59 3.64 

12-in. by 24-in. .. 1.75 3.41 3.09 4.29 

20-Foot Girders — Labor Cost per Member, One Intersecting Beam 

8-in. by 16-in $1.38 $3.27 $2.75 $4.31 

12-in. by 24-in 1.82 3.86 3.20 5.02 

Labor Cost of Slab Forms* 
Per 100 square feet of slab surface .... $ . 81 $2. 53 $1. 90 $2. 06 

* Based on slab built two panels per bay. 

For inexperienced builders, increase costs 33>i % . 

For special design, add 10% to 50% to "Make Forms." 

If no mill saw on job, add 50% to "Make Forms." 

If old lumber is used, add 75% to 100% to "Make Forms." 

For rectangular columns, select values for square columns having the larger 
dimension of the rectangle. 

For wall columns, add 50% to all except "Make Forms." 

Design and Costs of Sliding Forms for a Reinforced Concrete Grain Storage 
House. — The following data were published in Engineering and Contracting, 
Oct. 20, 1915, by Wm. Wren Hay and refer to the design, construction and 
costs of the sliding forms for a large reinforced concrete grain storage house 
located in Western Canada. The detailed costs of these forms were compiled 
in the field while the forms were under construction and were checked from 
the final costs after the concrete was placed and after the accounting had been 
totaled. The costs are the result of daily observations as to labor and mater- 
ials in use, these costs being derived in part from the reports turned in by the 
foremen and in part by personal check of the amount of work completed each 
day. They were obtained for the purpose of checking the work against the 
contractor's estimate of cost, and were also used as a guide for the time of 
completion of the job, as all work was conducted on a rigid schedule to insure 
against delay in any part of it. 

In estimating for such construction it is customary to figure the actual 
contact surface at so much per square foot, and to figure the flooring over the 
bins, the yokes, the jacking, and the maintenance of the forms while being 
lifted, together with their removal, each as a separate item. The cost data 
given will therefore be grouped in this manner. It is evident that the form 
surface is a function of the lineal feet of bin walls, and that the number of 
yokes will vary in a similar manner, although influenced by the contact of 
the bin arrangement. The flooring will vary as the area of the bins, while the 



228 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

jacking and the maintenance are further influenced by the height of the bins 
The item of removal depends largely upon the bin arrangement and the story 
overhead, from which are hung the blocks used for hoisting. 

Design Features of Bins. — The bins cover an area of 11,850 sq. ft., their 
width being 74 ft. 4 ins. and their length 158 ft. 4 ins., including a projecting 
stairway and elevator tower 12 ft. wide by 17 ft. 10 ins. long. The bins proper 
consist of 50 circular tanks, each 13 ft. in inside diameter, arranged in five 
rows spaced 15 ft. 6 ins. on centers by ten rows spaced 16 ft. on centers, form- 
ing 23 inner bins and 13 leg openings. The exterior walls are run straight 
through tangent to the circular bins, these forming 26 additional outer bins 
The bins are 70 ft. in height, with a nominal capacity of 500,000 bushels. The 
bin walls are all 6 ins. thick. The contacts of the circular tanks across the 
structure were widened out, and upon them rest the columns which support the 
floors of the cupola above. Lengthwise of the bins the tanks are connected 
by 6-in. contact walls, each 2 ft. long, except where the elevating legs run 
between the pairs of tanks. This arrangement of bins is that commonly used 
for houses of this type where there is an additional storage annex. 

Forms. — In general, the forms consisted of segments made up of 2-in. planks, 
spaced 28 ins. vertically, to which were nailed 1-in. sheathing. The large 
circular forms were braced by means of 3^ -in. rods bolted through the upper 
and lower segments at an inclination of 45°, forming a truss arrangement whicli 
effectually prevented distortion. The skeleton forms were placed on the bin- 
bottom girders, being nested together to form the 6-in. wall space. The 
yokes were then straddled across the opening. As fast as the floor was laid 
over the forms the latter were cut through at certain lines to provide slip 
joints, and were then tied horizontally by timbers bolted across the wall space 
on each side of the joints, by means of toggles at the cuts in the segments 
and by the rods bolted from one yoke to another across the cut. These 
joints divided the entire area into eight sections of six tanks each and one sec- 
tion consisting of two tanks and the tower. They were provided for the pur- 
pose of enabling each section to be adjusted for levels independent of the 
others, but the experience on this work did not seem to justify fully the addi- 
tional expense. 

Plant for Constructing Forms and Procedure.— The plant used in constructing 
the forms was centered in a large carpenter shop, 48 ft. wide by 72 ft. long, in 
which were set two combination, gasoline-driven saw rigs, with 24-in. gage 
industrial tracks for handling the lumber in and out of the shed. The lumber 
was routed from the trackage, where it was unloaded from the cars into the 
shops for cutting, and out on the opposite side onto a large, open-air platform, 
upon which the segments were nailed on templates and the sheeting erected. 
All of the segments were cut to shape on these saw rigs, and all of the sheathing 
boards were also cut to length on them. This work was done some time in 
advance of the actual operation of sheathing, and the segments were also 
nailed ready for the boards, in advance. The sheeting was actually com- 
menced 20 working days before the forms were needed for concreting. To 
maintain the necessary schedule, and yet not crowd the carpenters, a curve 
of parabolic form was drawn through the points representing the first three 
days' unit progress, this curve terminating in th*e day specified for the total 
area to be sheeted. By accounting for the area sheeted during each five- 
hour period, and plotting the points, a very close account was kept 
of the progress. As a result the last segments were being covered when the 
first completed forms were started up to the top of the girders. 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 229 

Detailed Costs of the Forms. — The following data give the unit costs, in the 
yard, of the forms, as determined from day to day: 

Cost per sq. 
ft. of con- 
Item tact surface 

Carpenter labor $0. 089 

Superintendent 0. 013 

Bolts, etc., including labor 0. 010 

Oiling forms, total 0. 002 

Lumber ^ 0. 061 

Total $0. 175 

The observed rates of labor were as follows: 

Time 
Item Labor force required 

Cutting segments, 27,500 ft. B. M I 2 fabor^rs^^ } ^0 days 

Nailing segments | iXfrers"'' } ^^ days 

Sheathing segments, 18,200 sq. ft | ^^ iXorers^'^^ } ^^ ^^^^ 

The carpenters were paid 50 cts. per hour and the laborers 30 cts. per hour, 
working 10 hours per day. There was a total of 5,150 lin. ft. of bin wall, and 
the staves were 48 ins. in length. The actual contact area was 20,600 sq. ft. 
Of this amount only 18,200 sq. ft. were built in the yard, the remainder for 
the exterior perimeter of the storage house being cut and framed on the floor 
during erection. In the totals considered later, this contact area of 20,600 sq. 
ft. is used. 

The lumber for the sheathing was a special 1 X 4-in. tongue-and-groove 
pine, with the grooved edge beveled slightly for the circular forms. Its cost 
was $28 per M. The cost of the common lumber varied from $17.50 to $22 
per M, depending upon the size. There was a total of about 11 ft. B. M. per 
square foot of building used in these forms, divided as follows: 

Ft. B. M. 

Segments 2.2 

Staves 1,1 

Flooring 3. 3 

Miscellaneous, including gallery, staging, timber for joints, etc. 4. 4 

Oiling. — The form surface in contact with the concrete was oiled with two 
coats of light oil. There was no trouble whatever due to sticking or swelling, 
as the oil penetrated to a considerable depth and prevented the entrance of 
water. A paraffin oil, from which the small residue of kerosene remaining 
after "freezing" had not been removed, was used. This oil cost 22 cts. per 
gallon in barrel lots. One gallon of oil covered 160 sq. ft., two coats, one man 
applying it at the rate of from 350 to 400 sq. ft. per hour. 

Yokes. — The yokes used on the forms were constructed of timber, the legs 
being 6 X 8-in. pieces, 8 ft. long. The jacks, which were of the pump type, 
were seated on two 6 X 6-in. pieces, through which ran the l^i-in. jacking 
rod. The head piece was a 3 X 8-in. timber. Double ^^-in. bolts were run 
across the top and middle, and the forms were hung from the yokes by means 
of ^'^-in. rods through both segments and the jack seat. Each yoke contained 
about 85 ft. B. M. of lumber and 25 lbs. of bolts and iron, and cost slightly 
over $5 in place. There were used on this set of forms 244 yokes. In general, 
there were four yokes to each circular tank. Where the joints occurred a yoke 
was placed on each side of the joint. 



230 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The joints were made by overlapping pieces of 2 X 6-in. timbers where the 
face of the form was cut, the opening being covered with a piece of tin. The 
segments were held together by a toggle joint, consisting of a short section of 
l^-^-in. pipe running through four steel plates bolted to both segments, on 
each side of the^cut. There were 80 of these joints, the cost of each being 
about $12, of which $4.50 was for materials and $7.50 for labor. 

Total Costs of Formwork. — The following are the final costs as returned for 
the various items discussed : 

Forms, labor only: Per sq. ft, 

. Carpenter shop and yard $2, 112 or lOH cts. 

Placing, including floor 1 , 439 or 7 cts. 

Materials, incl. iron, etc 1 , 470 or 7J4: cts. 

Total $5 , 021 or 24^^ cts. 

Maintenance, leveling, repairing, etc $ 667 

Yokes, including setting jacks, bolts, plates, etc 1 ,220 

Joints, including timbers, bolts, plates, etc 960 

Total, no removal $7,868 

Estimated cost to remove 500 

Total cost of forms $8 , 368 

There were 543^ cu. yds. of concrete per vertical foot of the bins. This 
concrete was placed at the rate of 10 cu. yds. per hour, in 17^^ days of 20 
hours each, requiring a vertical movement of 3 ft. 9>^ ins. per day. The cost 
of the jacking gang was about $100 per day, with labor at 30 cts. per hour. 
The cost of placing and finishing the concrete walls was $1.00 per cubic yard, 
plus an overhead charge of 30 cts. per cubic yard, or a total of $1.30 per cubic 
yard. It cost about $10 per ton to place the ^^-in. rods used for reinforcing 
and contacts, plus $6.50 per ton for handhng in the yard, or a total of $16.50 
per ton. 

Movable Wall Forms Give Low Cost. — Fig. 8 indicates the type of forms 
employed in building two heavy concrete walJs aggregating some 1,250 cu.ft. 
at Lock 9 on the New York State Barge Canal. The following costs, for this 
work, are taken from an article in Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 21, 1910. 

The labor of building each form required 3 days' time for 6 carpenters. 
Two straight forms were built and one curved form. The cost of these, 
including labor and material used, was $525.00. Spruce dressed lumber was 
used, at $23 per M. ft. B. M. The labor of moving was accomplished by 6 
men, including the foreman, in from 4 to 6 hours. This labor completed the 
moving and lining-up readj'^ for concrete. The rate of wages for these men and 
cost of moving were as follows: 

6 hrs.— Foreman at $3.52 per 8-hour day $ 2. 64 

6 hrs.—2 men at $3.20 per 8-hour day 4. 80 

6 hrs. — 2 men at $2.40 per 8-hour day 3. 60 

6 hrs. — 1 man at $2.00 per 8-hour day 1. 50 

Total cost of knocking down and setting up $12. 54 

The cost per cubic yard of forms and the setting up for the entire work may 

be estimated as follows: 

Cost of material and building of 3 40 ft. forms $525. 00 

36 setups at $12.54 451.44 

Total $976. 44 

Total cu. yds. -\- neatwork ; 4 , 370 

Cosl per cu. yd. concrete $0. 22 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 



231 




232 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

This is a very small cost, and it may be noted also, that the forms on comple- 
tion of the work were in a very good condition and might have been used for 
three times as much wall as was built. 

This method may be used to best advantage, where walls are parallel and 
close together, by placing the mixer at one end, working both walls forward at 
one time, and using one form on each wall. On a single wall the mixer should 
be set in the center and the work carried from this point in both directions. 
This type of form for long walls secures the maximum use of forms with the 
minimum amount of movement and knocking down, and gives the proper 
sequence of form setting and placing concrete, using the average day's work 
of 8 hours to the best advantage. 

Comparative Cost of Finishing Concrete Surfaces by Various Methods. — 
The report, given by the Committee on Masonry at the 1917 convention of the 
American Railway Engineering Association, contained some cost figures 
on various methods of surface finish for concrete. The following notes 
published in Engineering and Contracting, March 28, 1917, were taken from 
the February Bulletin of the Association. 

The color of untreated surfaces and of rubbed surfaces is due almost 
entirely to the cement used. With the other methods of treatment the color 
and appearance depend largely upon the aggregates and by proper selection 
and combination of these a variety of effects may be obtained. The coarser 
the aggregate, the coarser will be the texture of the finished surface. The 
smaller and more uniform the aggregate, the more closely will the surface* 
resemble natural stone. A mixture of crushed stone and gravel, because of the 
contrast between the angular surfaces of the stone and the round smoother 
surfaces of the gravel, gives a more varied effect than either alone. Pleasing 
effects can be produced by using marble chips or other colored aggregate. 

rt is the general experience that all treated surfaces darken in time and in 
many cases begin to lose their neat appearance as soon as finished . A fruitful 
cause of unsightly discolorations is water seeping through the seam between 
two layers of concrete not deposited consecutively, and many otherwise fine 
appearing surfaces have been marred on this account. 

The use of special finishes is comparatively new among railroads and their 
wearing qualities therefore have not yet been fully determined. Rubbed 
finishes of the various kinds seem to have been most commonly used, and a 
number of roads report neat appearing surfaces in good condition after 3 to 8 
and in one instance 15 years. These are about equally divided between 
cement bricks, carborundum bricks and wooden floats. One road of large 
experience obtains the best results by rubbing first with wooden floats and 
then with carborundum bricks, surfaces thus treated being very satisfactory 
in condition and appearance after 6 years. 

Tooled surfaces are reported as showing absolutely no signs of deterioration 
after 6 years. Other roads report the same condition after 4 years' service. 

The following information in regard to costs has been received : 

Grand Truck: Ct. per sq. ft. 

Bush-hammering, 250 sq. ft., 1:23'^ :5 gravel concrete, wages $4 per 

day ../ 7.2 

Rubbing, city arch, 3,900 sq. yd., wages 26^^ ct. per hour 5 

Kanawha & Michigan: 

Rubbing with cement brick 4 

Rubbing until all form marks removed 6 

Long Island: 

Rubbed surfaces IH to 2 

Tooled surfaces 2}4 to 3 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 233 

Michigan Central: 

Rubbing with carborundum bricks: 

1,610 sq. ft. abutment surface 1.6 

1 , 005 sq. ft. pier surface 2.6 

4,200 sq. ft. abutment surface 2.8 

4 , 600 sq. ft. pier surface 1,1 

Average 1.9 

New York Central: 

Rubbing with wooden floats and carborundum bricks : 

Varied from •: 2^ to 6H 

Average 4^^ to 5^ 

New York, Chicago & St, Louis: 

Bush-hammering, 1 , 960 sq. ft 11. 75 

Bush-hammering, 5 , 000 sq. ft 9.61 

Bush-hammering, 8 , 280 sq. ft 10. 84 

Bush-hammering, 3,420 sq. ft 6, 21 

Rubbing wood floats, 6,250 sq. ft 0. 57 

Paneled posts, complete, per sq. yd $19. 19 

Philadelphia & Reading: 

Bush-hammering 7 

Seaboard Air Line: 

Scrubbing 5.5 

The Pennsylvania Lines west of Pittsburgh, Northwest System, treated 
several small areas of surface for the purpose of observing the effect and give 
the following results: 

(1) Tooth-Axed: Area 18.5 sq. ft. "Made a fairly good finish." 

(2) Six-Point, Bush-Hammered: Area 16 sq. ft, "A very nice finish, but a 
little too fine." 

(3) Four-Point, Bush-Hammered: Area 15.4 sq, ft. "A very good finish, 
perhaps the best." 

(4) Beam-Hammered: Area 15.4 sq. ft. "Very much the same as No. 1." 

(5) Crandled: 10-lb, hammer, area 16.2 sq. ft. "Very much the same 
appearance at Nos. 1 and 4." 

All were done by the stonecutter by hand at a cost of 22 to 26 cents per 
square foot. 

The conclusions were as follows: 

1. For all work not requiring decorative treatment, spaded- finish is rec- 
ommended as the most durable, the most readily applied and the most 
economical. ' 

2. Coating with a wash of cement is not recommended. 

3. Rubbing with carborundum bricks or wood floats is next to spading in 
ease of application and cost. ' 

4. Tooling, alone or with rubbed margins and outlines, produces the most 
pleasing appearance, and where ornamentation is desired, these and the 
scrubbing methods are recommended. 

5. Careful form work and continuous placing of the concrete are recom- 
mended as essential for all methods. 

Finishing Concrete by Rubbing, Floating and Brushing. — The following 
data, on finishing the concrete surfaces on the triple 60-ft. arches built by the 
Pennsylvania R. R. west of Richmond, Ind. were given in an article by S. M. 
Klein published in Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 11, 1911. 

Forty-eight hours after the last batch was placed in the forms they were 
removed whenever possible. If the surface was green and soft, fins were 
scraped off with the edge of a trowel where noticeable, then the surface was 
wetted with a whitewash brush with clean water and easily rubbed with a 
2}^ X 2^/i X 6-in., 2 to 1 mortar brick not more than 8 days old. The men 



234 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

rubbed the wall with a circular motion which left spots in places. Next day 
the wall was moistened and floated all over the surface with a wooden float 
and after that stroked in one direction up and down with a moist, clean 
whitewash brush. Two men rubbed and finished a section 10 ft. high, 30 
ft. long and 3 days old in four hours at 17 y2 cts. per man per hour. 

Where the concrete was a week old and older after forms were removed all 
fins were removed with a bush hand chisel having five blades. The surface 
was then wetted with plenty of cold water and rubbed with a 2\i X 2y2 X 6- 
in. 1 to 1 mortar brick not more than 6 days old. One section was rubbed 
down well, all rod holes were plugged and next day the section was floated 
down and stroked with a moist, clean whitewash brush. No cement wash 
of any kind was allowed. Any broken corners had to be carefully repaired 
by thoroughly cleaning the surface, wetting the patch down well, then if 
possible driving 20d nails or railroad spikes into the concrete, putting up a 
form and grouting the broken place. Several patches were thus made and 
when finished could never be discovered. 

The surfaces thus rubbed, floated and brushed bleached out uniformly 
everywhere, showed neither spots nor blemishes and gave the whole face a 
beautiful smooth dull finish. One foreman at 40 cts. per hour and 6 laborers 
at 17y2 cts. per hour averaged 25 sq. yds. per man nearly every day rubbing 
and finishing was done, and they became very efficient at it and took a great 
deal of pride in their work. 

Cost of Waterproofing Concrete Surfaces to Decrease Disintegration by 
Frost. — J. L. Lytel, project manager of the Strawberry Valley project, Utah, 
records in the "Reclamation Record" for April, 1915, an interesting experi- 
ence in waterproofing of concrete surfaces. Engineering and Contracting, 
April 14, 1915, gives the following abstract of Mr. Lytel's article. 

The storage works and tunnel of the Strawberry Valley project are located 
in the Wasatch Mountains at an elevation of 7,500 ft. There is a wide varia- 
tion in temperatures in this vicinity and the climate is very severe during the 
winter months, the lowest temperature on record being 50° below zero. The 
snow fall ranges from 10 to 24 ft. in depth. 

The extreme cold, with alternate thawing and freezing of water in the pores 
of the exposed faces of the structures, was found to have a very destructive 
effect on these concrete structures and the waterproofing of the surfaces was 
decided upon as a preventive against their continued disintegration. 

It was decided to treat the vertical surfaces with alum and soap solutions 
and the horizontal surfaces with paraffine. The alum solution was made by 
dissolving 2 ounces of alum in 1 gal. of hot water. The soap solution was 
composed of ^ lb- of castile soap dissolved in 1 gal. of hot water. The para- 
ffine was boiled to drive off water as the presence of water rendered it hard to 
apply. Ordinary commercial products were used. 

The surface to be treated with paraffine was first thoroughly dried and 
cleaned of loose concrete, dirt, and other foreign substances. The paraffine 
was then heated and applied with a paint brush, and was forced into the pores 
by the heat of a blow torch on the surface. Only one coat of paraffine was 
applied as the concrete would not absorb more. 

The surface to be treated with soap and alum was prepared as above stated. 
The alum solution was applied at a temperature of 100" F. with a moderately 
stiff brush and was then worked in with a stiff horse brush. While the 
surface was still moist from this treatment the hot soap solution was applied 
in the same manner as the alum solution. One treatment by each solution 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 235 

in the manner described above constituted a coat. If other coats were con- 
sidered necessary, they were applied in like manner after the preceding coat 
had been allowed to stand 24 hours or more. 

Twelve structures were given this treatment, the surface area covered being 
approximately 28,000 sq. ft. Four thousand square feet were treated with 
paraffine, at the rate of 1 lb. for IIH sq. ft., and the remainder with soap and 
alum. It required 1 gal. of alum solution and a ^A gal. of soap solution to 
cover 50 sq. ft. with two coats. Two coats of alum and soap were applied at 
an average cost of 76 cts. per 100 sq. ft., and the cost varied from 41 cts. mini- 
mum to $1.28 maximum The cost of one coat of paraffine varied from $1.70 
to $3.78 per 100 sq. ft., and averaged $2.11. This cost covers everything 
except general expense. The two men who did this work received $75 and 
$80 per month. Brushes cost $6.06, Castile soap 123^^ cts. per pound, alum 
18 cts. per pound, and crude paraffin $4.80 per hundred weight. 

The results obtained by this waterproofing are considered very satisfactory. 
The structures that were repaired >ind treated have gone through two severe 
winters and no further disintegration of the concrete on any part has occurred. 



CHAPTER VI 
DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 

This chapter besides giving general costs of a large number of well known 
reservoirs is largely composed of detailed methods and costs of concrete and 
steel structures. For detailed methods and costs of building earth dams the 
reader is referred to Gilette's "Earthwork and Its Cost." Further data on 
the cost of dams is also given in the "Handbook of Cost Data" by Gillette. 

Cost of Storage Reservoirs per Million Cu. Ft. — Tables I and II, published 
in Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 4, 1912, are from a discussion by Seth 
A. Moulton on power costs and efficiencies contained in the Report of the 
Maine State Water Storage Commission. 



Table I. — Cost of American Storage Reservoirs 
(From James D. Schuyler) 



Name and location 

Asokan Reservoir, N. Y 

Belle Fourche Dam, S. D . . . . 

Wachusett Dam, Mass 

Ariscohos Dam, Me 

New Croton Dam, N. Y 

Buena Vista Lake, Cal 

Laramie River Dam, Wyo . . . 

Indian River, N. Y 

Croton, N. Y 

Lake McMillan, Pecos River 

N. M 

Bear Valley Dam, Cal 

Windsor, Col ^ 

Sweetwater, Cal 

Titicus, N. Y. . .-. 

Bowman, Cal 

Eureka Lake, Cal 

Sodom, N. Y..' 

English, Cal 

San Leandro, Cal 

Bog Brook, N. Y 

Larimer and Weld, Col ...... 

Cuyamaca, Cal 

Hemet, Cal 

Canistear, N.J 

Lake Avalon, N. M 

Cache la Poudre, Col 

Round Hill, Pa 

Glenwild, N. Y 

Escondido, Cal 

Cedar Grove Reservoir. N. J 

Tyler, Tex 

Faucherie, Cal 



Character * 
M and E $12, 

E. . r 

M 2, 

M and E 1 , 

M 7, 

E.. .- 

F 

M and E . ..'.'. . 

M and E 4 , 



Capacity 
million 
Cost cu. ft. 



R F and E . 

M 

E. 



M 

M and E . . 
RFC... 

R F 

M and E . . 
R F C... 
E. 
E. 



E.. 
E.. 
M. 
E. 



R F and E . 

E 

M and E. . 

E. 



R F. 
E... 
H F. 
R F. 



669,775 

879,164 

270,116 

,000,000 

,631,000 

150,000 

117,200 

83 , 555 

,150,573 

180,000 

68,000 

75,000 

264 , 500 

933,065 

151,521 

35,000 

366,990 

155.000 

900,000 

510,430 

89,782 

54 , 400 

150,000 

341,000 

176,000 

110,266 

240 , 548 

47 , 360 

100,059 

660.000 

1,140 

8 ,.000 



16.030 
9,360 
8,420 
8,000 
7,840 
7,400 
5,230 
4,460 
4,270 

3,880 

1,740 

1,000 

980 

960 

920 

660 

650 

650 

580 

550 

500 

490 

460 

322 

274 

246 

176 

160 

152 

94 

77 

59 



Cost per 
million 
cu. ft. 
$ 792 
94 - 
269 
125 
973 
21' 
23 
19 
972 

47 

39 

75 

269 

972 

164 

53 

565 

230 

1,550 

927 

179 

111 ' 

326 

1,060 

642 

447 

1.367 

296 ^ 

658 

7,020 

15 

136 



* RF = Rock Fill, E = Earth, H F 
Rock Fill Crib, S = Steel. 



Hydraulic Fill, M = Masonry, R F C = 



236 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 



237 



Table I. — Continued, 



Naliie and location Character 

La Mesa, Cal. . . HF 

Yuba, Cal HF 

Pedlar River, Va M 

Wigwam, Conn M 

Saguache, Col E. .-f 

Monument, Col E . . y 

Seligman, Ariz M 

Walnut Canyon, Ariz M . . 

Apishapa, Col E . . .' 

Williams, Ariz M . 

Boss Lake, Col E . . .-' 

Ash Fork, Ariz S 

Hardscrabble, Col E 





Capacity 


Cost per 




million 


million 


Cost 


cu 


ft. 


cu. ft. 


17,000 




57 


298 


38,000 




51 


745 


103,708 




49 


2,115 


150,000 




45 


3,333 


30 , 000 




41 


732' 


33,121 




39 


849 > 


150,000 




31 


4,835 


55,000 




21 


2,620 


14,772 




20 


739 


52,838 




15 


3,522 


14,654 




9 


1,628 


45,776 




5 


9,155 


9,997 




5 


1,999 



Average $ 784 , 096 1,933 $ 406 



Table II. — Cost op Foreign Storage Reservoir 
(From James D. Schuyler) 



Name and location Character* 

Assouan, Egypt M 

Ekruk, India E and M . . . . 

Lake Fife, India M 

Chumbrumbaukum, India . . . E 

Tansa, India M 

Vyrnwy, Wales M 

Betwa, India M 

Ashti, India E . . 

Liez, France E 

Villar, Spain M 

Talla Res, Edinburgh E 

Gilleppe, Belgium M 

Mouche, France M 

Lake Oreron, France E 

Chartrain, France M 

Beetaloo, Australia M 

Ternay, France M 

Burrator, England M and E . . . . 

Belubula, Australia B and C 

Wassy, France E 

Ban, France M 



Cousin, France M . 

Furens, France M . 

Pas du Roit, France M . 

Remscheid, Germany M . 

Sand River, South Africa . . . . M . 

Lauchemsee, Germany M . 

Patas, India E . 

Burraga, Australia M . 





Capacity 


Cost per 




million 


million 


Cost 


cu. ft. 


cu. ft. 


$11,907,000 


37,600 


$ 317 


666,000 


3,310 


2oa 


630 , 000 


3,290 


192 


312,000 


2,780 


113 


988 , 000 


2,290 


432 


3,334,000 


1,950 


1,710 


160,000 


1,600 


100 


270,000 


1,420 


190 


598,418 


568 


1,054 


390,000 


568 


687 


1,220,000 


448 


2,720 


874,000 


424 


2,060 


1,003,657 


305 


3,290 


142,000 


257 


553 


420,000 


159 


2,640 


573,300 


128 


4,480 


204,372 


106 


1,934 


602 , 300 


105 


5,730 


45,000 


87 


517 


138,940 


76 


1,826 


190,000 


66 


2,880 


247,600 


57 


4,340 


318,000 


57 


5,580 


256,000 


46 


5,570 


91,154 


35 


2,600 


140,000 


29 


4,830 


243 , 750 


27 


9,020 


1^,925 


14 


1,137 


46,500 


13.5 


3,445 



Average $ 897,514 

' B = Brick, C = Concrete, E = Earth, M = Masonry. 



1,994 $ 450 



Cost per Acre-foot of Large Storage Dams. — Francis L. Sellow, Project 
Engineer, U. S. Reclamation Service in a discussion in Proceedings, American 
Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. XXXI. K (reprinted in Engineering and Con- 
tracting, May 14, 1913) gives the following costs of reservoirs in the United 
States and foreign countries. (Tables III and IV.) 



238 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



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240 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



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DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 241 



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$3,100 


147 


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3,600 


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3,900 


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242 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cost of Large Concrete Lined Water Works Reservoirs. — The following 
table is taken from Engineering and Contracting, Dec. 23„ 1914. 

Table V. — Cost of Six Large American Water Works Reservoirs 

Reservoir 

Queen Lane, Philadelphia, Pa 

New Roxborough, Philadelphia, Pa . . . 

Settling Basins, Cincinnati, Ohio 

Service Reservoir, Minneapolis, Minn. 

Prospect, Rochester, N. Y 

Northside, Pittsburgh, Pa. ......... . 

Approximate Cost of Reservoirs per 1,000,000 Gal. Water Stored. — Engi- 
neering and Contracting, March 14, 1917, publishes the following tabulation 
from the report of the Water Commissioners of Hartford, Conn., C. M. Saville, 
Chief Engineer, for the year ending March 1, 1916, which gives comparative 
figures of size, capacity and cost of various reservoir developments. 

Table VI. — Approximate Cost of Reservoirs per 1,000,000 Gal. Water 

Stored 

Aver- 
Area 
flowed. 
Supply Reservoir 

Hartford Nepaug 

Boston Wachusett 4 

New York Ashokan 

Salem and Beverly. . .Lawrence Station. . 

Hartford Richards Corner . . . 

Salem and Beverly. . .Topsfield Station. . 

Hartford Reservoir 4 

Boston Reservoir 3 ....".. . 

Boston Sudbury 1 ,220. 

New York Kensico 

Cambridge Hobbs Brk 

Hartford Reservoir 2 

Hartford Reservoir 3 

Hartford Reservoir 5 

Boston Ashland 

Boston Hopkinton 

Hartford Reservoir 6 

Boston Reservoir 2 

Boston Reservoir 1 

Hartford Reservoir 1 

* From records, f Estimated cost. 

Cu. Yds. of Concrete per Foot of Dam. — Fig. 1, from an article by R. C. 
Beardsley published in Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 1, 1911, gives the 
cu. yds. of concrete per foot of dam for four different types of dams and for 
heads of from 1 to 225 ft. 

Estimates of Dams. — The following notes are taken from Smith's " Con- 
struction of Masonry Dams" (1915). 

Regarding estimates of cost : other things being equal they will carry more 
weight and conviction in proportion as they show evidence of having been 
formed after careful analysis; i.e., a reasonable determination of quantities 
based upon some survey and plan and a subsequent, complete orderly esti- 
mate. Thus a mere statement of 100,000 cu. yds. of masonry at $4.50, $450,- 
000, while possibly a very excellent guess is not nearly as valuable and convinc- 
ing as a plan or profile from which the quantity can be derived, accompanied 
by a tabulation of all the items entering into the cost, with a sum of $450,000. 



Area 


age 


Storage, 


Cost per 
M. G. 


flowed. 


depth. 


million 


acres 


feet 


gallons 


stored 


851 


34. 


9,560 


$ 130* 


4,195 


46. 


63,068 


145* 


8,180 


48. 


128,000 


155* 


4,430 


7.6 


10,900 


250- 


437 


21. 


3,000 


255- 


2,480 


9.8 


7,900 


265* 


168 


11.1 


601 


•290* 


253 


14.3 


1,180 


360* 


1,220 


18.2 


7,254 


395* 


2,218' 


40.0 


29,000 


395* 


350 


13.1 


1,500 


400* 


45 


19.3 


284 


420* 


26 


17.2 


146 


460* 


32 


7.5 


83 


570* 


167 


26.0 


1,416 


575* 


185 


25.2 


1,520 


600* 


141 


16.1 


765 


785* 


134 


12.1 


530 


880* 


143 


6.2 


288 


895* 


32 


14.0 


146 


1590* 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 



243 



The following diagrams may be of some assistance in making up an estimate 
although they should be used only with some caution and an appreciation of 
their limits as to accuracy and consequent applicability for the particular 
estimate. A partial list of existing dams, with dimensions, quantities of ma- 
sonry, cost and some accompanying pertinent notes, may (aside from its 
interest) be taken as a very rough indication of what another dam may cost if 
due regard is given as to whether the particular circumstances of the case are 
comparable. Such particular circumstances are location, size, accessibility, 
price and quality of labor, cost of cement, amount of excavation and refill 
involved, amount expended in beautifying the structure and surroundings, etc. 

,0 15 50 IS 100 m /so I7S 200 hs 2iO 27S JOO 325 JSO 375 'WO ^25 4X) 425 . 




Fig. 1. — Cu. yds. of concrete per foot of dam. 



Obviously the length and maximum height as given in the table is only a very 
crude indication of the amount of masonry involved. For that reason, there- 
fore, it would be much preferable to construct a profile of the dam and from 
the diagrams (Figs. 2, 3 and 4; arrive at some number of cu. yd. as a 
basis for comparison. However, such analysis of and comparison with the 
table can at best furnish only a rough guide toward intelligent guess. 

For the purposes of a preliminary estimate, it wouid be necessary to have a 
fairly accurate profile across the valley or canyon at the dam-site, together 
with a fair indication from borings, test pits or otherwise, of the location of the 
rock surface ; also some opinion as to depth to which it will be necessary to go 
into the rock for a foundation. With such information it should be sufficiently 
accurate to obtain cu. yd. of excavation and masonry from the diagrams; they 
are constructed from acceptable masonry sections, and the possible error 
should be much within that of the then available data. When, however, the 
project has reached a stage to warrant special studies and designs to meet all 



244 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



CUBIC YARDS OF MASONRY PER LINEAR POOT Or DAM 



A = 
B = 



20 

40 
S 60 

fe 80 

I- 
olOO 

ID 

X 

120 
140 
160 
180 
200 



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200 300 400 500 600 

CU.YDS.OF. MASONRY PER UN. FT. OF DAM 

Fig. 2. — Curve showing amount of masonry per lin. ft. 

HEIGHT BED ROCK TO TOP OF DAM. OVERFLOW SECTION 
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110120 130 140150160 




50 100 150 

HEWHT BED ROCK TO TOP OF DAM, WEGMANN'8 PRACTICAL PROFILE N0,2 MODIFIEO 

Fig. 3. — Diagram showing cu. yd. of rock excavation. 



200 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 245 



the particular conditions, much more accurate and detailed data in the way 
of .surveys and borings will be at hand. Such diagrams will then be super- 
seded by sections of the site and the proposed structure. 

Diagrams for Preliminary Estimates of Quantities. — For a preliminary esti- 
mate of the quantities involved, based upon profiles of earth and rock surfaces 
across the valley, use accompanying diagrams as follows: 

For masonry in a dam without overfloiv, assume as acceptable, Wegmann's 
Practical Profile No. 2 as modified on page 616 of the American Civil Engineers 
Pocket Book. (See section "A" Fig. 2.) For cu. yd. of masonry per lin. ft. 

HEIGHT BED ROCK TO TOP OF DAM. OVERFLOW SECTION 

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140150 160 




50 1.00 150 200 

HEIGHT BED ROCK TO TOP OF DAM, WEGMANN'S PRACTICAL PROFILE N0.2 MODIFIED 

Fig. 4. — Diagram showing cu. yd. of earth excavation. 

of dam read curve "A" for neat section to a horizontal base not including 
masonry in cut off trench. 

If the dam is built on surface of rock add for masonry in cut-off trench as 
per curve *' C." 

If rock is excavated and masonry slopes can start from the original rock 
surface, as at "E," read curve "A" for a height above rock surface, and add 
an amount equal to rock excavation as obtained from diagram Fig. 3. 

If masonry slopes must be extended down to a certain elevation below 
original rock surface, as at **F," read curve "A" for a height of dam above 
that elevation, and add an amount equal to the rock excavation below that 
elevation. 

For masonry in an overflow dam, proceed precisely as above, reading curve 
" B " Fig. 2. Then if on account of height of dam, or for another reason, an 
apron is necessary, add an amount obtained from curve "D." 

For rock excavation, read diagram Fig. 3 in which ordinates equal depth 



246 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

of rock which it is assumed necessary to excavate; abscissa represent width 
of excavation in terms of height of dam, which height should be considered 
as starting from the elevation where the neat masonry slopes begin. Curves 
show cu. yd. per lin. ft. and include cut-off trench as per curve "C" Fig. 2. 
If applied to an overflow dam with an apron, add to rock excavation as thus 
determined an amount at least equal to curve "D" Fig. 2 masonry in apron. 

For Earth Excavation. — Read diagram Fig. 4 similar to rock excavation 
diagram, observing same rule for height of dam. Curves show cu. yd. per 
lin. ft. of dam for excavation to 1-1 slopes starting 5 ft. from neat lines of 
masonry. If applied to an overflow dam with an apron add for tentative 
estimate 1 cu. yd. per ft. depth of stripping. On both excavation diagrams 
are two scales for height of dam, according to which masonry section is being 
considered. 

Cost of Cyclopean Masonry. — According to Charles Adsit, Engineering 
and Contracting, Feb. 18, 1914, the average progress of laying cyclopean 
masonry for the intake dam of Tallulah Falls Development in Georgia was 
about 1,000 cu. yds. per week. 

Rock was quarried at a cost of about $1 per cu. yd., the force at the quarry, 
consisted of 50 men and 2 foremen. There was 1 foreman and 10 men at the 
mixer. Placing of cyclopean masonry necessitated 1 foreman, 3 derrick men 
and 6 concrete men. After the standard wooden forms had been made so as to 
be used over and over again, placing and removing of forms during construc- 
tion required a force of 9 carpenters. Ten hours were worked each day, except 
Sunday. Four men worked in the blacksmith and machine shops, and there 
was one timekeeper and one superintendent. The engineering force of the 
Northern Contracting Co., the general contractor, did all inspection and 
instrument work, and tested the cement. The following wages prevailed: 

Foremen $4. 50 to $5. 00 

Derrickmen 4 . 00 

Carpenters 3. 50 

Concrete men 1 . 75 

Common labor 1 . 50 

Two derricks handled the rock from the quarry to the crusher, and two der- 
ricks placed the cyclopean masonry, and handled the forms. 

The following quantities of materials were involved in the construction of 
the dam: Excavation, 10,600 cu. yds.; Cyclopean masonry, 39,200 cu. yds. 
The contract price for excavation, including stripping, earth excavation, rock 
excavation wet or dry, was $1.50 per cubic yard. The contract price, for 
cyclopean masonry, concrete in the bridge piers, and abutments, was $4.80 
per cubic yard. The setting of gates and steel girders, and the reinforced 
concrete was paid for separately as extra work. 

The construction plant consisted of the following equipment : 

1 200-HP. Hardie Tynes corliss engine. 

1 150-HP. and 2 80-HP. boilers. 

1 Allis-Chalmers No. 8 gyratory crusher. 

1 Allis-Chalmers No. 5 gyratory crusher. 

1 set of 14 X 36-in. sand rolls. 

3 American Hoist & Derrick Co, derricks, 115-ft. mast, 100-ft. boom, 15-ton 
capacity, 30-HP. steam engine. 

1 wooden derrick, 65-ft. mast, 70-ft. boom, 18-HP. engine. 
18 7 X 2 X 9-ft. steel skips. 

3 23'^-cu. yd. concrete buckets. 
1 2-cu. yd. Austin cube-mixer. 
1 Duplex steam pump. 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 247 

Organization and Output of Gravity Type Mixers Operated at Kensico 
Dam. — George T. Seabury in Engineering Record, Feb. 13, 1915, gives the 
following record of the gravity type mixers in use at Kensico Dam. 

Three mixers of the Hains- Weaver gravity type, of nominally 23'^-yd. 
capacity, were used in 1914, The average batch, however, had a volume of 
62 cu. ft. of fluid concrete. It was the study of the arrangement of these 
mixers and of their operation that, to a considerable degree, made possible the 
really remarkable progress attained. Each mixing plant had nearby a large 
bin for the storage of sand and stone and was also surmounted by a small bin 
for the same purpose. These bins were connected by belt conveyors, the 
longest one of which was 340 ft. in length between end pulleys. Sand and 
stone were fed alternately to the belts and deflected to their respective bins at 
the mixer by a switch. The cement was kept in the original cars which were 
brought on a standard-gage spur to the side of each mixer and from which the 
bags were supplied to the mixer by chutes or belt conveyors. 

The organization of the mixing gangs when going at top speed consisted of 
6 men bringing cement to the side of the hoppers and 6 more men filling them 
with stone, sand, cement, and applying the water. The last mentioned 6 men 
were under an overseer, who directed their operations, giving the word for the 
addition of the water and for the opening of the measuring hopper doors. 
Two men cut the tapes on the cement bags and got them into position for 
quick handling, and two more men were needed to remove the empty bags. 
At the hoppers below were the three regular men, and when it was required 
to chute in different directions a fourth man was needed for that operation 
alone. At the bins above the mixing platform, one man was stationed to 
look out for the supply of the sand and stone, and another man, located under 
the large storage bins, fed the aggregate to the conveyor in response to his 
signals. 

The largest output of one mixer for a single day in 1913 was 384 batches. 
This year, under the improved conditions and the stimulus of the bonuses 
offered, the number of batches grew larger and larger until a maximum of 
653 batches was obtained in 8 hr. At 52 cu. ft. per batch, this is equivalent 
to 157.2 cu. yd. per mixer-hour or 2.62 cu. yd. per minute. 

The maximum volume of masonry built in the best month this year was that 
between July 25 and Aug. 24, when 84,450 cu. yd. were placed. Of this, 
7810 cu. yd. v/ere blocks previously made and placed at night, and 1630 cu. 
yd. were cyclopean masonry placed in a second shift operated a few nights, and 
includes a little work done on one Sunday. The remaining 75,010 cu. yd. 
were placed in the 263^ working days, of 8 hr. each. In this month, therefore, 
there was placed a daily average of 3125 cu. yd. Considering, however, only 
the 75,010 cu. yd. of cyclopean and mass concrete placed in the regular 8-hr. 
day shift, there was an average of 2831 cu. yd. of masonry placed per day, or 
353.8 cu. yd. per hour. 

Unit Cost of Concrete on Gravity Dam. — The Humpback reservoir is the 
storage unit in the new Sooke Lake water-supply system for Victoria, B. C. 
The main dam located at the natural outlet of the reservoir basin has a maxi- 
mum height of 60 ft. and a total length of 675 ft. The cross-section of the 
dam is shown in Fig. 5. 

Engineering Record, Aug. 15, 1914, gives the following construction costs. 

The usual full force employed on the work included 6 foremen, 20 mechanics, 
2 blacksmiths and 100 laborers. Concreting began about Sept. 15, 1913, and 
was continued until about the end of the year. The wages were as follows: 



248 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Per hour 

Common labor $0. 343^ 

Blacksmiths .45 

Carpenters . 53H 

Foremen $0. 50 to . 60 

Board and camp charges to all were $1 per day. 

,PondEI.48l 

\ ^^Ql^ SAdl2__ 



'^ . ^ * <,Q> " o\ ^r7 '^ V 
^r^ " \Middiemrd\'\' c~? \ 



'. Original /he 



€7-.- 



Fig. 5. — Cross-section of dam. 
The average cost per yard of ail concrete in place was distributed as follows: 

Cement, 1.01 bbl., at $2.64 $2. 664 

Sand, 0.285 cu. yd., at $3.13 892 

Gravel, 0.142 cu. yd., at $1.00 142 

Crushed rock, 0.846 cu. yd., at $1.72 1. 454 

Plums, 0.087 cu. yd. at $1.80 157 

$5. 309 
Mixing and Placing 

Labor $0,747 

Supplies , . . . 016 

Tools and equipment 014 

Mixer plant 039 

Other plant 021 



Total labor 

Lumber 

Plant and supplies. 



Forms 



$0. 837 

$0. 556 

096 

021 

$0. 673 

Total cost per cubic yard $6. 821 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 249 

This cost figure, however, includes uo charge for rental of plant, which would 
be cost less salvage divided by 9000. 

The usual rate of progress varied from 200 to 250 cu. yd. of concrete placed 
per nine-hour day, depending on the forms available. 

Cost of Las Vegas Arched Masonry Dam. — An arched dam, 250 ft. in 
radius, of plain concrete, 50 ft. high and only 15.5 ft. wide at the base, was 
built across the Gallinas River to store 68,000,000 gal. of water for the Agua 
Pura Company at Las Vegas, New Mexico. Eventually it will be raised to a 
height of 95 ft. to create a reservoir of 425,000,000 gal. capacity. The structure 
was completed on Feb. 14, 1911, and in a paper before a meeting of the New 
England Water- Works Association William T. Barnes, of the staff of Messrs. 
Metcalf & Eddy, consulting engineers, of Boston, who designed the dam, 
described in detail the construction methods employed. A summary of his 
paper is given in Engineering Record, Jan. 4, 1913, from which the following 
data are taken. 

The concrete plant consisted of a H-cy. yd. Chicago cube mixer. The 
concrete was delivered to the forms by wheelbarrows. The sand was secured 
from the bed of the GaUinas River, passed through a >^ -in. screen in order 
to remove occasional gravel, and hauled fully >^ mile up two long and steep 
hills. The stone was of good quality sandstone, and was crushed locally. 
In order to supply the stone in sufficient quantity to keep the mixing and 
placing crews busy throughout the day it was necessary to operate the crushing 
plant in two shifts of 10 and 12 hours respectively. 

When the work was contracted it was expected that the cyclopean form of 
masonry would be adopted, and with this in view, the contractor erected 
two small guy derricks, hand-operated, which proved to be entirely inadequate 
for handling the large stones profitably. Not over 200 cu. yd. of stone were 
thus utilized, and this amount only in the lower portion of the structure. It 
is probable, according to Mr. Barnes, that not over 20 per cent of the first 
thousand yards of concrete was composed of large stones, or not over 8 per 
cent of the entire structure. 

The dam contains 2703 cu. yd. of concrete. The excavation for foundations 
amounted to 790 cu. yd. of rock and 245 cu. yd. of earth. The cost of the 
entire work to the contractor was $21,289.89 and to the water company 
$23,037,93, allowing a contractor's profit of $1748.04. The scale of wages per 
hour was: Mexican labor, 15 cents; sub-foreman, 17.5 cents; engineer, 25 cents; 
carpenter, 30 and 20 cents; foreman, 35 cents; double teams, 40 cents. 

Cost of the Lost River Multiple-arch Curved Dam. — The following is 
abstracted from an article by W. W. Patch Engineering News, April 30, 1914. 
To reclaim farming land being submerged by the rising waters of Tule Lake, 
which has no visible outlet, a dam was built by the U. S. Reclamation Service 
to divert a part of the inflowing water, the contract for building the dam 
being let to Geo. C. Clark, of Everett, Wash, in Dec, 1910. 

To save length of diversion channel the dam was placed on indurated 
volcanic diatomaceous ash instead of on rock. An overflow capable of 
passing heavy floods being necessary, and this requiring protection against 
scour below the overflow, a horseshoe- shaped multiple-arch concrete spillway, 
289 ft. in length, was adopted, with a low wall or secondary dam thrown be- 
tween the toes of the horseshoe. The pool so formed was floored with reinforced 
concrete, covered with plank secured by concrete " toe-holds." The masonry 
spillway is flanked by paved embankments, held in place at their spillway ends 
by reinforced-concrete retaining walls, 31 ft. high. 



250 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



The principal features of the dam are shown in Fig. 6. 

The proportions for the concrete used on the work were 1 cement, 2>^ sand, 
and 5 broken basalt rock. The latter was screened into two sizes which 
afterwards were remixed in nearly equal proportions in order to minimize 
the percentage of voids. In pier foundations many large rocks were placed 
in the concrete to save cement. In joining new work to old a mortar coat 
was applied immediately ahead of the first batch of concrete, but after 
stripping forms, the exposed surfaces were neither plastered nor coated with 
cement wash. The arches proved almost absolutely water-tight, even imder 
the maximum head of over 30 ft. 

The embankments were constructed in 4-in. layers, wetted and rolled. 




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_ I Detail of EMOSL_ 
^''^^^ Section A-B 
&21 



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p777P 

Toe 
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^-~,^ MJV.L£I.^30 
Rolled Embankment 



Section A.-B 



Section C-D Detail of Pool Floor 

Fig. 6. — Details of dam. 



4'5/e^' 



For making concrete of the character required on the dam, sand of proper 
quality could not be had in the vicinity. Hence, before the contract was let, 
arrangements were made to ship it in 75 miles by rail and then haul it 8 miles 
by canal, and 2 miles by wagon to the work. This sand on the job cost $3.75 
per cu. yd. During the progress of the work the sand contractor could not 
supply his material fast enough, and the quality began to deteriorate, so 
that the United States shipped in quartz sand 300 miles by rail from Marys- 
ville, Calif., and delivered it on the siding of the contractor for \^i. per yd. less 
than he had been paying for the other sand. 

Cost of Work. — The average force on the work comprised 82 men and 
36 horses, working for most of the time ten hours per day. Wages were: 
foremen, $4.38; carpenters, $5; laborers, $2.50; two-horse teams, $6.25. The 
labor was not efficient as a rule. The accompanying table gives actual, 
not contract, cost, and includes cost of materials and engineering. 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 251 

Cost of Work on Lost River Dam 

Cost 

Item Unit Quantity Total per unit 

Exc. above Elev. 4067 cu. yd. 9 , 073' $ 4 , 743 $ 0. 522 

Exc. below Elev. 4067 cu. yd. 6,044 10,460 1.73 

Embankment cu. yd. 13,141 8,738 0.665 

Rolling, sprinkling and overhaul 305 

Concrete cu. yd. 5,536 84,510 15.258 

Hndlg. reinf. steel lb. 209,016 7,030 0.033* 

Hndlg. structl. steel lb. 48, 254 557 0. 012 

Stone paving cu. yd. 1,238 3,386 2.736 

Pool flooring ft.b.m. 25,588 846 33.07 

Tool and plank house 2 , 145 

Five sluice gates and hoists 1 , 502 

Pump and turbine 1 , 118 

Stop-plank guides 847 

Stop-planks 330 

Hand rail 282 

Steel rails 342 

Tram car and miscell 786 

Total cost $127 , 927 

* Includes cost of steel. 

The above includes reasonable allowance for depreciation of the contractor's 
equipment, which comprised the following: 
1— 70-hp. Minneapolis traction engine for operating the crushing, screening and 

mixing plant. This used 4-ft. slabs for fuel. 
1 — 12 X 18-in. Aurora portable crusher, with bucket elevator. 
1 — rotating 29-ft. screen. 
1 — l->d. Ransome concrete mixer. 

1 — 7 X 10-in. double-drum hoisting engine for excavating with drag-bucket. 
1 — 10-hp. gasoline engine with 6-in. centrifugal pump. 
1 — 4-hp. gasoline engine with plunger pump connected. 
1 — band-saw for form work. 
1 — bucket elevator for sand hoist. 
1 — 20-in. blower for removing surplus dust from crushed stone and stone dust so 

that the latter could be added to the sand. 
6 — 9-cu. ft. steel concrete cars with about 600 ft. of 24-in. track. 
1 — driving team and buckboard. 
Blacksmith shop, tools, iron pipe, etc. 

All hauling was done with hired teams. In addition to running the plant 
the traction engine for the last two months of 1911 heated all the water used 
in making concrete to temperatures of 150° to 204°. 

Cost of the East Park Dam, Portland Project, U. S. Reel. Service. — The 
following data are taken from articles by E. G. Hopson and F. H. Tillinghart 
appearing respectively in Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 18, 1911, and 
Engineering Record, June 24, 1911. 

Design. — The dam rises to a height of 140 ft. above the foundation rock, 
and is a solid concrete structure of the gravity type, curved in plan to 
radius of 275 ft., forming a horizontal arch with abutments in the rock on the 
sides of the gorge, thus giving it a greatly increased stability. The abutments 
being somewhat seamy, it was not thought advisable to trust altogether to arch 
action; hence the combined gravity and arch type. The dam also is located 
within the so-called earthquake belt. At the top the dam is 10 ft. wide 
and 249 ft. long, while the maximum thickness at the bottom is 86 ft. 

Spillway. — The spillway is located in a saddle in the same ridge about }^i 
mile south from the dam, the waste water flowing into a natural tributary to 
Little Stony Creek and emptying into same at a point about 500 ft. below the 
dam. Test pits for foundation showed a hard blue shale close to the surface 
of the ground, conglomerate being encountered only at the north abutment. 

The maximum measured flow of Little Stony Creek at the dam site is 8000 



252 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

sec-ft., but the spillway was designed on the basis of a flow of 10,000 sec.-ft. 
The distance across the saddle where the spillway is located is only about 300 ft. 
In order to increase the length of spillway thereby reducing the head, a 
design consisting of a series of half -circles of arched weirs, butting against 
piers, was made. The piers are 8 ft. wide and the arches have a radius of 
13 ft. 6 in., the whole structure being on a radius of 474 ft. This arrangement 
gives a total length of 459.9 ft. and after reducing for curvature and incom- 
plete approach there is obtained a total available length of 414 ft., over which 
the maximum 10,000 sec.-ft. floods should flow 3.7 ft. deep, according to 
Hazen and Williams' weir formula, as derived from Bazin's. The crest of the 
spillway is at El. 185, making the high-water elevation in the reservoir 
188.7. Small weirs, 2 ft. high and 1 ft. wide, built on a 29-ft. radius and 
located down stream from the overflow weirs, form a water cushion. 

Dikes. — At low points around the reservoir four small earth dikes were 
constructed ranging in height from 3 to 20 ft. The principal dimensions 
are 20 ft. width on top, 3 to 1 water slope and 2 to 1 back slope. Rock pitch- 
ing 1 ft. deep was placed on both slopes. 

Costs. — All cement was manufactured at Tolenas, California, cost price 
f. o. b. cars being $1.55 per barrel. The cost delivered at the nearest railroad 
station to the work was $2.05 per barrel. Cement and all material brought by 
rail required hauling over 18 miles of mountain road. The average price of 
hauling cement, iron work and other materials was 32 cts. per ton mile. 
The cost of road haul and storage for cement was $1.08 per barrel, so that the 
net cost delivered at the work was $3.13 per barrel. 

In the main dam the total concrete built was 12,202 cu. yds., in which 12,383 
barrels of cement were used, or 1.01 bbls. per cubic yard of concrete. The 
mixture was generally proportioned at 1 volume of cement to 10 of the 
unmixed aggregates. 

In the spillway a richer grade of concrete was used, the total yardage being 
1,456, in which were placed 1,758 barrels of cement, or 1.21 bbls. per cubic 
yard The mixture was generally proportioned at one of cement to eight of 
the unmixed aggregates. 

The concrete was mixed in standard revolving mixers and handled by cars 
and track. 

The principal item of construction was placing concrete in the dam and 
spillway as given in Tables VII and VIII. 

Table VII. — Cost of Concrete in Spillway, 1,456 Cu. Yds. 

Cost per 

Items Total cost cu. yd. 

Cement delivered at R. R. station (1,758 bbls.) $3,620. 99 $ 2,487 

Cement — hauling and storing 1 ,961. 25 1. 340 

Form— Material 373. 15 0. 260 

Form— labor 1 ,418. 50 0. 980 

Sand and gravel — labor and furnishing 2,438. 80 1. 670 

Mixing and placing 1 , 388. 70 0. 960 

Finishing 414.40 0.280 

Total $ 7.977 

Preparatory expense $ 161. 35 0. Ill 

Interest on investment 1 , 259. 00 0. 869 

Plant depreciation 318. 95 0. 218 

Miscellaneous and supplies 654. 71 0.447 

Total $ 1.635 

Superintendence $1 , 233. 41 0. 846 

Engineering 913. 91 0. 628 

General administration 1 , 503. 27 1.032 

Grand total $12. 118 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 253 

Table VIII. — Cost of Concrete in Main Dam, 12,202 Cu. Yds. 

Cost per 

Items Total cost cu. yd. 

Cement delivered at R. R. station (12,382 bbls.) $25, 333. 86 $2. 076 

Cement— hauling and storing 13,394. 98 1. 097 

Forms— Material 2,054. 39 0. 168 

Forms— labor 5, 143. 45 0. 424 

Sand and gravel — labor and furnishing 7,074. 20 0. 580 

Mixing and placing concrete 5 , 304. 29 0. 434 

Finishing 429. 60 0. 035 

Total $4. 814 

Preparatory expense $ 1 , 817. 57 0. 149 

Interest on investment 4,326. 00 0. 354 

Plant depreciation 3,201. 31 0. 262 

Miscellaneous and supplies 6 , 700. 08 0. 550 

Total $1,315 

Stream control and unproductive work at quarry $2, 611. 34 0.213 

Superintendence 7,530. 02 0. 617 

Engineering 5 , 800. 14 0. 475 

General administration . ^ 9,540. 59 0. 782 

Grand total $8,216 

Force. — The contractor's average force engaged on this work was 38 men, 
including 8 teamsters and 20 teams. The engineering and inspection force 
consisted of 4 men. , 

The total cost to the United States for the whole work was as follows: 

Main dam $104,358.26 

Spillway 15,846. 52 

Lands for reservoir 86 , 047. 11 

Engineering — preliminary and construction 32,076. 34 

Total $238,328. 23 

Cost per acre foot of storage ' 5. 23 

Cost of Stony River Hollow Concrete Dam. — G. H. Bayles gives the follow- 
ing data (Engineering News, Jan. 22, 1914) in regard to the construction 
cost of the dam. 

Various rates of wages were paid at the beginning of the work, but these 
soon settled to the following: 

Mechanics, $0.30 to $0. 50 per hour 

Carpenters, $0.30 to 0. 35 per hour 

Helpers 0. 25 per hour 

Laborers in cutoff trench 0. 25 per hour 

Other laborers 0. 22 per hour 

All field costs included, the costs of the parts of the work completed with 
cableway were as follows: 

Cutoff excavation 1 , 273 cu. yd. @ $2. 93 

Earth excavation 3 , 432 cu. yd. @ 0. 48 

Rock excavation 44 cu. yd. @ 3. 43 

Crushed stone and sand for 1 cu. yd. of concrete 1 cu. yd. @ 1. 23 

Mixing and placing concrete 7,594 cu. yd. @ 0. 72 

Forms (not including materials) 7,594 cu. yd. @ 1. 67 

Placing steel 366,277 lb. @ 0. 005 

The dam as constructed consisted of 56 panels 15 ft. long with buttress 
supports at eaclj panel point. The maximum height was 51.17 ft. above 
foundations. A spillway 150 ft. long was provided with elevation 3 ft. 
below top of the dam. The height of dam at the spillway was 34.75 ft. 
The width of dam (at foundation line) varied from a minimum of approxi- 
mately 16 ft. to a maximum of 70 ft. 



254 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



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The quantities from which the above 
figures were derived were made up from 
the number of batches placed. It was 
found that it required a little more than 
the figured yardage to fill the forms, say 
5%, and where the concrete came in 
contact with the earth — the footings and 
cutoff — as much as 25 % more than the 
neat quantities was required, and the 
average for footings was a little under 
20%. 

The dam site is 19 miles distant from 
the nearest railway station, and all men 
and material had to be brought in 
over logging railroads, which materially 
affected the cost. 

Six months after its completion 5 bays 
or panels of this dam went out due to 
leakage under the cut-off wall which did 
not go down to solid rock. 

Cost of Corbett Diversion Dam, 
Shoshone Irrigation Project. — The Cor- 
bett Diversion Dam was built by con- 
tract during the latter part of 1906, and 
the forepart of 1907 for the total contract 
price of $66,750. This dam is located 
on the Shoshone River about eight miles 
.below Cody, Wyo., and is a part of the 
irrigation structures pertaining to the 
Shoshone Project, of the U S. Reclama- 
tion Service. 

The following description of the 
diversion dam and data on its cost are 
given in the August number of the 
"Reclamation Record," 1908, and re- 
printed in Engineering Record, Aug. 22, 
1908. 

The Corbett Dam is of the reinforced 
concrete buttressed type, having a deck 
30 in. thick on the upper side with a 
slope of 1 to 1. This deck rests on but- 
tresses two feet thick, spaced 14 ft. on 
centers. The structure is founded on 
gravel and shale, and has a reinforced 
concrete platform two feet thick resting 
on the foundation and extending from 
the deck wall downstream to a distance 
of about 40 ft. Beneath the deck of the 
dam and this platform are three cut-off 
walls running lengthwise of the dam and 
extending down into the shale. The 
total length of the dam between abut- 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 255 

merits is 400 ft., and extending at the right abutment of the dam to the bluff 
is an earth embankment about 450 ft. in length. At the left end of the dam 
are located the sluiceway and the headworks controlling the entrance to the 
Corbett Tunnel. 

Careful records of cost were kept during the construction of the dam, and 
the data relating thereto are given in Table IX under the primary heading of 
distribution of cost and under the secondary'; heading of the class items of the 
schedule. Labor conditions were extremely bad during the entire construc- 
tion period, but the contractor was provided with fairly efficient equipment. 
Laborers were paid at the rate of $2.50 to $3 per eight-hour day, carpenters at 
the rate of $3 to $4.50 and teams at the rate of $2.50 per eight-hour day. 

There was no suitable sand for concrete in the vicinity of the dam, and it 
was necessary to establish a crushing plant for manufacturing the same from 
cobblestones. The crusher and concrete mixer were located at a distance of 
about 400 ft. from the right abutment of the dam. The concrete was hauled 
from the mixer to central points on the dam by means of cars of one-half 
cubic yard capacity drawn by horses. At these central points the concrete 
was transferred to small hand carts, and thus conveyed to various local points 
on the dam. 

The shore ends of the dam were constructed during ordinary stages of the 
river without diverting the river from its channel. For the portion of the 
dam in the channel of the river it was found necessary to construct a tem- 
porary dam from the end of the sluiceway wall diagonally across the river, 
thus diverting the entire low-water flow of the river through the sluiceway. 

The total actual cost for all of the items tabulated was $127,277.43. 

Cost of Concrete Core Wall, Moline Pool Dam. — J. B. Bassett in " Pro- 
fessional Memoirs" described the methods and costs of construction of the 
concrete core wall in Moline Pool Dam in the Mississippi River at Moline, 
111. The following is taken from an abstract of that paper published in 
Engineering and Contracting, July 27, 1910. 

The core wall was constructed to make more permanent the loose rock fill 
dam forming " Moline Pool" which in times of high water acted as a spillway 
and was therefore subject to disintegration from the top. 

The construction details are as follows: A dipper dredge is first employed 
to dig a trench along the toe of the dam to steepen the slope to its most 
abrupt angle of repose and to get down through the mud, sand, etc., to the 
solid rock bottom. Following the dredge a drillboat is employed to drill 
holes 10 ft. apart along the toe of slope and approximately 3 ft. therefrom. 
These holes are carefully placed, as the alignment of the wall depends on their 
proper location. Upright 6 X 8 in. form posts having a 2-in. steel rod, 
pointed on the lower end, bolted thereto, and allowed to extend about 13^^ ft. 
below the end of the post, are then set, being dropped into the holes by the 
drillboat crew as fast as the holes are drilled, and left standing Later the 
posts are lined up, slanted to a batter of about 1 to SV2, and tied to anchorages 
in the rock dam by 3 X 6-in. strips bolted to the sides of the posts. The 
remainder of the form consists of horizontal 6 X 6-in. waling strips spaced by 
means of sink planks about SV2 ft. between centers, and 2-in. plank sheathing 
set on end to make as good a contact as possible with the irregular bottom. 
It will be noted that only the fajce side of the wall is joined, the rough slope 
of the dam forming the back side, except near the top, where the section is 
reduced to a finish to a 2-ft. width of coping. 

The concrete plant was erected on a flat barge and consists of a rolling 



256 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

drum mixer and small, stiff-leg derrick with a 40-ft, boom, together with the 
necessary boilers, hoisting apparatus, etc. This barge is floated alongside 
the form, with the gravel and cement barges on its other side. A straight 
sided, bottom-dumping bucket was designed for the work, arranged with two 
doors joining at the center and held shut by latches that can be tripped 
at will by latch strings. The concrete is deposited directly in the water with 
this bucket with very little agitation or loss of cement. For conveying the 
raw material to the mixer a special arrangement of an automatically dumping 
skip car was devised. A hinged and counter-weighted track extension allows 
the car to run out to the center of the gravel barge moored alongside, where it 
is filled by hand. The car itself is gaged so that the proper quantity may be 
secured. A small barge containing the cement is moored alongside the 
gravel barge, the cement being carried a few steps by hand and dumped into 
the skip car from the containing sacks. 

The proportions used average about 1 cement to 6 gravel. For the deeper 
portions of the wall, the gravel is reduced to about a l-to-5 mixture to allow for 
some loss of cement, but the top of the dam is made of proportions of about 
1 to 7. The gravel is furnished on United States barges by contract, being 
pumped direct from the river bed. It is not screened and re-mixed, as is the 
practice in some localities, since the natural mixture is quite uniform and tests 
show voids running from 12.5 to 17 per cent. The depth of water in which 
concrete has been deposited varies from 5.5 to 17 ft. A considerable length 
of wall was built with the depth at the latter figure. In this case it waS found 
inadvisable to attempt to carry the wall to completed height in one day, 
due to the excessive pressure on this style of form. It can be readily seen that 
a continuous contact between the form and the rough rock bottom would not 
be had. Occasionally, a stone would fall from the dam and, lodging along the 
line of the form, would prevent the sheathing from reaching to the proper 
depth, and a hole would be the result. It was found that concrete to a height 
of 3 or 4 ft. would not run out, but if an attempt was made to carry the section 
to completion a leak would result, and, once started, it could not be stopped 
until equilibrium was restored. For this reason the custom was established 
of building the deeper sections in two layers. Scrap steel rods, etc., in short 
lengths were stuck into the first layer to assist in bonding. 

When the work was started, alternate sections were constructed, the inter- 
mediate sections being filled later; but in some cases where the dam behind the 
wall had quite a strong leakage it was found better to build continuously and 
push the leak ahead, each day's work being ended at a bulkhead. Later, 
this practice was followed altogether. Some cement was lost at points 
opposite the leaks, but not enough to materially weaken the dam. It must 
be remembered that the upper part of this wall is the vital part, as the dam 
breaks from disintegration on the crest. For this reason a reinforcing rod 
of about seven-eighths inch diameter is run longitudinally about 6 ins. below 
the coping of the wall, tied by 8-ft. rods set vertically near the face of the 
wall and bent at the top to hook over the longitudinal rod. This is done to 
hold in place any chunks of concrete which might come loose through shrink- 
age cracks or from impact of running ice. 

The work is being conducted by hired labor, and the wages paid on the 
concrete outfit are as follows: 

One foreman, at $90 per month; 1 derrickman, at $90 per month; 2 firemen, 
at $40 per month; 1 hoistman on conveyor, at $40 per month; 1 watchman, 
at $40 per month; 11 laborers, at $1 to $1.25 per day, depending on scarcity 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 257 

of labor. Also, the drillboat crew, of 1 drillrunner, at $60 per month, and 1 
fireman, at $40 per month. 

Subsistence and sleeping quarters are furnished to all employes in addition 
to the above wages. Eight hours constitute a day's work, and the usual 
Saturday half -holidays are allowed at full pay during July, August and Septem- 
ber. Full pay is allowed to all employes for all legal holidays. Weather 
conditions are usually good in the summer season, but about six weeks in the 
spring and four weeks at the end of the season in November are usually 
attended by storms and exceedingly high winds. 

The cement is taken from the cars and stored in a warehouse and after- 
wards loaded on the barges by hand. All cement is tested in a laboratory 
on the office boat. 

The dredging and towing expense is also charged for the time put in by the 
dredge at digging the trench and by the towboat in carrying the various 
supplies to the work. 

A cost statement of the work to date is as shown by the accompanying 
table: 



Table X. — Cost Statement 
13,112.6 cubic yards concrete, 6,301.8 linear feet of wall. 



Items 
Preliminary expense: 
(plant equipment, warehouse, etc. 

Quota miscellaneous charges 

Superintendence and office: 

Field 

Quota R. I. office charges 


Amount 

) $ 6,530.12 
375. 12 

5,551.26 
2,060.92 


Cost pel 
cor 

$0. 4233 
.1572 


• cu. yd. of 
icrete 

$0. 4980 
.0286 

$0. 5805 
.0947 

$0. 4662 

$2.3473 

$0. 6660 
.0585 
.0437 


Cost per 
Hn. ft. 
of wall 

$ 1.037 


Total. 






Excavation 

Forms: 

Material 

Labor 

Drilling 

Drilling, coal for 


1,241.56 

2,752.39 

2,514.95 

660. 67 

186. 53 


$0. 2099 
.1917 
.0504 
.0142 








Total 






Materials: 

Cement 

Cement handling 


17,952.72 
936. 02 
627.39 

7,140.71 
290. 08 

2,889.68 
942.03 


$1.3691 
.0714 
.0479 
.5446 
.0221 
.2204 
.0718 


8.917 


Cement tests 




Gravel 

Reinforcement 

Towing 

Towing, coal for 








Total 






Mixing and depositing: 

Labor 

Coal 


7,890.41 
843. 10 


$0. 6017 
.0643 




Total 






Backfilling 

Plant repairs 


766. 47 
572.92 






Total 

Miscellaneous 

Plant charge (rental) 


$62,725.05 

283.40 

4,995.74 


$4.7835 
.0216 
.3810 


$9,954 
.045 
.762 


Total, including plant charge . 
17 


$68,004.19 


$5. 1861 


$10,791 



258 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



The above statement includes all money spent on the work in plant con- 
struction and operation, material, and supplies of all kinds, repairs during 
season, superintendence, field and main office charges and a plant charge 
presumed to be equal to its rental charge were it not owned by the United 
States Government. 

Cost of Constructing Small Concrete Dam. — Engineering and Contracting, 
March 15, 1911, gives the cost of a hollow concrete dam 70 ft. long and 4 ft. 
high built at East Earl, Pa. by H. L. Bauman using day labor. 



Creefr 




Fig. 7. — Plan and section of concrete dam. 



Fig. 7 shows the essential dimensions and it will be noted that the con- 
crete structure is hollow, is divided into compartments by interior cross walls 
of dry masonry and that the compartments are filled with gravel. The 
concrete used was a 1 : 2 3^^ : 5 mixture plastered with a 1 : 1 mortar. The amount 
of concrete is not recorded but estimating from the sketch and from the amount 
of concrete used it was about 40 cu. yds. 

Item Cost 

Hauling gravel (3 men 3 days at $1.75) $ 15. 75 

Hauling gravel (2 men and team 1 day at $3.00) 6. 00 

Hauling gravel (2 men, horse and cart, 3 days at $2.25) 13. 50 

Screening sand from gravel (1 man 3 days at $1.75) 5. 25 

Washing gravel (6 men 1 day at $1.75) 10. 50 

Pump and pumpman (1 day at $5) 5. 00 

Cofferdam (3 men 4 days at $1.75) 21. 00 

Cofferdam (2 men, horse and cart, 2 days at $2.25) 9. 00 

Excavation (6 men 2 days at $1.75) 21. 00 

2,000 ft. B. M. from lumber at $20 per M 40. 00 

Delivering lumber 5. 00 

SettUng forms (2 men 2 days at $1.75) 7. 00 

Placing concrete (7 men 3 days at $1.75) 36. 75 

2 hp. gasoline mixer engine 3 days 3. 00 

Removing forms and clearing away (2 men 1 day at $1.75) 3. 50 

Plastering (4 men 1 day at $1.75) 7. 00 

Pump 20 hrs. at 40 cts 8. 00 

Charges on borrowed pump 7. 50 

10 tons Atlas cement at $8 deUvered 80. 00 

Total $304. 75 

A 10-hour day was worked. 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 259 

Cost of Small Concrete Dam Built by Unskilled Labor. — Fred. J. Wood in 
Engineering Contracting, March 26, 1913, gives the methods and cost of 
constructing a small concrete dam at Paris, Maine. 

The dam has a total length, on the top, of about 48 ft., of which only 20 ft. 
are of the full height of 3 ft. The section being so small, a 32-in base, bringing 
the resultant within proper limits, the dam was made rectangular in section 
and of that width. No other engineering problems were involved; the 
foundation was a solid ledge without a sign of a seam, and the location was 
between two ledge walls which narrowed as they stretched down stream. 
A man of many years' experience as a contractor's foreman, who had had 
charge of some concrete construction, composed the whole "expert" force. 
He was told to build the dam on the lines outlined above and left to his own 
devices. The dam was built October 2 to 9, 1912, while the river was very 
low. 

First, a diversion dam was built of feed sacks full of sand, placed above the 
dam site and at a point to turn the river flow through the canal leading to the 
mill. The canal was cleared of rubbish, all gates opened wide, and the end of 
the penstock taken off, by all of which means nearly the entire flow was 
diverted from the new work. 

Much difficulty was found in securing laborers and only by offering nearly 
double wages could a gang of ten men be secured for two days. With the 
help of one laborer, a handy man with carpenter tools, and a horse, the river 
had been diverted, the site cleared, and the form built by the night of Oct. 6, 
and a full gang of ten men reported on the morning of the 7th. 

An adjacent pile of old railroad ties was soon transferred into a cob house 
trestle across the river bed adjoining the form and about a foot above its top. 
This planked over, formed the mixing platform and the runways. The sand, 
previously hauled from a bank a mile away, had been dumped on the bank at 
the west end of the dam, with emery ore (used as aggregate because con- 
venient) immediately behind it. Not enough water ran past the work to 
provide the amount needed for mixing, so a supply was brought and placed 
in barrels. Mixing and placing concrete began about 10 o'clock and occupied 
the rest of the day and about four hours of the next day. 

Distribution Per 

Labor: Cost cu. yd. 

Filling sacks and building diversion dam $ 14. 375 $ 1. 65 

Cleaning diversion channel 4. 50 .52 

Clearing site 4. 225 . 49 

Building forms 16. 50 1. 90 

Building mixing platform and runways 6. 45 .74 

Handling material to the mixing platform . 13. 60 1. 57 

Mixing and placing 27. 70 3.18 

Cleaning up 13. 25 1. 52 

Time lost by rain 2. 65 .30 

Total for labor $103. 25 $11. 87 

Material: 

Emery ore (at price quoted for trap rock) $ 30. 00 $ 3. 45 

Cement, delivered 35. 00 4. 02 

1,500 ft. B.M. boards for forms, delivered 30. 00 3. 45 

10 lbs. 8d. wire nails at 4 cts .40 .05 

20 loads of sand at 5 cts 1. 00 .11 

HauUng sand, 2}i days at $3 7. 50 .86 

Total for material $103. 90 $11. 94 

Total for labor 103. 25 11. 87 

Grand total $207. 15 $23. 81 



260 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The form was simply built with longitudinal top and bottom stringers, tied 
across the top at intervals and braced from the outside, with vertical boarding 
on their inside faces. 

Laborers were paid $2.50 per day, one dollar more than the customary rate 
in that section. The cement a standard brand of Portland was obtained 
from a local dealer, the sand was also locally secured, and the concrete was 
mixed in the proportions of 1:2 : 4. 

Life of Equipment Used in Building Dam by the Hydraulic Fill Method. — The 
following data are taken from an article in Engineering Record, July 11, 1914. 

In placing 2,000,000 cu. yd. of material, in a dam 145 ft. in height and 
1,700 ft. long, about 95% of the material was moved by water and 5% by 
Fresnos in building up the dikes. 

The material was conveyed a maximum distance of 3,000 ft. with a normal 
flow of water of 12 sec.-f t. With a normal solid content of water about 10 per 
cent and with a head of 50 ft. on the pumps, which were 12 X 12 in. centrifu- 
gals, operating at 600 r.p.m., the life of the manganese steel runners was about 3 
months. The life of the 14 ga. steel distributing pipe with 10 ga. slip joint 
butts was about 500,000 cu. yd. of material handled. The pipe cost 48.75j!i 
per ft. 

A crew of 6 men for each shift operated 2 pipe systems and deposited 8,000 
cu. yd. per 24 hours. Additional men were required for making the dikes 
and shifting the plant. 

Dimensions of Storage Tanks or Reservoirs for Economical Design. — In 
Engineering News-Record, April 3, 1917, Arthur Jobson gives the following 
formulae for obtaining such dimensions that the construction cost of a storage 
tank or small reservoir will be a minimum. The formulae were obtained 
by finding expressions for the cost of the sides and bottom, adding them 
to get an expression for total cost and equating the first derivative to zero. 

The final equations obtained are as follows: 



R = ^I!^!}^!1^ (1) 



and 



-4; 



^^ (2) 



in which R is radius in feet; V, capacity in cubic feet; wi, weight per cubic 
foot of material in sides; W2, weight per cubic foot of reservoir contents; ci, 
cost per pound of installing sides; a, cost per square foot of installing bottom; 
S, allowable unit stress in pounds per square foot for material in sides, and d, 
depth in feet. 

It is interesting to note in equation 2 that the proper depth for the lowest 
cost is independent of volume or capacity. For any assumed capacity tne 
depth will be constant for given values of unit stress, costs of installing sides 
and bottom, unit weight of contents and unit weight of side material 
Trial computations with equation 1 will show that for the value of R giving 
the lowest cost the cost of installing the sides and bottom will be approxi- 
mately equal, as they should be theoretically. 

The quantity a is intended to include all expense for labor and material 
in connection with the cost of installing the sides, and ca may not only include 
the expense for labor and material in laying the bottom, but also the cost of 
grading and leveling the reservoir site. In the use of these equations, S 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 261 

should be assumed rather small, for two reasons — to allow for efficiency of 
riveted joints and to proportion properly the thickness of vertical sections 
of the plate so that the actual net area may approximate the theoretical area 
used for computing weight and cost. For steel plate with an ultimate strength 
of 60,000 lb. per square inch, a factor of safety of 4, and a joint efficiency of 
70 % the writer found that the value of S to be used was about 1,296,000, or 
9000 lb. per square inch. 

Sides of Constant Thickness. — If the side-plate thickness is arbitrarily 
selected without reference to the depth or diameter, the expressions for the 
most economical dimensions become: 

tVwici 



.=;/^ 



(3) 
ire 2 
and 

d = -^ (4) 

twici 

where t is plate thickness in feet. 

If the value for R given by equation 3 is substituted in the total-cost 
formula, it can be shown that the dimensions giving the lowest cost result in 
making the cost of the sides equal to twice the cost of the bottom, as against 
these costs being equal where the thickness of the plate is assumed to vary 
either with the depth or with the diameter of the reservoir. 

Cost of Open Concrete Reservoir. — The following unit costs of constructing 
the 1,300,000 gal, concrete reservoir for Webb City, Mo. are given by E. W. 
Robinson, in Engineering Record, May 11, 1912. The reservoir was 100 X 
200 ft. by 9.5 ft. deep, no roof was provided. 

Cost op Concrete Reservoir 

Concrete (634.6 cu. yd.) — Unit cost Total 

Materials $5. 053 $ 3 , 206. 62 

Mixing and placing 1. 217 772. 31 

Placing steel, labor 0. 024 15. 23 

Forms (634.6 cu. yd.) — 

Making and setting 1 . 007 639. 04 

Removing, labor 0. 098 62. 19 

Plastering (980 sq. yd.) — 

Materials 0. 170 166. 73 

Labor 0. 145 141. 78 

Total for walls, 634.6 cu. yd., at $7.885 $7. 885 $ 5,003. 90 

Floor (432.8 cu. yd.): 

Concrete base (323.8 cu. yd.) — 

Materials 2. 758 893. 13 

Labor 1. 156 374. 43 

Finish (109.0 cu. yd.) — 

Materials 5. 473 596. 52 

Labor 1. 774 193. 37 

Asphalting (1972 sq. yd.) — 

Materials 0. 431 952. 29 

Labor 0. 052 106. 95 

Total for floor, 432.8 cu. yd., at $6. 954 $ 3,009. 74 

General: 

Excavation (3242 cu. yd.) 551 . 14 

Embankment 348. 29 

Bond and insurance 73. 00 

Superintendence 700. 00 

Overhead charges 500. 00 

Grand total $10, 186. 07 



262 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Common labor was paid $2, carpenters $3 and $3.50, helpers $2.50 and 
teams $3.50 per day of 10 hours. The man in charge of placing the steel 
was paid $2.50, and a few other men received $2.25, $2.50 and $2.75 per day 
for special reasons. As a whole the labor was fairly efficient, but would have 
been more so under more competent supervision. The excavation was 
sub-let- to another party at $0.17, which allowed but small profit. The 
item of superintendence included the time of two members of the contracting 
firm that was spent upon the job, and one paid superintendent for part of the 
time. The item of overhead charges, which was partly an estimation and 
partly taken from statements from the contractors, included traveling and 
other general expenses, and though excessive was not far from the actual 
expense incurred. 

The aggregate use is what is known as "chats" or "tailings" which is 
crushed blue and white flint running in size from H to M-in. and is obtained 
from the various mills of the zinc mines. The mix was 1 part of cement^ to 
2 parts of fine "tailings" to 4 parts of coarse "tailings." Tailings can gener- 
ally be had for the hauling. 

Cost of Covered Concrete Reservoir. — G. Stanley Whitehead gives the 
following data in Engineering Record, July 1, 1911. 

The reservoir, for the town of Brookline, Mass. is circular in form with a 
capacity of 4,000,000 gals., 180 ft. in diameter and 23.5 ft. deep at the wall. 
The side walls are of reinforced concrete, 2 ft. thick at the top and 3.5 ft. 
thick at the bottom, with a batter of H in. per foot on the inside. The 
bottom slopes toward the center at the rate of 0.5 per cent, with a channel 
sloping in the opposite direction to drain off the water when emptied. The 
roof is of mushroom construction, upheld by square reinforced concrete 
piers, and is "covered with 14 in. of cinders and 10 in. of loam; this and the 
adjoining embankment slopes have been grassed over and treated as a small 
park. 

The reservoir was so located on the hill as to make the cut and fill about 
equal. After stripping the surface loam the material encountered in the 
excavation consisted entirely of hardpan, which was hauled largely by carts 
and dumped between the reservoir wall and retaining wall to form the slopes. 
The fill thus made was thoroughly rolled with a two-horse grooved roller. 
After the reservoir wall was closed in, the (excavation was removed by the 
use of a derrick set up just outside the main wall and used later to carry the 
concrete from the mixing plant. 

A concrete retaining wall, 18 in. wide on top, with a batter of ^^ in. to the 
foot on the inside and 1 in. to the foot on the outside, nearly encircles the 
reservoir. It is of 1:2:4: Portland cement concrete, varying from 2 to 6 
ft. in height, and takes the earth embankment graded to a 13-^ to 1 slope from 
the roof of the reservoir. It was built primarily to shorten that portion of the 
embankment that faces private residences. The foundation is of stone 
and cinders extending 4.5 ft. below the natural surface of the ground, at the 
bottom of which is a 6-in. tile pipe, laid to drain the wall and take any possible 
leakage from the reservoir. No reinforcement was used in the wall; con- 
sequently, cracks extending from top to bottom opened up about every 60 ft. 
after standing through the first winter. This condition, however, was 
expected, and no effort was made to prevent it, as the wall will be ultimately 
covered with vines and shrubbery. 

The concrete in the main reservoir wall is composed of 1 part Atlas Port- 
land cement, 2 parts sand and 4 parts screened gravel containing stones not 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 263 

larger than 2>^ in. The reinforcement consists of 1>^ and ^^-in. round bars, 
spaced as shown in the cross section. The bars were held in place by the use 
of perpendicular steel lattice work supports set 15 ft. apart; the ends of the 
rods were lapped 40 diameters and wired. 

Cost op Concrete per Cubic Yard 

Main Wall 

Labor $2.54 

Cement 2. 04 

Gravel and sand 2. 84 

Steel 2.26 

Lumber .77 

Tools, concrete mixer supplies and miscellaneous 1. 00 



$11.45 
Credit for sale of material .34 



Total cost per cu. yd $11.11 

Retaining Wall 

Labor $ 2. 54 

Cement 2. 04 

Gravel 2. 84 

Lumber 77 



Total cost per cu. yd $ 8. 19 

Floor, Piers and Roof 

Labor $ 3. 14 

Lumber 1.11 

Gravel and sand 2. 85 

Cement 2. 54 

Steel 1.55 

Tools, cars, derrick and miscellaneous .99 



$12.17 
Credit for sale of material .29 



Total cost per cu. yd $11. 88 

Waterproofing roof .99 

Plastering bottom and sidewalk .97 

Cost op Labor and Materials 

Cement $ 1. 62 per bbl. 

Sand and gravel 2. 10 per cu. yd. 

Lumber * 23. 00 to $29. 00 per M. 

Steel 0.015 per lb. 

Labor 2. 25 per day 

* Dimension lumber cost $29.00, per M. 

The total cost of the reservoir, including the land purchased and the con- 
struction of 1500 ft. of roadway, was $80,212. 

Cost of Small Reinforced Concrete Reservoirs. — John W. Ash in Engineer- 
ing Record, Jan. 25, 1913, gives the following costs of constructing the con- 
crete tanks and reservoir for the waterworks plant, Dalton, Ga. 

The main reservoir is 80 ft. in diameter, 21 ft. deep, and has 10-in. walls, 
with coping floor 6 in. thick. The footing course is 12 in. deep and 2 ft. wide. 
Concrete was a 1:2:4 mixture. The construction of the main reservoir, 
which is located on the top of a hill about 300 ft. above the creek level, in- 
volved some features a little out of the ordinary. There was no road to the 
top and to have built one would have required considerable time and money. 
It was decided, therefore, to put the mixing plant at the foot of the hill and 
haul the concrete and other materials to the top on a tramway. The tramway 



264 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

ties were poles and stringer pieces and the rails were made of 2 X 4-in. 
timbers, laid double and well spiked together. The total length of tramway- 
was about 900 ft. 

The concrete was carried in two concrete carts ; each cart carried one batch. 
While these were being hauled to the top and returned empty two more 
would be loaded and ready when the empties returned. At the top the landing 
platform was nearly on a level with the top of the reservoir walls, but as these 
walls were carried up in 7-ft. sections, the concrete was dumped down a chute 
to a platform on a level with the top of the section, where it was rehandled 
with wheelbarrows. After the work of concreting was well started and each 
man knew just what he was to do, a round trip could be made very quickly. 
The best day's run was 74 trips in 8 hours — less than 7 min. to a trip. The 
average, however, was about 9 min., owing to an occasional derailment or 
other slight delay. The car made about 800 trips and got away once through 
some carelessness in letting it get unhooked after landing at the top. 

It took about 3 hours to get the track back in shape, rig another car and 
start running again. This was the only accident and no one was hurt. 

Reservoir Costs 

Hauling Labor Material Total 

Shanties, tool and cement houses $ 67. 00 $ 46. 20 $ 113. 20 

Tramway 103. 20 53. 70 156. 90 

Excavation, 1650 cu. yd 333. 00 12. 60 345. 60 

Backfill 28.50 28.50 

Concrete, 282 cu. yd $213. 70 396. 75 900. 25 1 , 510. 70 

Steel 18.00 183.45 1,197.32 1,398.77 

Forms 252.25 261.81 514.06 

Finishing and water-proofing 

walls 42.70 28.60 71.30 

HauHng water 30. 00 30. 00 

Erecting and handling outfit 27. 25 84. 65 111. 90 

Coal, oil, waste, etc 67. 90 67. 90 

Depreciation, repairs, etc 29. 75 232. 50 262. 25 

Operating tramway 210. 00 210. 00 

Waterproofing compound 193. 00 193. 00 

Grand total $5,014. 08 

The coagulating basin is 40 ft. inside diameter and 10 ft. deep. The walls 
are 9 in. thick and bottom is 4 in. thick. The basin has four wooden baffle 
walls built of.2-in. plank and 4 X 6-in. posts. The concrete was mixed in the 
proportions of 1:2:4. 

Coagulating Basin Costs 

Labor Material Total 

Excavation, 325 cu. yd $160. 25 $ 34. 75 $195. 00 

Concrete, 56 cu. yd 50. 60 214. 70 265. 30 

Steel, 3030 lb 24. 20 65. 90 90. 10 

Forms 58.10 52.15 110.25 

Baffle-walls 12. 30 72. 00 84. 30 

Finishing and waterproofing 23. 90 12. 30 36. 20 

Pipe connections, etc 8. 60 3. 70 12. 30 

Grand total $793. 45 

The clear water well is 40 ft. inside diameter, 12 ft. deep, with 9-in. walls, 
6-in. floor and a self-supporting concrete roof having a rise of 4 ft. at the 
center, where there is a 4-ft. man-hole with screen ventilator. The mixture 
of concrete used was 1 :2 :4. 



DAMS RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 265 

Clear Water Well Costs 

Labor Material Tots^l 

Wet excav., 150 cu. yd $ 65. 00 $ 65. 00 

Concrete, 128 cu. yd 146. 40 $484. 00 630. 40 

Forms 115.20 128.00 243.20 

Reinforcement, 7880 lb 59. 10 213. 90 273. 00 

Pipe conn's, ventilator, etc 13. 50 12. 25 25. 75 

Coal, oil, waste, etc 21.30 21.30 

Finishing walls 16. 25 8. 70 24. 95 



Grand total $1 , 283. 60 

Cement cost $1.85 per barrel; sand, $1.05 per ton;, stone, $1.43 per ton. 
Labor was $1.35 and $1.50 per day; carpenters, $2.25 to $3.50 per day. 
The labor item includes foremen and superintendence. 

Cost of Concrete-Lined Oil-Storage Reservoirs. — Bulletin 155 of the 
U. S. Bureau of Mines prepared by C. P. Bowie gives some detailed costs 
and specifications for constructing reservoirs of the above type. The follow- 
ing matter is taken from an abstract of this bulletin published in Engineering 
and Contracting, May 15, 1918. 

The reservoirs are commonly circular in plan, and are constructed by 
making an excavation and building an earthen embankment with the exca- 
vated material. The area within the inner crest of the embankment is then 
covered with a wooden roof and the bottom and sides of the inclosed place 
lined with concrete. 

The dimensions of a typical container are as follows: Inside diameter at top, 
488 ft.; inside diameter at bottom, 437 ft. 6 ins.; maximum depth, approxi- 
mately 25 ft. 11 ins. The slopes of the embankment are: Slope of embank- 
ment inside reservoir, 1 to 1 ; slope of embankment outside reservoir, 2 to 1 ; 
slope of embankment top of reservoir, 20 to 1. The width of the embank- 
ment on top is 15 ft. The roof is constructed of wood, covered with roofing 
paper. 

The cost of such a reservoir would be 10 to 13 cts. per barrel of capacity, 
dependent on the situation and other governing conditions. On a basis of 
11 cts., the cost would be distributed approximately as follows: 

Cost of earthwork, cts 3.5 

Cost of roof, cts 3.0 

Cost of concrete lining, cts 4.5 

Total, cts 11.0 

An unlined earthen reservoir with the same type of roof construction would 
cost 7 to 9^^ ct. a barrel, and it is estimated that a concrete lined reservoir 
with a concrete roof on concrete roof supports and covered with 2 ft. of earth 
would cost about 30 ct. a barrel. 

The following figures for la;bor costs cover the construction of two 750,000- 
bbl. reinforced concrete lined reservoirs built at Bakersfield, Cal., during the 
winter and spring of 1913-14: 

Earthwork: 

Excavating for embankment, per yd $0. 22 

Lining inner slopes with selected material, per yd 51 

Finishing floor, per sq. ft 005 

Excavating for pier footings, trenches, etc., per yd 70 

Trimming slopes, per sq. ft 012 



266 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Roof: 

Hauling lumber from cars (H mile), per M 1. 19 

•Framing lumber for roof, per M 1 . 60 

Erecting roof, per M 3. 80 

Sawing sheathing, per M 1 . 35 

Roofing: 

Laying roofing paper, per square 12 

Hauling roofing gravel from cars (^ mile), per ton 25 

Placing asphalt and gravel coating, per square 32 

Concrete lining: 

Hauling cement from cars (3^ mile), per ton 54 

Hauling sand from creek bed (2 miles), per yard 86 

Hauling rock (>^ mile from cars), per yd 50 

Laying reinforcing metal on slope, per square 16 

Laying reinforcing m'etal on floor, per square 08 

Pouring concrete piers, per yd *4. 63 

Pouring concrete floor, per yd *2. 51 

Pouring concrete slope, per yd *3. 46 

* Including cost of rock, at $1.60 per ton. All material except sand and gravel 

was furnished by the owner at the Southern Pacific R. R. 3'^ mile distant from 

the work. 

The figures given are based on the following conditions: 
Situation of reservoir, 3^ mile from railroad. 
Formation of soil, light sandy clay. 
Excavators used, wheel and "fresno" scrapers. 
Hours worked a day, 9. 
Wage paid laborers, $2.50 a day. 
Wage paid carpenters, $3.50 a day. 
Wage paid concrete laborers, $2.75 a day. 
Wage paid concrete finishers, $4.50 a day. 
Wage paid foremen, $6 a day. 

Cost of Small Reinforced Concrete Reservoir. — C. A. Bingham in Engi- 
neering and Contracting, April 3, 1912, gives the following costs of construct- 
ing a small concrete reservoir at Mt. Holly, Pa. The reservoir was built in 
1909 by the Cumberland Clay Co. to impound water for various processes 
in the refining of clay. 

The reservoir is 73 ft. long and 53 ft. wide and 5 ft. inside depth, thus holding 
140,000 gals. About 3 ft. of the wall is in cut, which was shale and tough 
clay; and the remainder is above the natural surface. The walls are 6 ft. 
total height, and 12 ins. thick at top and 18 ins. at bottom, with an inside 
heel 12 X 15 ins. Batter is all on the outside. On three sides a fill was made 
to within 18 ins. of top of wall, but on lower side this would have meant an 
excessive cost so buttresses were built every 10 ft. 

The walls were heavily reinforced both horizontally and vertically with light 
rails and other steel on hand and at the corners heavy steel bent to right 
angles was placed on 12-in. centers, the arms running from 3 to 6 ft. into 
each side wall. Keyed expansion joints were used every 30 ft. The floor 
was constructed by a well puddled mixture of clay and gravel and given a 
surfacing of 4 ins. of concrete and cut in blocks. 

A heavy wire fence was placed on top of the wall. The outlets to the 
mills are controlled by valves and the overflow is taken care of by a small 
spillway. After three years of service the reservoir is as good as the day 
completed; the only maintenance being an occasional cleaning of the clay 
sediment on the bottom. It doesn't leak at all and the walls haven't cracked. 

The work was performed by the company forces under plans of the writer; 
and the sand and gravel was procured on the property. The cost data follow: 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 267 

Excavation: 

1 foreman 7 days at $2 $ 14. 00 

7 laborers 7 days at $1.25 up 75. 25 

2 carts 5 days at $3 30. 00 

Total for 300 cu. yds $119. 25 

Cost per cu. yd., excavation, 33 cts. 
Concreting: 

Form work: Carpenter and helper (old lumber used) $ 22. 75 

Mixing and placing: Foreman 7 days and 7 laborers 7 days 75. 25 

186 bbls. cement at $1.35 249. 75 

192 cu. yds. gravel at $0.40 76. 80 

Reinforcing 16. 00 

Total for 144 cu. yds. concrete $440. 55 

Cost per cu. yd., concrete, $3.06. 
Cl^iy floor, fence, miscellaneous (not including pipes or valves) 84. 40 

Total cost $644. 20 

The cost of the reservoir complete per 1,000 gals, was $4.60. 

Cost of Reinforced Concrete Cisterns at Fort Moultrie, Charleston, S. C. — 
R. A. Booth© gives the following in Engineering and Contracting, Aug. 
9. 1911. 

This work consisted of. three 30,000-gal. and four 8,000-gal. capacity 
reinforced concrete cisterns for the War Department at Fort Moultrie, 
Charleston, S. C. 

The large cisterns were 24 ft. in diameter and 10 ft. high inside with a 10-in. 
drain and 10-in. inlet and overflow. They were built with a 12-in. base 
28 ft. 4 ins. in diameter, reinforced in the center with No. 10 expanded metal 
with 6 X 3-in. mesh. The walls were 8 ins. thick and were reinforced with 
^8-in. twisted vertical rods spaced 12 ins. on centers and J-^-in. twisted hori- 
zontal rods spaced 2.4 ins. for the first 2 ft.; 3 ins. for the next 1 ft.; 4 ins. for 
the next 2 ft. ; and 6 ins. for the last 4 ft. The roof was a 10-in. slab, rein- 
forced with >^-in. rods spaced SH ins. centers both ways. 

The small cisterns were 13 ft. in diameter and 10 ft. high inside with an 8-in. 
drain and overflow and 6-in. inlet. They were built with a 12-in. base, 
reinforced the same as the large cisterns. The walls were 8 ins. thick with 
^8 -in. twisted vertical rods, spaced 12 ins. on centers, and >^-in. horizontal 
rods, spaced 4 ins. centers for the first 3 ft. and 6 ins. centers for the remaining 
7 ft. The roof was a O-in. slab reinforced with ^s-in. rods, spaced 4 ins. 
centers both ways. 

Each cistern had an 18 X 24-in. trapdoor in the roof. All concrete was a 
1:2:4 mix, using Pom-Pom gravel and ^^-in. crushed granite. 

The segments for the wall forms were sawed at the mill out of 2 X 12 in. 
long leaf yellow pine. They were sawed to the exact outside diameter and the 
inner parts were trimmed on the job with sharp hatchets to fit the inside 
diameter. There were six segments in each circle for the small cisterns and 
twelve in each circle for the large ones. The circles were spaced 2 ft. centers 
and I'^i in. long leaf yellow pine was used for sheeting. 

On the first cistern that was built, which was a small one, the walls and top 
were built together but it was found to be too hard to remove the forms 
through the small trapdoor, so for the others the forms were built in sections 
extending from the bottom to the top and one segment wide for the inside 
form. After the complete inside drum was built the vertical rods were placed 
and the horizontal rods bent around and fastened to them. Every sixth 



I 



268 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

vertical rod was held in place by a block spacer. The horizontal rods were 
wired to the vertical rods at every other joint, the ties being staggered. 

The outside forms were then placed. These were 2 ft. high and one segment 
wide and were made so that the next section fitted into the one below. As 
soon as one section was filled with concrete the next was placed, three car- 
penters being able to keep up with the concrete gang. All of the segments 
were fastened together at the joints with cleats and were found to be so rigid 
that no braces were necessary. 

After the walls had set the cleats were knocked off and the sections removed. 
On the inside one of the joints was left wide as it was found to be necessary 
to cut out one board before the forms could be removed. The sections were 
then slid out over the top and 2 x 4-in. uprights were placed on the inside, 
these carried the 2 x 6-in. cross pieces on which the floor for the top was laid. 
The cross pieces were spaced 2 ft. centers and the uprights 4 ft. centers while 
the sheeting was the same as that used for the walls. The top was then con- 
creted and after it had set about six days the forms were removed and passed 
out through the trapdoor. 

All of the concrete was mixed by negroes on boards as the cisterns were 
too far apart for a central mixing plant and each one was too small to pay for 
the setting up of a mixer. 

The laborers were paid 15 cts. per hour and worked 8 hours. The carpen- 
ters were also negroes and received 20 cts. per hour with the exception of the 
head carpenter who was a white man and received 30 cts. per hour. There 
were no foremen as the superintendent looked after everything with the 
assistance of a young man who kept the time and account of supplies and 
occasionally acted as gang foreman on excavation. 

The usual routine was to mix and place the base for a small cistern, then 
while the carpenters were erecting the wall forms, mix and place the base for a 
large cistern, then come back and fill the forms on the small one while the 
carpenters were building forms on the large one. 

In placing the walls and top of the small cisterns the concrete was mixed 
on the ground and passed up in buckets by hand as the nature of the surround- 
ings did not allow the use of runways, but in building the large one runways 
were built and the concrete wheeled into place. Although passing the con- 
crete up in buckets was slow it was not a great deal more expensive than 
wheeling. The cost of large cistern was as follows: 

Concreting 
Base: Per 

cu. yd. 

22 laborers 8 nrs. at 15 cts . $26. 40 $1 . 10 

Superintendent 5. 00 0. 12i^ 



Total $31.40 $1. 12>^ 

Walls: 

15 laborers 9 hrs. at 15 cts $23. 15 $1. 21 

Superintendent ; 5. 00 .25 

Total $28. 15 $1.46 

Roof: 

19 laborers 7 hrs. at 15 cts $20. 70 $1. 38 

Superintendent 25. 00 . 33^ 

Total $25.70 $1.71>i 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 269 

Building Forms For Walls 

1 carpenter 62 hrs. at 30 cts $18. 60 

2 carpenters 62 hrs. at 20 cts 24. 80 

2 laborers 39 hrs. at 15 cts ... 11. 70 



$55. 10 
This gives a cost of $.04 per sq. ft. Removing same $4.00, or $.009 per 
sq. ft. 

Building Forms For Roofs 

1 carpenter 18 hrs. at 30 cts $ 5. 40 

2 carpenters 18 hrs. at 20 cts 7. 20 

2 laborers 18 hrs. at 15 cts 5. 40 



$18. 00 
This gives a cost of $.0355 per sq. ft. Removing tl^e forms cost $7.75 or 
$.005 per sq. ft. 

Placing Steel 
Walls: 

Per ft. Per lb. 

8 laborers 8 hrs. at 15 cts $ 9. 60 $0. 0029 $0. 0038 

Superintendent 8. 00 0. 0005 0. 0007 

Total $11.60 $0.0034 $0.0045 

Roof: 

11 laborers 1 hr $1. 65 $0,001 

The cost of two small cisterns was as follows: 

Base Walls Roof 

Concrete, per cu. yd. . $1. 29 $1. 51 $1. 80 

Steel, per lb 0. 005 0. 001 

Forms, per sq. ft 0.037 0.04 

Removing same 0. 005 0. 01 

The costs are higher than they should be on this class of work. This was 
caused by the inexperienced labor and because the work was scattered. 
Also by the engineer insisting on a number of minor details that were unnec- 
essary but caused additional work. 

Cost of Underground Concrete Cisterns. — Cisterns of 75,000 gal. capacity 
were constructed in San Francisco as auxiliary water supply for fire protec- 
tion. There were 85 new cisterns, built beneath the surface at street crossings 
their exact position indicated by a distinctive type of pavement over them. 
A. J. Cleary gives the detailed costs of a typical cistern in Engineering Record, 
July 26, 1913. 

The cisterns were constructed by contract, but very accurate cost data were 
kept by the city's bureau of engineering. Following is a typical cost account 
for constructing the cistern shown in Fig. 8. 

Detail Costs of Concrete Cistern 

General Expense 
Labor Cost: 

Superintendent, 219M hours at 87>^ cents $192. 06 

Timekeeper, 1423^ hours at 31^ cents; 5 hours at 50 cents 47. 03 

Watchman, 652 hours at 31^ cents 203. 75 



Total $442. 84 

Material Cost: 

Telephone $ 28. 50 

Office rent and horse 21 . 00 

10 gal. coal oil at 20 cents 2. 00 



Total $ 51. 50 



270 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Removing Pavement 
Labor Cost: 

Foreman, 15 hours at 43% cents $ 6. 56 

Laborers, 220 hours at 25 cents 55. 00 

Team, 8 hours at 75 cents 6. 00 

• Total . $67. 56 




" Bottom ^ Top 

Fig. 8. — Typical reinforced-concrete cistern. 



Excavation 

Labor Cost: ^^ 

Foreman, 169H liours at 43% cents $ 74. 15 

Foreman, 46>'2 hours at 50 cents 23. 25 

Laborers, 1981 hours at 25 cents 495. 25 

Team, 317M hours at 75 cents 238. 12 

Total S830. 77 

Material Cost: ^ ,^ «« 

Motor rent ^ n" nn 

Electric power Jn nn 

Depreciation on equipment 50. 00. 

Total $ 70.00 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 271 

Lagging 
Labor Cost: 

Foreman, 148 hours at 50 cents $ 74. 00 

Foreman, 55 hours at 43^ cents 24. 06 

Laborers, 7543''2 hours at 25 cents 188. 62 

Laborers, 893^ hours at 313^ cents 279. 29 

Electrician, 77}i hours at 37^ cents 29. 06 

Total $595. 03 

Material Cost: 

4410 ft., 2 X 8 R. P., at 15 cents $ 66. 15 

1 keg nails 3. 00 

Total $ 69. 15 

Pumping 
Labor Cost : 

Foreman, 11 hours at 50 cents $ 5. 

Foreman, 29 hours at 433^ cents 12. 69 

Electrician, 88M hours at 37^ cents 33. 19 

Laborers, 240 hours at 31 ^^ cents 75. 00 

Laborers, 83>^ hours at 25 cents 20. 87 

Total. . $147. 25 

Material Cost: 

73^-hp. motor, 4-in. pump, 105-ft. R. P., at $15 per M $ 1. 60 

100-ft. T. & G., at $20 per M 2. 00 

Motor rent 30. 00 

Electric power 49. 00 

Installation fee 10. 00 

Total $ 92. 60 

Bottom Reinforcing Steel 

Material Cost: 

Housesmiths, 160 hours at 62>^ cents $100. 00 

Labor Cost: 

2038 lb. ^^-in. steel at $0.021 $ 42. 80 

4566 lb. 1-in. steel at $0.021 95. 89 

Ties and spreaders 8. 00 

Total $146. 69 

Side Reinforcing Steel 

Labor Cost: 

Housesmiths, 72 hours at 62>^ cents $ 45. 00 

Material Cost: 

1584 lb. ^-in. steel at $0.021 $ 33. 26 

2529 lb. ^4-in. steel at $0.021 53. 11 

Total $ 86. 37 

Dome Reinforcing Steel 
Labor Cost: 

Housesmiths, 84 hours at 623^^ cents $ 52. 50 

Laborer, 8 hours at 313^ cents 2. 50 

Total $ 55. 00 

Material Cost: 

1623 lb. ^-in. steel at $0.021 $ 34. 09 

1829 lb. ^-in. steel at $0.021 38. 40 

3553 lb. 1-in. steel at $0.021 74. 61 

Ties and spreaders 8. 00 

Total $155. 10 



272 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Bottom Concbete 
Labor Cost: 

Concrete foreman, 8 hours at 75 cents $ 6. 00 

Concrete laborers, 102 hours at 50 cents 51. 00 

Foreman, 8 hours at 50 cents 4. 00 

Laborers, 160 hours at 31>i cents 50. 00 

Teams, 8 hours at 75 cents 6. 00 



Total $117.00 

Material Cost: 

43 yd. rock at $1.40 $ 60. 20 

54 yd. sand at $1.50 8. 10 

60H bbl. cement at $2.45 148. 84 

360 lb. Medusa at 143^ cents 52. 20 

Depreciation on equipment y. . 5. 00 



Total $274. 34 

Side Concrete 

Labor Cost: 

Foreman, 18 hours at 50 cents $ 9. 00 

Carpenters, 3 hours at 50 cents ! 1 . 50 

Laborers, 184 hours at 313^ cents 57. 50 

Teams, 8 hours at 75 cents 6. 00 



Total $ 74. 00 

Material Cost: 

216 sacks cement at 50 cents $108. 00 

300 ft. Medusa at 14>^ cents 43. 50 

33 yd. rock at $1.40 46. 20 

4)4 yd. ocean sand at $1.50 6. 38 

6 yd. city sand at 50 cents 2. 25 



Total $206. 33 

Dome Concrete 
Labor Cost: 

Foreman, 7 hours at 50 cents $ 3. 50 

Laborer, 92 hours at 313^ cents 28. 75 

Concrete foreman, 8 hours at 75 cents 6. 00 

Concrete laborers, 94 hours at 50 cents , 47. 07 

Engineer, 9 hours at 373^ cents 3. 3o 

Team, 14 hours at 75 cents 10. 52 



Total $ 99. 10 

Material Cost: 

2 M. H. covers and intake pipe $ 25. 00 

270 sacks cement at 60 cents 162. 00 

6 yd. ocean sand at $1.50 9. 00 

20 yd. city sand at 50 cents 10. 00 

50 yd. rock sand at $1.40 70. OO 

Total $276. OO 

Summary of Concrete Cistern Cost 

Labor and 

Labor Material material 

General expense ...$442.84 $ 51.50 $494.34 

Removing pavement, basalt blocks on 6-in. 

base 67. 56 67. 56 

Excavation (sand) 830. 77 70. 00 900. 77 

Lagging (2X8 in.) 595. 03 69. 15 664. 18 

Pumping 147. 25 92. 60 239. 85 

Reinforcing steel 200. 00 388, 16 ^88. 16 

Concrete 317. 24 779. 62 1096. 86 

Forms 187. 33 59. 55 246. 88 

Backfill (sand) 47. 06 47. 06 

Pavement and curb 102. 93 75. 50 178. 43 

Catch basin 16. 87 14. 40 31 . 27 

Sidewalk 5. 00 51. 10 56. 10 



Total $2959.88 $1651.58 $4611.46 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 273 

Unit Costs 

Removing pavement 800 sq. ft. $ 0. 084 per sq. ft. 

Excavation sand 690 cu. yds. 1 . 305 per cu. yd. 

Lagging (2X8 in.) 4,410 ft. b. m. 150. 61 per M. 

Reinforcing steel 9. 79 tons 60. 08 per ton 

Concrete 146 cu. yd. 7. 513 per cu. yd. 

Hours of Labor Required on Concrete Cisterns. — The following mis- 
cellaneous costs on the construction of the foregoing reinforced concrete 
cisterns are taken from an article in Engineering and Contracting, March 30, 
1910, by Benjamin Brooks who was employed by the city of San Francisco 
to inspect the work and keep cost data on the erection of the cisterns. 

The mixture was 1 of cement to 5 of broken stone, with enough sand to fill 
the voids, which meant a 1:2^ '^ or a 1:3:5 mixture, according to the run of 
materials and judgment of the engineers. Six pounds of some approved 
water-proof compound was to be mixed dry with each barrel of cement used 
in the sides and bottom (but not in the domes) , and this necessitated at least 
one extra man to mix it with a hoe, measure it into boXes and pass it to the 
man on the mixer platform. On completion of the concrete the bottom 
received a regular sidewalk finish, and the sides and top a brush over with 
grout. 

Cost of Forms. — Cistern A forms cost as follows: 

Man hrs. making per M lumber, 12.4; per sq. ft. surface, .03. 
Man hrs. setting per M lumber, 47.4; per sq. ft. surface, .24. 
Which at $.62^^ per hour is equivalent to: 
Making $7.75 per M, or $.02 per sq. ft. surface. 
Setting, 29.62 per M, or $.15 per sq. ft. surface. 

On cistern B, forms already made for another cistern were used and cost 
for placing and removing as follows: 

Per 
sq. ft. 

Man hrs. at $.62>^ placing 17.25 per M 069 

Man hrs. at $.28 placing 12.25 per M 049 

Man hrs. at $.28 removing 12.75 per. M 014 

which is equal to: 

Placing forms $14. 21 per M or $. 057 per sq. ft. 

Removing forms 3. 57 per M or . 014 per sq. ft. 

Total $17. 78 per M or $. 071 per sq ft. 

For cistern C, wall forms were already made for another cistern and required 
only a little patching. 

Patching and placing required 44 man hours at 25 cts. plus 73 man hours 
at 62^ cts., which equals 4>^ cts. per sq. ft., including the placing of chutes. 

Removing forms and clearing cistern required 61 man hours at 25 cts. and 
21 man hours at 62>^ cts., which equals 2.8 cts. per sq. ft. 

For cistern D, wall forms were already made and required for — 

Placing (125 man hrs. at 623^c, 20 man hrs. at 25c) equals $22.46 per M, or 
llKoC persq. ft. 

Removing (12 man hrs. at 62>^c, 37 man hrs. at 25c) equals 13'^c per sq. ft. 

Cost of Reinforcing Bars per Ton, Cistern A. — To bend and place 1 In., 
^ in. and ^i in. twisted square bars required 38 man hours per ton, which at 
62H cts. = $23.75. 

Cistern B. — Bending and placing 1 in., % in. and H in. bars required 62 
man hours per ton at 62H cts. = $32.50 per ton. 
18 



274 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cistern C. — Reinforcing bars required 413'^ man hours per ton to bend and 
place, which at 62>^ cts. = $25.83. 

Cost of Concrete, Cistern A. — Concrete was mixed about l:2}i:5 in a Chi- 
cago Improved cube mixer, turning out about 7 cu. yds. per hour with a 
trained crew, and was wheeled and dumped in concrete "buggies." . For the 
bottom of the cistern the man hours per yard required v/ere: 

Chutes and runways 

Measuring and wheeling materials 0. 96 

Mixing 13 

Wheeling and chuting concrete 41 

Placing and tamping 27 

Total 1. 77 

which at 50 cts. per hour = 88>^ cts. per cu. yd. 

Pumping during excavation, lagging, concreting, etc., cost as follows: 

162 man hours (exclusive of night watchman), 0.27 man hours per yard of 
excavation at 28 cts. = 7}i cts. per cu. yd. 

Cistern B. — Concrete handled by same outfit and crew as for Cistern A 
cost as follows: 

Man hrs 

For the bottom: per yd. 

Wheeling and measuring materials 1. 16 

Mixing materials 17 

Wheeling and chuting concrete 45 

Placing and tamping concrete 35 

Total counting delays* 2. 13 

Total actual running 1 . 80 

which at $.50 = $1.06 or $.90 per yd., not counting superintendence. 
. * Ran out of materials. 

Man hrs. 
For the walls :^ per yd. 

Wheeling and measuring materials 82 

Mixing concrete 13 

Wheeling and chuting concrete 37 

Placing and tamping 37 

Total. , 1. 66 

Which at $.50 per man hour equals $.95 per yd. exclusive of superintendence. 

Cistern C. — Concrete for the bottom and sides was mixed in a Smith mixer 
2 cu. ft. of cement to the batch and run directly from mixer through portable 
chutes to the bottom, but wheeled in buggies to the side walls. The crew was 
untrained and poorly managed. The cost was as follows: 

Man hrs. 
per cu. yd. 

Wheeling and measuring materials 1. 55 

Mixing materials .30 

Wheeling and chuting concrete .42 

Placing concrete .60 

Installing mixer .74 

Total 3. 61 

Which at 28c equals $1.01, including foreman. 

Plastering bottom required 24.6 man hours at 75 cts., which gaVe a cost of 
2^0 cts. per sq. ft. 

Brushing the sides required 11 man hours at 25 cts. which gave a cost of 
Ko cts. per sq. ft. 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 275 

Cistern D. — Concrete for the bottom was handled as in Cistern C except 
that on account of a breakdown 44 cu. yds. were machine mixed and S cu. 
yds. were hand mixed, first the cement and sand dry and wet, then the grout 
and the rock being turned three times. For the machine mixing the costs 
were: 

Per 
cu. yd. 

Wheeling and measuring materials, 1.50 man hrs. at 28c $0. 420 

Mixing materials, .32 man hrs. at 28c 089 

Chuting and placing concrete, .74 man hrs. at 28c 207 

Building chutes, .55 man hrs. at 623'^c 344 

Setting mixer, .34 man hrs. at 45c 153 

Total $1. 213 

For the hand mixing the costs were: 

Per 
cu. yd. 

Wheeling and measuring materials, 1.50 man hrs. at 28c $0. 42 

Mixing materials, 5.12 man hrs. at 28c 1. 43 

Placing concrete, 1.25 man hrs. at 28c .35 

Building chutes, 1.38 man hrs. at 45c .62 

Total $2. 82 

Concrete for the walls cost as follows : 

Man hrs. 
per yd. 

Wheeling and measuring materials 1 . 97 

Mixing materials 26 

Wheeling and chuting concrete 65 

Placing concrete ' 62 

Setting mixer 49 

Total 4. 00 

This gives 4 hrs. X 28 cts. = $1.12 per cu. yd. 
Concrete for the dome cost as follows: 

Man hrs. 
per yd. 

Wheeling and measuring materials 1 . 02 

Mixing materials 23 

Wheeling concrete '. . . .47 

Placing concrete 32 

Setting mixer * 1 . 02 

Total 3. 059 

* This item seems very high, but often included carting the mixer back and 
forth from one cistern to another. It could have been reduced by better 
management. 

This gives 3,069 X 28 cts. = 80.85>^ cts. per cu. yd. 

Finishing the floor with >^ in. of sidewalk finish required 21 man hours at 
75 cts. and 8 man hours at 25 cts. = $17.75, or 2>^ cts. per sq. ft. 

In the above data, costs of getting materials on the jobs are not considered 
1 nor is superintendence except in cases where it is specially mentioned. 

Cost of Concrete Reservoirs at Brockton, Mass. — Two 4,000,000 gal. 
i reservoirs were constructed in 1911. Charles R. Felton, in the Water Com- 
missioners Annual Report gave the essential features of the design with some 
notes on their construction and cost. The following is taken from an abstract 
of Mr. Felton's report published in Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 
4, 1912. 



276 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Design. — The reservoirs are of concrete, reinforced with plain round bars, 
except for a few twisted bars where the sides and bottom join. The concrete 
is of very rich mixture, to render it impermeable, the bottom courses being 
1 cement, 1 sand, and 2 stone, to a height of 10 ft., with a lil^-^iS mixture 
above this point ; both mixtures containing hydrated lime in the proportion of 
5 per cent of the cement by weight. The walls are 30 ins. thick at the bottom 
and 15 ins. at the coping course, which is 19 inches square. 

The floor layer consists of two courses of concrete, 6 ins. thick; the lower 
one of 1:2:4 concrete, and the upper one of 1:1>^:3 concrete, reinforced with 
^'^-in. bars 1 ft. apart in both directions. The horizontal reim'orcement 
consists of plain round bars from m ins. in diameter at the bottom to ^i in. in 
the coping. 

The maximum strain upon the metal, considering the stresses as applied 
to a cyhnder 160 ft. in diameter, are 13,000 lbs. per sq. in.,with the reservoir 
overflowing; or 12,000 lbs. at the proposed high water mark, 18 ins. below the 
top. 

Vertical, square twisted rods, J4 in. in diameter and 1 ft. apart were intro- 
duced into the foundation and also bent into the floor. These rods were 
extended to the top of the reservoir, but spaced 2 ft. apart after the first three 
courses. The bottom was also connected with the foundation by J^i-in. 
twisted rods. 

Sand and gravel were obtained from a large hill three miles distant from the 
location, and were very expensive, both on account of the length of haul and 
the large amount of material handled to get stone, about }^ of the total being 
stone of the required size, viz.: That which would pass a l>^-in. screen. 
The screen was of the revolving type, run by a gasoline engine, and under 
ordinary conditions would pass about 175 cu. yds. of material in eight hours. 
The resulting product was excellently graded. 

The greatest care was taken to make the concrete impermeable, an entire 
course being run when once started. These courses were 30 ins. in height, 
except the bottom one, which was 36 ins. and contained about 110 cu. yds. 
No departure from this plan was found necessary, the concrete being placed 
continuously in courses 6 ins. thick, from three and one-half to six hours being 
consumed on a 30-in. course. After the concrete had partially set, usually 
in about 7 hours, it was thoroughly scraped with wire brushes and kept wet 
until the next course was ready, usually covered with wet bagging and care- 
fully swept just before placing. 

A steel dam, 4 ins. by H in., was imbedded 2 ins. deep in the top of each 
course, and about 1 ft. from the inside of the reservoir. This dam was 
lapped and bolted with five ^-in. bolts, and figured in the design for its 
full tensile value as metal. In addition to the dam a triangular groove about 
1.5 in. deep was placed in the top of each course. Before beginning a new 
course the joint was washed with neat cement grout. 

No waterproofing or brushing of the surface was required or allowed, and 
less than a quart of cement was required to remedy any defects of appearance. 

Construction Plant. — The plant consisted of an elevated tank of 5,000 gals, 
capacity, into which water was pumped by gasoline engine a distance of 
about 1,300 ft. Two Smith concrete mixers, set at an elevation corresponding 
substantially in level to the top of the reservoirs and operated by 15-h.p. 
electric motors. The mixers were fitted with side charging apparatus, and 
the material elevated to the mixers. 

The concrete was placed, usually, at the rate of from 24 to 30 cu. yds. per 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 277 

hour with ordinary wheelbarrows, the greatest care being talcen to have the 
material thoroughly tamped. 

Cost. — The labor was all paid at the city rate of $2.50 per day of eight hours; 
carpenters $4.80 per day; foreman $5.00 per day; masons $0.72 per hour; 
teams $5.50 per day of eight hours. One of the greatest obstacles in accom- 
plishing work of this character economically is the difficulty of employing all 
the labor to advantage between pourings, especially when it is necessary to 
conform to the present drastic eight-hour laws. 

The total cost of the reservoirs exclusive of the engineering was almost 
exactly $80,000, or about one cent per gallon. The cost of the engineering 
and inspection, not including Mr. Felton's time, was about $2,200. 

Labor Costs of Reinforced Concrete Tanks for Storage of Storm Water. — 
W. G. Cameron, in Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 26, 1916, gives the 
unit-time data for constructing the temporary storage tanks at Toronto, Ont., 
shown in Fig. 9. 

Design. — I'he tanks are rectangular In shape, and approximately 104 
ft. X 112 ft. On the north side, there is a channel 3.5 ft. deep for the Bloor 
west sewer, separated from the tanks by a weir. On the east side, there is a 
section 4 ft. deep, separated from the tanks by a weir, and from the storm 
water outlet by another weir. Into the north end of this section the storm 
water from the Keele St. sewer flows. The bottom of this section is graded 
back towards the north end and a gate valve is provided which can be opened 
to allow the section to drain into the storm water outlet. The tanks proper 
are divided into three parts, 173'^ ft. deep, by two weirs. These three divi- 
sions are graded towards the east side, where they drain into an open 18-in. 
sludge channel, which runs south along the inner side of the east wall and into 
the 18-in. tile sewer under the storm water outlet. A gate valve is provided at 
the end of the sludge channel at the south wall. 

Eight rows of columns were used in the tanks for the support of the roof. 
These columns were 18 in. square in section, 12 ft. apart center to center in the 
rows and 12-ft. centers between the rows. Two rows of columns were in each 
tank, and one was used as support for each of the two dividing weirs. The 
tanks were built of all reinforced 1:2:4 concrete. The walls were 12 ins. 
wide at the top, while the sides had a batter 1 in 7.6. The width at the 
bottom varied as the height. There was a footing provided 2 ft. deep and 12 
ft. 6 in. wide. The reinforcing for the walls was 1-in. square twisted rods 
on the outside and 0.30 sq. in. mesh on the inside. The columns were rein- 
forced with V/i sq. in. twisted rods, 2 ft. 6 in. long, as dowels into the footing, 
one IH sq. in. rod in each corner, the full height of the column, and Ys in. 
round hoops, spaced vertically 12 in. apart. The roof slab was 6 in. thick, 
reinforced with 0.5 sq. in. mesh. 

The girders and beams for the support of the roof slab were 24 in. X 16 in. 
and 21 in. X 16 in, respectively. They were reinforced with 1 sq. in. twisted 
rods and H in. square twisted rods, respectively. The weir walls between the 
tanks were 8^ ft. high, 9 in. wide at the top, and 18 in. wide at the bottom, 
reinforced with ^ sq. in. bars. 

Construction. — The ground on which the tanks were built was composed of 
sand on the surface, which, in small areas, formed pockets. The subsoil was 
hard, blue clay. Trenches were excavated by hand for the west wall and the 
western third of the north wall. This part was built first because the ground 
was low at this side. When these walls were built, and the concrete suffi- 
ciently hardened, they were used as a retaining wall for the next material 



278 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



excavated. This material was taken from inside the hnes of the future tanks 
and next the west wall. Enough material was taken out to allow for the 
erection of a portion of the tanks on the west side. This portion was com- 






-5'-0"x6'-6" 
Concrete Culvert 




South 



^l8'Vit.Pipe i5''Vifpm 
underlarge Overflow 
sewer ^^^ jgyif p sewer-' 

Existing 3' OX/rcular-^:::::::::""^^'-^^ 



Concrete Sewer 



"Manhole'% 



Existing Z-6'x5-9''Eqg shaped sewer--'' ' 
Plan showing Inlets, Etc. 



,/irVit Pipe Overflow 

iMExisting Culvert torn 
w m ^..j.fQ Q^fsicfe of tank- 
Manhole No. 2' 
X 

^ %^0 

'^Manhole No.'6 
rv. Manhole No. 4 
\ Wew Z'0"x Z-Z" Sewer 
rd ^'"<S^ew Z4" Vit Pipe Sewer 
'''New }4' Vit Pipe Sewer 



Keele S t 

Present Ground Level 




. ^'-Qlass'A 
''■EI8I.0 ''-El 81 25 



i,- Class k 2l"A . 



m Datum 80'-^ E1.81I5-..- 




Section EE 



E180.0 



Class 0> -Present Grieve! 




EI.80.0-- 



Datum 75'-!. 



KTlJfr 



Section LL 

Fig. 9. — Plan and principal sections of reinforced concrete tanks for the 
temporary storage of storm water, Toronto, Ont. 

pleted floor, columns, weirs and roof and allowed to harden. The next 
material excavated was then deposited on the roof of this finished portion. 
Thus the excavation and construction proceeded alternately from the west. 
A clam shell was used for excavating in the body of the tanks, but the clay was 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 279 

so hard that the most of it had to be loosened with picks before it could be 
gathered up by the clam. 

The concrete was all mixed by a drum mixer very conveniently placed at the 
top of the bank on Keele St. The concrete was dumped into a chute which 
carried it down the bank to a funnel-shaped box. This box was provided 
with a slot which slid up and down so that concrete could be taken away in any 
quantity desired. The concrete was carried in concrete barrows along 
runways so built that they might easily be taken down and erected quickly 
again wherever they were required. The forms used for the concrete were all 
of the panel type. They were built near the work and the same sections 
used several times. They were made before the work was begun and grouped 
according to size, so that when they were needed they could easily be found 
and quickly erected. They were fastened together with bolts. 

When the work on the tanks was completed the soil which had been exca- 
vated, and soil brought from other work, was spread over the top of the tanks 
to a depth of 4 ft. The bank on Keele St. was extended and neatly graded, 
and an easy slope was made from Bloor St. The ground over the tanks and 
the slopes will probably be sodded and planted, and possibly tennis courts, 
etc., arranged on it, making in all a very great improvement to this corner 
of High Park. 

Unit Time Data. — The time-costs, in hours' labor on this work, as kept by 
S. K. Ireland, resident engineer, are as follows: 

Excai^ation. — 7,000 cu. yd., 10,472 hours, or 1.496 hours per cubic yard. 

Placing Steel. — 102 tons, 1,471 hours, or 14.4 hours per ton (85 tons of this 
were bars and 17 tons mesh) . 

Building and Erecting Forms.-^52,899 sq. ft. took 8,452 hours, or 0.159 
hours per square foot. 

Removing Forms. — 0.0202 hours per square foot. 

Mixing and Placing Concrete. — 2,522 cu. yds. took 6,394 hours, or 2.53 
hours per square yard. « 

Foreman, 1,658 hours; engineer, 1,098 hours; fireman, 1,133 hours; team, 
107 hours: single horse, 451 hours. 

Cost of Lining a Reservoir with Gunite. — E. Court Eaton gives the cost of 
lining a small "balancing reservoir" in Engineering News-llecord, July 
24, 1919. 

The reservoir with a depth of about 9 ft. covered about two acres and was 
used to store a surplus of water during part of the day and supply the shortage 
during the balance. Due to the fact that the reservoir was necessarily con- 
fined to a certain area close to an old stream bed and the reservoir was exca- 
vated in a gravel deposit the seepage amounted to two to three acre-feet 
per day. 

It was decided to line this reservoir with a gunite lining. The total area 
to be lined was 114,000 sq. ft., and specifications called for a gunite lining 1 in. 
in thickness, with a mix of one part of cement to 5>^ parts of sand; no lime 
was used in the mixture. The lining was reinforced with galvanized poultry 
netting, l>^-in. mesh. No. 19-gage wire, placed in the center of the concrete 
to confine cracks due to expansion to hair cracks, and no expansion joints 
were used. 

This work was let by contract at a price of lO^^c. per square foot, including 
the trimming and preparation of the banks. Work was commenced Jan. 14, 
1919, and completed Mar. 19. Because the work had to be done during the 
winter months the actual number of working days in this time was only 39. 



280 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The cement gun used was what is known as the N2 size. It was kept on the 
upper bank of the canal at a maximum distance of 600 ft. from the compressor, 
to which it was connected with a 2-in. iron pipe. The compressor was of the 
portable type, direct-connected to a semi-Diesel type of engine; it was 12 X 12 
in. and ran at a speed of 300 r.p.m. A pressure of 42 lb. per square inch was 
maintained at the compressor, giving about 32 lb. at the gun. A 2-in. rubber 
hose 200 ft. in length was used from the gun to the nozzle, and the rubber 
tips in these nozzles lasted nearly one week before requiring replacement. 
The depreciation on the hose for the period of the job was $200. 

In lining the 114,000 sq. ft., 2904 sacks of cement were used, or nearly 39 
sq. ft. of lining per sack of cement. The average rate of progress throughout 
the work was 2900 sq. ft. per working day. The maximum day's run was 
about 5000 sq. ft., though better average progress would have been made in the 
dry season, as the principal delays were due to wet sand clogging in the hose 
and necessitating frequent cleaning out of the machine. A certain amount of 
moisture is necessary in the sand for this class of work, and the best results 
were obtained when sufficient water was present so that the sand just failed 
to hold its shape when squeezed in the hand. 

The total quantity of sand used on the work was 600 tons, and the total 
cost of sand per ton was as follows: 

Per ton 

Loading charge at sand pit $0. 30 

Freight .60 

Unloading .12 

Hauling to site 1 . 50 

Total $2. 52 

The hauling over the wet roads a distance of two miles was the biggest 
item. The weight of a cubic yard of sand, which was wet, was 2500 pounds. 

The cement was $3.45 per barrel delivered at the site, after an allowance 
of $1 per barrel was made for sacks. The poultry netting delivered at the 
site cost $1.17 per 100 square feet. 

The construction crew employed was as follows : 

Per day 

1 Compressor engineer $ 7. 00 

1 Nozzleman , 5. 00 

1 Man placing wire 5. 00 

2 Mixers at $4 8. 00 

1 Man loadaing gun 4 . 00 

1 Nozzlemn helper 4. 00 

1 Gun operator 4.00 

1 Man cleaning oflf rebound 4. 00 

Total payroll $41. 00 

One man was kept continuously close to the nozzleman, his duties being to 
brush back the rebound at the junction of new and old work and to raise the 
reinforcement by means of a hook to insure its being placed in the center of 
the lining. 

The fuel used consisted of a fuel oil having a gravity of 27 f . Ten drums 
of this oil of 104-gal. capacity per drum were used. The cost of the oil was 
$6.55 per drum, delivered to site. The loss by rebound in percentage of the 
sand used was 8H ; this was not wasted, however, as it was collected, screened 
and used over again with good results, except that only 30 sq. ft. of lining 
per sack of cement, or 23% less than with new sand, could be gotten when 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 281 

rebound was used, due to the material being coarse and requiring more 
cement to fill the voids. 

Particular attention was paid to the curing, by sprinkling, of the newly- 
completed lining for a period of two days, and up to this time no cracks other 
than fine hair cracks have developed. 

Costs of Grouting Dam Foundations. — Engineering and Contracting, 
Aug. 19, 1914, pubUshes the following comparison of the costs of grouting 
the foundations of the Estacada and Lahontan Dams given by S. H. Rippey 
in Proc. Am. Soc. of C. E. Vol. XL. 

Table XI. — Cost op Drilling and Grouting at Estacada and Lahontan 
Dams, per Linear Foot of Completed Work 

— Estacada Dam — Lahontan 



Labor and materials 

Labor, drilling 

Labor, grouting 

Cement 


Fisher 

$0. 58 

0.18 

0. 12 


Rands 

$0.59 

0.18 

0.12 

0.17 

6! 15 


Dam 
Cole 
$0.93 
0.29 
0.31 


Repairs and supplies 


0.17 


0.23 


Plant 


0. 30 




Plant depreciation 




0.35 


Power . 


0.05 


0.03 


Other items 




0.94 



$1.40 

Salvage on plant, credit 0. 17 

Direct cost $1.23 $1.21 

Total field cost $3. 08 

General plant, etc 0. 32 0. 45 0. 12 

Coffers and pumping 0.15 

Engineering and superintendence 0. 19 0. 27 

Clerical and office 0. 10 



Total cost per foot $1 . 55 $2. 00 $3. 57 

In regard to the grouting of the Lahontan Dam, D. W. Cole in Engineering 
News, April 3, 1913, states that: 

Drills were worked continuously in 8-hr. shifts, thus employing six crews 
of two men each for operating the drills, with one daylight crew of two to four 
men for grouting and testing. 

Drillrunners were selected mainly from the men of good mechanical bent 
available on the job, with one or two importations of experts who had been 
previously trained. Runners were paid 40c., and helpers 30c. per hr. 

Daily bulletins were posted showing output of the several crews and thus a 
wholesome rivalry was developed. 

The maximum depth diilled by one machine in 8 hr. was 19 ft., in rather 
soft material. The average 8-hr. penetration of a drill was only 6 ft. Omit- 
ting the earlier period of work, which was largely experimental, the average 
performance of each 8-hr. shift was about 7 ft. of hole. 

Air pressure of 25 lb. was employed for first batches, as higher pressures 
sometimes resulted in appearance of air bubbles and even cement color rising 
from the bed of the river at some distance from the boring; and violent 
displacement of the formation was not desired. 

As the grouting advanced the later batches were driven in at a higher pres- 
sure, gradually increasing to 100 lb. per sq. in. at the finish of each hole. 

In some of the tighter holes the extreme pressure was required for an hour 
or more to drive home the grout, but ordinarily the flow of grout was nearly 



282 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

continuous and as fast as the alternating process with the double-cylinder 
machine could be performed. 

Costs of Groined Arch Roof for Minneapolis Reservoir. — W. N. Jones in 
Engineering Record, April 19, 1913, gives the methods and construction 
costs of covering with groined arch vaulting the clear water basin of the 
Minneapolis filter plant. The reservoir is 877.5 ft. long, 413.5 ft. wide and 
from 21 to 23 ft. deep. Very careful detailed costs were recorded with a 
view of securing not only the cost of the woik but also an index of the effi- 
ciency of the labor employed. The following is taken from Mr. Jones article. 

Equipment. — The quantity of equipment used has been very small and of 
the simplest type. No complicated machinery of any kind was employed 
on the work, and when the site was visited by a i)rominent engineer of Chicago, 
he said, "The thing that appeals to me most is the lack of elaborate equip- 
ment, such as expensive towers, cable-ways, etc." In fact, about all the 
machinery used outside of hand tools and a small woodworking shop for use in 
turning out forms, was a l>^-cu. yd. concrete mixer, six IM-cu. yd. side- 
dump cars, about 1500 ft. of 24-in. gage track, and a traveling crane designed 
by the writer for the special use of handling groined arch forms. This crane 
cost about $500 complete. 

For hauling earth, etc., common dump wagons of l^-cu. yd. capacity were 
used. All earth was handled by hand, both in loading and spreading. These 
wagons were not claimed to be conducive to economy, nor was the handling 
of the earth by hand, but the prime consideration was the employment of as 
many citizens and teams as it was possible to employ and still do the work at a 
reasonable cost. 

Construction. — The groined arch concrete vaulting over the reservoir 
was supported by concrete pedestals and piers spaced 18-ft. centers. Over 
the roof a 2-ft. covering of earth was deposited. The pedestals were 6.5 ft. 
square at the base, 3.5 ft. high and each contained 2.85 cu. yd. The pedestal 
forms cost about $6 each for labor and material and each was used ten times 
on the average. 

The rates paid for labor employed on the work were as follows: 

Occupation Time, days Rate 

Foremen $4 & $5 

Assistant foremen 22 3^^ 3. 00 

Timekeepers 3 4. 50 

Steam engineers 9% 4. 00 

Watchmen 2H 2. 25 

Handy men 190^^ 2. 40 

Carpenters 24^ 3. 00 

Millwrights 3% 3. 00 

Blacksmiths 2% 3. 00 

Concrete men 9}4 3. 25 

Waterboys 7^8 1-25 

Teams 56^^ 4. 72 

Single horses 6+ 3. 00 

Laborers 73SH 2. 25 

Table XII gives the cost in detail of all the most important items entering 
into the construction of the groined arch covering of the clear water basin 
during the season of 1911. The figures for 1910 are omitted, as it was found 
upon investigation that a number of reports had been lost. Items which were 
peculiar to this piece of work or were too small to classify are omitted also, 
as they are of no great consequence in the total cost or desirable for com- 
parisons with similar work elsewhere. 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 283 

Table XII. — Classified Unit Costs foe Covering Clear Water Basin 

Unit Total 

Type of work Quantity cost cost 

Concrete 11,475 cu. yd. $0,967 $11,080.82 

Making groined arch forms 39 , 595 sq. ft. 0. 057 2 , 243.*45 

Setting groin forms and braces 348,954 sq. ft. 0. 020 6,867. 01 

Dropping forms 330,541 sq. ft. 0.017 5,761.13 

Transporting forms to derrick 298 , 344 sq. ft. 0. 005 1 , 590. 89 

Hauling forms from yard 83,841 sq. ft. 0. 008 658. 34 

Building column forms 7,120 sq.ft. 0.017 121.75 

Setting and wrecking column forms. . . 102,566 sq. ft. 0. 056 5,690. 85 

Setting and wrecking 4 X 6-in. posts . . 3 , 382 units 0. 485 1 , 639. 55 

Setting and wrecking column supports. 810 units 0. 747 605. 85 

Making manhole forms 350 sq. ft. 0. 163 57. 03 

Tearing up forms 492 ft. b.m. 0. 602 295. 00 

Oiling, repairing and notching forms.. 23,210 sq. ft. 0.034 704. 67 

Cutting stringers 861 units 0. 053 45. 60 

Earth cover (1,000 to 2,000 ft. haul) ... 37,024 cu. yd. 0. 478 17,714. 30 

Pointing up rough arches 176. 90 

The estimated cost of the work complete was $135,000. While the actual 
construction cost, including materials, was within $2000 of this amount, 
the actual costs cannot be exactly determined on account of lumber, etc., 
being used on the filter plant proper, and no credit being given the clear water 
basin for it, and also on account of the joint use of machinery, etc. 

Cost of Wooden Form Work for Groined Arch Reservoir and Conduits, 
Pittsburgh Filtration Works. — The following data are from a paper by 
J. D. Stevenson read before the Society of Western Engineers, published 
in the Oct., 1910, Proceedings, and reprinted in Engineering and Contract- 
ing, Dec. 14, 1910. 

Description of Piers. — Fig. 10 shows the form work for a 21.5 ft. circular 
pier 27 ins. in diameter, being one of 720 piers supporting the roof of the 
reservoir. The sketch is fully dimensioned. The forms are in three sections 
each 7 ft. 2 ins. long, each section consists of two semi circular pieces of No. 16 
galvanized steel, flanged on the vertical edge, the flanges of the two halves 
being bolted together between two pieces of 2 X 4-in. lumber. The sections 
are clamped at top, bottom and middle point by a wooden collar made in four 
pieces and held by bolts. 

The pier forms contain 488 ft. of lumber and 688 sq. ft. of metal. The brac- 
ing contained 507 ft. of lumber. The cost as compiled by the writer for form 
work on four piers, 12.68 cu. yds. is given in Table XIII. This is an average 
from a number of observations taken at random and extending over a period 
of 8 months. 

Table XIII. — Cost of Forms for Piers Supporting Ground Arch Reser- 
voir Roof; Total 12.68 Cu. Yds. of Concrete in Four Piers 

Per 
Item Total cu. yd. 

Stripping, 13 hrs. carpenter at 25 cts S 3. 25 $0. 27 

Cleaning, 15 hrs. labor at 15 cts 2. 25 0.18 

Making: 

15 hrs. carpenter at 30 cts $ 4. 50 

15 hrs. labor at 15 cts 2.20 

Total $ 6. 75 $0. 53 

Setting: 

^i hr. carpenter at 30 cts $ 0. 23 

IH hr. laborer at 15 cts 0. 19 

34 hr. cableway at 50 cts 0. 12 

Total $0.54 $0.04 

Plumbing and bracing, 15 hrs. carp, at 30 cts 4 . 50 0. 35 

Grand total $17. 29 $1.37 



284 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Barrel Arch. — Fig. 10 shows the design of what was known as the barrel arch 
form. This form was for that portion of the wall from the springing line of 
the arch to the center of the first bay. The inside shape was a quarter of a 
12 ft. circle and the outside an arc of a 15 ft. circle. These forms caused 
more trouble than any others on the reservoir. The inside was built in three 
equal sections, each 9 ft. long and 5 ft. 10 ins. wide on the chord. The ribs, 
2 X 12 ins., were placed on 21-in. centers and lagging was 1 X 3 in., southern 
pine, tongue and grooved and dressed on both sides. 

The outside forms were built in three sections, the first section being 3 ft. 
of the wall form which was left wired to the wall when removing the back wall 




Fig. 10, — Forms for filtered water reservoir showing in elevation piers, walls and 
groined ar.ch vaulting. 



form; this gave a solid base upon which to build. The second was placed 
before filling and fastened to the inner form by wires and wooden interior 
struts and held on the outside by an out rigging extending up from the wall. 
The third was placed after the filling had reached the top of the second form 
and was wired to the inner form. 

The remainder of the arch or a little over one-third of it was screeded, no 
form being useded on the outside. 

Some trouble developed after the third using and was entirely due to the 
manner of removal. The bracing extending from the top to bottom, shown 
in Fig. 10, was not removed and the forms were not taken down in three 
sections, but the entire form was removed at one time. The method of 
removing was to hitch a set of falls to one of the upper corners to break the 
bonds and at times twelve men broke the rope before the form left the con- 
crete. It was not uncommon to pull off several ribs in an attempt to break 
this bond. The result was that this pulling greatly distorted the form. This 
first showed up in the inability to make a good joint between forms and finally 
necessitated rebuilding the forms. The trouble could have been eliminated 
by removing the forms in three pieces rather than in one. The barrel arches 
on the filters were similar, but one-half the length. On these there was no 
particular trouble. 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 285 

The barrel arch in filtered water reservoir contained 0.92H cu. yd. per 
running foot and the units placed were 36 ft. long or 33>i cu. yds. The cost 
of forms is given in Table XIV. 

The cost is an average from a number of observations made by the writer. 
The cost of hauling out is rather high and unusual, the forms, however, were 
of 9,wkward shape and very large, and had to be hauled on a truck by hand a 
distance as great as 300 ft. The floor over which they were hauled consisted 
of inverted groins with piers every 18 ft. The trimming and trueing at 58 cts. 
a yard is due to the trouble previously explained. 

Table XIV. — Cost op Forms fob Barbel Abch Filtebed Wateb Resebvoib, 

PlTTSBUBQ, Pa. 

Fabrication at mill: Total Per cu. yd. 

240 hrs. at 35 cts $84. 00* $0. 31 

Taking Down: 

1 foreman 2 hrs. at 30 cts 0. 60 

9 laborers 18 hrs. at 20 cts 3. 60 

Total $4.20 $0.13 

Hauling Out: 

1 foreman IK hrs. at 30 cts $ 0. 40 

12 laborers 16 hrs. at 20 cts 3. 20 

Total $3.60 $0.11 

Cleaning and Repairs: 

1 foreman 5 hrs. at 35 cts $ 1 . 75 

4 carpenters 20 hrs. at 30 cts 6. 00 

2 helpers 10 hrs. at 20 cts 2. 00 

Total $9.75 $0.30 

Placing : 

Cableway >^ hr. at $2 $ 0. 66 

1 foreman 3^^ hr. at 40 cts 0,13 

3 carpenters 1 hr. at 35 cts 0. 35 

5 laborers 1% hrs. at 15 cts 0. 25 

Total $ 1. 39 $0. 04 

Trimming and Trueing: 

1 foreman 10 hrs. at 35 cts $ 3. 50 

4 carpenters 40 hrs. at 30 cts 12. 00 

2 helpers 20 hrs, at 20 cts 4. 00 

Total $19. 50 $0. 58 

Grand total. $48. 94 $1. 47 

* Used 8 times. 

Walls. — The wall forms shown in Fig. 10, are in accordance with the general 
practice in such work. All forms were made in 9-ft. sections and from top to 
bottom in one unit. The method for preventing the forms from raising is 
shown in the illustration and consisted of hooks set in the first layer of con- 
crete and wires tying the forms to these hooks. 

The forms were used on an average of 10 times and the only repairs made 
were a board now and then, where the bar in removing had splintered or 
broken the forms. The edges of the forms become more or less frayed and 
this was cared for by a metal strip tacked over the joint. This practice was 
permissible in this work as the face would not be exposed. In finished 
surfaces it should never be used, as the metal leaves a surface entirely different 
from the wood and very readily noticed. 



286 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The regular wall in the reservoir contained 2.33H cu. yds. per running foot 
and as a rule the wall was built in 36-ft. sections or 84 cu. yds. This amount 
varied within a yard as the point where the wall ceased and the barrel started 
was not closely defined. The cost of forms is given in Table XV. This 
cost is a weighted average as in this work there was a great amount of variance. 
Often the cable way was used in removing forms and the cost cut down, then 
again the forms would be in bad shape and require much repairing. As an 
example, on the 

21st wall forms cost $0. 73 per cu. yd. 

23rd wall forms cost 53 per cu. yd. 

24th wall forms cost 55 per cu. yd. 

25th wall forms cost 42 per cu. yd. 

26th wall forms cost 49 per cu. yd. 

Table XV. — Cost of Wall Fobms, Filtered Water Reservoir, Pittsburg, 

Pa. 
Fabrication in Mill: Total Per cu. yd. 

110 hrs. carpenters at 35 cts $38. 50* $0. 038 

Taking Down: 

1 foreman 10 hrs. at 35 cts $ 3. 50 

2 carpenters 20 hrs. at 30 cts 6. 00 

4 laborers 40 hrs. at 20 cts 8. 00 

Total $17. 50 $0. 208 

Setting Up : 

1 foreman 10 hrs. at 35 cts $ 3. 50 

6 carpenters 60 hrs. at 30 cts 18. 00 

4 helpers 40 hrs. at 20 cts 8. 00 

Total $29. 50 $0. 350 

t Grand total $50. 20 $0. 596 

JThis does not include cost of material. * Used 12 times. 

Groined Arch Forms. — Fig. 10 shows groined arch forms in elevation. 
Each pier top was molded on forms built in four triangular sections, the joints 
between sections being on centers of arches and on diagonal lines between 
piers. The ribs were 2-in. white pine placed on the diagonal line and on 2-ft. 
centers between the diagonals, the decking was 1-in. southern pine tongue and 
grooved. The forms were well oiled before filling. 

The pier edge of each form rested on a collar bolted to the piers. The 
piers, having been built 2 ins. higher than the springing line of the arch, 
prevented any horizontal movement in the form. The four corners were 
supported by 8 X 8-in. posts and midway between corner posts were placed 
4 X 4-in. posts. The proper elevation on the top of arch was first secured 
by placing wedges between the top of post and form. Later it was found that 
dumping the concrete disarranged these wedges and their use was discon- 
tinued and 0.5-in. boards were used and toenailed. This allowed only an 
adjustment of 0.5 in. which was considered close enough. 

The joint between forms on the top was made by a crown strip which varied 
from 2 to 4 ins. wide. The corner joints were finished by a 1-in. triangular 
strip which relieved the rough corner. The forms being square and piers 
round required a filler in the corners. This filler was first made of plaster 
paris mixed with excelsior, but was unsatisfactory as the breakage was high 
and it was impossible to use it a second time. The cost of the fillers in plaster 
paris was about 27 cts. each. Later wood was used and the work was finished 
using wood. On Contract 11 the contractor used a metal filler cut from No. 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 287 

16 gage sheet iron. This filler was used over and over, the first cost being 
10 cts. each. 

On Contract No. 1, the filters, the total amount of arch centering placed 
was 2,130,012 sq. ft. There were 240,000 sq. ft. of forms actually made to 
complete the work, an average of ten times use for each form. The actual 
cost was $0.0435 per sq. ft. placed; this cost includes plant charges, adminis- 
tration charges, material, etc. 

On Contract No. 2, the reservoir, there were placed 243,390 sq. ft. of vault- 
ing forms and there was actually made about 20,000 sq. ft. The cost was 
$0,096 per sq. ft. placed, or about $3.50 per cu. yd. of concrete placed. This 
cost is a final cost including everything chargeable to the forms. 

For a detailed cost Table XVI was prepared from information gathered by 
the writer; 

Four forms made one pier top or 8 . 1864 cu. yd. 

Lumber in one pier top 1,000 ft. 

Lumber in posts and bracing 400 ft. 

Lumber in shoring on piers 150 ft. 

To the above cost must be added a charge for hauling the forms from the 
place of removal to the place of setting. This varied greatly and from 
observations cost 15 man hours per 100 ft. hauled. 

Table XVI. — Cost op Vaulting Forms for Filtered Water Reservoir, 
Pittsburg, Pa. 

Making of Groins at Mill: Total Per cu. yd. 

120 hrs. at $0.35 $42.00* $0.42 

Setting Groins: 

1 foreman K hr. at 35 cts $ 0. 09 

3 carpenters ^ hr. at 30 cts 0. 225 

6 laborers 1^ hr. at 20 cts 0. 30 

1 cableway 3^ hr. at $2.00 0. 50 

$1,115 $0.14 

Setting Corner Posts: 

Cableway 0.1 hr. at $2.00 $ 0. 20 

3 carpenters 0.3 hr. at 30 cts 0. 09 

$ 0.29 $0.03 

Intermediate posts, 3 carpenters 1^^ hr. at 30 cts $ 0. 45 $0. 05 

Shoring piers, 2 carpenters 3 hrs. at 30 cts 0. 90 $0. 11 

Trimming and trueing, 4 carpenters 3 hrs, at 30 cts ... . 1. 20 $0. 15 
Taking Down Groins: 

1 foreman l>i hrs. at 30 cts $0.40 

5 laborers 6H hrs. at 20 cts 1. 35 

5 laborers 6% hrs. at 15 cts 1. 00 

Total $2.75 $0.33 

Grand total $10.20 $1.22 

* Used 12 times. 

Cost of Bending Reinforcing Steel. — In the equalizing chamber the steel 
required careful bending. There were 27 different shapes. A record kept 
by the writer on the bending of 10,325 lbs. extending over a period of 10 days 
showed a cost of; 0.88 man hours per 100 lbs. for blacksmith and of 1.66 man 
hours per 100 lbs. for helpers. At the prices paid, or 25 cts. per hour for 
blacksmith and 16 cts. for helper this cost was 48.9 cts. per 100 lbs. In addi- 
tion to this was chargeable 0.24 man hours per 100 lbs. for the layer out, 
which work was done by the boss carpenter at a cost of 20 cts. per 100 lbs., 



288 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



the total cost being 68.9 cts. per 100 lbs. In bending the steel a large plat- 
form was built and all shapes laid out full size, cleats were nailed at points of 
curvature and the rods bent to fit. 

Conduit. — The construction of conduit forms was governed greatly by the 
place they were to be installed and the surroundings. A conduit in a trench 
offers different requirements than conduit in the open. The inner form or 
barrel is generally first placed. This is held to the proper elevation by piers, 
or saddles, separately cast, and the tops set to grade. The steel is next 
placed and then the outer forms. 

Care must be exercised to prevent the form floating or rolling and in filling 
the bottom. The bottom is sometimes cared for by placing grout tubes, or 
by simply smoothing up after the removal of the forms. In a number of 
conduits on the reservoir work a board was left off the outside forms just 
above the invert and through this opening the bottom was successfully filled 
by tamping. The filling of one side and allowing the concrete to run under 
and seek its level on the opposite side, thus assuring filling in the bottom, is 
rather dangerous practice as there is great chance of moving the Inside form 
or barrel. 




Fig. 11. — Forms and bracing for by-pass conduit. 

The by pass conduit, shown in Fig. 11 is 7 ft. in diameter and about 1,200 
ft. long, built in 36-ft. sections, contained 48.8 cu. yds. and 3,600 lbs. steel per 
section, and was built after the roof of the reservoir was in place, the piers 
and roof being used to brace against. The barrel was placed on concrete 
saddles and painted with cold water paint. The reinforcement was next 
placed and then the outside forms. The braces were all fitted and marked 
and they together with all except the bottom outside form were removed and 
stored conveniently for easy access. The barrel was held down by braces to the 
roof and held laterally by braces to stringers placed along the piers. When 
the concrete reached the level of the top of the bottom form, the second 
form was placed and so on until the top was reached. After the concrete was 
placed to a depth level with the top of the barrel it was found that there 
was no tendency to rise and the braces to the roof were removed. 

The forms in this conduit were all bolted together; the inside or barrel 
form collapses by dropping the top section. The time required to build 
one section was three days and the time to fill it v/as seven hours. 

The forms including bracing contained 6,350 ft. of lumber. The lagging 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 289 

was 1 in. southern pine and the ribs 2 in. white pine. The cost of a 36-ft. 
section, including taking down, placing steel, etc., as compiled from a number 
of observations was : 

Cost 
Times per 
Time Rate Cost used cu. yd. 

Building forms at mill 489 $0.35 $171.15 10 $0.36 

Carpenter work in jfield — 

• Carpenter 227K .35 

Helpers 19^ -20 83.39 1 1.70 

The forms for the seven foot filtered water conduit shown in Fig. 12 is a 
good example of form work for a conduit in a trench. In this conduit no 
outside forms except one on either side of the top was necessary. The sec- 
tions were 30 ft. in length, contained 22 cu. yds. of concrete and 2,600 lbs. 
of steel. One foreman, 4 caipenters and 4 helpers took down the back forms, 
set them up ahead and placed the steel ready for filling at the rate of one 
section a day. Two sets of forms were used and they were removed the 
following day as early as 10 o'clock; thus while filling one section another 



m Block, "^ 




1*6- a^i"-'^^ 



^>yZTijrn5*8Wir6 
^-^liTurnbuckJe 

--Z Flanks 
^6PlQhK- 



8*eFedestQr^-'W^ ,^ 
Fig. 12. — Forms and bracing for 7-ft. filtered water conduit. 

was being prepared. The cost of setting up the forms and placing steel was 
$1.15 per cu. yd. and the cost of bending steel 40 cts. per 100 lbs. 

The 48-in. conduit was a plain circle inside with perpendicular sides and 
semicircular top outside. The drain was located in a 21-ft. fill, placed in 
sections varying from 20 ft. to 50 ft. in length and contained 0.387 cu. yd. of 
concrete and 35 lbs. steel per lineal foot of conduit. The forms were built 
in the mill and used six times in the field: 

Per cu. yd. 

Lumber $0. 72 

Mill work .30 

Bending steel .26 

Carpenter work in field 2.13 

Total $3.41 

Total, cu. ft. of drain 1. 59 

Cost of Relining a Brick-lined Reservoir with Concrete. — Thomas Fleming, 
Jr. gives the following data in Engineering and Contracting, April 3, 1912. 

The Bellevue reservoir of the Ohio Valley Water Co., which supplies a 
large suburban territory west of Pittsburg, consists of an earth embankment 
with a vertical lining of brick masonry 2 ft. thick. The reservoir is 130 ft. 
in diameter and 20 ft. deep. I^ rests on solid rock foundation which several 
years ago was covered with a concrete floor. It has a capacity of 2,000,000 
gals. 

19 




290 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

During the winter season the joints between the bricks opened up enough 
to allow as much as 400,000 gals, per day to leak out. While the leakage was 
was not eeriously threatening the stability of the reservoir, yet it was a serious 
proposition financially. The cost of pumping water at this plant against 
the high head (480 ft.) prevailing, was at that time 3 cts. per 1,000 gals. This 
cost includes only fuel and labor. It was estimated that the leakage averaged 
100,000 gals, per day per annum, which amounted to a financial loss of $3 
per day, or $1,095 per year. This capitalized at 8 per cent would represent 
an investment of $13,688, 

Several schemes were proposed to stop this leakage, but it was finally 
decided to reline the reservoir with an 8-in. concrete lining. This lining was 

designed to be constructed in sections 

» * f^ 29 ft. long horizontally and extending 

12 X 20-0 2d 6 the full vertical height of the reser- 

/ Copper Strip voir. The sections were connected 

by a metal expansion joint. This 

was made of thin sheets of copper of 

No. 28 gage 12 ins. X 20 ft. The 

sheet of copper was corrugated and 

Fig. 13.— Sketch showing method of ^^^^^ folded at the center for a width 

making copper joints between sections of 4 ins., as shown in Fig, 13. One 

of concrete. edge was inserted in the section to 

be built and when the adjacent sec- 
tion was constructed the other edge was inserted in it, leaving the fold between 
the faces of the adjacent sections. The sections were built alternately. 
There were forms for four sections so that the work could progress contin- 
uously. It took a day to pour one section and while this section was being 
poured, the carpenters were bracing the section for the next day's work and 
laborers were removing form from section that had been poured two days 
before and were setting this form for work to follow two days later. 

The form for each section was constructed in one piece with vertical struts 
and horizontal nailing pieces. These nailing pieces were 2 ins. X 12 ins., 
cut to the arc of the circle and spaced 2 ft. c. to c; 1-in. sheeting was nailed 
to these vertically and 2-in. X 10-in. struts also vertical were spaced on the 
back of the form 5 ft. c. to c. The braces were nailed to these struts. The 
specifications stated that the contractor must not cut any holes in the concrete 
floor for supporting or bracing form work. Heavy pieces of timber were 
therefore laid on the floor of the reservoir entirely across it and braced against 
the wall on the opposite side. The form braces were then nailed to these 
timbers. Each section was poured in one day. The concrete was a 1:2:4 
mixture and was placed wet and thoroughly spaded. The fllling was made 
slowly so that the concrete in the lower part of the section would attain its 
initial set before the pressure from above could cause a deformation of forms. 
Upon the completion of a section it was allowed to stand two days before 
removing the form. The surface was then gone over with tools, imperfections 
removed, and a thin coat of liquid cement grout was applied. Upon the 
completion of the work, the test showed that the reservoir was absolutely 
water tight. The work had to be completed in 24 days. 

The following costs do not include overhead charges, nor do they include 
10,000 ft. B. M. of old lumber which was used for form work in addition to 
the lumber itemized in the list given. The cost of material was much higher 
than usual, due to the fact that it was necessary to haul it all several miles up 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 291 

a very steep grade where it was necessary to use extra teams for a part of the 
distance. Prices quoted for hauling were 25 cts. per barrel for cement and 
$2. 10 per 1,000 for brick. There was a total of 201^^ cu. yds. of concrete used. 

Cost of Relining Brick-lined Reservoirs with Concrete 

Item — Per cu. yd. concrete — 

260 bbls. cement at $1.25, deliv'd $ 325. 00 

123 tons sand at $1.65, delivered 202. 95 

276 tons gravel at $1.45, delivered 400. 20 ...... 



Total concrete material $ 928. 15 $4. 60 

4 M. ft. of 1-in. boards at $22 88. 00 

Tools and lumber : . 55. 00 

Nails, oil, supplies and incidentals 18. 50 

Total form mat'l and incidentals $ 161 . 50 $0. 80 

Foreman, 20 days at $5 100. 00 

Carpenters at $3.50 per man per day 310. 14 

Labor at $1.85 per day 297. 30 

Finishing and cleaning up 54. 16 



Total for labor $ 761. 60 $3. 77 



Total cost of lining $1,851. 25 $9. 17 

Cost of Removing Old Wooden Roof of Reservoir and Building New One- 
Engineering and Contracting, March 19, 1919, gives the following costs of 
removing an old wooden roof from the Villa Street reservoir of the Water 
Department of Pasadena Cal. and erecting a new wooden covering. The 
roof covers an area of 3.7 acres and was originally built in 1899. The new 
roof was built in the year 1917. 

The roof was 325 X 495 ft. and contained 251,681 ft. B.M. of lumber. 
The total cost of removing and salvaging the materials was $781, detailed as 
follows: 

Cost per 
Cost per 100 sq. ft. 
Total M. ft. B.M. of roof 
Preparing yard for receiving lumber: 

Labor $ 19 

Auto 4 



Total $ 23 $0. 0917 $0. 0143 

Removing lumber from reservoir: 

Labor 162 . 6484 . 1014 

Hauling and stacking lumber in yard: 

Labor 139 

Auto 20 

Material 64 



Total. $223 . 8883 . 1390 

Removing 2-in. pipe posts: 

Labor 16 . 0632 . 0100 

Engineering and other supervision: 

Labor 78 

Auto 20 

Total. . $ 98 . 3889 . 0608 

Sale and other disposal of materials: 

Labor 119 

Auto 67 



Total $186 . 7407 . 1159 



292 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Overhead 71 . 2821 . 0441 



Grand total $3. 1033 $0. 4855 

The value of the materials recovered was: 
Broken and split lumber sold as kindling at $2.50 per truck load, 49,663 

ft % 82 

ServiceaJDle lumber sold at $9 and $10 per M. ft., 119,844 ft . .... . . . . . . 1 , 189 

Lumber taken into stock, 82,174 ft 821 



Total value of lumber recovered $2 , 093 

Pipe posts sold (9,373 ft. 2-in. screw pipe) 350 

Appraised value of hardware cloth (2,334 sq. ft. at 3 ct.) 70 



Total $2,513 

The new roof is the same size as the old one. Its details are as follows: 
Roofing, 1 in. X 8 in., 1 in. X 10 in., and 1 in. X 12 in. R. W. boards; joists, 
2 in. X 8 in. O. P. 16 ft. long spaced 40 ft. c. to c. (west tier 2 in. X 10 in. — 
20 ft., 4 ft. c. to c). Girders, 2 — 2 in. X 12 in. O. P. — 18 ft. long spiked 
together, spaced 15 ft. 9 in. c. to c. Posts, 6 in. X 6 in. R. W. 18 ft. and 
20 ft. long with 6 in. X 6 in. X 3 ft. R. W. corbels. Work was begun on Jan. 
8, 1918, and was completed March 9, 1918. The detailed costs were as 
follows: 

Per M. 

ft. B.M. Per sq. 
Total in roof ft. roof 
48 concrete footings on slope: 

Labor, 11^ man days at $3.523... $ 41 

Material 6 



Total $ 47 $ 0. 158 $0. 0003 

Construction of wooden roof: 

Labor, 390^^ man days at $3.459 $ 1 , 352 4. 500 0. 0084 

Auto 12 039 

Material, 300.4 M. ft 10. 150 33. 788 . 0631 



Total $38. 327 $0. 0715 

Hauling lumber: 

Labor, 44>^ man days at $2.857 127 0. 423 

Auto 57 .190 



Total $0,613 $0.0011 

Other hauling: 

Labor, 1 11-16 man days at $3.342 6 

Auto 3 



Total $ 9 $ 0. 030 $0. 0001 

Engineering and supervision, 30 man days at 

$4.952 149 .495 . 0009 

Disposal of surplus and waste material 25 . 083 , 0002 

Overhead 1,193 3.971 .0074 



Grand totals $43. 679 $0. 0814 

Cost of Concrete Wave Protection for Earthen Dams. — The costs of placing 
concrete hnings on the earth dikes of the North Laramie Land Co., Uva, 
Wyoming is given by W. D'Rohan in Engineering and Contracting, Nov. 27, 
1912. 

The principal features of the concrete linings are indicated in Figs. 14 and 15. 

In the reconstruction of the system, it was necessary to increase the capacity 
of No. 1 reservoir, by raising the height of the dams. Owing to the scarcity 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 



293 



of any suitable material, it was decided to increase the height of the North 
dyke by means of a parapet wall and as the dyke is exposed to the greatest 
wind storms, the opportunity of putting a wave break on the top of the wall 
could not be neglected. The East dyke is of horseshoe form about 2,500 ft. 
long; 1,300 ft. of it being faced with plain concrete slabs, and the two ends with 




'Q(;ioble -ifmuchin 
break up by insert- 
^therponel 



:.«<vtny' 






Fig. 14. — Reinforced concrete beam and slab-facing for dams and reservoirs 
Nos. 1 and 3, North Laramie Land Co. 










^ 






\ f Cutoff Waff shall extend to a depth 
Xdesignoted by the Engr )n Charge 

Fig. 15. — Concrete lining for east dike of reservoir No. 1, North Laramie Land Co. 



hand laid riprap. This dyke being favorably suitated as regards material, 
15,624 cu. yds. of dirt were placed on it. The dyke was first plowed and the 
fill placed in 3 ft. layers by means of wheelers and scrapers. All of this 
material was taken from the outside of the dam with an average haul of 300 
ft. amd cost $3,618.30 or about 23 cts. per yard. The detailed cost of this 
was as follows. 



294 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Earth Work, East Dyke Dam 

Foreman, 360 hrs., at 35 cts. per hr ^ $ 126. 00 

Laborers, 1,020 hrs., at 25 cts. per hr 255. 00 

Laborers, 750 ars , at 30 cts per hr 225. 00 

Teams, 4,395 hrs., at 45 cts. per hr 1 ,977. 75 

Teams, 2, 178 hrs., at 473^ cts. per hr 1,034. 55 

Total $3,618.30 

The preparations for the placing of the concrete facing were begun by the 
excavation of the toe wall. This was taken out in very cold weather by a 
"home-guard" foreman who allowed his men to stand around fires instead of 
working and cost $200.25 for 171.5 cu. yds. of material. With proper super- 
vision the cost could not possibly exceed $50. 

The trench was taken out 18 ins. wide to an average depth of 4 ft., being 
7 ft. deep at the lowest point. The " niggerheads " were now thrown to the 
toe of the dam, loaded on wagons and hauled to the ends of the dyke where 
they were used for riprap. 

All of the concrete placed on the work was mixed 1, 2^ and 5; the sand and 
gravel being taken from a pit 13-^ miles from the work. As the greater part 
of the rock was too large for light concrete, a small crusher with a capacity of 
40 tons was installed. This was driven by a 10 hp. Stickney gasoline engine 
which also operated the carrier. The crusher was charged by wheelbarrows 
and the crushed material conveyed by the carrier to the top of a sloping screen. 
All material not passing through K-in. mesh was classed as rock. This 
crushing cost on an average 75 cts. per yard. The sand and gravel were 
hauled to the work by teams hired at $5 per day, each team making six trips 
and hauling 10 cu. yds. The water for mixing was pumped by a 3 hp. Stick- 
ney gasoline engine through ^-in. pipe, the delivery at 1,500 ft. with 10 -ft. 
lift being 30 gals, per hour, necessitating storage in barrels and overtime for 
the engineer, who ran both mixer and pump. 

The toe-wall concrete was mixed by hand, two boards being used, 5 men to 
each board, with 6 men charging, 2 men tamping and 2 men finishing the top 
and placing the rods for the slabs. The labor cost of mixing and placing 
amounted to $1.98 per cubic yard. The mixing boards were placed along the 
trench and were moved about 40 ft. at a time. The dyke slope was next 
trimmed to templet, and carefully tamped, large wooden tampers being used. 

The mixer used was a M-yd. Ransome driven by a 10 hp. Stickney gasoline 
engine. All of the material was placed on the inside of the reservoir and the 
mixed concrete was carried up the incline in wheelbarrows. Two men with 
hooks helped the barrowmen up the incline. The mixer was moved three 
times. Two wheelbarrows of rock and one of sand were mixed with one sack 
of cement at a time, necessitating a double charging force of six men; 1 man 
handled cement and water, 1 loaded the wheelbarrows, the number of which 
Varied from 8 to 14 according to the length of the haul; 2 hook men snappe4 
them up the incline. 

The slab forms consisted simply of one 2 X 4-in. laid flatways with another 
one on edge nailed to it and held in place by stakes. For the ends of the slabs 
the top 2 X 4-in. had holes bored in it for the tie rods; 1 carpenter and 1 
helper attended to the moving and placing of the forms, rods and rubberoid. 
The concrete was run into the slabs by means of troughs made of galvanized 
sheet iron. These chutes were 7 ft. long in a light frame and as they weighed 
only 75 lbs. were very easily moved. 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 295 

Two slabs were placed at a time, the placing gang consisting of 1 man clean- 
ing the wheelbarrows and chutes, 2 men placing the concrete, 2 men on straight 
edge, and one man troweling. * In placing the concrete the men were careful 
to turn their shovels upside down with every shovelful. In this way, rich 
mortar that usually sticks to the shovel was on top, making it possible for the 
trowel man to put a good finish on the slab, using an ordinary 9-in. plasterer's 
trowel. Just before the concrete had its initial set the slabs were painted with 
a thin grout, made of sand and cement, care being taken that the sand con- 
tent of the mixture was the same as that of the conrete previously placed. 
This grout filled up all of the holes left by the trowel man, gave the slabs a 
uniform color, and as it and the slab were practically of the same mix it could 
not suffer from unequal contraction and expansion. The grout was mixed in 
a mortar box, then poured on a slab a bucketfuU at a time; this was well 
rubbed into the slab and joints with an ordinary broom. Two men were 
required for this operation, and the total cost did not exceed 10 cts. per yard. 

The parapet wall was placed in 10 ft. sections to correspond with the slabs 
and the sections were separated from each other by a layer of rubberoid nailed 
into the concrete. 

After the forms were taken off the parapet wall, the latter was backfilled 
to the top and the dirt sloped to the outside of the dyke so as to keep any rain 
water from getting below parapet wall. In all 790.8 cu. yds. of concrete were 
placed on this dyke at a cost of $5,983.62 or $7.56 per cubic yard. The dis- 
tribution of costs was as follows: 



Cost Distribution, Concrete Facing, East Dtke 

Excavation and Leveling: 

Laborers, 910 hrs., at 25 cts. per hr $ 227. 50 

Assistant foreman, 74 hrs., at 27^2 cts. per hr 20. 35 

Total $ 247. 85 

Moving and placing mixer • 65. 00 

Transferring material 48. 00 

Toe Wall Excavation: 

Foreman, 40 hrs., at 50 cts. per hr 20. 00 

Foreman, 60 hrs., at 273^^ cts. per nr 16. 50 

Laborers, 655 hrs., at 25 cts. per hr 163. 75 

Total $ 200. 25 

Concreting Toe Wall (hand mix): 

Laborers mixing, 980 hrs., at 25 cts. per hr $ 245. 00 

Waterman, 66 hrs., at 35 cts. per hr 19. 80 

Placing forms — 

Steel and finishing, 138 hrs., at 25 cts. per hr $ 34. 50 

Team hauling cisment, 25 hrs., at 50 cts. per hr 12. 50 

General foreman, 57 hrs., at 50 cts. per hr 28. 50 

Total $ 340. 30 

Materials Used: 

Cement, 567 sacks, at $2.60 per bbl ; $ 368. 55 

Gasoline for pump, 30H gals., at 25 cts. per gal 7. 60 

Steel, 1,246 lbs., at 3 cts. per lb ; 37. 40 

Sand, 63 cu. yds , at $1.25 per cu. yd 78. 75 

Gravel, 126 cu. yds., at $1.25 per cu. yd 157. 50 

Total $ 649. 80 



296 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Backfilling $ 76. 15 

Placing Slabs and Parapet Wall. 

East Dyke: 

Laborers mixing 3,505 hrs., at 25 cts. per hr $ 876. 25 

Waterman, 143 hrs., at 35 cts. per hr 42. 90 

Carpenters, 289 hrs., at 45 cts. per hr 130. 05 

Placing steel and finishing, 436 hrs., at 25 cts. per hr 109. 00 

Team hauling cement, 39 hrs., at 50 cts. per hr 19. 50 

Mixer feeder, 124 hrs., at 273^ cts. per hr 34. 10 

General foreman. 133 hrs., at 50 cts. per hr. 66. 50 

Extra waterman, 79 hrs., at25 cts. per hr 19. 75 

Total $1,298.05 

Material Used, Facing East Dyke: 

Cement, 2,835 sacks, at $2.60 per bbl ; $1 , 843. 40 

Steel, 3,600 lbs., at 3 cts. per lb 108. 00 

Gasoline for mixer, 100 gals., at 25 cts. per gal 25. 00 

Gasoline for pump, 55 gals., at 25 cts. per gal 13. 75 

Lumber (estimated) 25. 00 

Sand, 263 cu. yds., at $1.25 per cu. yd 328. 75 

Gravel, 530 cu. yds., at $1.25 per cu. yd 662. 50 

Rubberoid 52. 00 

Total $3,058.40 

790. 8 yds. of concrete placed for $5,983. 80 

A total of 350.2 yds. of rip-rap placed on the outer ends of the East dyke at 
a cost of $492.05, which also includes the picking up of the rock. A small 
trench 18 ins. wide and 15 ins. deep was first dug along the toe of the dyke and 
from this the rock was laid at right angles to the slope. The gang consisted 
of. 5 men laying rip-rap, with 3 helpers passing rock, 2 teams with 2 helpers 
picking up and loading rock. The costs distribution was as follows: 

Gathering and Placing Rip-Rap, East Dyke. 

Laborers, laying rock, 1,053 hours at 25 cts. per hour $263. 25 

Foreman, 83 hours at 27>^ cts. per hour 22. 80 

Team hauling rock, 241 hours at 50 cts. per hour. 120. 50 

Men loading rock, 342 hours at 25 cts. per hour 85. 50 

350.2 cu. yds. placed for $492. 05 

The greater part of the concrete of the North dyke was placed in the fall of 
1911, and before the writer was connected with the work. The toe wall was 
dug to a depth of 5 ft., and all of the concrete placed by means of chutes, the 
mixer being moved along the top of the dam. In this way 554.8 cu. yds. of 
concrete were placed at a total cost of $8,478.43, or $1 5.28 per cubic yard. The 
writer, however used the stationary mixer and wheeled the concrete, making 
faster time and much cheaper work, placing 576.1 cu. yds. of concrete at a 
cost of $5,658.17 for labor and material or $9.82 per cubic yard. 

The forms for the parapet wall were built at the bench in 16-ft. sections 
and were held in place by No. 9 soft wire tied to the reinforcement, the inside 
form being also braced to loops of wire previously bedded in the beams and 
allowed to stick out. All of the reinforcing was placed by union structural 
iron workers. It is not usual to employ union men on such work, but from 
previous experience with laborers on similar work, the writer is of the opinion 
that the union men are the cheapest in the end. They understand the work 
and know how to go about it, and allow the foreman to devote his time to the 
execution of the work. 

The forms being in place the concrete was dumped into mortar boxes and 
shoveled into the forms, 2 men shoveling and 1 tamping from each box, of 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 297 

which there were three, made 100 cu. yds. as the best day's run. The charg- 
ing gang always remained the same. 

The detailed costs of this work including that previously placed were as 
follows : 

Concreting Face of North Dyke 
Work Done Previous to May, 1912 

Foreman, 480 hours at 50 cts. per hour $ 240. 00 

Teams, 294 hours at 45 cts. per hour 132. 30 

Laborers, 10,154 hours at 25 cts. per hour 2, 538. 50 

Laborers, 276 hours at 27>^ cts. per hour 75. 90 

Carpenters, 793 hours at 45 cts. per hour 356. 85 

Carpenters, 190 hours at 50 cts. per hour 95. 00 

Ironworkers, 819 hours at 50 cts. per hour 409. 50 

Total $3,848. 05 

IVIaterial XJsed * 

Lumber, 1,000 ft. at $31.00 per M $ 31. 00 

Cement, 850 bbls. at $2.60 per bbl 2,210. 00 

Gravel, 550 cu. yds. at $1.25 per yd 687. 50 

Sand, 278 cu. yds. at $1.25 per yd 347. 50 

Gasoline, 480 gals, at 25 cts. per gal 120. 00 

Steel, 40,812.8 lbs. at 2 cts. per lb 1,224. 38 

Wire (estimated) 10. 00 

Total $4,630.38 

554.8 cu. yds. for 8,478. 43 

Work in May, 1912 

Laborers mixing, 3,085 hours at 25 cts. per hour $ 771. 25 

Waterman, 109 hours at 30 cts. per hour 32. 70 

Carpenters, 342 hours at 45 cts. per hour 153. 90 

Carpenter helpers, 234 hours at 25 cts. per hour 58. 50 

Union steelmen, 392 hours at 50 cts. per hour 196. 00 

Team on cement, 48 hours at 50 cts. per hour 24. 00 

Mixer feeder, 100 hours at 27^ cts. per hour 27. 50 

General foreman, 113 hours at 50 cts. per hour 56. 50 

Assistant foreman, 11 hours at 30 cts. per hour 3. 30 

Helpers on steel, 218 hours at 25 cts. per hour 54. 50 

Total $1,378.15 

Cement, 747 bbls. at $2.60 per bbl $1,942. 20 

Sand, 280 yds. at $1.25 per yd 350. 00 

Gravel, 554 yds. at $1.25 per yd 692. 50 

Lumber, 3,000 ft. B.M. at $31.00 per M 93. 00 

Steel, H-in., 38,941 ft. at 2 cts. per ft 778. 82 

Steel, ^-in., 8,100 ft. at 4:^ cts. per ft 364. 50 

Gasoline, 136 gals, at 25 cts. per gal 34. 00 

Wire, nails, etc 25. 00 

Total $4 , 280. 02 

576.1 yds. placed for $5,658. 17 

No. 3 reservoir is a natural depression surrounded by almost level land, 
with an opening at the south end where the dam is located. The facing of 
this dam was of the beam and slab type. As the chief engineer was desirous 
of obtaining a good idea of the actual costs of construction of this design, 
everyone put his best foot forward. The toe-wall was excavated by a com- 
petent foreman to an average depth of 9 ft., the deepest part being 17 ft. 
and the shallowest 5 ft. It was taken out 2 ft. wide at a cost of 47 cts. per 
cubic yard; which was some improvement over $1.16 per cubic yard, the cost 



298 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

of excavating the East dyke toe- wall. The beams were dug out for 23.6 cts. 
per cubic yard. The beam forms were put together in sections, being wired 
at the bottom and slotted at the top to receive the reinforcement, which was 
also put together at the bench, a lap of 10 ins. being allowed. For the placing 
of the toe- wall, the mixer was on the inside of the reservoir in the center, and 
the concrete wheeled each way a distance of 550 ft. The same organization 
was used throughout. 

This dam is 53^ miles from the gravel pit, and the sand and gravel haul was 
let to the teamsters as piece work, $1.82 per cubic yard being the price agreed 
on. The teams made two trips one day and three the next, hauling on an 
average 1>^ cu. yds. to the load. Owing to the heavy roads, two snap teams 
had to be provided, and this, with the heavier stripping at the pit, brought 
the sand and gravel price up to $3.05 per cubic yard. 

For the beams, slabs and parapet wall, the mixer was placed at each end of 
the dam, 600 ft. of the dyke being faced from one end and 350 ft. from the 
other. The beam concrete was run into a mortar box placed in the center of 
a slab. Two men shoveled this concrete into the surrounding beams, one 
tamper being used for each shoveler; in this way the concrete was thoroughly 
spaded and placed around the steel. 

The system used in placing the slabs and parapet wall was the same as that 
for the East and North dykes. The edges of the beams and slabs were 
rounded with an ordinary side-walk edger, and this wonderfully improved 
the general appearance of the whole work. The slabs were washed with a 
sand and cement grout about 1 to 3 being similar to the concrete mix, sand 
content. The trowel finish on the beams and slabs took 440 hours of labor 
at 25 cts., or $110, and the grout wash was placed by two laborers who used 
80 sacks of cement and spent 200 hours on the work, that is, the total labor 
and material cost was 10 cu. yds. of sand at $3.05, 80 sacks of cement at $2.70 
per bbl., 200 hours labor at 25 cts., making a total of $134.50. 

During the progress of this work, the Colorado & Southern R. R. tracks 
washed out, so that the cement had to be hauled from Wheatland, making an 
extra cost of haul $70. The itemized costs of facing No. 3 dam are as follows: 

Leveling Dyke — 

Laborers, 588 hours at 25 cts. per hour $ 147. 00 

Foreman, 48 hours at 35 cts. per hour 16. 80 

Teams, 10 hours at 50 cts. per hour 5. 00 

981 cubic yds. moved for $ 168. 80 

or 17.5 cts. per yd. 

Filling in Slabs and Tamping Dirt in Place — 

Laborers, 1,151 hours at 25 cts. per hour $ 287. 75 

Foreman, 41 hours at 35 cts. per hour 14. 35 

950 cu. yds. moved for $ 302. 50 

or 31.8 cts. per yd. 

Excavating Toe- Wall — 

Laborers, 711 hours at 25 cts. per hour $ 177. 75 

Foreman, 95 hours at 35 cts. per hour 28. 50 

Teams, 15 hours at 50 cts. per hour 7. 50 

453.1 cu. yds. moved for $ 213. 75 

or 47 cts. per yd. 
Beam Excavation — 

Laborers, 440 hours at 25 cts. per hour $ 110. 00 

Foreman, 49 hours at 35 cts. per hour 14. 70 

395 beams 12 ft. long and 2 ft. deep for $ 124. 70 



'DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 299 

Backfilling Toe- Wall — 

Laborers, 153 hours at 25 cts. per hour $ 38. 25 

Foreman, 12 hours at 50 cts. per hour » 6. 00 

$ 44.25 
Concreting Toe- Wall — 

Carpenters, 222 hours at 45 cts. perliour $ 99. 90 

Helpers, 122 hours at 25 cts. per hour 30. 50 

Laborers mixing, 1,810 hours at 25 cts. per hour 452. 50 

Waterman, 62 hours at 30 cts. per hour 18. 60 

Steelmen, 40 hours at 50 cts. per hour 20. 00 

Team on cement, 62 hours at 50 cts. per hour 31 . 00 

Mixer feeder, 62 hours at 273^ cts. per hour 17. 05 

General foreman, 62 hours at 50 cts. per hour 31. 00 

Assistant foreman, 30 hours at 30 cts. per hour 9. 00 

356 yds. of concrete for a labor cost of $ 709. 55 

or less than S2.00 per yd. 
Material Used — 

Cement, 1,477 sacks at $2.70 per bbl $ 996. 97 

Gasoline for mixer, 61 gals, at 25 cts. per gal 15. 25 

Gasoline for pump, 32 gals, at 25 cts. per gal 8. 00 

Sand, 164 yds. at $3.05 per yd 500. 20 

Gravel, 328 yds. at $3.05 per yd 1 , 000. 40 

$2,520.82 
Concreting Face and Parapet Wall, No. 3 Reservoir — 

Carpenters, 1,410 hours at 45 cts. per hour $ 624. 50 

Carpenters' helpers, 958 hours at 25 cts. per hour 239. 50 

Laborers mixing, 5,362 hours at 25 cts. per hour. ..... 1,340. 50 

Waterman, 212 hours at 30 cts. per hour '. . . . 63. 60 

Steelmen, 970 hours at 50 cts. per hour 485. 00 

Steelmen helpers, 112 hours at 25 cts. per hour 28. 00 

Team on cement, 94 hours at 55 cts. per hour 51. 70 

Feeder for mixer, 191 hours at 273^ cts. per hour. .... 52. 50 

General foreman, 171 hours at 50 cts. per hour 85. 50 

Assistant foreman, 93 hours at 35 cts. per hour 33. 25 

862 yds. placed for $3,004. 05 

or $3.48 per yd. 

TyTa -f ppi Q 1 TJgpr^- -■ 

Cement, 4,567 sacks at $2.70 per bbl $3 , 082. 72 

Gasoline for mixer, 184 gals, at 25 cts. per gal 46. 00 

Gasoline for pump, 110 gals, at 25 cts. per gal 27. 50 

Gravel, 832 yds. at $3.05 per yd 2,537. 60 

Sand, 416 yds. at $3.05 per yd 1 , 268. 80 

Steel (3^-in. 98,105 ft., ^-in. 3,483 ft.), 71,167 lbs. at 

3 cts. per lb 2,135.01 

Lumber, 6,000 ft. at $27.00 per M 162. 00 

Cement haul extra 70. 00 

$9,329.63 
Moving and Placing Mixer — 

Laborers, 90 hours at 25 cts. per hours $ 22. 50 

Teams, 6 hours at 55 cts. per hour 3. 30 

Carpenters, 12 hours at 45 cts. per hour 5. 40 

General foreman, 4 hours at 50 cts. per hour 2. 00 

Assistant foreman, 2 hours at 35 cts. per hour .70 



$ 33.90 



The total cost of placing 1,218 cu. yds. of concrete was $16,451.55, or $13.50 
per cubic yard. To mix and place toe-wall cost $2 per yard, the beams cost 
$4.10, the slabs $3 and head-wall $3.60 per yard. 

As the work on No. 1 reservoir progressed, water was gradually let into it, 
and four days after the completion of the work, when the reservoir was at its 
full capacity, a terrific windstorm arose from the northeast creating waves 



300 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

3 ft. high and blowing them almost directly on to the facings of the dams; this 
storm lasted five hours and in the ensuing two weeks three similar storms came 
in the same direction. The writer, in company with Mr. Shelburne, engineer 
for the Land Company, visited the dams. We found them in excellent shape. 
The East dyke showed no signs of settlement or cracks of any description- and 
very little seepage; the North dyke showed a slight parting along the line of 
the slabs about two-thirds of the height from the top, and the parapet wall 
had three small cracks straight across, about H in. wide at top and disappear- 
ing toward the bottom of the wall. These came from settlement and were to 
be expected. In all probability, several more will develop within the next year, 
when the cracks can be poured full of grout or repaired in some other manner. 
Cost of Concrete Standpipes in Mass. — William S. Johnson in the Journal 
of the New England Water Works Association June, 1914 gives the following 
data. The standpipes were constructed "recently" according to the author. 

Cost in- 

Size, diam. Capacity, eliding Cost per 

Town height, ft. gals. foundations 1,000 gals. 

Ashland 40X32 300,000 $5,812 $19.35 

East Douglass 45X18 214,000 .4,524 21.15 

Leicester, Chester Valley and 

Rochdale) 40X21 197,000 4,976 25.25 

Cost of Concrete Water Tower at Victoria, B. C. — A. Kempkey in the Proc. 
Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XXXVI, gives in detail the methods and costs of con- 
struction of the above tower. The following data are taken from an abstract 
of Mr. Kempkey's paper published in Engineering and Contracting, March 
9, 1910. 

The tower, as built, consists of a hollow cylinder of plain concrete, 109 ft. 
high, and having an inside diameter of 22 ft. The walls are 10 ins. thick for 
the first 70 ft. and 6 ins. thick for the remaining 39 ft., and are ornamented 
with six pilasters (70 ft. high, 3 ft. wide, and 7 ins. thick), a 4-ft. belt, then 
twelve pilasters (12 ft. high, 18 ins. wide, and 7 ins. thick), a cornice, and a 
parapet wall. A steel tank of the ordinary type is embedded in the upper 40 
ft. of this cylinder. To form the bottom of this tank, a plain concrete dome 
is thrown across the cylinder at a point about 70 ft. from the base, the thrust 
of this dome being taken up by two steel rings, >^ in. by 14 ins. and ^ in. 
by 18 ins., bedded into the walls of the tower, the latter ring being riveted to 
the lower course of the tank. The tank is covered with a roof of reinforced 
concrete, 4 ins. thick, conical in shape, and reinforced with 3'^-in., twisted steel 
bars. 

The tower is built on out-cropping, solid rock. This rock was roughly 
stepped, and a concrete sub-base built. This sub-base consists of a hollow 
ring, with an inside diameter of 20 ft., the walls being 5 ft. thick. It is about 
2 ft. high on one side and 7 ft. high on the other, and forms a level base on which 
the tower is built. The forms for this sub-base consisted of vertical lagging 
and circumferential ribs. The lagging is of double-dressed, 2 X 3-in. 
segments, and the ribs are of 2 X 12-in. segments, 6 ft. long, lapping past one 
another and securely spiked together to form complete or partial circles. 
These ribs are spaced 2 ft. center to center. 

Similar construction was used for form the taper base of the tower proper, 
except, of course, that the radii of the segments forming the successive ribs 
decreased with the height of the rib. Tapered lagging was used, being made 
by double dressing 2 X 6-in. pieces to l^i X S^Ke ins. and ripping on a 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 301 

diagonal, thus making two staves, 3 ins. wide at one end and 2^yi ins. wide at 
the other. This tapered lagging was used again on the 4-ft. belt and comic 
forms, the taper being turned alternately up and down. 

The interior diameter being uniform up to the bottom of the dome, collapsi- 
ble forms were used from the beginning. These forms were constructed in 
six large sections, 6 ft. high, with one small key section with wedge piece to 
facilitate stripping, as shown in Fig. 16. There were three tiers of these, 
bolted end to end horizontally and to each other vertically. 

Above the taper base and except in the 4-ft. belt and cornice, collapsible 
forms were used on the outside also. There were six sections. 





1 

T 




INSIDE FORM 

Fig. 16. — Movable forms for shaft of concrete water tower. 



The concrete used was as follows: 1:3:6 for the sub-base and taper base; 
1:3:5 for the barrel of the tower and tank casing ; and 1:2:4 for the dome and 
roof. The dome was put in at one time, there being no joint, the same being 
true of the roof. 

In order to insure a perfectly round tank, each course was erected against 
wooden templates accuratedly centered and fastened to the inside scaffold. 
The tank is the ordinary type of light steel, the lower course being ^e-in.. 
the next, No. 8 B. W. gage, the next. No. 10 B. W. gage, and the remaining 
four. No. 12 B. W. gage. 

Work on the foundation was started on Aug. 15, 1908, and the tower was 
not completed until April 1, 1909. Much time was lost waiting for the deliv- 
ery of the steel, and also owing to a period of very cold weather which caused 
entire cessation of work for about one month. 



302 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The tower as completed presents a striking appearance. In order to obliter- 
ate rings due to the successive application of the forms and to cover the efflor- 
escence so common to concrete structures, the outside was given two coats of 
neat cement wash applied with ordinary kalsomining brushes, and, up to the 
present time, this seems to have been very effective in accomplishing the de- 
sired result. Irregularities due to forms are unnoticeable at a distance of 200 
or 300 ft., and the grouting gave a very uniform color. The application of 
two coats of cement wash cost, for labor, $97.68, and for material, $15.18, or 
$1.32 per 100 sq. ft., labor being at the rate of $2.25 per. 8 hours and. cement 
costing $2.53 per bbl. deUvered on the work. 

Before filling, the inside of the tank was given a plaster coat, consisting of 1 
part cement to 1^ parts of fine sand. This proved to be insufficient to pre- 
vent leakage, the water seeping through the dome and appearing on the outside 
of the structure along the line of the bottom of the rings. Three more coats 
were then applied over the entire tank, and two additional ones over the dome 
and about 8 ft. up on the sides. 

The following tables give the cost of the structure. The total herein given 
will not coincide with the total cost as shown by the city's books, for the reason 
that various items not properly chargeable to the structure itself have been 
omitted, the principal ones of which are the cost of the site, the laying of 
about 600 ft. of sewer pipe to connect with the overflow, and considerable ex- 
pense incident to the construction of a wagon road to the tower. 

The rates of wages paid, all being on a basis of an 8-hour day, were as follows: 

Common labor $ 2. 25 and $ 2. 50 

Carpenter 4. 00 

Carpenter's helper : 2. 75 

Boilermaker 3. 50 

Holders on 2. 50 

Boilermaker foreman 5. 00 

Plasterers 6. 00 

Plasterers' helpers 3. 00 

The cost of material was as follows: 

Cement, per barrel $ 2. 53 

Sand, per yard 1.47 

Rock, per yard 0. 80 

Lumber, per 1,000 ft. B.M $14. 00 and 16. 00 

All these prices are for material delivered on the work. 

An examination of the cost data, as given, will show that for the most part 
the unit costs are very high. This is due chiefly to the continued interruption 
of the work, during its later stages, owing to bad weather, particularly in the 
case of the erection of the steel tank. The material cost in this case was also 
exceedingly high. In the case of the concreting, inability to purchase a 
hoist and motor and the high cost of renting the same, together with the delays 
mentioned, added greatly to the unit cost. When it is considered that the 
cost of plastering covers that of four coats over the entire inside of the tank 
and three more over about one-third of it, it does not appear so high, especially 
in view of the high rate of wages paid. The cost per yard for concrete alone 
was $25,126, and this is probably about 25 per cent in excess of the cost 
of the same class of work executed under more favorable conditions as to 
location, weather conditions, etc. 

The following costs have been rearranged and further analyzed by the 
editors of Engineering-Contracting from the tables given by the author: 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 303 

Preliminary work: Total Per cu. yd. 

Labor, carpenter at 50 cts. per hour $ 11. 00 

Labor, common, at 34.4 cts. per hour 64. 94 

. Labor, common at 28.1 cts. per hour 249. 67 



Total labor $ 325. 61 $ 0. 790 

Materials 133. 62 0. 324 



Total labor and materials $ 459. 23 $ 1 . 1 14 

Forms: Building, Shifting, Stripping: 

Labor, carpenter, at 50 cts. per hour $1,832. 99 

Labor, common, at 34.4 cts. per hour 80. 85 

Labor, common, at 28.1 cts. per hour 563. 84 

Total labor $2,477.68 $6,014 

Materials: 

Lumber $ 583. 49 

Hardware 325. 51 

Miscellaneous 13. 90 



Total material $ 922. 90 $ 2. 240 

Grand total $3 , 400. 58 $ 8. 254. 

Scaffold: Erecting and Tearing Down: 

Labor, carpenter, at 50 cts. per hour $ 693. 00 

Labor, common, at 34.4 cts. per hour 350. 59 

Labor, common, at 28.1 cts. per hour 117. 27 



Total labor $1 , 160. 86 $2,818 

Materials : 

Lumber $ 487. 77 

Hardware 202. 79 



Total materials $ 690. 56 $ 1. 676 

Grand total $1,851.42 $4,494 

Concreting: 

Labor at 50 cts. per hour $ 142. 00 

Labor at 34.4 cts. per hour 11. 00 

Labor at 28.1 cts. per hour 947. 81 

Total labor $1,100.81 $2,672 

Material: 

Rock $ 317.30 

Sand 335.72 

Cement 1,591.97 



Total material $2,244. 99 $ 5. 449 

Hoisting: 

Rental motor and hoist $ 406. 56 

Power 83. 53 



Total power $ 490.09 $ 1. 189 

Grand total $3,737.89 $9,316 

Grand total concrete $9 , 449. 12 $23. 178 

These figures do not include apparently any charge for superintendence 
which with perhaps some other items may account for the difference between 
the final total and the cost of $25,126 for concrete given by the author of the 
paper. 

The cost of plastering 3,000 sq. ft. was as follows: 

Labor: Total Per sq. ft. 

Plasterers, at 75 cts. per hour ! . . . $ 116. 50 

Labor at 46% cts. per hour 15. 00 

Labor at 373^ cts. per hour 198. 52 

Labor at 28.1 cts. per hour 105. 66 

Total labor $ 435. 68 $0. 1452 



304 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Materials : 

Sand $ 8.64 

Cement . 66, 10 

Alum and potash 16. 00 

Total material $ 90. 74 $0. 0302 

Grand total $ 526. 42 $0. 1754 

The cost of washing 8,560 sq. ft. with cement wash was as follows: 
Labor: Total Per sq. ft. 

Common at 43^ cts. per hour $ 50. 00 

Common, at 28.1 cts. per hour 47. 68 

Total labor $ 97.68 $0.0114 

Cement...' $ 15.18 $0.0018 

Grand total $ 112. 86 $0. 0132 

The itemized cost of the steel tank, 20,000 lbs., was as follows: 

Labor: Total Per lb. 

Carpenter at 50 cts. per hour $ 124. 24 

Helper at 34.4 cts. per hour 2. 75 

Boilermakers 382. 57 

Holders on 147. 33 

Labor 40. 61 

Foreman at 62.5 cts. per hour 186. 25 

Total labor $ 883. 75 $0. 0441 

Tank, rivets, etc $1 , 740. 69 $0. 0875 

Grand total $2,624.44 $0.1316 

The various miscellaneous items of cost were as follows: 

Windows, Doors, Etc.: Total 

Labor $ 49. 00 

Material 47. 26 

Total $ 96. 26 

Equipment, 40% of $461.46 $ 184. 58 

Ironwork: (Spiral stairway, inlet and overflow pipes, radiator, 
reinforcing steel, etc.): 

Labor: 

Machinists at 50 cts. per hour $ 89. 50 

Helper, at 34.4 cts. per hour 240. 16 

Labor, at 28.1 cts. per hour 100. 79 

Total labor $ 430. 45 

Material $ 1,814.71 

Grand total $ 2 , 245. 16 

Grand total (tower, and tank complete) $16, 578. 29 

Construction of Reinforced Concrete Water Tower Using Steel Forms 
and Movable Staging. — In constructing the 650,000 gal. reinforced concrete 
standpipe at Westerly, R. I., the contractor used sectional steel forms and 
special reinforcement as described in Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 5, 1910. 

The standpipe is 40 ft. inside diam. with 14-in. walls and is 70 ft. high. 
The wall reinforcing consists ^of 12 vertical 1^2 pipe columns made in 3-ft. 
sections, connected by ordinary pipe couplings, spaced equidistant and 
extending from the bottom of the floor slab to the cornice. These pipe 
columns have drilled in them ^-in. holes spaced the proper distance apart 
for attaching the horizontal reinforcing rods. These rods consist of fifty 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 305 

IJ^^-in. bars in the first 10 ft. from the base, thirty V/iAn. bars in the second 
10 ft., then twenty-five Vyi-m., thirty-four li/i-in., twenty-five 1^-in., fifteen 
IJ^Hn. and ten li.i-in. in each succeeding 10 ft. 

The horizontal reinforcing bars are bent around the outside of the pipe 
columns and attached to them by H-in. round clamps. In the first 5 ft. 
8 ins. from the bottom, the bars are doubled, being clamped to the inside and 
outside of the pipe column. 

The steel forms are made up of 3 X 3 X H-in. angles and M-in! boiler 
plate. 'Hie inside form is 6 ft. high and has a key section in which the plates 




Fig. 17. — Plan showing erection staging. 



lap about 6 ins., and on either side of the joint angles are securely riveted to 
the plates and connected by short turnbuckles, so that the whole form can be 
sprung in and reduced in diameter so as to make it possible to raise it when 
necessary. The outside forms are made in seven segments to the circle in 
sections 3 ft. high. Two complete sections are all that are used, as when one 
3-ft. section has been erected and the concrete placed, the next section is 
placed on top of this, and by the time the concrete is placed in this section 
t^e lower form can be removed and placed on top. On the outside forms 
20 



306 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION^ COST 

all the rivets are countersunk, and the face of the angles making joints are 
machined so as to secure a perfectly smooth fit, thereby securing a practically 
smooth finished surface. 

The movable steel staging is located on the inside of the tower, Fig. 17. 
It consists of four 5-in. channels in the form of a cross joined at the center 
with a standard connection. Around these channels are bent two channels 
in concentric circles of 14 and 19 ft. radius braced with 2 X 2 X IH-in. 
angles. The floor of this staging is covered with plank, giving a platform 5 ft. 
wide around the inside of the standpipe. This platform was rai^d as the 
work progressed and held in place by 4 X 4-in. guide posts spaced 45° apart. 
On the outside of the standpipe is an elevator tower for hoisting the con- 
crete, which is mixed on the ground. Automatic dump buckets were used 
for hoisting the concrete, the same being dumped into a receiver supported 
by the elevator tower and extending over the staging so that wheelbarrows 
could be wheeled directly under it and loaded by gravity, and then wheeled to 
the point where it was to be placed. The forms and movable staging were 
designed by the Aberthaw Construction Co. and built by the Russell Boiler 
Works, of South Boston, Mass. 

The construction plant and the labor were so planned that each day's work 
consisted of moving the staging up 3 ft., placing the steel forms and the 
reinforcing, and concreting one 3 ft. section. To accomplish this, it was found 
that the following distribution of labor on the job was about a fair average for 
the entire work. 

For each day's work the amount of labor was: 

Hours 

For handling and placing reinforcing wall 25 

Forms 69 

Raising staging and elevating tower 48 

Receiving and checking stock ^ . . 20 

Mixing concrete 19 

Placing concrete 13 

Foreman and time keeper 18 

Working a 9-hour day this meant the employment of 24 men, the majority 
of whom were common laborers. It was found that after the forms and steel 
were in place it took between 3 and 4 hours to concrete one 3-ft. section. 

Further cost data relative to the Westerly standpipe are given in an abstract, 
published in Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 11, 1911, of a paper by 
W. W. Clifford in the Proc. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XXXVII, as follows: 

The force engaged was composed of about 25 men: 1 superintendent, 1 
engineer, 8 carpenters, 14 laborers and 1 engineman. The carpenters made 
the wooden and steel forms, and did most of the work on the reinforcing. The 
laborers did the concrete work, screened the stone, unloaded materials, and 
acted generally as helpers. 

The lower section of the wall and the floor were put in on June 15 in 20 hours 
of continuous work. Each of the first few sections above the floor took 2 or 
3 days. When well started, however, a 3-ft. sectijon was poured in a day. 
This meant placing the steel and moving up the forms, in which all the men 
were used, the laborers as helpers, cleaning and greasing the forms, etc., then 
the stage was raised, usually about noon, and the concrete was poured in the 
afternoon. It was allowed to set for a few hours while the men were clearing 
up and getting ready for the next day's work, then in the early evening the 
concrete foreman and three or four laborers cleaned the top surface. The con- 
crete was finished and ready for the dome 10 weeks after the floor was put in. 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 307 

The cost of the work is given in Table XVII. In considering these costs 
note should be taken of the fact that certain parts of the work were done under 
pressure; namely, those parts for which the whole work waited. Other parts 
were done in a more leisurely manner, owing to the fact that men cannot work 
continuously at their maximum speed. For example: In the morning the 
first thing done was to place the steel, secondly, to raise the forms, and thirdly, 
to raise the stage. All these had to be done before concreting could begin. 




Fig. 18. — Elevation and section of reinforced concrete stand-pipe. Westerly, R. I. 



This work was done by the carpenters working at maximum speed, some of the 
laborers acting as helpers. During this time the other laborers were screen- 
ing stone, washing down the walls, etc., under no great pressure. Later in 
the afternoon the laborers were working at top speed on the concrete, while 
the carpenters were placing the necessary bracing on the staging, and getting 
ready for the next day's work, all at a less forced speed. Consequently, the 
labor costs for reinforcement, forms and concrete show up much better than 
those for staging, screening stone, finishing the wall, etc. 



308 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



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310 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The materials were delivered by a granite company, on a side track about 
100 ft. from the site of the work, for 35 cts. a ton, the additional costs being 
for the labor of unloading and carrying the materials to the site of the work. 
The steel was carried by hand, and the cement in wheelbarrows. The stone 
and sand were delivered in piles beside the mixer by carts. The following 
prices were paid for labor: 

Cents per hour 

Foreman carpenter 48 

Foreman carpenter 43^^ and 45 

Carpenter's helper 35 

Englneman 35 

Labor foreman. . . 50 

Laborers 223-^ and 25 

The following prices were paid for materials: 

Cement per bbl. (less 30 cts. for bags returned) $ 1. 52 

Sand, per yd., delivered at site 1. 15 

Stone, per yd., delivered at site 1. 07 

Limoid, per bag (100 lbs.) 1. 00 

Plaster of paris, per bbl 2, 00 

Steel, per ton, plus the freight 38. 00 

In Table XVII the cost of the stage is divided between concrete, forms, and 
steel, in the proportions of >^, 3^^ and li. In the labor costs for the wall 
steel, about one-third is charged to bending and two-thirds to placing. In 
the secondary reinforcement, the cost of bending was a negligible quantity. 

Cost of 300,000-Gal. Reinforced Concrete Standpipe. — The following 
data are taken from an article by L. R. Hanson published in Engineering and 
Contracting, Dec. 13, 1911. 

The standpipe was built for the city of Norway on the upper Peninsula of 
Michigan near the Wisconsin state line. The walls are 12 ins. in thickness, 
43 ft. high, and have an internal diameter of 35 ft. The forms were built in 
sections 5 ft. in length by 3 ft. in height, and two complete inside and outside 
rings were used. The concrete was a 1 : 1 : 2 mixture. The stone, specified as 
between H and ^i in. size, was shipped from a point 300 miles distant and this 
item materially raised the concrete cost. Sand was obtained near the stand- 
pipe site. The cement was mixed with 10 per cent by volume of hydrated 
lime for waterproofing. Bending and placing the steel cost $5 per ton. 

Summary of Cost Data for 300,000 Gal. Reinforced Concrete Tank 
(Prices do not include overhead charges or profit) 

Walls — 1 : 1 : 2 mixture, 235 cu. yds. 

Forms: Total Cost per 

cost cu. yd. 

Material $ 422. 00 $ 1. 80 

Labor 404. 00 1 . 72 

Total $ 826. 00 $ 3. 52 

Steel: 

Material $ 906. 00 $ 3. 86 

Labor 118.00 .50 

Total $1,024.00 $ 4.36 

Concrete: 

Material $1,377.00 $ 5.85 

Labor 627. 00 2. 67 

Total ! $2,004. 00 $ 8. 52 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 311 

Plaster: 

Material $ 77. 00 $ 0. 33 

Labor , 265. 00 1.12 

Total $ 342.00 $1.45 

Doors, ladder, drains, etc $ 237. 00 $ 1. 00 

Removing debris, etc 80. 00 . 34 . 

Total for floor and circular wall S4, 513. 00 S19. 22 

Roof — 1 : 2 : 4 mixture — 20 cu. yds.: 

Forms $ 54.00 $2.70 

Material 140. 00 7.00 

Labor 38.00 1.90 

Total. $ 232. 00 $11. 60 

Total cost reservoir $4 , 745. 00 

Wages: 

Common labor, per hr $0. 25 

Foreman, per day 8. 00 

Sand, cu. yds., delivered 1 . 00 

Stone, cu. yd., delivered 2. 65 

Cement, bbl 1 . 75 

Steel, lb., delivered at tank 0. 02 



After the entire tank was complete it was given three coats of plaster inside, 
mixed in the proportions of 1 part cement, IH parts sand, }i part hydrated 
lime and hydratite. The first coat of \i in. thickness was applied rough, and 
while still wet was covered with a second coat about H in. thick which was 
brought to a wood floated surface; this was next gone over with a brush coat 
and brought to a very smooth troweled finish. The plaster was applied in 
circumferential strips 6 ft. in height, and the cost of the three coats per sq. ft. 
of surface was 73^ cts. 

Upon the completion of the entire tank, it was filled and allowed to stand 48 
hrs. and no change in the water level could be detected. For the first week, 
however, some sweating was noticeable, but in only one place was it of enough 
consequence, to gather ai\d flow, and this evaporated before it was 3 ft. below 
where it first appeared. No attempt was made to remedy the sweating other 
than emptying the tank and refilling in two days, but within ten days all dis- 
coloration disappeared and no sweating has since been apparent. The tank 
received a severe winter's test during the past winter when ice over 2 ft. in 
' thickness covered the top and extended around the side walls of the tank as 
well. 

The more successful waterproof construction effected in this tank using a 
1:1:2 mixture than in others built under the same supervision and care but of 
1:2:4 mixture, seems to justify the additional expense for cement. The plaster 
is also an effective "waterproofing aid" although how large a part of the good 
results here obtained, are due to the plaster and the 1:1:2 mixture respectively 
is a matter of personal opinion. Results secured by plastering other large 
tanks of 1:2:4 mixture would seem to indicate that the mixture was more 
important than the plaster face. 

Cost of Steel Standpipes in Mass. — Table XVIII is taken from a paper by 
William S. Johnson published in the Journal of the New England Water 
Works Association, June, 1914, and reprinted in Engineering and Contracting, 
Sept. 30, 1914. According to the author the standpipes were constructed 
*' recently." 



312 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table XVIII. — Cost of Steel Standpipes in Mass. 



Town 



Size, 

diam. 

height, 

ft. 



Bedford 20 X 100 

East Brookfield 25 X 50 

Littleton 35 X 40 

Marion 20 X 100 

North Chelmsford 22 X 125 

Oxford 27 X 50 

Pepperell 45 X 40 

Plainville 25 X 67 

So. Hadley (Fire Dist. No. 2) .. 35 X 60 

Wareham 20 X 100 

West Groton 30 X 40 

Wrentham 30 X 50 

Wrentham State School 22 X 50 

♦Without foundation. 



Capac- 
ity, gals. 
235,000 
184,000 
288,000 
235,000 
355 , 000 
214,000 
476 , 000 
246,000 
432,000 
235 , 000 
212,000 
264.000 
142,000 



Cost of 
founda- 
tion 
$1,030 
300 
700 



400 
839 
710 



613 
800 
368 



Cost 
including 
founda- 
tions 
$6,640 
3,550 
4,638 
5,883* 
9,772 
5,060 
6,707 
4,979 
6,165* 
6,835* 
4,021 
6,000 
2,596 



Cost per 
1,000 
gals. 

$28. 25 
19.30 
16.10 
25.00* 
27.50 
23.60 
14.10 
20.25 
14.30* 
29.10* 
18. 95 
22.70 
18.25 



Cost and Weight of Steel Water Tank of 350,000 Gal. Capacity. — Fig. 19 
from Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 31, 1917, gives a resume of the bids 



B/DDER 



Chicago 

Bndae and 
Iron Works 



Chicago 

Bridge and 
Iron Works 



Piffsburg- 

Des- Moines 

5 fee I Co. 



Pittsburg 
Des- Moines 
Steel Co. 



Arthur Tufts 
ContrYgEngr 
Atlanta Oa 



Principal 
Dimensions 








Tank 



WEI6HT IN Lbs. 



Tank IZ5,000 
Tower 136,000 
Risenefc 12,000 

Total 275,000 



Tank 125,000 
Tower 123,000 
Risenefc. 12,000 

Total 260,000 



Roof 10,300 
Tank 103,500 
Tower 121,000 
Risenefc. 14,600 
Total 249,400 



Roof 11,200 
Tank 105,000 
Tower 125,000 
Risenefc. 14,800 
Total 250,000 



Price 



30,500 



29,200 



30,950 



31,150 



Price 
Per Lb. 



Con.Fdn 
Cu.Yds 



Oil I 



0,112 



0.124 



'0122 



Approximate Quantitg 



of Concrete Cu. Yds 
Tank 505 
Tower 420 
Total 725 



^30,000 



Price 



H140 



14b 



150 



195 



195 



Price 

PerCu 

Yard 

175 



Capacitg 550,000 Gallons 

Tower Z5 ft High to Bottom 



Remarks 



Elliptical bott 
43 Riser Pipe 
d'Posf Tower 



Elliptical bott 
48" Riser Pipe 
d" Post Tower 



Segmtal bott 

60" Riser Pipe 

8" Post Tower 

"Design A'" 



Hemispyi bott 

60"Ri5erPipe 

8" Post Tower 

"Design 5" 



Reinf Concr 
48" Concrete 
Riser Pipe 



of Tank 



Fig. 19. — Bids received by Akron, O., for elevated steel water tank. 

received by the city of Akron, Ohio, Sept. 27, 1917 for constructing, furnishing 
and erecting an elevated steel water tank of a capacity of 350,000 gal., the 
tower to be 75 ft. high to bottom of tank. 

Cost of Steel Standpipe at Youngstown, Ohio. — N. E. Hawkins in Engineer- 
ing and Contracting, March 17, 1915, gives the contract price of a steel stand- 
pipe constructed in Youngstown, Ohio as follows : 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 313 

2,400 cu. yds. earth excavation, at 40 ots $ 960. 00 

1,700 cu. yds. granulated slag fill, at 90 cts , 1,530. 00 

830 cu. yds. concrete, at $6.50 5 , 395. 00 

4-in. drain pipe 1 . 40 

Brick valve house complete (10 ft. X 12 ft.) 516. 32 

Total masonry contract $ 8,402. 72 

Standpipe proper 35 , 960. 00 

Total $44,362.72 




oF •ld\E4" Manhole 

Curii^refe Bose to extend to solid Foundation 



b/V//^ 



V/, \ 00 1 j^uncireTe tsase Toexrena to soiia t-ounaaTion \ y// 

, ^^'^//y///?///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////^^ 
^•^^1— IOa: - -A^-i- 

Fig. 20. — Elevation of new steel standpipe at Youngstown, Ohio. 

.Expanded Metaf- Style J- Gen. Firepn Co. or equal 

%, \ ^"'^^pcr Floor inside '-'L of Steel Rina 
'^ ; /-Standpipe ' 




Fit}. 21. — Partial cross-section of foundation of Youngstown standpipe. 



The tank is 100 ft. in diameter and 50 ft. high and provides a storage of 
about 2,855,000 gals, making the cost per million gals, about $15,500.00. Figs. 
20 and 21 show the principal features of the design. 

Cost of 2,500,000 Gal. Steel Standpipe at West Roxbury, Mass. — Engineer- 
ing and Contracting, Aug. 11, 1915 gives the contract prices to the Metro- 
pohtan Water and Sewerage Board of Mass, of the standpipe as follows: 



314 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cost of Standpipe, Erected in 1914 

Excavation and concrete base 117.5 ft. diam., 2 ft. 8 ins. 
thick for width of 7 ft. at circumference, 3 ft. thick under 
6 columns which support the roof, 12 ins. thick under remain- 
der of tank $ 6 , 382. 28 

Steel reservoir, 100 ft. in diameter, bottom % ins. thick, 
sides 44.25 ft. high from % to % ins. thick 19 , 397. 00 

Grouting under tank bottom 1 : 1 mixture requiring 222 
bbls. of cement and 33 cu. yds. of sand 1 ,053. 67 

Total $26,832.95 

Cost per million gal $10 , 733. 00 

Costs of 30,000 Gal. Wooden Gravity Sprinkler Tank and 75-ft. Steel 
Tower. — Engineering and Contracting, July 3, 1912, gives the following 
costs for erecting an underwriter's specification tank 18 ft. in diam. and 18 ft. 
high and the steel tower 75 ft. high upon which the tank stands. 

The staves were cut and fitted at the mill, so there was no cutting or trim- 
ming at the job with the exception pf the last stave. The top of the tank had a 
conical roof sheathed with boards which were covered with rubbered roofing. 

The steel tower consisted of four columns made up of five 15-ft. sections, 
bringing the total height up to 75 ft. above the foundation. All joints were 
riveted excepting the sway braces, which were made up of J-^-in. round 
iron and turnbuckles. 

The tower was erected with a 16-ft. mast and a three-sheave rope block. 
Hoisting was done with man power. As each bent was completed the mast 
was set up on top of the bent for erecting the next one. 

The hoisting and riveting was done with common labor. Two men in the 
gang were experienced in this work. The others of the gang were picked up 
locally. 

The foundations were four in number and were 7 ft. square at the base and 
30 ins. square at top and were 7 ft. deep from top to bottom. The itemized 
costs were as follows : 

Excavation — 

221K hrs. at 25 cts $ 55. 37 

Forms : 

29H hrs. at 31 cts $ 9.15 

33 hrs. at 25 cts 8. 25 

Total forms $ 17.40 

Laying concrete, hand mixing: 

191^2 hrs. at 31 cts , . . . $ 6. 05 

91 hrs. at 25 cts 22. 75 

Total concrete $ 28. 80 

Grouting bearing plates and finishing tops of foundations: 

13 J? hrs. at 31 cts $ 4. 03 

23^ hrs. at 25 cts 0. 68 

Total $ 4. 71 

Grand total labor on foundations $106. 28 

Teaming tower and tank, 1 mile: 

Team, 19 hrs. at 60 cts $ 10. 80 

Laborers, 37 hrs. at 30 cts 11. 10 

$ 21.90 
Erecting tower and tank and painting two coats: 

643 hrs. at 30 cts $182. 00 

$204.80 
Grand total $311. 08 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 315 

Superintendence is not included in ttie above figures. The superintendent 
spent 198 hours on the job. 

Life of Wooden Water Tanks in Railway Service. — The following data 
published in Engineering and Contracting, Nov. 13, 1918, are given by 
C. R. Knowles, Superintendent Water Service, Illinois Central R. R., in a 
paper presented at annual convention of the American Railway Bridge and 
Building Association. In collecting the information letters of inquiry were 
sent to 45 railroads and 27 answers were received. 

While much valuable information was obtained from the replies, the figures 
and estimates given as to the life of tanks were almost as many as the replies 
received. 

The variation in the figures submitted on the life of timber on various 
railroads goes to show that no accurate estimate may be made on the life of 
tank timber that will apply to all sections of the country. It is characteristic 
of timber that it is more durable when used in the region in which it is grown 
than when used elsewhere, for nature seems to have fortified the timber against 
decay to a certain extent when it is kept in its native chmate. 

One railroad reported 77 redwood tanks in service in California ranging 
from 26 to 48 years old, while another road reported redwood tanks renewed 
in Wisconsin after only 15 years of service. Twelve white pine are reported 
in service in Michigan, with an average life of 35.4 years, while it has been 
necessary to replace white pine tanks in Missouri after 12 to 13 years. 
A Texas road reports cypress tanks in service as follows : 

5 tanks 31 years old, 
8 tanks 30 years old, 
3 tanks 29 years old, 

while several eastern roads fix the maximum life of cypress at 25 years. 
Table XIX shows the life of 310 tanks, 184 of which are still in service* 
and 126 of which have been reheved. In preparing this tabulation only fig- 
ures were used where the definite life of the tank was given. 

Table XIX 
Average Life of 184 Tanks in Service 

REDWOOD 
Railroad "A" 77 tanks Average life 32. 6 years 

CYPRESS 
Railroad "B" 29 tanks Average life 28. 3 years 
Railroad "C" 25 tanks Average life 25 years 
Railroad "D" 3 tanks Average life 32 years 

WHITE PINE 
Railroad "A" 24 tanks Average life 29. 7 years 
Railroad "E" 12 tanks Average life 35.4 years 
Railroad "F" 4 tanks Average life 29 years 
Seven Railroads 184 tanks Average life 30 years 
Average Life of 126 Tanks Relieved 

CYPRESS 
Railroad "B" 24 tanks Average life 27. 3 years 
Railroad "G" 16 tanks Average life 30 years 
Railroad "D" 3 tanks Average life 32 years 

43 29 years 



316 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

WHITE PINE 
Railroad "H" 27 tanks Average life 27. 5 years 
Railroad "B" 22 tanks Average life 25. 8 years 
Railroad "I" 14 tanks Average life 23 years 
Railroad "F" 4 tanks Average life 29 years 
Railroad "D" 3 tanks Average life 33 years 
Railroad "E" 3 tanks Average life 38. 3 years 
Railroad **C" 5 tanks Average life 27 years 

78 Average life 27 years 

YELLOW POPLAR 
Railroad "C" 3 tanks Average life 30 years 

RED CEDAR 
Railroad "C" 1 tank Average life 28 years 

YELLOW PINE 

Railroad "C" 1 tank Average life 29 years 

Eight Railroads 126 tanks Average life 28 years 

It will be noted that the white pine tanks show a higher average life than 

the cypress tanks in the table of tanks still in service while the opposite is 

true in the table of tanks relieved. This may be explained by the fact that 

cypress tanks were not used as extensively as white pine tanks up to 20 years 

or so ago, and on the roads shown there are probably many white pine tanks 

which were in use before cypress tanks were constructed, although there 

is apparently very little difference in the durability of the two woods. 

It is interesting to note that a yellow pine tank is shown with a life of 29 
years while the life of a yellow pine tank as constructed today would prob- 
ably not exceed 12 years. This difference in life can probably be explained 
in the fact that the trees from which the tank mentioned was cut had not 
been bled of the rosin and preservative oils natural to the wood. It should 
be explained that the life of 28 years given the red cedar tank did not represent 
the extreme life of the timber as when the tank was taken down the best of the 
timber was used in the construction of a smaller tank which is still in use. 
The original tank was constructed in 1870, which makes the timber in the 
smaller tank 48 years old. 

In the letters received many records were given showing a life of only 10 to 
15 years for cypress, white pine and redwood tanks. This was unfair to the 
timbers mentioned as the short life obtained was undoubtedly due to poor 
selection of timber, poor construction, the tank not being kept filled with water 
or some one or more of a number of faults that would cause early decay. 

Conditions of Steel Water Tank After 30 Years' Service. — Walter E. Miller 
gives the following notes in an article published in Engineering News- 
Record, March 31, 1921. 

The water tank with supporting and inclosing masonry tower of the 
water-works of Madison, Wis., was erected in 1890. Its demolition was 
completed early in January, 1921. It was removed because (1) the daily 
consumption of water and the pumping rates had so greatly increased since 
the tank was erected that the size of the tank became too small to be of mate- 
rial value, and (2) , because the tower and tank obstructed an important street. 
The history of this structure shows how greatly the allowances for depreciation 
might differ, depending upon whether they include or exclude the functional 
as well as physical depreciation. 

The structure consisted of a steel tank, 12H ft. in diameter by 60 ft. high, 
supported and enclosed by a cylindrical brick wall above a one-story square 
structure of stone masonry. The bottom of the tank was 72 ft. and its top 
was 132 ft. above the street. 



DAMS, RESERVOIRS AND STANDPIPES 317 

The tank rested on a grillage of steel rails laid upon four 16-in. I-beams 
carried by the heavy brick wall. Above the bottom of the tank the wall had 
three thicknesses, nominally 8, 6 and 4 in. The lower third of that portion 
was laid in conact with the tank anS had a thickness of the widths of two 
bricks laid flat. For the middle third of the tank the wall consisted of two 
rings of brick, one laid flat and one on edge, and was 2 in. from the tank. 
Around the top third of the tank 4 in. from it was a wall one brick width in 
thickness. 

Examination of the structure before and during its removal revealed but 
little deterioration ; so little as to make it appear that its thirty years of actual 
service would be but a small part of its possible physical life. The most 
noticeable and important deterioration was incipient disintegration of the 
outer brickwork near the level of the bottom of the tank, but this might have 
been repaired at moderate expense had the continued use of the structure 
been desired. Notwithstanding the apparent fact that the tank plates had 
never been cleaned and repainted .the greater part of their surfaces was still 
well preserved and smooth, although in places the paint was gone and rust 
had formed. In a few places there was a noticeable pitting of the metal, but 
in no case had this gone far enough to warrant any apprehension as to weak- 
eiiihg of the plates. 

Data on Life of Iron Water Tank and Cost of 537,000 Gal. Elevated Steel 
Tank at Princeton, N. J. — The following notes are given in an article by R. W. 
Becker in Engineering News, Jan. 27, 1916. 

In 1883 the firm of Tippett & Wood, of Phillipsburg, N. J., fabricated and 
erected an elevated water tank at Princeton, N. J., for the Princeton Water 
Co. The capacity of the tank was 141,000 gal. The growth of the town 
since has made it inadequate and it was replaced by a 537,000-gal. tank, 
built by the same firm early in 1915. 

Recent inspection of the old materials (iron tank and tower) showed that 
the tower was exceptionally well preserved. Rust had not caused sufficient 
deterioration in the tank plates to be perceptible by calibration. The tank 
received two coats of paint when it was erected and had been painted once 
every 3 to 4 years since. It had always been filled with water. The only 
repair required was the replacing of the oak timbers under the tank by 6-in. 
steel I-beams, 5 yr. ago. The wood was decaying rapidly and appeared 
unsafe to carry the load much longer after 25 yr. of use. 

The old tank and tower were torn down carefully, so as not to injure the 
plates, by cutting off and backing out the rivets, Each piece as it was cut off 
was carefully lowered to the ground. As the tank was in such good condition, 
it was reerected on a concrete foundation at Lawrence ville, N. J., where it is 
now in service. The tower was reerected at New Brunswick, N. J., where it 
is supporting a wooden tank of 100,000 gal. capacity. The cost to Tippett & 
Wood of taking down the old tank and tower was $1,000. 

The new tank is 45 ft. in diameter, 30 ft. high from the top to the beginning 
of the curved bottom, and 58K ft. high overall. The steel tower sup- 
porting the tank is 873^^ ft. high from the column foundations to the balcony. 
The distance from the base of the columns to the peak of the roof is 133 ft.; 
and from the ground to the top of the finial about 135 ft. 

Although the columns are vertical, the tower is very stable on account of 
the large diameter of the tank. Each column is anchored to a massive con- 
crete pier by four l>^-in. round anchor bolts. The total cost of the structure 
was about $26,000. 



CHAPTER VII 
WATER WORKS 

This chapter, while touching upon the general subject of waterworks, 
lays special stress upon the particular phases of construction costs usually- 
allotted to the field of civil engineering. Additional data on pipe costs are 
given in the chapter on Irrigation and data on operating and construction 
costs of water treatment plants are given in the following chapter. 

For further data the reader is referred to: Gillette's "Handbook of Cost 
Data" Section VII, Waterworks; Gillette's "Earthwork and Its Cost" and 
"Handbook of Rock Excavation" for trenching costs and to Gillette and 
Dana's "Handbook of Mechanical and Eilectrical Cost Data" for costs of 
pumps and pumping. 

Construction and Operating Costs. — The following matter is abstracted 
from Hazen's "Clean Water and How to Get It" (1914) 

In America water works receipts average about $2.50 per capita for the 
population supplied, but figures ranging all the way from $2.00 ^o $4.00 are 
common, and some figures are outside of this range. These are for publicly 
owned works. Private companies average to make about the same collec- 
tions for domestic rates, and in addition they are paid for fire service, so that 
their total receipts average about $3.00 per capita. Publicly owned works 
as a rule receive no separate payment for fire protection. 

There seems to be no well marked tendency to either higher or lower collec- 
tions per capita in the larger cities, as compared with the smaller ones. 
Large cities usually have to go farther for water. Small sources near at 
hand are not available to them, and it would seem reasonable to suppose that 
the relative cost would be greater. But it seems that the savings which are 
made by operating on a larger scale offset this tendency, and on the whole, 
the expense of securing water is just about the same on an average in propor- 
tion to population in small cities and in large ones. 

The disposition of the $2.50 per capita collected on an average in America 
is about as follows: First, in works where the supply is from a gravity source, 
and no purification is used, about $0.50 per capita annually is used for paying 
the general expenses of administration, of taking care of services, meters, 
etc., of making repairs, and of maintaining the works generally. The $2.00 
remaining pays 4 per cent interest, and 1 per cent depreciation, or together 
5 per cent capital charges on a cost or value of works averaging $40 per capita. 
The $40 is about equally divided between the distribution system, which 
includes the pipes in the streets of the city, the services, meters, etc., and the 
source of supply, which includes all the works for securing the water and 
bringing it to the city. 

Second, in works where the supply is pumped from a river or lake near at 
hand, with or without purification, about $0.50 is used for the general expenses 
as above mentioned. Another $0.50 is used for pumping and purification 
(rather more when the water is purified ; less when it is not) ; and the remaining 
$1.50 pays 5 per cent capital charges on an average investment of $30 per 
capita, of which $20 is in the distribution system and $10 in the source of 
supply. 

318 



WATER WORKS 319 

Gravity sources of supply cost more to secure, but are cheaper to operate. 

The above mentioned figures are general approximations, given to show 
general water works conditions in America at the present time, but wide 
fluctuations will be found in individual cases. 

Some cities are so located that no good, adequate source of supply is near 
at hand; and where water is brought from long distances and is pumped and 
purified, it is clear that it cannot be delivered at the cost or sold at the price 
that is fair for a water drawn from a pure and ample source near at hand. 

Then the cost of distribution differs. In a city on level ground where one 
service or one system of pipes does for all, the cost both of construction and of 
operation is less than on a hilly site where separate high service districts must 
be maintained, involving additional pipe systems and additional pumping 
stations. And a city that is compactly built up, so that it can be served with 
a pipe system having a mile or less of pipe per thousand of population, can be 
more cheaply served than a scattered city with long lines of pipe running 
out where there are but few houses, and where, taking it right through, two or 
even three miles of pipe are required per thousand of population. " 

Cities that waste large amounts of water have to pay for it. The cost 
of the works is greater, and this cost is sure to be represented sooner or later 
in the assessments. 

Matters of these general natures largely explain why some cities can be sup- 
plied for less than $2 per capita while others must collect over $4 per capita. 

The service of water is one of the cheapest. The average American family 
pays far more for gas, for ice and for milk, than for water. In my own house- 
hold in New York, taking the cost of Croton water at $1, the average cost 
of other household supplies is as follows: Ice $3, Light $4, Telephone $5, 
Coal $13, Milk $15. Taking into account the nature of the water service, 
which has become absolutely indispensable, the low cost is very remarkable. 

Rates Charged for Water Service. — Berlin, Germany, collects twelve marks, 
equal to about three dollars per annum, for each service, and in addition 
collects payment for all water recorded by the meters. Milwaukee has 
similarly collected one dollar per annum for each service, but this is clearly too 
low a figure. It will not pay for the maintenance of the services and meters. 

A better way is to base the payments upon the size of the service. Most 
of the services of a system are domestic services, that is to say they serve 
residences. These services are commonly five-eighths of an inch in diameter. 
The assessment on these maj be placed at $3.00 per annum, let us say. 
Some takers insist on a larger service because they wish to draw water more 
rapidly. Many discussions take place because the prospective taker is 
insistent on a larger service, while the water works superintendent believes 
the usual size to be sufficient. Why not let the taker have a service as large 
as he likes and charge him for it in proportion to its size, or, let us say, approxi- 
mately in proportion to its ability to deliver water? 

Starting with a charge of $3.00 for a five-eighth inch service, and using 
round figures, the charge for larger services, not including the charge for water 
would be 

For f^-inch $ 5. 00 per annum 

For 1-inch 10. 00 per annum 

For 13^-inch 20. 00 per annum 

For 2-inch 30. 00 per annum 

For 3-inch 70. 00 per annum 

For 4-inch 125. 00 per annum 

For 6-inch 300. 00 per annum 

For 8-inch 500. 00 per annum 



320 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

This arrangement has the practical advantage of making a substantial 
charge for a substantial service, and for a service that too often is not ade- 
quately paid for, where large pipes lead from the mains into mills, ware- 
houses, etc., for fire purposes only, and from which pipes ordinarily no water 
is drawn. 

These pipes cause more trouble to water departments, and the privileges 
granted are subject to more gross abuse, than those from any other class of 
service; and it is right and proper that substantial payments should be 
made for them. 

Such large fire services should always be metered and they should not be 
allowed to exist on any other condition. This has not been possible until 
recently, but it can be done now, for a type of meter has been invented which 
is satisfactory from a water works standpoint, and which does not interfere 
materially with the value of the pipe for fire service. With this meter the 
water ordinarily passes through a by-pass on which there is a small meter. 
But in case of need, that is in case of fire, a valve on the main line opens 
automatically and the full quantity of water that the pipe will carry flows 
through it unobstructed for use. Even in this case an approximate idea of the 
amount of water drawn is registered by some extremely ingenious devices 
which are only brought into play when the main valve is opened. 

The general idea of charging in proportion to the areas of the service pipes 
has been expressed in the form of minimum rates at Cleveland and other 
places. I do not know that it has been followed anywhere to its logical 
conclusion, as above outlined. 

Another way to divide the sum to be taxed on services is in proportion to 
fixture rates. This method is applicable especially in cities which are grad- 
ually changing from fixture charges to the meter system. In this case the 
fixture rates are known for each house. Supposing it is decided to assess 
one-third of the whole amount to be raised upon fixtures then when a meter 
was installed on a given service the charge for that service would be one-third of 
the previous fixture rate, and in addition all water used would be charged for. 

For these conditions this system has much to recommend it. But it is a 
transition system. When all services are metered it is not to be supposed 
that it will be worth while to continue making fixture rates. 

In the case of an excess of revenue being demonstrated, the charge for water 
could be reduced to six cents or to five cents as the business would stand, or 
the charge for services might be lowered. J'ractical experience with the 
general method would be available to indicate where the cuts could be best 
and most equitably made. 

The use of a sliding scale, that is to say, or making lower rates to large 
takers, is firmly fixed, and it will be hard to do away with the idea. But the 
writer believes that such a scale as that suggested contains all the provisions 
of this kind that are necessary or wise. 

In the first place this kind of scale is in reality a sliding one. The small 
cottage pays, let us say, $3 per year for the service, and in addition uses water 
charged at $0.10 per 1000 gallons, let us say, amounting to $3 per year in 
addition. The total payment is $6 per year and the average cost of water to 
the taker is $0.20 per 1000 gallons. 

A larger taker pays, let us say, $12 per year for his service, and uses at the 
same rate water worth $120 per annum. The whole bill is then $132 and the 
average cost of water to him is $0.11 per 1000 gallons, against the $0.20 paid 
by the smaller taker. 



WATER WORKS 321 

The basing figures of course are to be fixed to meet local conditions, and 
when so fixed they will give all the slide that is desirable. There is no reason 
why the man in a cottage, who lets his plumbing get out of order and wastes 
an extravagant quantity of water, should be asked to pay a larger price per 
thousand gallons for the water wasted by his neglect than is paid by the 
largest establishment. 

Manufacturers are often supplied by cities at special rates which are less 
than cost. This is most frequently done on special pleas, and is comparable 
to giving exemption from taxation. The practice is not a wise one and 
should not be encouraged. 

Low rates are also often made to secure customers who would not otherwise 
use water or who would not use so much. This is most apt to be done in the 
early days of operation of a system when the capacity of the works built 
in anticipation of growth is beyond present requirements. Hydraulic 
elevators and motors are most common and objectionable subjects for such 
special rates. As long as the capacity of the works is really in excess of the 
demand, a little financial help is received by the department from such rates; 
but as soon as the capacity of the plant is approached such rates become a drag 
and a source of loss. Experience shows that they are not, and cannot possibly 
be shut off promptly when they cease to be profitable. It is, therefore, better 
and safer to charge the regular rates for water used for these and all other 
special purposes, and to take good care that all water so used is paid for. 
Some revenue will be lost ; some elevators and printing presses will be driven 
by electricity instead of by water power, but electricity is a better way of 
transmitting power than water under pressure, and in the end all will i)e 
better off. 

American cities having high service systems make precisely the same 
charges for water from them as for water from the low service pipes. The 
man on the top of a hill with high service water pays no more than the man 
in the valley, though to supply him costs the city usually from two to five 
cents more per thousand gallons, and where the high service districts are small 
and isolated the extra cost may greatly exceed these figures. There seems to 
be no well-founded reason for this equality in charge with clearly defined 
difference in cost of service. 

It would seem rational and wise to charge more for high service water than 
for low service water, and to establish the differential carefully at so many 
cents per thousand gallons, to pay as nearly as it can be computed for the 
additional cost of the high service water; and the differential should be subject 
to revision from time to time as the conditions of service change. Usually it 
would be higher at first, with few takers, and less as the quantity sold became 
greater. 

The present method is unfair to those on low ground. They pay their 
share (usually the largest share) of the excess of supplying water to those 
located on the hills. And this is the more unfair, as the hill sites are usually 
more desirable for residences, and those who live on them are well able to pay 
the added cost which their service entails on the water department. 

I have described this meter rate question at some length, because I feel 
strongly that present methods of charging are in general unfair and unreason- 
able, and because I believe that the adoption of the general principles here 
outlined will do a great deal to improve the situation. 

The sooner arbitrary and unreasonable methods are abandoned, and more 
reasonable methods are adopted, the better it will be for both consumers and 
21 



322 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

for water departments, and the easier it will be to supply clean water and to 
make the financial arrangements for doing it. 

The Required Sizes of Filters and Other Parts of Water Works. — The 
following matter is given in Hazen's "Clean Water and How to Get It" 
(1914). 

One of the most perplexing questions to a beginner is to find the reasons 
for the apparent discrepancies in the sizes of the different parts of a well 
designed water works system. If a system is capable of supplying 15,000,000 
gallons per day, it would seem at first thought that all parts should be of this 
capacity and that nothing beyond it would be necessary. But this condition 
is never realized. The pumps have one capacity, the pipes another, the 
filters still another, and the plant is declared to be too small while the average 
consumption of water is below any of the figures given for the capacities 
of the component parts. 

In laying out a system of works there is no matter which calls for more care- 
ful study than the most advantageous sizes of these component parts. To 
some extent these sizes are not capable of calculation, but are matters of 
judgment. The judgment to be valuable must be based on extended 
experience, and must take into account all the particular conditions in the case 
in hand. 

, Let us take a particular case to illustrate in a general way the method of 
getting at these sizes. 

The city under consideration has a present population of 80,000, we will say. 
The works now built should be large enough so that no addition will be 
required for ten years. In some parts it may be worth while to anticipate 
growths for a longer period. The rate of growth to be anticipated is judged 
from the past rate of this particular city, and of other cities similarly situated, 
taking also into account any special conditions likely to make it grow either 
more or less rapidly than it has done, or than its neighbors. In this case we 
will say that, all things considered, 25 per cent per decade seems a reasonable 
allowance. Adding 25 per cent to the present population brings us to a 
population of 100,000, which must be provided for in the first construction. 

The amount of water per capita is next to be considered. This depends 
somewhat upon the habits of the people as to the use of water for domestic 
purposes, and for watering lawns and streets; somewhat upon the amount of 
water sold now or likely to be sold for manufacturing, railway, and trade 
purposes ; and still more upon the amount of water that is wasted by takers and 
the amount lost by leakage from the pipes. 

The present consumption we will say is 100 gallons per capita daily. A 
greater manufacturing use is to be anticipated, but on the other hand, it is 
proposed to install more meters upon the services which will reduce the waste. 
This will offset the increase in actual use per capita, and we will consider 100 
gallons per capita daily as the probable consumption ten years hence. 

The quantity of water to be provided is thus 100 gallons per capita for a 
population of 100,000, or 10,000,000 gallons per day. 

Ten million gallons per day is the average daily amount for the year. Some- 
times the use will be less and sometimes more than the average. There are 
few cities where the maximum month does not exceed the annual average by 
15 per cent. There are some where it is 50 per cent greater. In this case 25 
per cent is assumed. 

The maximum monthly consumption will thus be 25 per cent above the 
average, or 12,500,000 gallons per day. 



WATER WORKS 323 

The maximum daily consumption must be taken as 10 per cent more than 
this figure, or 13,750,000 gallons per day. 

During some hours of the day the rate of consumption is far greater than at 
other hours. The excesss of the maximum hourly rate over the average daily 
rate is more nearly in proportion to the population supplied than it is to the 
average amount of supply. In other words, the use of water fluctuates, 
while the waste does not fluctuate, and where waste is large in proportion the 
fluctuations expressed in percentage of the whole are less. In this case a rate 
of 80 gallons per capita is taken as representing the excess of maximum rate of 
consumption over the average of 100. The maximum rate df use, therefore, 
will be at the rate of 180 gallons per capita, or 18,000,000 gallons per day. 

This does not include the water required for fire service, which must still be 
added. For ordinary fires which are quickly put out, no very heavy drafts 
are made. But for the larger fires, which occur at long intervals, a liberal 
supply must be furnished. 

In this case, taking into account the nature of the situation and value of the 
property, we assume that water to supply 30 standard fire streams should be 
available. Such streams use 250 gallons of water per minute, or at the rate of 
.360,000 gallons per day for each fire stream. Thirty streams will require 
water at the rate of 10,800,000 gallons per day. 

If this was added to the maximum rate of use, 18,000,000 gallons per day, 
it would give the extreme maximum rate to be provided for of 28,800,000 gallons 
per day. 

Actually there is so little probability of the occurrence of the maximum fire 
at precisely the time of the maximum use of water for other purposes that we 
can afford to take a few chances on it, and this figure may be cut somewhat. 
With an average use of 100 gallons per capita, rates exceeding 130 gallons per 
capita would not occur for more than a small percentage of the time. This 
would be 13,000,000 gallons per day. Adding our 30 fire streams, or 10,800,- 
000 gallons per day, to this, we have 23,800,000,or say 25,000,000 gallons per 
day, as the amount which the works must be capable of supplying when there is 
demand for it in case of a heavy fire. 

It is only necessary to prepare to supply water at this highest rate for three 
or four hours, but the works must be able to supply water at the maximum 
daily rate of 13,750,000, or say 14,000,000 gallons per day, when required, for 
a number of days in succession. 

We can now take up the sizes required for the different parts of the works. 

If an impounding reservoir and its catchment area are sufficient to maintain 
a constant supply in a dry year equal to the annual average contemplated use, 
that will suffice. The reservoir will take care of fluctuations in the rate of 
draft, and no computation need be made of the effect of such fluctuations. 

The pipe line leading from the impounding reservoir to the distributing 
reservoir near the city must have a capacity equal to the maximum daily use 
of 14,000,000 gallons per day, or 40 per cent above the average annual use. 

The hourly fluctuations will be balanced by the distributing reservoir. 
The storage capacity required to balance the fluctuations of ordinary use 
will be about 15 per cent of the average daily use or 1,500,000 gallons. In addi- 
tion to this, enough capacity to maintain the maximum flre draft for four 
hours should be added. This will require: 

H4 (25 - 10) = 2,500,000 gallons capacity. 

This makes the required capacity of the distributing raservoir 4,000,000 gallons. 



324 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

It is not usually convenient to so operate a plant as to keep the distributing 
reservoir always full, and a fire might occur when it was somewhat drawn 
down. To provide for this a further allowance should be made, bringing the 
capacity to 5,000,000 gallons, or one-half a day's average supply. And if the 
fire risk is large, the site suitable, and the financial conditions warrant it, a 
larger reservoir, up to at least a full day's supply, will be safer and better. 

Purification works and pumps, if used, located between the impounding 
reservoir and the distributing reservoir, must have capacities equal to the 
maximum day's use, and, in addition, reserve units or capacity must be pro- 
vided to cover ttie time lost in cleaning filters and in repairing pumps ; and it 
is customary to have a reserve unit of each kind, so that the supply would not 
be crippled by having one pumping or filtering unit out of service for some 
time. 

As a general rule, where the distributing reservoir balances hourly fluctua- 
tions and provides for fire service requirements, the filters should have a 
capacity a half greater than the average rate of consumption, and the pumps 
should have a nominal capacity twice as great as the average rate of pumping. 

The average rate of the filters will thus be two-thirds of the maximum rate, 
and the pumping machinery will operate equal to one-half its nominal capacity 
when the capacity of the plant is reached. At all other times the ratio of use 
to capacity will be less. 

The pipes from the distributing reservoir to the city, and through it, must 
have a capacity up to the maximum rate of use of 25,000,000 gallons per day. 

If the water is pumped from the reservoir to the city, the pumps must have 
this capacity with one unit in reserve. This means practically that the pumps 
for direct service must have a capacity equal to three times the average 
rate of use. In small works the pumps must be even larger than this in 
proportion. 

It never pays to build filters and purification works to meet the maximum 
rate of consumption. Even in case of a river supply and direct pumping of 
the filtered water into the distribution pipes, it pays to provide a pure water 
reservoir at the filters to balance the hourly fiuctuations in rate. This per- 
mits the purification plant to work at a constant or nearly constant rate 
throughout the twenty-four hours, which is advantageous. 

The figures used in this illustration are representative, but there are reasons 
in particular cases why higher or lower values must be used. But in every 
case there are certain ratios that must be met. With pumps capable of 
lifting 10,000,000 gallons per day, and filters capable of filtering, and pipes 
capable of carrying this quantity, it has never been possible, and it never will 
be possible, to deliver under the required conditions of practical service 10,000,- 
000 gallons of water per day, nor even an approximation to this amount. 

This matter, although very simple, is mentioned at length because it is one 
of the most common matters to be misunderstood, and a perfectly clear 
understanding of it is essential. 

Some most important projects have been seriously defective and incapable 
of their supposed capacities because of inadequate allowances of this kind. 

Waterworks Data for Small Towns and Villages. — Prof. D. D. Ewing gives 
the following in Engineering and Contracting, April, 14, 1920. 

The data for the accompanying statistical graphs and empirical equations 
were drawn from the descriptions of waterworks plants contamed in " Munici- 
pal Water Supplies of Illinois," by Edward Bartow, Bulletin of the University 
of Illinois, Water Survey Series No 5,1907 and "Water Supplies of Kansas," 



WATER WORKS 



325 



by C, A. Haskins and C. C. Young, Engineering Bulletin No. 5, University 
of Kansas, 1915. 

In Fig. 1 are plotted the relations between water consumption in gallons 
per capita per day and population for small towns in Indiana, Illinois and 
Kansas. As is indicated in the figure the points through which the graphs are 
drawn are averages for a number of communities of about the same size. 
The water consumption of a town depends on a number of factors, some of the 
most important being: 

Industrial development. 

Social characteristics of the people. 

Climate. 

Character of the water supply. 

Sewerage development. 

Percentage of metered services. 



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Fig. 1. — The relation between water consumption and population. 



As the graphs represent average values it is to be expected that in specific 
cases there may be wide deviation from the figures indicated by the graphs. 
For example, in a small country town of the poorer type with nothing in the 
way of sewer systems and industries the consumption may be as low as 5 gal. 
per capita per day. On the other hand in a small city containing a number of 
fairly large water using industries the consumption may reach 500 gal. per 
capita per day. 

A study of the graphs indicates that for ordinary middle west towns of less 
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by 

Population 

Gallons per capita per day = 

40 



326 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



For towns of more than 4000 population the average consumption is inde- 
pendent of the population and is about 100 gal. per capita per day. In passing 
it may be stated that reliable water consumption data are very hard to obtain 
since in only a very few of the plants of the country is the water pumpage 
metered. 

The relation between number of consumers and population for small 

Kansas communities is shown in Fig. 2. Mathematically the relation is 

approximately expressed by. 

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100 

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Fig. 2. — The relation between number of consumers and population. 



Fig. 3 shows the relation between pump capacity in gallons per minute and 
population and indicates the method used in determining the relation. The 
figures plotted are for Kansas towns and the equations of the graphs are: 



Pump capacity (maximum) = 600 -^ 43 X 



Population 
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Similar studies of pump capacity data for Illinois and Indiana plants give the 
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Indiana plants 

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Pump capacity (average) = *Moo X Population. 
Pump capacity (minimum) = Ho X Population. 



WATER WORKS 



327 



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Fig. 3. — Pump capacity and its relation to population. 















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328 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



The constants in the several equations for similar conditions are quite different. 
It is probable, however, that for ordinary middle west towns the average pump 
capacity in gallons per niinute is about H of the population. The maximum and 
minimum equations indicate the range of variation, that is the pump capacity 
for a town of specified population should fall somewhere between the figures 
given by the maximum and minimum equations respectively. 

Similar graphs showing the relation between standpipe or tank capacity in 
gallons and the population for small Kansas communities are shown in Fig. 4. 
The equations of the graphs are : 

Capacity (average) = 35,000 + 36 X Population. 

Capacity (minimum) = 30,000 + 5 X Population, 

For towns under 1500 population a 50,000 gal. tank mounted on a 100-ft, 
tower is a very common installation. For pneumatic tank systems Kansas data 
indicates that the 

Tank capacity = 12,000 + 5 X Population. 



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Fig. 5. — Mileage of mains and population. 



For Indiana communities the data analyzed show that for elevated tanks or 
standpipes the relations between tank capacity and population are: 
Capabity (maximun) =50,000 + 60 X Population. 

Capacity (average) = 7500 + 37.5 X Population. 

Capacity (minimum) = 15.4 X Population. 

A fair figure for the storage capacity needed in an ordinary middle west town is 
probably given with a fair degree of accuracy by the equation. 

Tank capacity = 25,000 + 35 X Population. 

The mileage of water mains required for communities of various sizes, as 
derived from the data for the Kansas plants, is shown in Fig. 5. The equations 
corresponding to the graphs are: 

- ... . . , . X . , 3 X Population. 
Miles of mam (maximum) == 4 -f 



Miles of main (average) = 18 + 
Miles of* main (minimum) = l>s X 



1000 
1.9 X Populat ion. 
1000 
Population. 



lOOOj 



WATER WORKS 



329 



It is recognized tliat tlie design of a new waterworks plant based wholly 
on the data such as are given above, certainly would not be good engineering 
practice or even good common sense. In the design or layout of such a plant 
due weight must always be given to prevailing local conditions. Nevertheless 
it is believed that such data are of value in making preliminary estimates, in 
checking tentative designs or layouts and in checking the reasonableness of 
the operating performance in existing plants. 

Cost and Operating Data for Small Waterworks. — The following cost and 
operating data, given in Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 13, 1920, pertain 
to small waterworks equipment. Ihey were compiled by Prof. D. D. Ewing 
in connection with the preparation of Bulletin No. 4, " Electiic Driven Water- 
works in Indiana," Purdue University Engineering Experiment Station. 



72 

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I 2 3 4 S 6 76 S /O/i /> /J /4 /S /6 17 IQ /9 ko 21 22 
Pump Capacity in 100 6. PM. 
Centrifugal Pumps 

Fio. 6. — Costs of motor-driven centrifugal pumps. 



Fig. 6 shows cost data for centrifugal pumping units for 125-ft., 175-ft. 
and 250-ft head. These units include 3-phase, 220- volt, 1,800 r.p.m., squirrel 
cage, alternating current induction motors, complete with hand-operated start- 
ing compensators, mounted on the same sub-base and direct connected to the 
pumps. The costs are F.O.B. works, and are as of April 1, 1919. 

As cost equations are often more convenient for an engineer's reference 
handbook than tables or curves, such equations have been worked out for the 
graphs of Fig. 1. They are as follows: 

•Capacities from 500 to 1,500 gal. per minute, 250-ft. head. Cost = $800 -|- 
$1.25 X G.P.M. 

Capacities 250 to 1,500 gal. per minute, 175 ft. head. Cost = 1800 -f- $0.80 X 
G.P.M. 

Capacities 100 to 750 gal. per minute, 125 ft. head,* Cost = $640 -f $0.75 X 
G.P.M. 

Capacities 750 to 2,000 gal. per minute, 125 ft. head. Cost = $860 ■\- $0.45 X 
G.P.M. 

Similar cost equations for motor-driven rotary pumps of first-class menufarture 
are: 



330 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Capacities 100 to 400 gal. per minute, 125 ft. head, Cost = $4.50 X G.P.M. 
Capacities 500 to 2,000 gal. per minute, 125 ft. head, Cost = $1,300 + $1.60 
G.P.M. 

For air pumps with motor-driven compressors the equations are: 
Capacities up to 500 gal. per minute, 50-ft. lift, Cost = $500 + $4 X G.P.M. 
For motor-driven deep well reciprocating pumping units the equations are: 




9 10 II 12 /J 14. IS 16 17 le 19 21 
Capaciftf in 1006 PM 

Fig. 7. — Efficiencies of different types of pumps: 



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Fig. 8. — Coal consumption in small waterworks plants. 

Capacities up to 200 gal. per minute, 50-ft. lift. Cost = $600 + $6 X G.P.M 

Capacities up to 200 gal. per minute, 160 ft. head. Cost = $600 -f- $9 X 
G.P.M. 

For elevated tanks, height to top of tank 100 ft., tank capacities, 25,000 to 
200,000 gdl.. Cost = $3,200 + $45 X capacity in 1,000 gal. 

The tank costs are for the tanks erected complete and include everything 



WATER WORKS 



331 



except freight charges. The weights of these tanks and their towers are 
given by, 

Weight = 14 tons -\- H X capacity in 1,000 gal. 

In Fig. 7 are shown the efficiencies of triplex, rotary and centrifugal pumps. 
These curves do not represent the efficiencies of just one pump of each of the 
different types operated under various discharge conditions, but are the 
efficiencies of lines of pumps of the several types, the efficiency of each pump in 
a given line being the best operating efficiency of that pump. 

Fuel consumption and conservation are matters of prime importance today 
and in Fig. 8 is shown an analysis of the fuel consumption of a number of small 
steam operated waterworks plants in Indiana. It will be noted that in the 
small plants the fuel consumption reaches an almost prohibitive figure. Were 
these plants operated by electric motors receiving their energy supply from 
a central station of only moderate capacity, the equivalent coal consumption 
would rarely exceed 7 lb. of coal per 1,000 gal. of water pumped, and in many 
cases fall below 5 lb. per 1,000 gal. 

Cost of Water Works in Cities of 9,000 to 10,000 Population. — The data 
in Table I are taken from an article in Engineering and Contracting, April 
9, 1919, giving a summary of the information collected by Kenyon Riddle, 
(City Manager of Xenia, Ohio) by means of a questionnaire sent to all cities 
of the above size in the United States. 

Table I. — Cost of Water Works in Cities of From 9,000 to 10,000 
Population 

Present Value of 

value of water works 

Name of city entire plant per capita 

1 Xenia, O. (P) $260,000 $29.00 

2 Aberdeen, S. D. (M) 224,500 13.50 

4 Emporia, Kan. (M) 400,000 40.00 ' 

2 Corsicana, Tex. (M) 160 , 000 12. 00 

4 lola, Kan. (M) 123 , 000 12. 30 

5 Hastings, Neb. (M) 250 , 000 20. 00 

6 Westerly, R. I. (M) 350,000 35. 00 

6 Ludington, Mich. (M) 200 , 000 20. 00 

*Rahway, N. J. (M) 350,000 35.00 

8 Monmouth, 111. (M) 300,000 30. 00 

s Junction City, Kan. (M) 200 . 000 25. 00 

9 Fort Scott, Kan. (M) 295 , 500 21. 00 

8 Kewanee, 111. (M) 395,000 23.00 

6 Delaware, O. (P) 300 , 000 33. 00 

1 Owosso, Mich. (P) 150,000 19. 00 

3 Tyler, Tex. (M)... 285.000 19.00 

4 Defiance, O. (M) 150 , 000 16. 60 

4 St. Charles, Mo. (M) .. 150,000 15.00 

10 Abilene, Kan. (M) 80 , 000 16. 00 

10 Herington, Kan. (M) 90 , 000 19. 00 

6 Albuquerque, N. M. (M) 400,000 22.00 

5 Pomona, Cal. (P) 500 , 000 31. 00 

4 Clarksville, Tenn. (M) 200 , 000 20. 00 

B Arkansas City, Ak. (M) 200 , 000 18. 00 

4 Chickasha, Okla. (P) 240,000 16.00 

6 Goshen, Ind. (M) 220 , 000 22. 00 

4 BiUings, Mont. (M) 500 , 000 28. 00 

6 Ashland, Wis. (P) 480,000 24.00 

sBarre, Vt. (M) 390,000 39.00 

12 Menominee, Mich. (M) 284 , 000 28. 00 

4 Ottawa, Kan. (M) 130,000 14.40 

11 Adrian, Mich. (P) 150,000 12. 50 

Source of Supply: ^ Wells and springs. 2 Artesian wells. ^ j^eservoir. 

* Rivers. 5 Wells. 6 Lake. ^ Deep wells. » River and two deep wella. 
10 Springs. 12 Green Bay, Michigan. 

(P) Private ownership. (M) Municipal.ownership. 



332 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cost Data on Small Water Works Systems. — William Artingstall gives the 
following data in Municipal and County Engineering, Oct., 1919. 

The expenditure incurred for water supply for small cities is dependent on 
the locality and varies in the per capita cost due to the local conditions 
peculiar to each city. This variation is due not so much to the cost of the 
water mains and feeders as it is to the cost of the pumping plant and the 
difficulty (or ease) with which the necessary amount and kind of water is 
obtained. For this reason it is customary to let separate contracts covering 
these two phases of the work and in the majority of cases the cost of the supply 
is not reported for public information. In Table II the cost of the distribution 
system is all that is given unless otherwise noted. To this cost must be added 
an amount per capita of from $15 as a minimum to S40 or $50 as a maximum. 
In cities where there are no deep wells nor expensive pumps to install, the cost 
would run in the neighborhood of $15 or $20. 

Table II. — Cost or Small Water Distribution Systems in 1919 

Expenditure, 

Town State Population per capita 

Oneida, S. D 150 $200. 00* 

St. Clair Beach, Mich 200 approx. 50. 00 

Ladora, Iowa 260 58. 50 

Waconda, S. D 326 92.50* 

Garber, Okla 382 59. 00 

Pretty Prairie, Kans 327 97. 50 

Menno, S. D 621 56. 30 

Foley, Minn 710 56. 30 

Hettinger, N. D 766 35. 00 

Dexter, la 767 47. 00 

Townsend, Mont 759 39. 60 

Wendell, N. C 759 47. 30 

Orem, Utah 800 125. 00* 

Markesan, Wis 892 61. 50 

Walker, Minn ■ 917 27. 80 

Fairmount, Neb 921 37. 00 

Grand June. la 1 , 012 40. 00 

Ferndale, Mich 1,070 79. 00* 

Spearfish, S. D 1 , 130 44. 00 

Spirit Lk., la 1,162 45.50 

Roundup, Mont 1 , 513 25. 70 

Aiken, Neb 1,638 24,00 

What Cheer, la 1,720 29.00 

Note that as the size tjf the city increases, the cost per capita becomes less 
due to a greater density of population. *Complete. 

Costs of Small Water Works Systems in Massachusetts. — The foUowing 
data are taken from an article by Harry R. Crohurst published in Engineering 
and Contracting, May 26, 1915. 

Table III. — Cost per Capita of Small Water Works Systems 

Total cost 
of water Cost per 
Population works capita 

Ashland 1700 $ 46,034 $27 

East Brookficld 2204 23,927 11 

Littleton 1229 45 , 896 37 

Med way 2696 100 , 032 37 

Pepperell 2953 105,451 36 

Oxford 3361 57,539 17 

Wrentham 1743 50,683 29 

The system at Ashland was constructed in 1911 and consists of twelve 
2>^-in. driven weUs varying in dep.th from 25 to 32 ft. with an average depth 



WATER WORKS 333 

of 30 ft., a small field stone pumping station 25 X 33 ft. in plan with a red 
asbestos shingled roof, and a pumping plant consisting of two 17-HP. oil 
engines and two 7 X 8-in. Smith- Vaile triplex pumps. 

The distribution system consists of a covered, reinforced concrete standpipe 
40 ft. in diameter and 32 ft. high with a capacity of 300,000 gals., and 6\^ 
miles of cast-iron mains varying from 12 to 6 ins. in diameter. On the system 
there are 66 gates and 52 hydrants, and the number of services connected at 
the end of the year 1913 was 250, all of which were metered. 

In laying out the system no unusual conditions were encountered, and no 
large amount of rock was found with the exception of the main leading to the 
standpipe. 

The cost of constructing the system to the end of the year 1913, not includ- 
ing service connections, as given in the 1913 report of the Board of Water 
Commissioners was as follows : 

Bond issue $ 55 22 

Land 1,710. .38 

Legal expenses 122. 65 

Office expenses 74. 76 

Wells ' 1,266.80 

Pumping station 2, 122. 95 

Pumps and engines 4 , 358. 20 

Standpipe 5 , 812. 00 

Mains: 

Pipe $15, 116. 38 

Gates, hydrants, specials 2 , 579. 32 

Laying pipe 9 , 369. 86 

Freight, express and miscellaneous 1 , 160. 62 28, 226. 18 

Engineering 2 , 285 20 



$46,034 34 



During the year 1913 the average daily consumption of water was 20,000 
gals., or about 12 gals, per capita, one of the lowest consumptioa figures in 
the state. 

The cost of operating the works during 1913 was as follows: 

Pumping plant $ 77. 95 

Service repairs 27. 74 

Pipe repairs 262. 17 

Fuel 198. 73 

Wages 865, 00 

Office expense 62, 91 

Interest on bonds 2 , 000. 00 

Miscellaneous 27. 37 



$3,521.87 



^om the above consumption and cost of operation the cost of supplying 
1,000 gals, of water was 48 cts. 

The source of supply of East Brookfield is from the shore of Lake Lashaway, 
or Furnace Pond, just north of the village. The wells are located on the 
westerly shore and the water which is taken from a stratum of coarse water- 
bearing gravel is pumped through 1,325 ft. of 6-in. main to the standpipe 
from which it is distributed by gravity. 

The S5[stem installed in the fall of 1908, consists of twelve 2J'^-in. tubular 
wells varying in depth from 19 to 24 ft., a small brick pumping station 24 X 
30 ft. in plan with a slate roof, and a pumping plant consisting of two 8-HP. 
oil engines and two ^Vz X 8-in. triplex pumps each having a capacity of 
100 gals, per minute. 



334 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The distribution system consists of a covered wrought-iron standpipe 25 ft. 
in diameter and 50 ft. high with a capacity of 185,000 gals., and about 2.6 
miles of cast-iron mains 12 to 6 ins. in diameter. On the system at the time 
of examination there were 80 services and 32 hydrants. 

The cost of constructing this system, not including service connections, 
was as follows: 

Wells $ 567. 72 

Pumping station 1 , 627. 70 

Pumping plant 3 , 050. 00 

Standpipe 3,150.00 

Mains: 

Pipe S8 , 480. 40 

Hydrant, gates, specials . 1 , 357. 60 

Laying pipe 3,009.90 12,847.90 

Engineering and inspection 1 ,384. 07 

Bills payable 1 , 300. 00 

$23,927.39 

The water works system of Littleton was constructed in 1911 and consists 
of nine 2y2-m. driven wells varying in depth from 17 to 27 ft., a brick pumping 
station with a slate roof 35 X 25-ft. in plan, and a pumping plant consisting 
of a 25-HP. oil engine, a 25-HP. motor and b, 7y2 X 10-in. triplex pump. 

The distribution system consists of a covered steel standpipe 40 ft. high and 
30 ft. in diameter having a capacity of 275,000 gals., and 5.7 miles of 12 to 
6-in. cast-iron mains. On the system are 17 gates, 37 hydrants, and 130 
metered services. 

The cost of installing the system, not including the cost of service connec- 
tions, is given in the 1912 report of the Board of Water Commissioners as 
follows : 

Wells $ 431. 31 

Pumping station 2 , 929. 00 

Pumping plant 3 , 735. 00 

Standpipe.,. 3,938.00 

Land and right of way 1 , 575. 83 

Mains: 

Pipe $19 , 036. 88 

Gates and hydrants 1 , 175. 00 

Express and freight 93. 42 

Laying pipe 8,728.04 

Setting hydrants 74. 00 

Rock excavation 1 , 225. 00 

Miscellaneous 954.47 31,286.81 

Engineering 2,000. 00 

$45,895.95 

The cost of operating the Littleton works for the year ending March 1, 

1913, was as follows: 

Salaries $ 580.00 

Supplies 116. 66 

Fuel oil 219.77 

Expenses 8. 15 

Freight 39. 15 

Repairs 25. 38 

Miscellaneous 42. 85 

Rent 36. 00 



$1,067.96 



The water works system of Medway was built in 1911 and 1912 and con- 
sists of 30 21/^-in. wells varying in depth from 32 to 75 ft., each provided 



WATER WORKS 335 

with a 3-ft. strainer point, a pumping station 40 X 20 ft. in plan of terra cotta 
blocks with cement plastering inside and out and having a wooden truss roof 
covered with slate, and a pumping plant consisting of two 32-HP. oil engines 
and two triplex single acting pumps. This plant was tested Sept. 11, 1911, 
by running both engines together for 11 hours successively. The economy 
test showed nearly 8,000 gals, pumped to 1 gal. of oil. The cost of oil taken at 
6 cts. per gallon at the station shows a fuel cost of H ct. per 1,000 gals, 
pumped into the standpipe. 

The distribution system consists of a steel standpipe 30 ft. in diameter and 
80 ft. high with a capacity of 437,000 gals., and 12.35 miles of cast-iron mains 
12 to 4 ins. in diameter. On the system there are 87 gates, 111 hydrants and 
338 service connections which are only a part of the final number. 

The cost of these works up to Feb. 1, 1913, not including service connections, 
was as follows : 

Preliminary examination $ 2 , 750. 00 

Legal bond issue 944. 95 

Land 1 , 303. 65 

Wells and connections 4 , 650. 00 

Pumping station 3 , 632. 00 

Pumps and engines 7 , 550. 00 

Standpipe. 8,800. 00 

Standpipe foundations 2 , 325. 00 

Mains: 

Pipe and laying $52, 142. 85 

Gates 1 , 454. 00 

Hydrants 3,885.00 

Freight 92. 12 

Rock excavation 5 , 000. 00 

River crossing 1 , 000. 00 

Repairs to roads 1,500.00 65,073.97 

Engineering 3 , 002. 40 

$100,031.97 

The above figures were taken from the engineer's final estimate of the cost 
of all of the works. 

At the present time record of the quantity of water supplied cannot be 
obtained. The cost of operating the works during 1912 was as follows: 

Administration $ 631. 98 

General expense ' 71. 17 

Interest on bonds 4,325. 40 

Pumping sation — 

Fuel oil 379.43 

Cylinder oil 37. 81 

Labor 818. 90 

Coal 56. 55 

Supplies 94. 49 

$6,415.73 

The water works system of Pepperell was constructed during the summer 
of 1910. 

The source of supply is from wells located near Gulf Brook just south of the 
Massachusetts and New Hampshire State line about three miles north of the 
town. 

The works consist of 34 2i.^-in. wells having an average depth of 25 ft., a 
brick pumping station 30 X 20 ft. in plan with a slate roof, and a pumping 
plant consisting of two 25-HP. oil engines and two 8 X 10-in. triplex pumps 
each having a capacity of 250 gals, per minute. 

The distribution system consists of a covered steel standpipe 45 ft. in 



336 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

diameter and 40 ft, high having a capacity of about 475,000 gals., and 16.42 
miles of 12 to 6-in. cast-iron mains. On the system are 130 hydrants. 

The cost of these works, not including service work, taken from the special 
1910 report of the water commissioners, was as follows: 

Bond issue $ 154. 35 

Wells 2,544.37 

Pumping station 2 , 852. 38 

Land for station and wells 750. 00 

Standpipe 6 , 728. 98 

Land for standpipe 600. 00 

Engines and pumps 6, 062. 52 

Mains — . 

Pipe and fittings $49 , 069. 34 

Laying 24 , 877. 13 

Hydrants 3 , 033. 80 

Valves, gates, specials 2, 288. 69 

Freight 1 ,099. 65 

Inspection of pipe 270. 86 

Miscellaneous 1 , 188. 44 81 , 757. 91 

Engineering ., 4 ,000. 00 

$105,450.51 
The total consumption of water for the year 1912 was 40,282,000 gals, 

which is equivalent to an average daily consumption of 110,000 gals, or 37 

gals, per capita. 

The cost of operating the system for 1912 is given as follows: 

Maintenance $2 , 728. 36 

Services 657. 84 

Piping system 341 . 15 

Meters 65. 73 

Interest 5 , 080. 00 

$8,873.08 

The source of supply of the Oxford Water Works is from driven wells near a 
small brook flowing into the French River near North Oxford. 

The water works system was constructed in 1906 and consists of 8 23.^-in. 
wells varying in depth from 23 to 28 ft., a brick pumping station 25 X 25 ft. 
in plan and a pumping plant consisting of two oil engines and two triplex 
pumps. 

The distribution system consists of a steel standpipe 27 ft. in diameter and 
50 ft. high having a capacity of 220,000 gals., and 9.7 miles of cast-iron mains 
10 to 2 ins. in diameter. On the system are 60 hydrants and 405 service 
connections. 

These works are privately owned and the following cost figures are taken 
from the 1906 report of the company: 

Preliminary engineering S 250. 00 

Wells 581. 25 

Station 1 , 720. 00 

Pumping machinery 3 , 200. 00 

Standpipe 4 , 564. 95 

Foundations 500. 00 

Mains — 

Pipe $28,424.60 

Hydrants, valves, specials 5,098. 07 

Laying 8,077.87 

Rock excavation 927. 95 42 , 528. 49 

Land 1,425.00 

Engineering 1 , 769. 59 

Miscellaneous 1 , 000. 00 

$57,539.28 



WATER WORKS 337 

The cost of operating the Oxford plant for the year 1912 was as follows: 

Labor $ 884. 34 

Oil and gasoline 710. 32 

Interest on notes 913. 53 

Coupons on bonds 1 , 250. 00 

Dividends 1,717.50 

Salaries 200. 00 

Repairs 164. 27 

Miscellaneous 268. 07 

$6,108.03 

The Wrentham water works were constructed in 1907. The source of 
supply is from driven wells near the "Trout Ponds," so-called, about a mile 
south of the village. 

The system consists of 9 2}'^-in. tubular wells having an average depth of 
29 ft. The pumping station is a brick structure with a slate roof, 25 X 36 ft. 
in plan, containing two 25-HP. oil engines and two 8 X 10-in. triplex pumps 
each having a capacity of 250 gals, per minute. 

The distribution system consists of a steel standpipe 30 ft. in diameter and 
50 ft. high having a capacity of 265,000 gals., and 5.6 miles of cast-iron mains 
10 to 2 ins. in diameter. 

The cost of the system, not including service connections was as follows: 

Wells $ 1,048.22 

Pumping station above foundation . . 1 , 646. 97 

Engines and pumps 5 , 933. 55 

Standpipe above foundation 5,204. 63 

Foundations (station and standpipe) 1 ,556. 50 

Mains — 

Pipe $21 , 002. 62 

Hydrants 969. 68 

Specials 1 ,215. 57 

Laying 9,410.39 

Bridge crossing 195. 18 32, 793. 44 

Engineering 2 , 500. 00 

$50,683.31 
The above figures are compiled from the 1907 report of the water 
commissioners. 

Reports from 66 Cities on Pumpage, Meterage, Repairs and Renewals, 
and Depreciation, — Information on certain phases of water works operation, 
concerning which there is considerable diversity of opinion, has been collected 
by Engineering and Contracting and published in the issue of May 8, 1918. 
Table IV contains a summary of the replies to a questionnaire sent to water 
works superintendents. Of the 66 cities represented in the table, 63 report on 
pump capacity and output of pumps. The total daily pumping capacity 
of these cities is 1,500,000,000 gal. and the daily average output averages 
about 823,000,000 gal. or a ratio a Httle less than 2 to 1. Excluding Chicago 
with its daily pump capacity of 923,000,000 gal. and the remaining 62 cities 
have a daily pump capacity of 583,000,000 gal. and a daily average output 
of 192,000,000 gal., or a ratio of 3 to 1. Of the 66 cities 57 reported the 
per capita water consumption. The arithmetical average consumption for 
37 cities having more than 69 per cent of their services metered was slightly 
less than 70 gal. per capita. The average per capita consumption for the 22 
cities with less than 56 per cent of their services metered was 133 gal. 

Fifty-seven cities reported on maintenance expenses of their water works. 

The total investment was $133,600,000 or about $30 per capita and the total 

maintenance expense for the last recorded year was $2,236,000 or about 1.7 

per cent. The average depreciation annuity for 34 plants was 2.9 per cent. 

22 



338 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



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340 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Pet Cent of Water Works Plant Charged to Fire Protection. — Curves based 
on public utility decisions have been found useful by Chester & Fleming, 
Consulting Engineers, Pittsburgh, as a guide to show what portion of water 
charges should be allocated to fire service. The diagrams prepared by the 
above mentioned firm were reproduced in Engineering and Contracting, 
May 14, 1919, from which paper the following is taken. Each curve is 
platted from 24 decisions for plants having a value above $50,000 and gross 
revenues from $5,000 to $100,000 per year. The decisions from which these 
curves were prepared are shown in the table, each division's place in the 
diagram being indicated by its number given in Table V. 

The diagrams are self explanatory. For instance, in Fig. 9, there appears 
at the bottom the gross revenue from plant operation. At the left of the 
diagram appears the annual revenue from fire protection in dollars, which 
permits the location on the face of the diagram at its proper point each 



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decision and through these decisions the line of average is drawn, and so 
knowing the gross revenue from plant operation one may readily obtain what 
the decisions plotted would indicate would be the fair amount of the gross to 
be derived from the municipality as compensation for fire protection. 

Fig. 10 instead of stating the annual revenue from fire protection in 
dollars, tabulates the percentage of gross revenue. 

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relation to the revenue from fire protection in dollars. 

Fig. 12 deals with the value of the plant as fixed by the Commission with 
relation to the percentage of the plant chargeable to fire protection. 

By plotting the curves which represent the average of the decisions, the 
average result may be found within the limit of these decisions, and by utiliz- 



WATER WORKS 



341 



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342 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 





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WATER WORKS 



343 



ing the line of average extended in either direction, the results may be made 
useful beyond the limits embodied in the decisions. 

Subdivision of Cost of Water Works in Per Cent of Total Cost. — The follow- 
ing data are from a paper by J. M Bryant presented in 1914 before the Illinois 
~ Water Supply Association, and reprinted in Engineering and Contracting, 
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from the reports of the Wisconsin Railway Conmiission (7W. R. C. R. 301; 
8W. R. C. R. 341). 

Per cent of 
total cost new 

1. Land 3. 10 

2. Wells, intakes and suctions 8. 39 

3. Filters, reservoirs, standpipes 6. 28 

4. Distribution system .... 63. 75 

5. Power plant equipment 8. 86 

6. Buildings and miscellaneous structures 6. 37 

7. Office furniture, appliances, tools, etc. 0. 80 



Tables VI, VII, VIII and IX are from a paper by Leonard Metcalf, Emil 
Kuichling and William C. Hawley presented at the American Water- Works 
Association Convention June 6-10, 1911. 



344 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



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WATER WORKS 



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WATER WORKS 347 

Table IX. — Subdivision op Cost of Water Works Properties in Per 
Cent of Reproduction Cost of Property 

(Including therein engineering and contingencies, organization and interest 
during construction; excluding going value and franchise and other intangible 
values.) 

(Courtesy of Mr. Morris Knowles) 

<•£ 

2 

'S 02 

a 
fe.2 

+3 03 

1. Supply 540,372 

2. Pumping (28) 

3. Reservoirs 0. 3 

4. Distribution system 18. 7 

5. Filter, etc 8.5 

G. Real estate, water rights and rights of 

way 36. 8 

7. Organization 29. 6 

8. Construction 6.1 



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2.4 



100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 

Cost of Baltimore High-pressure Fire Service System. — The following 
table giving the construction costs of the Baltimore high-pressure fire service 
system is taken from an abstract in Engineering and Contracting, April 
16, 1913, of a paper by James B. Scott before the American Society of 
Mechanical Engineers. 

Table X. — Construction Cost of the 'Baltimore High-pressure Fire 
Service System 

Portable Equipment. 

2 automobile hose wagons at $5,000 $ 10, 000 

8,000 ft. 3-in. hose at SI 8,000 

30 portable heads and regulators at $385 11 , 550 

Total . $ 29,550 

Pipe System 

Material delivered Baltimore 

Hydrants, 226 at $100 ' $ 22,600 

8-in. pipe, 7,137 ft. at $2.35 16,700 

10-in. pipe, 28,229 ft. at $3.10 87,700 

16-in. pipe, 17,052 ft. at $5.25 89 , 600 

24-in. pipe, 1,275 ft. at $10 12,750 

8-in. gate valves, 6 at $100 600 

10-in. gate valves, 193 at $130 25,000 

16-in. gate valves, 90 at $210 18,900 

18-in. gate valves, 2 at $300 , 600 

24-in. gate valves, 3 at $1,000 3,000 

Air and relief valves 200 

Low pressure gates, 2 30-in 500 

Suction pipe, 400 ft. cast iron, 30-in., at $4 * 1 , 600 

Steel air chambers, 2 30-in., at $500 1 , 000 

Venturi meter 500 

Cast steel specials 17, 500 

$ 298,750 



348 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Installation 
Laying pipe, including placing valves, fittings, hydrants, etc. 

8-in. pipe, 7,137 ft. at $0. 70 $ 4,996 

10-in. pipe, 28,229 ft. at 0. 75 21 200 

16-in. pipe, 17,052 ft. at 1. 15 19,600 

24-in. pipe, 1,275 ft. at 1. 75 2,230 

Pump connections in station 6 , 000 

Laying 30-in. c. i. suction 3,400 

Tapping 40-in. main 1 , 500 

Concrete valve boxes, 293 at $30 8 , 790 

Excavation, back filling and rubble paving 

41,318 ft. open trench, at $3.84 158,600 

12,375 ft. tunnel, at $4.08 50,400 

Improved paving, 6,650 sq. yds., at $1.50 10,000 

Superintendence, use of tools, etc 50,000 



Pumping Station 

Site and preliminary work 

. Building, including machinery foundations and men's quarters . 

Harbor intake and screen chamber 

Equipment 

Four 4,000-gal. pumps 

One 1,000-gal. pump 

Auxiliary pumps 

Feedwater heaters and purifiers 

4 boilers and settings, 27,200 sq. ft. heating surface 

16 underfeed stokers, blowers, air piping, etc 

4 steel stacks and supports 

Coal handling apparatus 

Turbo-generators and switchboard 

Electric crane 

Steam and auxiliary water pipping 



$ 371,530 
Miscellaneous 

Signal system, cables, etc . . . ; $ 1 , 500 

Furnishings for men's quarters 500 

Incidentals 5 , 000 

$ 7,000 
Engineering 50 , 000 

Total cost of construction $1 , 093 , 546 

The following analysis of operating expenses, for electric pumps and steam 
pumps, was an additional argument for the use of steam pumps for the 1 1 
Baltimore installation. tl 



s 


336,716 


$ 


635.466 


$ 


37,730 




124,800 




10,000 


$ 


82 , 000 




3,500 




4,250 




4,750 




33,000 




18,000 




8,000 




7,000 




4,500 




4,000 




30,000 


$ 


199,000 



Electric Pumps (New York Type) 
Investment 

5 motor driven pumps (rated capacity 3,000 gals, per min.), 

switchboard, etc $112,500 

Building and pump foundations 84 , 000 



Operation 
Maintaining pressure continually 8,760 hr. less 100 hr. 

8,660 hr. at 100 kw 

Fire service, 100 hr. per annum 3,150 kw. demand.. .. 



196. 500 



866,000 kw-hr. 
315,000 kw-hr. 



1,181,000 kw-hr. 



WATER WORKS 340 

Service charge, maximum demand = 3,150 kw. 

Central station investment, 3,150 kw. at $75 $236,000 

Underground cable (Baltimore conditions) .. . _ 40,000 

Cash requirements 236 , 000 

Underwriting at 90 31 , 000 



Total investment $307 , 000 

Fixed charges on $307,000 

Interest at 5 per cent 

Depreciation at 5 per cent 

Profit . . at 5 per cent 



Total 15 per cent $ 46,000 

Underground conduits, duct rental (Baltimore conditions) 1,300 



Total service charge $ 47 , 300 

Operating expenses 

Service charge $ 43, 700 

Meter charge, 1,181,000 kw-hr. at 1 ct 11,810 

Salaries, station operating force 10, 650 

Supplies, lubrication and repairs 1 , 000 



$ 67,160 
Fixed charges on $196,500 

Interest at 4 per cent $ 7 , 860 

Depreciation at 5 per cent 9 , 825 



$ 17,685 



Total annual expense, electrical plant $ 84 , 845 

Steam Pumps 
Investment 

Four 4,000-gal. pumps and auxiliaries $ 86,000 

Boilers and auxiliaries 70 , 000 

Piping, steam and auxiliary water 30 , 000 



$186,000 
Building and machinery foundations 125,000 



$311,000 
Operation 

Coal consumption 

Banking fires, 8,760 hr.— 

100 hr. = 8,660 hr. = 360 days at 6 tons per day 2,160 tons 

Fire service. 100 hr. per annum at 5 tons coal per hour 500 tons 



Total 2 , 660 tons 

Operating expenses • 

Coal, 2,660 tons at $3.30 $ 8,778 

Salaries, station operating force . 13, 350 

Supplies, lubrication and repairs 2 , 000 



$ 24 ■ 128 
Fixed charges on $311,000 

Interest at 4 per cent $ 12 , 440 

Depreciation at 5 per cent 15, 550 



$ 27,990 



$ 52,118 
Summary 

Total annual expense, electrical plant $ 84,845 

Total annual expense, steam plant 52, 118 



Total annual saving $ 32 , 727 

This saving capitalized at 9 per cent represents an investment by the city 
of $363,630, considerably more than the first cost of the steam plant in the above 
comparison. 



350 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



operating Costs of Water Works Per Million Gals, and Per Capita. — Engi- 
neering and Contracting, Jan. 28, 1914, gives the following from a report on an 
investigation of the municipal water works at Lorain, Ohio, by Philip Burgess. 

Table XI. — Annual Operating Costs of 16 Water Works Properties 

Annual operating cost 

Total Per 

popu- 1,000,000 Per 

City Dates lation gals. capita 

Ashland, Wis 1904-09 12, 150 $36. 23 $1. 25 

Manitowoc, Wis 1907 13,400 47.76 1.32 

Janesville, Wis 1909 13 , 800 49. 96 1 . 30 

Beloit, Wis 1908 14,100 23.35 1.02 

Chillicothe, 1908-12 14,500 1.00 

Marinette, Wis 1909-10 14,650 26.17 1.09 

Private Water Co. in Arkansas . . . 1908-12 15,400 1. 57 

Elyria, 1910-12 15,500 34.88 1.47 

Appleton, Wis 1909 16,700 36.73 1.29 

Fond duLac, Wis 1907 17,800 20.31 0.77 

Eau Claire, Wis 1907 18,650 18.24 0.71 

Private Water Co. in Western Pa. 1905-10 22,570 40.45 1. 17 

Green Bay, Wis 1907 24,000 48.56 0.90 

Battle Cr., Mich 1908-12 25 , 270 26. 20 0. 72 

Madison, Wis 1908-12 25,460 49.70 1.28 

Sheboygan, Wis 1908 25,500 24. 74 0. 77 

Lorain, 1900-10 22 , 070 23. 72 1.17 

Average of 16 cities above 18,090 34. 51 1. 10 

The costs shown include true operating costs exclusive of extraordinary 
expenses such as are incurred by extensions or replacements. 

Cost of Setting 25,000 Water Meters at San Francisco. — The following data 
are given by George W. Pracy, Ass't. Sup't. Spring Valley Water Co. in 
Engineering News-Record, May 9, 1918. 

During portions of 1916 and 1917 the Spring Valley Water Co., which 
supplies the city of San Francisco with water, installed 24,993 meters, prac- 
tically all of ^i-in. size, with marked effect in reducing water consumption. 
Careful records of cost were kept. 

In 1915 the average daily water consumption of San Francisco was 42,- 
635, 014 gal., which was in excess of the developed supply and 3,261,229 gal. 
over that for 1914. As 1915 was the exposition year, with attendant 
extraordinary water uses, it was confidently expected that 1916 would see a 
decrease in the use of water. Wh6n instead the first four months of that year 
showed a substantial increase the problem of adding to or restricting waste 
was squarely put before the company. 

On May 1, 1916, water was supplied through 65,000 service connections of 
which about 22,000, or 34 % , were metered. These meters were all on business 
houses. All dwellings were on a flat-rate basis. The company felt that the 
metering of these flat-rate services was not only the most economical but also 
the best way of meeting the situation. Accordingly in May, 1916, an order 
was placed for 15,000 ^^-in. meters, with the option of purchasing a second 
15,000 at a later date, a total of 30,000 meters being purchased. 

For local reasons it was decided to meter only those consumers whose 
monthly bills were $1.80 or more. This made the work of setting the meters 
harder and more costly than metering all houses. All meters were set at the 
curb. 

Organization. — The field work was done by two crews. For the first month 
each crew consisted of a foreman and about 30 men. The crews were later 
cut down to 12 to 15 men. The two foremen were under the general foreman 



WATER WORKS 351 

of the service and meter department. A Ford truck and a Ford wagon 
delivered the meters, boxes and other material on the ground. 

Method of Setting. — The meters were delivered to the meter shop by the 
manufacturers. There they were taken out and tested. A testing machine 
of six-meter capacity was used. Each meter was tested for a lO-cu.-ft. flow 
at the rate of 15 gal. per minute. Meters reading from 99 to 100% correct were 
set. Those reading under 99 or over 100% were sent to the bench for adjust- 
ment. After testing, the meters were piled up ready for delivery to the job. 

The meter boxes were delivered f.o.b. cars at San Francisco. Thence they 
were hauled to the yard, where they were stacked. The other material was 
deUvered at the yard by the various manufacturers. 

A large tool box mounted on wheels was kept in the locality at which each 
crew was working. At this tool box was kept about half a day's material 
for the crew. This enabled the crews to start work at 8 a.m. and continue 
till the truck arrived. 

The Fords were sent out each morning with the material needed for the day. 
They also moved the tool boxes along as the work progressed. The material 
was deUvered from the tool boxes to the houses by one man using a wheelbar- 
row. Meterset orders were written in the main office and givep to the general 
foreman, who routed them and gave them to each gang foreman. The gang 
foreman in turn had a man who took these orders and went ahead of the crews 
measuring up and marking out the services that were to be metered. The 
marking was done by chalk on the sidewalk or curb. This man was followed 
by the laborers, who excavated down to the service and stopcock. If the 
meter was to be set in the concrete sidewalk a piece about 2 ft. square was 
first broken out. In lawns the sod was carefully taken out and set aside. 
The laborers were followed by the servicemen, who set the meter. The 
servicemen were then followed by other laborers who set the concrete boxes 
and filled in. In concrete sidewalks the laborers just filled in, the repaving 
being done by a contractor. A team followed to clean up and haul away the 
debris. 

For each hole made in a paved sidewalk an order was filled out and sent to 
the paving contractor. This order specified the location, kind of paving and 
size of opening. 

Each serviceman was provided with a pad on which he wrote the number 
and location of the meter as it was set, using a new sheet for each. These 
were collected by the foreman, who checked each one and entered the informa- 
tion on the orders. The servicemen could not make the original entry direct 
into the meter-set orders, as it was necessary to keep them clean. The orders 
were then sent to the clerk at the yard, who made out the paving orders. 
They then went to the main office, where an account was opened for each 
meter. 

The speed of the crews varied from day to day, depending on various con- 
ditions. In the old part of the town, which was burnt over in the fire of 1906 
and where the service records were not always correct and the services in poor 
condition, the least headway was made. In the new residence districts the 
work went along rapidly. The crews as a whole averaged 4H meters per 
man per day, though on some days they set as many as 8 per man. Each 
serviceman set an average of 15 meters a day. A record was kept of the 
number set by each man, and if any serviceman could not keep up with the 
rest of the gang he was dropped. The cost data for the job are given in 
Tables XII to XV. 



352 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table XII. — Average Cost of Installing 24,993 ^-in. Style 2 Trident 

Meters on Old Service Connections at San Francisco, Cal. Aug. 1, 

1916, to April 30, 1917* 

.-, Cost 

Total Per meter Percentage 

1. Labor $21,013.84 $0,840 7.90 

2. Teaming 2,088.89 0.083 0.79 

3. Paving 45,488.48 1.820 17.17 

4. Permits 8 , 934. 00 0. 357 3. 37 

5. Material. 180,750.16 7.232 68.30 

6. Tools 1,202.47 0.048 0.45 

7. Miscellaneous 970. 96 0. 039 0. 37 

8. Supt., warehouse, etc 4,354.37 0.170 1.65 

$264,803.17 $10,589 100.00 

1. Labor: Sub-Foreman, $4.25. Fitters, $3.75. Laborers, $2.50. Eight 

hours. Average crew consisted of sub-foreman, five fitters, ten 
laborers and one Ford. Set about 63 meters per day. Meters set 
per man day, 4.25. 

2^ Teaming: Horse-drawn vehicles, $1,238.89. Ford auto trucks, $850. 

3. Paving: Replacing sidewalks and setting plates at 25c. per square foot. 

This charge applies only to 19,524 meters set in sidewalks and 
becomes, per meter paved, $2.33. 

4. Permits: Permit to open paved sidewalks at 50c. each. Applies to meters 

set in paved sidewalks only at 50c. each. 

5. Materials: 24,993 meters f.o.b. yard at $5. 95 $149, 238. 55 



Concrete boxes . 

Cast-iron plates 60 and . 65 . 

Meter couplings 16 to . 19 . . . 

Pipe and fittings 



6. Tools: 

7. General: 



5,197.80 

10,677.74 

8,244.27 

7,391.80 

Total $180,750.16 

New tools purchased, $1,149.39. Tools repaired, $53.08. 

Miscellaneous $346. 44 

Carfares 63. 65 

Machine shop 114. 60 

Stationery 186. 40 

Repair sewer vents 170. 83 

Clean carpets 27. 22 

Replace lawns 61 . 82 



Total . 



$970. 96 

8. Superintendence, employees, insurance, foreman, yard office (proportion), 
warehouse expense (proportion), auto (proportion of assistant superintendent's 
and foreman's and all of two sub-foreman's autos, $4,354.37). 
* A few larger meters are included as well as a small amount of street paving 

due to having to shut off at main in some cases. These amounts are practically 

negligible. 

Table XIII. — Detailed Cost of Setting a %-in. Meter 

Paved sidewalks Unpaved sidewalks 

Labor $ 0. 840 (including testing) $0. 840 (including testing) 

Teaming 083 . 083 

Paving 2.330 

Plate 625 Box . 880 (including 0.03 handling 

car to yard) 

Permit 500 

Material* 6. 590 (including meter) 6. 590 (including meter) 

Tools 048 .048 

Miscellaneous 039 . 039 

Superintendent, 

etcf 170 .170 



Total $11,225 

* Meter at $5.95 f.o.b., Bryant St. Yard. 
as assistant superintendent. 



$8. 650 
t Departmental overhead only as far 



WATER WORKS 353 

Approximately 19,524 meters were set in paved sidewalks and 5,473 meters in 
unpaved sidewalks. In paved sidewalks there occurs a charge for permit to open 
sidewalk ($0.50), replacing pavement at $0.25 per square foot, amounting in this 
case to $2.33 per meter paved, and the cost of a cover either concrete or iron 
varying from $0.60 to $0.65 each, say $0,625. In unpaved sidewalks these costs 
do not occur, but there is the cost of a concrete meter box ($0.88). In lawn side- 
walks the removal and replacement of sod is equivalent to the cost of breaking up 
concrete walks. 

In the following cost segregation only the difference in paving, materials and 
permits has been taken into consideration. 



Table XIV.— Segregation of Labor Costs for Meter Setting 

Hauling concrete boxes and covers from railroad to yard $27. 62 

Unloading meters from wagon to warehouse 16. 92 

Testing meters 542. 11 

Installation of meters 19 , 215. 74 

Replacing lawns and gardens 28. 42 

Miscellaneous yard work 118. 62 

Services of clerks 562. 09 

Repairs to sewers broken in setting meters 238. 92 

Cleaning out sewers ^ 44. 68 

Locating services with wireless pipe finder 105. 40 

Rearranging services 79 . 74 

Machine shop 33. 58 

Total $21 ,013. 84 



Table XV. — Classified Rates of Pay and Time for Labor Used in Setting 

Meters 

Rate 

Foreman $4. 25 

Fitters 3.75 

Helpers f 2. 75 

\ 3.00 

Laborers / 2.50 

t 2.75 

Teamsters j 3. 00 

2.75 
4.00 
Miscellaneous \ 3. 50 



3.25 



Total. 



Days 


Hours 


Amount 


447 




$ 1,899.75 


1,732 




6,495.00 


230 




632.50 


220 


3 


661.12 


2,347 


6 


5,869.37 


1,198 


4 


3,295.88 


56 


2 


168.92 


63 


4 


174. 63 


2 


3 


9.50 


2 


1 


7.44 




4 
3 


1.63 


6,299 


$19,215.74 



Cost of Outdoor Meter Installations at Terre Haute, Ind. — The Terre 
Haute, Ind., Water Co., for outdoor meter installations, has been using recently 
a pit made of two 2J^-ft. 20-in. vitrified sewer pipes with a slot in the bottom 
of the lower one to fit over service pipes laid some years ago before the present 
rules concerning the depth of the services were in force. These pipes are 
provided with a Clark cover and coupling yoke. The cover is 6 in. high, 
making the total depth of the installation 53^^ ft. The average cost in 1918 of 
an installation of this type including service pipe from the main to the curb 
was $42.27, according to a paper by Dow R. Gwinn, president of the company, 
in the January, 1920, Journal of the American Materials Association and 
23 



354 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION. COST 

abstracted in Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 11, 1920. The itemized cost 
of the installation as given by Mr. Gwinn is as follows: 

Corporation cock, ^i in $1 . 09 

Curb cock, ^ in 1 , 66 

Brass tail piece, ^ in .38 

Extra strong lead service pipe, 3 lb. per foot, 17.1 ft., !^ in 3. 72 

Service box with 2}4 in. shaft 1 . 50 

Labor, 10.9 hours at 35 ct 3.82 

Labor, 2.2 hours at 40 ct 88 

Drayage ^. $ 1'. 25 

City permits .87 

Overhead on tools and equipment 1 , 30 

Total for services $16. 47 

Empire meter, ^ in $12. 00 

Tile, 2 3. 70 

Clark cast iron cover 2.75 

Meter yoke 1 . 50 

Pipe and fittings .93 

Cement , 37 

Labor, 5 hours at 35 ct . . 1 . 75 

Labor, 2 hours at 40 ct .80 

Drayage . 2. 00 

Total for meter and installation $25. 80 

Number of Meters Read Per Man Per Day. — The following data are 
taken from Engineering and Contracting, July 9, 1919. 

Judging from a recent tabulation given in the Municipal Journal, there is a 
wide range of effectiveness of meter readers, even where conditions seem to 
warrant no such variation. Thus in Los Angeles, with 100,000 "outside" 
meters, 50 per hour is said to be the average; whereas in Washington, D. C, 
with 61,000 "outside" meters, 22 per hour is given as the average. The 
ratio is almost 2y2 to 1. Even greater differences exist in other cities as to 
the number of "inside" meters read per hour. 

The number of meters read per hour obviously depends not only upon the 
efficiency of the men, but upon other conditions such as: (1) The distance 
from the office to the place where meter reading begins. (2) The distance 
apart of meters. (3) Whether the meters are inside or outside the building. 
(4) Whether the readers walk or ride. 

The following are typical examples selected from the above mentioned 
tabulation: 

Cities Having Outside Meters 

Average num- 
Number of ber read per 
meters man-hour 

Alhambra, Calif 2 , 100 29 

Los Angeles, Calif 99, 600 50 

San Diego, Calif 15, 169 41 

Pasadena, Cahf 12 , 547 38 

Whittier, Calif 1,951 20 

Washington, D. C 61 , 107 22 

Atlanta, Ga 33 , 000 30 

Augusta, Ga 7 , 500 20 

Gadsden, Ala 2 , 030 60 

Lewiston, Ida 1,200 38 

Atlantic City, N. J 7,398 40 

Oklahoma City, Okla. . 13,000 28 

Portlant, Ore 17 , 588 30 

Memphis, Tenn ; 19,734 30 

Knoxville, Tenn 13,908 67 

Average for these 15 cities, 36. 



WATER WORKS 



355 



Cities Having Inside 



Hartford, Conn 

Middleton, Conn . . . 

Concord, N. H 

Elmira, N. Y '. .'.'.l. '.'.['.'. 

Syracuse, N. Y 

Solvay, N. Y '...'.'.'.'. 

Worcester, Mass ; . 

Grand Rapids, Mich 

Duluth, Mich : 

Minneapolis, Minn 

Akron, O 

Cincinnati, O 

Dayton, O 

Meadville, Pa 

Wilkinsburg, Pa 

Average of these 15 cities, 18. 
*Residence. t Business. 

Comparing the averages in these two tables, it would appear that twice as 
many outside meters can be read daily as inside meters. 

Cost of Meter Reading at Terre Haute, Ind. — In Engineering and Contract- 
ing April 11, 1917, Jay A. Craven describes the methods employed in meter 
reading at Terre Haute, Ind. 





Average 


Number of 


number read 


meters 


per man-hour 


15,451 


12 


2,300 


11 


2,576 


20 


10,032 


18 


28,133 


20 


990 


♦15-t20 


20,715 


14 


24,530 


8 


12,144 


15 


60 , 930 


10 


26,000 


28 


55,000 


20 


30,438 


23 


3,376 


31 


15,686 


25 




Fia. 13. — Section of large routing map, showing typical route. 

A brief outline of the method is as follows. The city is divided into routes 
with about 200 meters (to be read) on each route. Individuial cards for each 



356 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

meter are arranged in proper order in a loose leaf book for each route. At the 
time the meters are read, a spirit of competition is aroused by having a black- 
board record kept showing each reader and the time for completing each book 
taken out. This record is also transferred to a more permanent form. 
The following table is made up of data given by Mr. Craven. 

Table XVI. — A Summary of Meter Reading Records 

Number Read Cost per 

Month Total hrs. meters read Not read per hr. meter in cents 

§ept 288.25 6,617 297 23 1.7 

Oct 254.25 6,805 235 27 1.1 

Nov 243.00 6,676 220 27 1.1 

Dec* 347.10 6,703 258 19 3.7* 

Jan 291.45 6,672 235 23 1.6 

Feb 243.60 6,660 289 27 1.3 

* Time shown only represents the time the book was out, and on most of the 
books, a man accompanied the reader to sweep snow and assist in locating the 
meters. The cost for this month was exceptionally large. 

The best record made was an average of 54 per hour for 4 hours. 

Cost of Maintaining and Operating Water Meters. — Table XVII gives the 
annual cost per meter for the meter system at Reading, Pa. for the years 1909- 
10, year ending April 1, 1912 and the year 1915, 

Table XVII. — Cost of Maintaining and Operating Water Meters 

Year Year Year 

1909-10 1911-12 1915 

No. of meters in service 2 , 795 3 , 604 4 , 420 

Av. cost per meter: 

Abandoned as scrap $0. 614 $0. 336 . 099 

Clerical services 455 0. 421 .310 

Repairs 216 0. 160 .275 

Reading 202 0. 181 .183 

Delivering meter bills 079 0. 073 .067 

Stationary and supplies 048 0. 089 . 007 

Miscellaneous 003 0. 007 

Total $1,617 $1,267 $0,941 

Cost of Meter Repairs at Milwaukee,Wis. — The following tabulation re- 
printed in Engineering and Contracting, June 6, 1920, from the 1919 report of 
H. P. Bohmann, Superintendent of Waterworks of Milwaukee, shows the 
cost of operation of the Meter Division, and the cost of meter repairs for the 
year ending Dec. 31, 1919: 

No. of Total Per meter 

Item m^eters cost ^i to 12 in. 

Repairs — Material and labor 18 , 214 $33 , 856 $1 . 85 

Chargeable to consumer 3,985 18,923 4.74 

Chargeable to department 14,229 14,932 1.04 

Average cost of repairs — based on all meters in 

service 65,769 33,856 .51 

Net cost to department — based on all meters in 

service 65,769 18,923 .28 

Net cost to department — based on meters 

repaired .. 18,214 18,923 1.03 

Total cost of operation for all meters in service . 65 , 769 62 , 676 . 95 

Less revenue received 28 , 505 ..... 

Net cost of operation for total number of 

meters in service , . . . 65 , 769 34 , 170 .51 



WATER WORKS 



357 



Effect of Meters on Consumption of Water. — The effect of meters upon the 
consumption of water is too well know to need further comment. This effect 
is graphically illustrated in Fig. 14 which shows the daily number of gallons 
used per capita in the city of Boston and the percentage of unmetered taps 
for each year, 1904 to 1916 inclusive. The figure is taken from a paper by 
Samuel E. Killam, Sup't. of Pipe Lines and Reservoirs of the Metropolitan 
Water works presented at the 1917 convention of the New England Water 
Works Ass'n. 



/so 

\ 

1 

/oo 


YEAR 

S ^ <$ 
^ §^ 5> 


JpO 

1 
1 

50 






























/ 


— 


^^ 


V 


\. 














^^ 


/ 




\c 




^ 




















\ 


< . 




















^^ 




"^ 




















\ 




\ 






















\ 


h— '*' 




^ 






















\ 


\ 






















\ 
\ 




\ 




















\ 




\ 


s. 






















\ 


\ 













































































Fig, 



14. — Consumption per capita and percentages of services unmetered in 
city of Boston. 



Cost of A Water Leakage Survey at Lancaster, Pa. — Engineering and 
Contracting, June 19, 1912, gives the following abstract of a paper presented 
before the American Waterworks Association at their 1912 conyention, by 
F. H. Shaw, consulting engineer and superintendent of the Lancaster Water 
Works Department. 

Lancaster has a population of about 50,000 people. The area of the city 
is four square miles, about three of which are built up and has a population of 
25 per acre. 

The city is supplied with water by a municipal plant, the first construction 
dating back to 1836. The water taken from the Conestoga Creek, a tributary 
of the Susquehanna River, is filtered and pumped into the city against a head 
of 250 ft., the supply being measured by a Venturi meter located between the 
filter plant and the pumping station. The distribution system is connected 



358 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

with the pumping station by two force mains, one 30 in. and one 36 in., each 
being about one mile in length. 

The distribution system is divided into high and low service districts. The 
low service district contains about 0.4 of a square mile and is supplied from the 
old reservoir constructed in 1836 and in 1850, which has a capacity of 6,000,- 
000 gals. These reservoirs are filled at night by pumping through the 36-in. 
main. 

The high service district is supplied through the 30-in. main by direct 
pumping. The water passes through a standpipe having a capacity of 400,000 
gals. The distribution system consists of 70 miles of pipe varying in size from 
24 ins. to 4 ins. 

There are about 10,500 services in use, one-third of which are metered. 

The daily consumption averages about 7,000,000 gals., varying between 
5,000,000 and 10,000,000, with a maximum pumping rate as high as 12,000,000 
for short periods. Assuming a population of 50,000, this will give a per capita 
consumption of 140 gals, daily. This excessive consumption led to an 
investigation of causes and methods for correcting same. A general house- 
house-to inspection was made during the winter of 1910, at which time all 
plumbing was inspected for leakage. Results of this inspection were recorded 
on a card for each property inspected. As a result of this inspection the 
yearly income from water rents was increased $3,500. The city was then 
divided into four districts, and a regular inspector appointed for each district. 
A yearly inspection is made of each house and property owners are 
compelled to repair all leaky fixtures within ten days, 480 cases being 
reported and repaired during the last year. 

During these investigations the necessity of a systematic search for leakage 
from mains became apparent and the discovery by accident of a leak which was 
costing the city about $10,000 per year, brought the matter to a head and the 
necessary appropriation was made. 

The survey party was organized from employes of the water department, 
a foreman who had been in the department for twenty years being placed in 
charge of the work. The party worked nine hours per day and was composed 
as follows: 

Organization: 

Foreman, per day - $ 3. 00 

Single team and working driver, per day 2. 50 

Three laborers, at $1.80 per day 5. 40 

Total cost per day $10. 90 

Outfit: 
One 4-in. meter with 2 3^ -in. connections on truck. 
One ^ in. meter. 
One pressure gauge. 
Two 25- ft. lengths 2K-in. fire hose. 
250 ft. 23>^-in. galvanized pipe. 
One small tool box. 
Picks, shovels, wrenches, caulking tools, lead, wool, etc. 

The first step in preparing this work was an inspection of all valves and 
repairs to same, placing them in working order and replacing some which could 
not be operated. This work was done by the men in the distribution depart- 
ment in advance of the survey. The survey was started on March 6th, 1911, 
and stopped for the winter on December 13th. The method of procedure was 
as follows: 

The 4-in. meter was mounted on a small 4-wheeled truck and the connec- 



WATER WORKS 359 

tions bushed down to 2H ins., with a 2H-in. valve at inlet and outlet. The 
large meter was by-passed by a ^i-in. meter for use on small flows. A pres- 
sure gauge was attached to the outlet end of the large meter. The districts 
tested had an average area of 12 acres, containing about 80 houses. The dis- 
trict to be tested was shut off from the remainder of the system by closing all 
valves on street mains. The meter was then connected with a hydrant outside 
the district by means of a 25-ft. length of fire hose. The 2^-m. pipe line was 
laid from the meter to a hydrant inside the district, being connected with it by 
another short length of hose. 

The consumption of the district was then measured for one hour, readings 
being taken every ten minutes and any reductions in pressure noted. Any 
considerable drop in pressure indicates either large leak or that the district 
is too large to be supphed through a 2>^-in. pipe. After the consumption had 
been measured, all connections were shut off inside the houses, an inspection 
of house plumbing being made at the same time. A test was then made to 
determine whether any street valves were leaking water into the district by 
opening a fire hydrant and watching for any flow from the opening. 

After everything was shut off the leakage was measured by the large or 
small water meter according to the amount. This flow, if any, represented the 
leakage from mains and also from the service. To locate the leaks, the streets 
inside the districts were cut out one at a time by closing the valves until the 
leak had been located between two valves, after which it was located by using 
the telephone on curb stops, hydrants and on drills driven down to the main. 
After the leak had been definitely located, it was dug up and repaired by the 
survey party and the district tested until found tight. 

The work was carried on for 240 days at a cost of about $11 per day, $2,640 
for the season, for labor. The cost of lead, wool, etc., for repairing leaks was 
very small. One hundred and eleven districts were tested, having a total 
area of 1,310 acres, or 12 acres per district. There were approximately 9,000 
houses in the territory covered. Following are the leaks discovered and 
repaired : 

Residences : 

Closets 20 

Yard hydrants 10 

Faucets 19 

Service mains 17 

66 

Street valves 12 

Fire hydrants 35 

Street mains 29 76 

Total 142 leaks 

The leaks varied from 1 to 19 cu. ft. per minute. The largest leak found was 
a 3-in. elbow split wide open and running at the rate of 205,200 gals, per day. 
This line had been by-passed around the meter outside the building and was 
supplying four buildings. In this case the survey not only stopped the leak, 
but detected the illegal use of water. This leak amounted to 75,000,000 gals, 
per year, the actual cost of furnishing which was $2,812.50, or $172.50 more 
than the cost of the entire survey. 

The total mileage of mains inspected was 40.8, varying in size from 4 Ins. 
to 24 ins. The total leakage record was 118 cu. ft. per minute, or 1,271,000 
gals, per day. Using $37.50 per 1,000,000 gals, as the actual cost of furnish- 



360 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

ing water exclusive of interest, the total leakage was costing the city about 
$17,000 per year. 

About one-quarter of the system remains to be tested, also the 20-in. supply 
main which runs directly across the city. One mile of 36-in. force main laid 
in 1888, was tested by closing the valves at both ends, and supplying it from 
the other force main through a smaller meter. Leakage was found amount- 
ting to $2,000 per year. 

A comparison of the consumption before and after the survey shows a de- 
crease of 10,000,000 gals, per month during March and April, an equal con- 
sumption from May to September, a decrease of 8,000,000 gals, per month 
during October and November, a decrease of 24,000,000 gals, during December 
and an increase of 20,000,000 gals, during January, February and March. 
While the present consumption is about equal to that before the survey began, 
the consumption for 1911 is slightly less than for 1910. 

Mr. Shaw considers the decrease of 24,000,000 gals, per month shown in 
December a fair indication of the results of the survey, as abnormal conditions 
existed before and after this time, which had a tendency to increase the 
consumption. 

As an investment he believes a survey of this kind, which not only locates 
but repairs leaks, is a good one and well worth following up until one is assured 
that the distribution system is reasonably tight. 

Cost of Concrete Siphon on the Los Angeles Aqueduct. — D. L. Reaburn, 
Engineer Saugus Division, Los Angeles Aqueduct gives the following data in 
an article in Engineering and Contracting, July 3, 1912. 

Whitney Siphon, about 28 miles north of Los Angeies, has a slant length of 
955 ft. and a maximum head of 70 ft. The pipe is 10 ft. interior diameter, with 
a uniform thickness of 9 ins. The reinforcement consisted of round rods. 
The circumferential rods were spaced 4 ins. apart, and varied from ^ in. to 
^ in. in diameter. A working strength of 15,000 lbs. per square inch was 
used, and the rods were designed to carry the total stress, regardless of the 
strength of the concrete. The longitudinal rods were .^^ in. in diameter and 
they were spaced about 2 ft. c. to c. 

The trench was excavated with teams and trimmed to shape by hand. It 
had a bottom width of 14 ft. with slopes of about 1 on 1. ' Care was taken to 
have most of the dirt placed on one side of the trench. This was leveled off 
for about 30 ft. from the edge of the trench, so as to give sufficient elevation to 
the mixer for delivery of the mixed concrete by gravity, to provide room for 
gravel and cement storage near by, and also to allow the mixer to be moved 
along as the work progressed. 

After the trench was excavated to line and grade the first operation in the 
construction of the siphon was setting the concrete blocks to support the inner 
forms. These blocks, which were 4 ins. thick, 10 ins. wide and about 12 ins. 
high, had been made a few weeks previous to allow ample time for hardening. 
The tops were cast to fit the curve of the inner forms. They were spaced 6 ft. 
apart in two parallel rows, so that each pair supported a 6 ft. length of the 
inner forms. They were set in mortar a few days before the forms were placed 
on them. This arrangement not only insured correct alignment and grade, 
but permitted the concrete to be readily poured and thoroughly spaded. 
The concrete blocks became a part of the concrete shell of the siphon. 

The next step was the setting of the inner forms, which were of wood and not 
very satisfactory, as it was difficult to maintain them in a circular shape after 
they were once moved. Each 6 ft. length of forms was made up of eight sec- 
tions, three below the horizontal diameter and five above it, braced and bolted 



WATER WORKS 



361 



in such a way that they could be collapsed for moving ahead (See Fig. 15). 
Each section was made of four ribs cut to the proper curve, on which the 2 in. 
lagging was nailed. The lagging was dressed on the outer side. The arrange- 
ment of the cross braces which held the sections in place permitted the dis- 
mantled sections to be moved ahead through those already erected, by means 
of a platform car on a track which rested on the cross ribs of the bottom 
section. The car was pulled back and forth with a rope. 

In conjunction with the setting of the inner forms the reinforcement rods 
were placed on them, having been previously bent to the required circle with 
a small bending machine, and properly spaced, wired and blocked away from 
the forms. After the inner forms were assembled, circular ribs were placed to 
support the outside lagging. These were spaced 4 ft. apart and braced against 
the side of the trench. The outside lagging was 2X6X4 ins. The concrete 
work was commenced near the middle and carried first toward one end and 
later toward the other. There were 120 lin. ft. of inner forms used. They 
were set up by a cxew of 8 men. 



- / Boinraifm 




Fig. 15. — Section showing forms used in constructing Whitney Siphon. 



When everything was in readiness one of the regular tunnel concrete crews 
of 26 men and a foreman was detailed to the work. From 36 to 40 men were 
required to keep the work going continuously. The concrete was delivered on 
top of the forms through a chute, and flowed to the bottom over them. The 
outside lagging was placed about 2 ft. high at the start, to allow room for 
inspection and spading on the bottom. As the concrete rose in the forms, 
more lagging was placed. The bottom of the trench was filled for the whole 
length of the day's run and the complete pipe was finished the same day, 
whether it was 30 ft. or 50 ft. A rough connection was made by means of a 
sand bag bulkhead, and particular pains were taken to ensure a good bond at 
this point. About three days were required to complete the 120 ft. of pipe. 
About noon of the second day the work of taking down the inner forms and 
moving them ahead was begun, without interfering with the progress of the 
concreting. In about 24 hours the outer forms were removed and the pipe 
was immediately backfilled and thoroughly flooded for about a week. When 
the foot of the steep slope was reached the mixer was moved to the top of the 
slope and the work continued in the same way until the top was reached. At 
each end of the siphon a manhole 30 X 36 ins. was constructed. 



362 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Electrical energy was used for light and power and water was supplied under 
pressure from a large tank on the adjacent hiil. Sand and gravel were ob- 
tained from the adjacent creek without screening. All stone larger than 3 ins. 
was rejected. The mix was 1: 4 or 1 bbl. of cement to 16 cu. ft. of concrete. 
About 20 per cent of water was used, which insured a very wet mix. 

No serious difficulties were encountered in carrying out the work. As the 
work was done during flood season, Whitney Creek carried considerable water 
and the excavation was a little more costly owing to the construction of the 
necessary protecting dams to prevent flooding the trench. At the lowest 
point, where the creek crosses the siphon, the top was paved with cobble 
while the concrete was soft, as a precaution against scour in flood season. 

At the lowest point on the siphon a special cast iron pipe with a flange 
moulded to fit the inner side of the pipe was placed. This connected through 
a 10 in. valve in the blow off chamber to the blow off pipe which consisted 
of second-hand 12 in. vent pipe embedded in concrete. The inside of the 
pipe was finished with two coats of neat cement wash put on with a brush. 

Three expansion joints were made, one near the middle, and one at the foot 
of the steep slopes. These were believed to be necessary because at these 
points the work was stopped for a considerable time. The only noticeable 
leak in the pipe was at one of these points. After the first leakage test it was 
repaired, after which no moisture a'ppeared at any point on the ground surface. 
It is believed that the main factors which made for success were the pains- 
taking care exercised on all parts of the work, especially in selecting the sand 
and gravel, and the monolithic construction, which eliminated the danger 
of developing longitudinal cracks. 

The results of leakage tests are shown in ^able XVIII. They are based on 
measurements at the ends of the siphon to the water surface as it was lowered. 
The observations for the period from July 2 to July 17 are effected by the 
defective expansion joint. 

Table XVIII. — Leakage of Whitney Siphon. 
(Length 955 ft. Diameter 10 ft. Maximum head 70 ft.) 

Leakage, 
gals. 
Period. 1910. per day 

16 days July 2— July 17 4, 146 

32 days Sept. 30 — Nov. 1 165 

10 days Nov. 1— Nov. 11 135 

20 days Nov. 11— Dec. 1 132 

44 days Dec. 1 — Jan. 13 356 

Remark. — The leakage shown for the last period indicates that someone had 
tampered with the blowoff. This is borne out by the fact that the padlock on 
the cover of the blowofif chamber was found broken. 

Table XIX. — Cost of Whitney Siphon. 

Item Per lin. ft. 

Excavation $ 5. 47 

Concrete lining 8. 33 

Steel in place 3. 82 

Backfill : . 2. 63 

Engineering 0.13 

Anchorage proportion 0. 14 

Blowoff proportion 1 . 28 

Average cost per lin, ft. completed section 21. 80 

Average labor cost mixing and placing per lin. ft 2. 14 

Average labor cost placing steel per lin. ft 0. 83 

Average cost per ft. for forms 1 . 20 

(As there are about 0.78 cu. yd. of concrete per lineal foot of this siphon any 

of the above items multiplied by this sum gives cost per cubic yard of concrete.) 



WATER WORKS 363 

South Antelope Siphon. — The Antelope Valley Siphon is about four miles 
long with a maximum head of 200 ft. It is a composite structure, composed 
of 3,446 ft. of 10 ft. reinforced concrete siphon on the south end and 2,734 ft. 
on the north end, while the middle portion is of steel. The maximum head 
on the concrete pipe is about 75 ft. The ground slope is very uniform and 
level transversely, making an ideal condition for construction. 

The excavation for the pipe was taken out to a depth of 8 or 9 ft. with a 
model No. 20 Marion steam shovel. About two-thirds of the dirt was placed 
on one side and the remaining one-third on the side from which concreting was 
carried on. 

Construction on the south end was commenced July 7, 1911, at the conduit 
end and completed Sept. 2, 1911. 

The average progress was 44 ft. per day. After the first week a rate of 40 
ft. was maintained for about 20 days, after which a uniform rate of 49 ft. per 
day was made until completion. 

The inner forms were of wood built up in sections about 20 ins. wide and 4 ft. 
long, supported by collapsible steel ribs. These were much more satisfactory 
than the wooden forms used on the Whitney siphon. The working force on 
the concrete work was as follows: 

1 superintendent. 

1 concrete foreman. 

6 men charging mixer with wheelbarrows. 

1 man on cement. 

1 man running mixer. 

5 men placing. 

6 bending and placing steel and setting outside ribs. 
4 men taking down inside forms. 

4 men setting up inside forms. 

1 man trimming bottom and setting concrete blocks to support inner forms. 

2 plasters. 

2 plasters' helpers. 

32 men, total. 

The average rate of pay for this force was about $2.75 per day, or a labor 
cost of $2 per lineal foot on the basis of 44 ft. progress for mixing and placing, 
moving and setting forms and finishing. 

Rock for a large part of the work was hauled 7K miles from a plant in the 
hills and the average haul for sand was l}i miles. Cement and steel was 
hauled by teams from Lancaster on the Southern Pacific R. R., a distance of 
36 miles. Monolith Tufa cement manufactured by the city of Los Angeles, 
was used in the ratio of 7 sacks per cubic yard of concrete. The details of 
cost for the 3,446 ft. of pipe are as follows: 

Per Per 

lin. ft. cu. yd. 

Excavation $ 0. 94 

Sand and gray el 

Rock '. 

Cement 

Mixing and placing 

Moving forms 

Plastering 

Steel in place 

Backfill...... 

Engineering (instrument work) 

Superintendence 

Total per lin. ft $17. 20 



0.606 


$0.45 


3.07 


2.32 


5.80 


4.37 


0.91 


0.69 


0.62 


0.47 


0.26 




4.30 




0.39 




0.04 




0.26 




$17.20 





364 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



The above does not include the cost of forms, which will be distributed at 
the completion of ail work on which they are used. It will approximate $1 
per ft. 

Cost of Reclamatiojti Service Concrete Siphons. — The following data are 
taken from Engineering and Contracting, March 15, 1916. 

No record is had of the number of siphons constructed by the Reclamation 
Service. Including those of small size it is large. The siphons of major size 
are few, however, and those selected as examples represent construction prac- 
tice adequately. 

Belle Fourche Siphons. — There was built three siphons on this project: One 
8 ft. in diameter and 477 ft. long; one 6 ft. in diameter and 395 ft. long, and one 
5 ft. in diameter and 3,565 ft. long. Fig. 16 shows a section of the 8-ft. siphon 
the sections for the smaller siphons were similar. A 1:2:4 machine-mixed 
concrete was used; sand being screened to pass a ^^-in. screen and stone being 



5q. fw. steel rods welded size a nd spacing 

4-^ Uftis^t^^jt^ 4-^ ^. .:4.'^ ..Mill.",.. i.i^Lik^ *' I.?. 



fo be varied to suit 
\head 




Type I 



- Grooved boards slope 3= f 
Slope may be changed to suit 
conditions, 
Typez 



Fig. 16. — Section of Belle Fourche Siphon. 

screened to pass a 1-in. ring and be retained on a 3^-in. screen. All siphons 
were built in trench excavated carefully to the outside form of the siphons. 
For the 5-ft. siphon a Blaw collapsible steel form was used. This siphon is 
recorded in detail as follows: The reinforcement consisted of 304,956 lb. of 
twisted steel bars; cost per pound Belle Fourche 2.4 ct., plus cost for hauling 
and storing of ^ ct. per pound. Cement at Belle Fourche cost $2.15 and $2.43 
per barrel ; hauling and storing cost, $1 .28 per cubic yard of concrete. Cement 
hauled 16 miles; gravel hauled 1 mile. Wages per 8-hour day averaged $2.44 
one foreman at $2.25 and one at $100 per month. Weather conditions favor- 
able. Costs of concrete work alone were: 



Item: 

Preparatory expenses 

Plant depreciation 

Administration 

Engineering 

Superintendence 

Inspection 

Camp maintenance 

Water work 

Blacksmith and carpenter shop . 

Total general 



Per cu. yd, 
$0. 30 
0.43 
1.03 
0.29 
0.42 
0.06 
0.32 
0.28 
0.26 



$3. 39 



WATER WORKS 365 

Item: Per cu. yd. 

Crushing and screening $1. 40 

Hauling gravel and sand 0. 50 

Building (including lumber) wood forms 0. 84 

Hauling lumber for forms 0. 18 

Erecting steel forms 0.47 

Miscellaneous 0. 32 

Cleaning reinforcement 0. 08 

Bending and welding 0. 30 

Mixing concrete 0. 53 

Placing concrete 0. 42 

Finishing and watering 0. 22 

Total labor $5. 26 

Cement $3. 67 

Steel 3.26 

Hauling and storing cement 1 . 28 

Hauling and placing steel 0. 73 

Miscellaneous 0. 30 

Total $ 9. 24 

Rent of steel centering 0. 86 

Miscellaneous supplies 0.17 

Total concrete $18. 92 

The distribution of labor and materials costs it will be noted is not precise 
and totals for these items are therefore slightly in error; final total is accurate. 
The total cost of the concrete work proper was $41,929; the total cost of the 
siphon, including excavation, filling equipment, etc., was $59,310. Costs 
recorded in 1908; reported by U. S. Reclamation Service. 

Sun River Siphon. — This work was a reinforced concrete siphon 1,568 ft. 
long, inside diameter 5 ft. 3>^ in., with concrete piers and intake built for 
Sun River project U. S. Reclamation Service. Concrete, 613 cu. yd. in siphon 
and 272 cu. yd. in piers and intake, 1-2-4 mixtures. Wages were per eight- 
hour day for laborers, $2.24 to $2.74, two foremen at $125 per month, one 
carpenter foreman at $5.50 per day and carpenters at $3.50 per day. Cement 
cost $5.60 per barrel and reinforcing steel 4. 12 ct. per pound, delivered. Work 
done by day labor; weather favorable. Sand and gravel hauled 2 miles; 
cement and reinforcing steel hauled 27 miles. Forms collapsible steel; 
progress 18 lin. ft. per day. Costs covering concrete work only were: 

Item: Per cu. yd. 

Amount of concrete, cu. yd . Pipe, 613 

Engineering $ 2. 09 

Superintendence 1.26 

Preparatory expenses 0. 38 

Administration 3. 47 

Camp maintenance 0. 96 

Total general $8.16 

Hauling sand and gravel 2.91 

Handling cement and steel 0. 27 

Hauling, wood, water and miscellaneous . 0. 26 

Pumping .... 

Making forms , 1 . 85 

Bending and placing steel 1 . 43 

Mixing and placing concrete 3 . 32 

Moving forms 1 . 40 

Building trestle 0. 25 

Total labor $11. 69 $10. 50 



Per cu. yd. 


Piers, etc., 272 


$1 


57 





95 





67 


2 


61 


1 


09 


$6 


89 


2 


85 





30 





40 


1 


85 


2 


03 





31 


2. 


35 


0. 


41 





366 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Item: Per cu. yd. Per cu. yd. 

Lumber 1.41 1.59 

Steel 4. 10 4. 06 

Cement 6. 35 4. 90 

Total materials $11.86 $10.55 

Steel forms and supplies 0.81 

Installing and removing plant 0. 28 0. 21 

Depreciation 0. 47 0. 52 

Miscellaneous 1 . 32 1. 49 

Corral expenses 0. 40 0. 45 

Total supplies $ 3. 28 $ 2. 67 

Total concrete $34. 99 $32. 16 

There were 1,254 ft. of tile underdrain which cost 81 ct. per lineal foot, and 
charges for excavation, backfilling rip-rap, survey and design, depreciation of 
buildings aggregating about $7,000, making the total cost of the siphon $23.49 
per lineal foot. Costs recorded in 1907-8; reported by U. S. Reclamation 
Service. 

Salt River Siphons, — Two twin-tube siphons were constructed, one under 
Pinto Creek 2,130 ft. long under 35 ft. head and one at Cottonwood Canyon 
250 ft. long under a head of 76 ft. A cross-section of one of the Pinto Creek 
tubes is shown by Fig. 17. The concrete was a 1 : 2>^ : 4 mixture, mixed wet by • 
hand. The novel feature of the work was the use of a traveling form. 

The forms consisted of an outside form constructed as shown by Fig. 17, 
by inserting 2>^-in. X 5>^-ft. lagging strips in the metal ribs. The inside 
form was designed to permit continuous work by moving the form ahead as the 
concreting progressed. It consisted as shown by Fig. 17, of an invert form 
on which an arch form was carried on rollers. The invert form was pulled 
along by cable from a horse power whim set ahead, being steered, aligned 
and kept to grade by being slid on a light wooden track. It had the form of a 
long half cylinder, with its forward end beveled off to form a scoop-like snout. 
The arch center consisted of semi-circular rings 2 ft. long, set one at a time as 
the work required. Each ring, when set, was flange-bolted to the one behind, 
and each was hinged at three points on the circumference to make it collapsi- 
ble. In operation, the invert form was intended to be pulled ahead and the 
arch rings to be placed one after another in practically a continuous process. 
So that the arch rings might continue supported after the invert form was 
drawn out from under them, invert plates similar to the arch plates were 
inserted one after another in place of the shell of the invert form. The plan 
provided very nicely for continuous work, but continuous work was found 
impracticable for all but about 2,500 ft. of the 6,000 ft. of conduit built. The 
reason for this seems to have been at least in a great measure, the slow setting 
cement made at the cement works established by the Government, at Roose- 
velt. In building the first 300 ft. of conduit, a commercial cement was used 
and a progress of 120 lin. ft. of pipe per 24 hours was easily made. This work 
was done in June. Later, but still in warm weather, using, the Government 
cement and 70 ft. of arch plates, not more than 70 ft. of pipe could be com- 
pleted in 24 hours ; if the plates were taken down sooner, patches of concrete fell 
out or peeled off with them. As the weather grew colder, this difficulty in- 
creased, until finally, the idea of continuous work was abandoned and for some 
3,500 ft. of conduit only one 8-hour shift per day was worked. In De- 
cember and January the plates had to remain in place three days, so that the 
progress was only 24 ft. per day; in warm weather this rate was increased to 
40 ft. per day. 



WATER WORKS 



367 







368 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Costs were kept on two sections of one of the lines and the figures shown in 
the accompanying table were obtained. A gang consisted of a foreman at 
$175 per month, a subforeman at $3.50 per day, and the following laborers at 
$2.50 per day; one bending the reinforcement rings; two placing the reinforce- 
ment ; four taking down, moving and erecting the stationary plates ; four plac- 
ing the concrete and outside lagging; two wheeling concrete; six mixing con- 
crete; one, wheeling sand and gravel; one, watering the finished pipe; four, 
laying track for the steering apparatus, moving the superstructure and 
hangers, mixing boards, runways, etc.; one pointing and finishing inside the 
pipe; and one on the whim and doing miscellaneous work. The labor was 
principally Mexican, and only fairly efficient. It is important to note that the 
costs in the table are labor costs only of mixing and placing concrete and moving 
forms; they do not include engineering, first cost of forms, concrete materials, 
reinforcement or grading. • 

Wages Cost per Cost per 

4 men — ■ per day lin. ft. cu. yd. 

Laying track for steering alligator $ 5. 00 $0. 0670 $0. 16 

Moving and erecting superstructure 5. 00 0. 3821 0. 93 

4 men moving plates 10. 00 0. 2646 0. 65 

Repairs to alligator 0. 0354 0. 08 

1 man bending rings 2. 50 0. 0538 0. 13 

2 men placing reinforcement 5. 00 0. 1538 0. 38 

12 men mixing and placing concrete 30. 00 0. 9631 2. 34 

1 man watering finished pipe 2. 50 0. 0716 0. 17 

1 man painting and brush-coating inside 2. 50 0. 1241 0. 31 

Blacksmith's work 0. 0319 0. 08 

1 man whim 2. 50 0. 0306 0. 07 

1 man screening and hauliiig sand and gravel 2. 50 0. 2804 0. 68 

Total $2.4584 $5.98 

Summary of Costs. — The following costs are separated from the preceeding 
examples of concrete siphon construction. 

Mixing and Placing Concrete. 

Example Per cu. yd. 

Whitney $1. 67 

Antelope Valley 0. 92 

Bell Fourche 0. 95 

Sun River 2. 35 

Salt River 2.-34 

Bending and Placing Reinforcement. 

Example Per cu. yd. 

Whitney $0. 65 

Belle Fourche • 1. 48 

Sun River 0.31 

Salt River 0.51 

Forms, — Separated as completely as is possible from the cost records given 
the costs of forms are about as follows: 

Example Per cu. yd. 

Whitney $0. 94 

Antelope Valley 1. 96 

Belle Fourche 1. 33 

Sun River 2. 44 

Salt River 1. 82 

The figure for Salt River does not include first cost of forms and at Belle 
Fourche the first cost is assumed to be the retail charge. Roughly, forms cost 



WATER WORKS 



369 



from $1 to $2.50 per cubic yard. These figures are for the usual collapsible 
portable types of forms. No cost is found of the traveling form used at Salt 
River; the labor cost of moving and repairing this form was $1.82 per cubic 
yard. It is quite useless from the data available to attempt comparison of 
steel and wood forms. Though the examples cited show that wood forms have 
been most frequently used, this is, we think, a mere happening and signifies 
little. The steel form has peculiar merits for conduit construction and its 
consideration should never be neglected. 




Fig. 18. — Open conduit of Los Angeles City Trunk Line. 



When conduif projecH above orgihal 
ground carry f a^e vertical to solid f ound. 



Cost of Concrete Sections in the Los Angeles Aqueduct. — The following 
data are taken from an article by Burt A. Heinly, Secty. to Chief Engineer, 
Bureau of Water Works and Supply, Los Angeles, published in Engineering 
and Contracting, May 5, 1915. 

The open conduit has a length of 7,975 ft. with a capacity of 20,000 miner's 
inches. The grade varies from 1 to 2.58 per cent and the velocities from 15.6 
to 22.3 ft. per second, n = .014 in Kutter's formula. The conduit is 4 ft. 
wide at the bottom and 15 ft. wide at the top with a 6-in. invert and with 
side slopes of 1>^ to 1 ; the walls being carried to a free board of 15 ins. Exca- 
vation was in a heavy dobe clay 
and was done with scrapers at a 
costof 70cts. per foot which in- 
cluded trimming. The concrete 
lining is 6 ins. thick of a 5H' 
mix, the gravel being washed 
and brought from a stream one- 
half mile distant at a cost of 50 
cts. per cubic yard. No forms 
were used. Every 12J-^ ft., 2 X 
6's were laid and as the concrete 
was delivered from above by a 
No. 11 Austin Cube mixer it was 
screeded off by a screed held on 
the 2 X 6-in. guides, which were 
then removed, the spaces filled 
and the mass trowelled to a 
smooth surface. The cost of 
concreting was $2.80 per lineal 
foot. With a force of 20 men, the average rate of progress was 150 ft. per 
day. This open conduit lies in the bed of the Upper San Fernando Reservoir 
site, where when additional storage is required, a reservoir of 23,000 acre- 
feet will be constructed. 

The covered conduit section, Fig. 19, is similar in design to Aqueduct 
24 




Fig. 19.- 



--/■ 6-0- >; >ip, 

Make face verfical ehf'ire 
length of conduit on down hi 1 1 side 

-Closed conduit, Los Angeles City 
Trunk Line. 



370 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



covered conduit sections but is smaller. The depth is 8 ft. 1 in. and the width 
8 ft. at the bottom to 9 ft. 3 ins. at the top, with a batter of 1 to 12. On the 
reservoir side of the conduit, the outer face of the lining was made vertical. 
Side walls are of a minimum thickness of 6 ins., the bottom 9 ins. and the 
cover from 6 ins. at the sides to 7 ins. at the center. Reinforcement of 
sidewalls on the hill side is of ^^-in. plain rods spaced 2 ft. center to center, and 
on the reservoir side, ^-in. rods spaced 1 ft. center to center. The cover 
is reinforced by ^-in. square twisted rods, placed 9 ins. center to center, and 
is designed to carry a load of 300 lbs. to the square foot with a factor of safety 
of 4. A 5 >^ to 1 mix was used for the cover and a 6 to 1 mix for side and bot- 
tom. The cost of finished conduit amounted to $8.90 per lineal foot. 




Fig. 20. — Tunnel section, Los Angeles City Trunk Line. 



Two tunnels, Fig. 20, one of 875 ft. and the other of 700 ft. which are located 
about midway in the conduit, were driven through an indurated gravel and 
clay, comprising an ideal material in which practically no timbering was 
required. The work was done by hand at a cost of $7.50 per foot. Making 
and placing of forms cost $1 per foot and the concreting $6.50 per foot, making 
this work cost complete, $15 per lineal foot. The tunnels have a slope of 
.0009, with F = to 5.8, n = .014 Kutter's formula. The sidewalls are on a 
batter. 

Construction Quantities. — Per linear foot of tunnel normal section: Exca- 
vation, (timbered) 3.10 cu. yds., (untimbered) 2.73 cu. yds.; concrete, (tim- 
bered) 0.83 cu. yds., (untimbered) 0.69 cu. yds.; timbers, 15 B. M.; spreaders, 
5 B. M.; shoulder braces, 7 B. M.; lagging, 48 B. M. 

The regular rate for day labor on this work was $2.50 per 8 hour day. 



WATER WORKS 



371 



Cost of the San Fernando Inverted Steel Siphon, Los Angeles Aqueduct. — 
The following data are taken from an article in Engineering and Contracting, 
May 5, 1915, by Burt A. Heinly. 

The San Fernando Inverted Steel Siphon carries the aqueduct across 
the San Fernando Valley a total distance of 63,327 ft. under a maximum work- 
ing head of 260 ft. to the crest of the Santa Monica mountain range which 
hems the valley on the south. This siphon, a profile of which is shown in 
Fig. 21, comprises the most difficult and expensive part of the City Trunk 
Line. It required 8,260 tons of steel for its fabrication and is a noteworthy 
example of pipe line construction and design. 

From an inside diameter of 72 ins. at the inlet, the siphon, as diversions 
are made, is gradually reduced to 62 ins. The inlet elevation at the San 
Fernando gate tower is 1,075 ft. above sea level with hydraulic grade at 
1,134. The elevation of the outlet is 854 ft. above sea level. With the 
steep slope of 4 ft. to 1,000, the siphon carries the high velocity of 8 ft. per 



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1009 
959 
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iveted Stee 


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Fig. 21. — Profile of the San Fernando Inverted Steel Siphon, Los Angeles City 

Trunk Line. 



second. On account of the high expense, the line was not designed for full 
static pressure but is constructed for full pressure up to the maximum hydrau- 
lic grade line with a maximum safety of 4. This is equivalent to 15,000 lbs. 
per square inch maximum pressure on the net section. 

Single sheet construction is used throughout, the design and fabrication 
following the methods employed on the 21 steel siphons of the Los Angeles 
Aqueduct. The line was designed and built of lap joints of alternate inside 
and outside sections, the plates being 69 ins. long. All rivets were cone 
headed: ^^-in. rivets were used on the 3^ -in. and He -in. plates with iHe-in. 
open holes; and ^-in. rivets for the ^^-in. plate with ^Ke-in. open holes. 
Riveting followed the Hartford Boiler Standard specifications with the 
efficiency of the joints having a maximum of 72 per cent. 



372 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The steel for both plates and rivets was all made by the basic, open hearth 
process, the quantities, diameters, riveting, etc., being as follows: 

Longitudinal 

Length, ft. Diameter, ins. Thickness, ins. riveting 

19,200.55 72 }4 Double 

5,710.00 72 34 Triple 

6,612.49 72 ^6 Triple 

1,524.10 68 Me Triple 

1,904.09 66 He Triple 

14,000.89 66 H Triple 

9,799.88 64 H Triple 

1,870.81 62 Me Triple 

2,704.38 62 }i Double 



63,327.19 



As the time was an important element, the work was divided so that a local 
contracting firm did part of the work, and the city the remainder. The 
contractor's part consisted in delivering at trench side, 19,200 ft. of 72-in. 
and 4,575 ft. of 62-in. in 24-ft. sections with rivets for circular seams at 3.5 cts. 
per lb. The city purchased the remainder of the steel from an eastern 
factory in plates rolled to true cylinders, beveled, sheared and scarfed at 
1.66 cts. per lb. 

The gates used were of Rensselaer manufacture, double disk, single gear 
type, with heavy bevel gear, bronze trimmed and operated by hand, designed 
for working pressures ranging from 150 to 225 lbs. The large, regulating 
shut-off gates were designed for the nearest conimercial size larger than one- 
half the diameter of the pipe. These comprise a 54-in. gate with 12-in. 
by-pass, 4 miles from the inlet, and at intervals of about 3 miles, three 48- in. 
gates with 8 in. by-passes. These gates are for shutting off any section of the 
line on which an accident might occur or for cleaning. At intervals of one- 
half mile, 6-in. gates are provided for irrigation laterals, and at the Los 
Angeles River crossing, two 8-in. blow-off and one 6-in. drain valves are. 
installed. These are capable of adding a flow of about 50,000,000 gals, to the 
flow of the river which can be taken up farther down stream by the collection 
works of the Los Angeles river supply system. Every one-haLf mile man holes 
with reinforced manhole plates are constructed and on the low sides of shut- 
off gates, 10-in. saddles are constructed to provide for air valves. 

The work of construction, as is the rule of the Los Angeles Water Depart- 
ment, was accomplished by its own laboring force under the direction of its 
own engineers. 

The excavation was done with two Model 40 Marion steam shovels of 
H-cu. yd. and IH cu. yd. capacity. Each was equipped for this particular 
kind of work with an extra long boom 25 ft. in length. The aim was to have 
the top of the pipe a minimum of 3 ft. below the surface of the ground. This 
made the depth of ditch range close to 9 ft., the width being as narrow as the 
shovel could dig, or from 10 to 11 ft. Excavation was in an ideal formation 
of sandy loam that stood without cribbing excepting in a few instances. 
Shovel crews in an eight hour day accomplished from 85 to 190 lineal feet, the 
average cost of trenching ranging from 25 to 30 cts. per foot. Shovel runners 
were paid $150 per month; cranemen, $115; firemen, $75 per month, and pit- 
men $2.50 per day. The shovels worked 6 days per week, the crews over- 
hauling the shovel on the seventh without allowance for overtime. Back- 
filling was with Fresnos at the rate of 150 ft. per day for each gang, teamsters 



r 



WATER WORKS 373 



being paid $2.50 per day. The cost of this item averaged 18 cts. per running 
foot. 

As stated, the contractor was required to dehver the pipe in 24 ft. sections 
at the side of the trench. He found it cheaper to rivet into single sections 
in his shop, then rivet four sections into a tank, or 24 ft. length of pipe, on 
the ground, air being sold to him for this purpose by the city. With the city 
it was necessary to unload the nested, unriveted plates and do all the work of 
riveting, both circular and longitudinal at the side of the trench. For this 
purpose the equipment comprised three compressor stations situated at points 
near the inlet, middle and outlet of the siphon with air lines of 2-in. and 4-in. 
inside diameter standard screw pipe. The longest delivery was one of 26,000 
ft., through 4-in. pipe. Air compressors used were one Clayton 2-stage 
tandem of a capacity of 200 cu. ft. of free air per minute under 100 lbs. pres- 
sure, driven by a 75 hp. Westinghouse motor, and two 2-stage IngersoU Rand 
No. 10 Imperials, each of a capacity of 700 cu. ft. of air per minute under 100 
lbs. pressure driven by 100 hp. General Electric motors. Transmission lines 
of the Southern California Edison Co. in the vicinity were tapped to supply 
the energy. 

From three to five gangs were employed on the city's riveting. Each gang 
comprised a riveter at $3.50, a caulker at $4.00. a heater at $3.00, a bucker-up 
at $2.50 and sometimes an additional helper at $2.50 for an 8-hour day. 
The gangs worked under a bonus system, compiled at 10-day intervals, 
amounting to $1.75 per 100 rivets for all over 500 driven in 8 hours. This was 
divided proportionately among the gang, the riveter foreman who received 
$150 per month not participating. A rivet that on a tap of the inspector's 
hammer showed any vibration was rejected and had to be cut out and replaced 
on the gang's own time. There are defects in the bonus system but if watch- 
fulness is exercised, the city has found that in this line of work, the spirit of 
co-operation, enthusiasm and personal endeavor can be developed to a 
high degree. 'Under this system one gang would rivet from 12 to 15 rings into 
4-piece sections in a day. In the trench, 10 round seams was a day's work. 

After some experimenting, it was found that the quickest and most satis- 
factory method of fabrication was to rivet the plates into four ring sections 
or tanks. This made the work of riveting much easier and swifter and reduced 
the number of bell holes. The " tanks " were hoisted to position in the trench 
by a stiff -leg A-frame derrick set on wheels and movable rails. Riveting in 
the trench progressed at the rate of 125 ft. per day. Large angles and transi- 
tions were shop made but on small bends, no special construction was required, 
the piates being simply cut and beveled. On curves where the radius was 
equal to or larger than a 6° railroad curve, it was found that the situation could 
be handled by a little reaming of the rivet holes. The pipe was all laid with 
the longitudinal seams uppermost, as it has been found by experience that 
most of the leaks occur where the three thicknesses of steel come together and 
they are thus made easy of access for recaulking. 

In painting, coal gas and water gas tars were used. A coating of the latter 
which is much thinner than coal tar and of high penetrating qualities was first 
applied and then on succeeding days, two coats of coal tar both inside and out. 
No heating was required in the summer months but was necessary with 
the approach of autumn and winter temperatures. Painting was done at 
trenchside with brushes. After the pipe was laid, another coat was apphed 
to all round seams and to any abrasions. Comparison of expense with pat- 
ented preparations is to be noted from the fact that coal tar cost 11 cts. per 
gallon and gas tar 10 cts. per gallon laid down on the ground in carload lots. 



374 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The department after having had three years of tests of these materials on 
the exposed aqueduct siphons finds them an effective substitute for the higher 
priced coatings. 

The transitions at both ends of the siphon consist of bloclcs of heavily 
reinforced concrete, covering the pipe to a depth of 2 ft. on all sides for a 
lineal distance of 8 ft. which serve as anchorages to hold the pipe in place. 

Cost of Steel Section of Antelope Valley Siphon, Los Angeles Aqueduct. — 
The followig data are from an article by William W. Hurlbut published in 
Engineering Hecord, July 19, 1913. 

The steel, or middle portion of the Antelope Valley siphon, was furnished 
by the Riter-Conley Manufacturing Company, rolled and punched at a cost' 
of $1.50 per hundredweight f.o.b. factory at LeedsdalO; Pa., or $2.30 per 
hundredweight laid down at Mojave, Cal., the distributing point for this work. 
The plate was shipped nested in order to obtain the minimum rate for carload 
lots. The plate is of the lap-joint type, the inside rings being 10 ft. 
in diameter. 

Table XX gives lengths and weights and safe heads of each thickness of 
metal. 

Table XX.— Steel-plate Data 

Safe head. Length feet, Weight, 
Thickness feet pounds 

K-in. double-riveted 100 2 , 690 938 , 810 

^-in. triple-riveted 144 4 , 559 1 , 609 , 440 

Ke-in 180 3,698 1,626,920 

^-in 210 4 , 650 2 , 648 , 970 

Total 15,597 6,648,970 

Table XXI gives the schedule for siphon work for a typical riveting crew 
of four men. 

The world's record for field-driven rivets was made on the erection of this 
pipe, one man driving 1650 ^^-in. rivets in one eight-hour shift. 

Table XXI. — Bonus Rate for Riveting Crew 

Mechanic, 

Each per Size of 

shift rivet, in. 

Riveter /%\ 

Heater ) H \ 

yA \ 

Bucker ] % \ 

\H / 

Sticker j H \ 

The compressor plant was located in the center or 1}^ miles from each, 
end of the pipe. The plant consisted of four 40-hp. Aurora gas engines, 
all belted to a line shaft, the line shaft in turn being belted directly to an 
Ingersoll-Rand air compressor. Two lines of 4-in. O. D. casing delivered 
air at a pressure of 1 10 lb. Erection of this siphon commenced in the middle 
and was worked both ways from this point. All rivets were cone-headed and 
of full-diameter shank; ^^-in. rivets were used on the }i and ^le-in. plate and 
^-in. rivets on the ^^-in. plate. 









Crew Per cent 






bonus, of bonus 


Wages, 


Base rate. 


cents per man 


per day 


per shift 


per rivet per shift 


$3.50 




[500 
1400 


\U 


30 


3.00 


■ 


[500 
1400 


l^ 


1 30 


2.75 


1 


[500 
400 




i 20 


2.50 




f 500 
l400 




[ '' 



9.84 $2 


30 


1.46 


34 


.52 


12 


1.19 


28 


.24 


06 


.15 


04 


.87 


21 


.11 


03 


.04 


01 


.19 




.11 




.01 




.01 




.03 





WATER WORKS 375 

Table XXII gives direct field charges of costs for the steel pipe. 

Table XXII. — Field Costs for Steel Pipe 

Length, Unit Cost 

Description feet cost per cwt. 

Trench excavation 15 , 597 $ 0. 33 

Anchorages, proportion 15 , 597 . 48 

Steel pipe: 

Cost rolled and punched at Mojave 15,597 

Loading and hauling 15 , 597 

Placing 15, 597 

Riveting 15, 597 

Calking 15, 597 

Painting 15, 597 

Equipment 15 , 597 

Superintendence 15 , 597 

Engineering ; 15 , 597 

Backfill 15,597 

Bell hole, proportion 15 , 597 

Dismantling camp, proportion 15 , 597 

Manholes, proportion 15,597 

Blow-off valves, proportion 15,597 

Total... $15.58 $3.39 

To the cost shown in the table should be added 10 per cent for overhead 
charges. The average cost of driving 645,957 rivets was 2.9 cents per rivet, 
and the average cost per pound of erecting was 3.39 cents. 

The erection of steel commenced in April and was completed in September, 
1912. The greatest progress was made during the month of August, when 
5940 ft. were erected. 

Weight and other miscellaneous data of steel pipe are given as follows in 
Moritz's "Working Data for Irrigation Engineers" (1915). 

Fig. 22 gives the thickness of steel pipe for three different efficiencies of 
joint, single riveted at 55 per cent, best double riveted at 72 per cent, and lock- 
bar pipe at 90 per cent. The lock-bar joint is capable of developing 100 per 
cent efficiency; but, due to occasional defects in material or workmanship on 
the lock-bars, an efficiency of 90 per cent is recommended for calculating the 
thickness. The thickness given in the diagram is the net thickness of steel 
required to withstand the given pressure at a unit stress in the steel of 16,000 
lbs. per sq. in. It is customary to allow a slight excess of thickness to take 
care of weakening by corrosion. 

The following table (from "American Civil Engineers' Pocket Book") 
gives the greatest allowable depth of earth cover over steel pipe in feet. If a 
pipe is to be subjected to a greater pressure of earth than indicated in the 
table, the thickness must be increased or the pipe shell reinforced with angle 
irons or other suitable shapes. 







Diameter 


OP 


Pipe 








Thickness 


30 ins. 


36 ins. 


42 ins. 


48 ins. 


54 ins. 


60 ins. 


72] 


He 


5 
















y^. 


8 


5 


4 




3 








He 


12 


9 


6 




5 


4 


3 


2 


H 


18 


12 


9 




7 


6 


4 


3 


iu 


25 


17 


12 




9 


8 


6 


4 


yi 




22 


16 




12 


10 


8 


6 














15 


12 


9 



Example of Use of Diagram (Fig. 22). — Given a 72-in. steel pipe for a 
power plant static head of 200 ft. ; an allowance of 50 per cent is to be made for 



376 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



water-ram and 10 per cent for corrosion, making the total head (200 X 1.60) = 
320 ft. 

Enter the diagram at a head of 320 ft., thence horizontally to the line for 
72-in. pipe, then vertically down and read thickness slightly more than Ke-in. 
for single-riveted joint, slightly less than Ke-in. for double-riveted joint, and 
slightly more than ^}i2-m. for the lock-bar. Single riveting is seldom used 




Fig. 22. — Thickness and weight of steel pipe. 



for any but unimportant and temporary structures. Carrying the above 
example further, we note from the foregoing table that the Ke-in. shell will 
withstand a back-fill of 4 ft., and the i>i2-in. shell will withstand between 
2 and 3 ft. The approximate weight of the pipe is given by the formula in 
the diagram. 



WATER WORKS 377 

Maintenance of Steel Pipe Line, 350 Miles Long.— The following data are 
taken from an abstract in Engineering Record, Oct, 21, 1916, of the 1914-15 
Annual Report of P. V. O'Brien, engineer for the Goldfields areas of the Water 
Supply, Sewerage and Drainage Department of Western Australia. 

The pipe line and pumping project, was completed in 1902. After having 
been in service a few years the pipe showed signs of serious corrosion. The 
steel of this conduit was manufactured in Australia from material supplied 
from England. The thickness of the plates is ^i in. for all pipes under pres- 
sure up to 390 ft. head and ^{e in. thick for pressures above that amount. 
The material employed was open-hearth basic steel. When completed and 
tested the pipes were heated to 300 deg. Fahr. and immersed in a mixture 
of coal tar and Trinidad Asphalt. Over the outside coating sand was sprinkled 
to make the material resistant to the sun's heat. 

Maintenance Costs, — Mr. O'Brien presents the following figures on the 
cost of maintenance since the pipe line was completed in 1902 : 

Table XXIII. — Cost op Maintenance of 30-Inch Steel Main 3513^ Miles 

Long 

Year Cost Year Cost 

1902-31... $83,500 1909-10 83,000 

1903-4 J 

1904-5 37,600 1910-11 61,200 

1905-6 38,000 1911-12 83,000 

1906-7 68,700 1912-13 111,000 

1907-8 96,600 1913-14 192,600 

1908-9 74,500 1914-15 248,000 

The corrosion on the exterior of the pipes took three distinct forms — rusting, 
pitting and scaling. It appears that the greatest deterioration has occurred 
where the pipe has been buried in the ground, while sections lying above the 
surface show comparativel-y slight damage. 

Table XXIV. — Holes Due to External Corrosion 

Financial No. of Financial No, of 

year holes year holes 

1904-5 2 1910-11 131 

1905-6 27 1911-12 124 

1906-7 54 1912-13 774 

1907-8 . . 55 1913-14 966 

1908-9 '... 91 1914-15 2,078 

1909-10 177 

The great increase in the number of holes in 1914-15 is partly accounted 
for by the large amount of work done in scraping the pipe preparatory to 
recoating. In this way many holes appeared that ordinarily would not have 
been noticed for several years later. 

The method adopted for dealing with external corrosion consists of uncover- 
ing the pipes wherever they are found to be badly pitted and continuing the 
opening up in both directions till they are found to be in good condition. In 
this way all those parts of the main in the vicinity of places where corrosion is 
known to be bad have been opened up, and in addition, other portions which 
were likely to be similarly bad have been opened up during the past year. The 
length opened up and left open for the financial year 1914-15 was 36>^ miles, 
making a total of 80 miles uncovered at the close of the year. Judging by the 
condition of the pipes that have been opened up during the past, year, it is 
anticipated that the work of dealing with the external corrosion of the pipes 
can be satisfactorily dealt with for some years in the same manner as hitherto, , 



378 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

and at no greater cost. Although almost the whole of the coating on the pipes 
where they are underground is more or less perished, and has been so for 
many years, the condition of the steel plates is, apart from the pitting and 
scaling already referred to. almost uniformly good. 

Life of Cast Iron Water Pipe — The following data are taken from an article 
in Engineering and Contracting, Dec. 15, 1915 which gives the substance of 
replies to a questionaire conducted by Thomas H. Hooper, Sup't of Water 
Worlis, Winnipeg, Manitoba. 

Baltimore. — Cast iron pipe was laid in Baltimore as early as 1805. The old 
pipe has been found in good condition. Electrolysis has been found the worst 
enemy of cast iron pipe. Reported by Robert L. Clemmitt, Acting Water 
Engineer. 

Boston. — The oldest cast iron pipe was laid in 1848. The condition of this 
pipe depends upon the soil in which it was laid. Have taken out pipe in 
practically perfect condition, as far as condition of iron goes, after 60 years 
use. In other cases, in bad ground, or where electrolysis exists, pipe has been 
destroyed in half that time. Reported by F. A. Mclnnes, Div. Eng., Pub, 
Works Dep't. 

Chicago. — The first cast iron pipe was laid in 1852. Some of the oldest pipe 
has been found in excellent condition when examined. Very little deteriora- 
tion has been observed unless pipe has been attacked by cinders or slag filling 
or electrolysis. These cases are comparatively rare. Reported by John 
Ericson, City Engineer. 

Hamilton, Ont. — The first pipe was laid in 1859 which on examination is 
shown to be in good condition The only deterioration has been from elect- 
rolysis. Reported by Thomas Towers, Sup't. of Water Works. 

Minneapolis. — The earliest records of cast iron pipe are about 1874. Old 
pipe when exposed appears to have suffered no depreciation. A piece of 12-in. 
' pipe, 32 years in service, cut out to pass under a 4*8-in. pipe, looked like new. 
The coating even had its original lustre. Reported by J. A. Jensen, Sup't 
of Water Works. 

Montreal. — First cast iron pipe was laid in 1852-4. In replacing 4 and 6-in. 
pipes, which had been in use over 55 years, with pipes of larger diameter, 
to meet increased demands due to growth of city, it was found that the cast 
iron was in good condition and the outside appearance almost perfect. In 
places, the area was much reduced by tubercules W rust or calcareous deposit 
and silty matter. On the whole, with the nature of Montreal soil, and leaving 
out the particular cases where electrolysis (due to electric tramways) may 
effect condition, it is safe to say that the cast iron pipes last as long as their 
usefuUness will warrant. Reported by T. W. Lesage, Eng. — Sup't. of Water 
Works. 

New York City- — Cast iron pipe was introduced in 1815. In 1915, in con- 
ne(?tion with an investigation of a break on a 30-in. main some of the old pipe 
was examined. It was found that the material was in good condition and 
showed hardly any depreciation. It was estimated that this main was made 
of, what is known as, Scotch iron and was laid about 1830. Reported by 
Merrit H. Smith, Chief Eng. Bureau of Water. 

Philadelphia. — The first cast iron pipe was laid in 1817. Pipes recently 
taken up, laid in 1817 and 1827, were removed for obsolescence rather than 
because it could no longer perform its service. Of course tubercles and in- 
crustations were found on the interior but the iron showed no evidence of 
deterioration. Reported by Carlton E. Davis, Chief of Bureau of Water. 



WATER WORKS 



379 



Rochester. — The first pipe was laid in 1872. The pipe examined at frequent 
Intervals has been found to be practically in as good condition as at time of 
laying. Reported by B. C. Little, Sup't of Water Works. 

A DCD 



Z-2L~ 

'30'-: 



a 


o 

o 



fi 0.10 



C 



q: 
t ^ 

o 

+ o 



i4' 
24 

■) 

J3 
> 



<\j -is / 

Ob 



Fig. 23.— Diagram for determining cost of cast iron pipe per foot from price per 
ton and class of pipe. 

St. Louis. — Physical condition of pipe in ground over 60 years in almost 
every instance has been found good. Reported by Francis T. Cutts, Asst. 
Water Commissioner, 



380 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Toronto. — Cast iron pipe laid in 1854 is still in use and upon examination 
shows little depreciation except where electrolysis has taken place. Reported 
by R. C. Harris Commissioner of Works. 

Diagram of Costs Per Foot of Cast Iron Pipe. — W. E. Miller gives the forego- 
ing diagram for determining the cost of cast iron pipe per foot for different 
classes of pipe and at different prices per ton in the Journal of the American 
Water Works Assn., Sept. 1914. 

A straight edge laid across the diagram so as to lie on the proper points of 
the outer scales will intersect the center scale at the result sou*ght. For 
example: With pipe costing $26 per ton, considered as inclusive of freight 
and cartage if desired, 6-in. class B pipe is found by the diagram and a straight 
edge to cost 43 cts. per foot, while a calculation results in a slightly more 
accurate figure of 43.3 cts.; similarly, 12-in. class B pipe at the same cost per 
ton is found by the diagram and straight edge to be worth about $1.07, while a 
computation gives $1.0673 per foot. The classes of pipe mentioned are the 
American Water Works Association Standard. 

Care is to be taken in using the diagram that points on the right-hand 
vertical scale be used for size and class of pipe — not the points under the class 
letters. 

Similar diagrams may readily be made in the same way for other tables of 
weights. 

Cost of Maintaining Water Mains. — (Engineering and Contracting, April 13 
1910.) The city of Harrisburg, Pa., had in 1909, 67 miles and 1,147 ft. or say 
67.22 miles of water mains. The cost for the year to keep these mains in 
repair, change them to new grades when necessary, change hydrants and look 
after 9,000 meters was as follows: 

Horses and wagons $ 528. 47 

Supplies 443. 23 

Materials and repairs 1 , 749. 44 

Salaries 4 , 907. 50 

Total $7,628.64 

This is at a rate of $113.48 per mile. 

Maintenance Cost of Water Distribution System of Chicago.— (Engineering 
and Contracting, Mar. 10, 1920.) The cost of maintaining the 2,871.57 miles 
of mains in the water distribution system of Chicago amounted to $548,108 
in 1918, an average of $192.15 per mile. In 1917 the average cost was $193.60. 
The accompanying diagram (Fig. 24) reproduced from the 1918 report of the 
Department of Public Works gives an interesting comparison of the mainte- 
nance costs for the years 1915 to 1918. 

Cost of Thawing Ground for Trench Work by Steam. — To thaw earth that 
is frozen to a depth of 2 ft. or more is a problem that often confronts a water 
works superintendent. Edgar S. Smith, superintendent of the Water Depart- 
ment of Pocatello, Idaho, solved the problem in a simple manner and at a cost 
of less than 10 ct. per foot of trench for thawing, according to Engineering and 
Contracting, Aug. 8, 1917. 

The ground was frozen 4>^ ft. deep and in 24 hrs. was completely thawed to 
a depth of 2^ ft. The remaining 2 ft. were softened sufficiently to be easily 
picked. The method of thawing consisted in laying a double line of IH-in. 
pipe over the trench and covering it with 6-in. of fine sand. Steam was fed 
into the pipe from a traction engine boiler, and a block 300 ft. long was thawed 



WATER WORKS 



381 



at one setting of the engine. It took about 2 hrs. to shift to the next block, 
haul the sand and cover up the pipe, using 2 men and 2 teams. 
The total daily cost of thawing the ground was as follows : 



Cost per Mile 




Total Expenditures 



Fig. 24. — Comparison of maintenance cost of water distribution system of 
Chicago, for the years 1915 to 1918. 



Rent of traction engine per day $ 3. 00 

Day fireman ; 5. 00 

Night fireman 4 . 50 

1 ton of coal per day 8. 00 

1 yd. of sand per day .75 

Team and one man moving sand, hauling water, etc., ^^ day 4. 50 

Gang of 20 men 15 minutes removing sand from pipe = 5 man hours. . 1. 87 

Total $27. 62 

Total length of trench opened per day, 300. 
Cost per foot for thawing, $0,092. 

The backfill material must either be thawed or manure must be laid over the 
water pipe before back-filling with frozen earth. 

Experience with Trenching Machines in Massachusetts. — At the annual 
(1920) convention of the New England Waterworks Association a general 
discussion about the use of trenching machines for excavating waterworks 
trenches brought out sMne valuable information. George W. Batchelder, 



382 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Water Commissioner of Worcester, opened the discussion with a paper, the 
substance of which, as given in Engineering and Contracting, Nov. 10, 1920, 
follows: 

Machine Trenching in Worcester. — The machine is a Model O, purchased 
of the Austin Drainage Excavator Co., in 1913 at a cost of $7,000 less 5 per 
cent. It is operated by steam, and was selected in preference to the gasoline 
machine because of the belief that there would be less trouble in securing opera- 
tors who could handle a steam machine. It has buckets of 18-in., 24-in., 
30-in. and 36-in. width, and in each case the cut made is 6 in. wider because 
the teeth project 3 in. on each side. Trenches can be cut much wider that 
the buckets by barring down the material on each side of and in advance 
of the buckets. 

The ordinary depth to which the machine cuts for water pipe in Worcester 
is 5 ft.; this, of course, can be made more or less with a range from to 12 ft. 
Best results are not obtained at the extreme depth because the boom runs 
so nearly vertical that the buckets spill much of the material before it reaches 
the conveyor belt. Cuts have been made for a 48-in. pipe line with excellent 
results. 

The machine has developed no weakness, though it has been used in very 
hard digging. It has done all of the trenching practicable in Worcester 
streets, and has been rented to other municipalities and contractors. Given a 
straight run in locaUties free from obstructions, the machine is at its best and 
has cut hundreds of feet of trench in a day. For use in the installation of new 
water or sewer systems in any soil except rock, it will go ahead so fast^that the 
problem is to keep the pipe laid within hailing distance. 

Cost Data in Hartford and Auburn. — Examples of its work are shown in 
these records; 

HARTFORD, CONN., 1917 

June 26, New Park Ave., 155 ft. long, 36 in. wide, 5 ft. deep, 5 hrs. 
June 27, New Park Ave., 200 ft. long, 36 in. wide, 5 ft. deep, 6 hrs. 
July 6, New Park Ave., 220 ft. long, 36 in. wide, 5 ft. deep, 7 hrs. 
July 19, New Park Ave., 320 ft. long, 36 in wide, 5 ft. deep, 8 hrs. 
July 24, Quaker Lane, 408 ft. long, 24 in. wide, 5 ft. deep, 8 hrs. 

AUBURN, MASS., 1920 
Aug. — 

18, Very coarse gravel 410 ft. long, 24 in. wide, 5 ft. deep, 8 hrs. 

19, Loam, hard pan & gravel 250 ft. long, 24 in. wide, 5 ft. deep, 5 hrs. 

20, Hard pan, clay & sand 380 ft. long, 24 in. wide, 5 ft. deep, 6^^ hrs. 

21, Sand & fine gravel 165 ft. long, 24 in. wide, 5 ft. deep, 3 hrs. 

23, Filled land, very rocky 384 ft. long, 24 in. wide, 5 ft. deep, Q^i hrs. 

24, Coarse gravel & sand 438 ft. long, 24 in. wide, 5 ft. deep, 8 hrs. 

25, Very rocky and wet 445 ft. long, 24 in. wide, 5 ft. deep, S}4 hrs. 

26, Fine gravel & hard pan 295 ft. long, 24 in. wide, 5 ft. deep, 5>^ hrs. 

27, Gravel, clay & hard pan 472 ft. long, 24 in. wide, 5 ft. deep, 8 hrs. 

28, Filled land, rocky 180 ft. long, 24 in. wide, 5 ft. deep, 3K hrs. 

This total excavation amounts to 34,190 cu. yd. The costs of this work are: 
Operator, $88; fireman, $66; freight, $38; coal, $48; oil, etc., $20; repairs and 
depreciation, ex. labor, $50. Total, $330. 

Cost per cu. yd., excl. rental 9. 65 cts. 

Cost per cu. yd., including rental price 17. 2 cts. 

Cost per cu. yd., hand labor (estimated) 63. cts. 



WATER WORKS 383 

In addition to the work done in Worcester the machine has brought in a 
revenue for rentals of $9,011, not including the job now going on at Auburn 
Mass. The total cost of replacements and repair parts since the machine was 
purchased has been $3,864. 

The machine shows no unusual signs of wear, and is apparently good for 
many years of service. 

Machine Trenching in Springfield. — The following paper was presented by 
A. L. Martin, Superintendent of the Springfield waterworks. 

Work of trenching in the city of Springfield is done by a Model 24 Parsons 
Excavator. It is capable of cutting a trench 26 in. wide, and has been used 
mostly in preparing trenches for laying 12-in. pipe, but has been in service for 
as high as 24 and even 30-in. pipe. The soil that it has handled has been 
mostly sandy with little or no rock. 

Tne first work done by the trencher was the digging of a trench for a 16-in. 
main, and in this work 300 or 500 ft. per day weie laid, with a foreman and 
eight men on the job. A backfiller was also used. 

Excavating Over Old Water Main. — Another work the trencher accomplished 
was the removal of 2,700 ft. of an abandoned water main. As this was not in 
use and as pipe was at a premium we decided to take it up. Wages of shovej- 
ers at this time were 67 ct. per hour, and the economy of using the trencher for 
this purpose can easiiy be seen. Twenty actual working days were consumed 
in the labor. The trench was excavated to the top of the pipe, then, with 
men to loosen the side, the pipe was lifted out. Three tons or lead were 
salvaged on the joints of this pipe line and the actual cost of the pipe, which 
was in good condition, was (deducting the lead saved) $1 per foot including 
transportation to its future destination. The trench dug in this instance was 
from 5>^ to 6 ft. wide and 6 ft. deep. , 

Trenching for SO-In. Main. — In digging the trench and lowering the 30-in. 
pipe the process was to dig one side and then break the sides on the other. 
The trench was 6 ft. wide and 8 ft. deep, and the speed of operation was 400 ft. 
in four days. In accomplishing this work, bars were left at intervals to hold 
the pipe and then finally dug away by hand, so that the pipe lowered itself. 

The cost of the trencher, which is operated by gasoline, was $7,800. 

It was found that when left alone after working hours and at night the 
trencher was apt to be tampered with by curious persons or mischievous boys. 
A watchman would cost $35 per week. A cage, placed entirely around the 
machine and made of strong steel wire, much like that used in the cages 
around the cashier's offices in banks, fulfilled the object it was devised for and 
cost about $400. 

The operator of the trencher is paid 80 ct. per hour, and the assistant 70 ct. 

Cost of Machine Trenching for Water Mains at Erie/ Pa. — By using a 
trenching machine the Water Department of Erie, Pa., has overcome diffi- 
culties incident to the labor shortage and at the same time has effected a large 
saving in excavating for water main extensions. A report on the work of the 
machine, prepared by E. W. Humphreys, Superintendent of Waterworks, 
and abstracted in Engineering and Contracting, May 8, 1918, shows that it has 
dug trenches 5K and 6 ft. deep at a cost as low as 0.9 ct. per hneal foot. 
This particular trench was dug in hard clay. The figure covers the wages of 
operator and helper and the cost of gasoiine, oils and grease. In laying 
10,000 ft. of 6 in. main in 1917 the cost of hand digging aione was 19 ct. per 
lineal foot, with comm^.m labor at 27^ ct. per hour. The hand dug trench was 
in clay with shale at the bottom. 



384 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The accompanying tabulation shows work done by the machine at various 
times from May 1, 1917. to Jan. 3, 1918: 

Cost 

Trench per lin. 

Le. De. Wi. Kind of material ft, of 

ft. ft. ft. excavated trench 

Rankine Ave., N 1,000 53^^ 2 Running sand and gravel .. . $0,065 

Rankine Ave., S 800 53^ 2 Hard shale 036 

22d W. Cranberry 665 6 2 Hard clay 010 

28th W. of Sigsbee 652 6 2 Clay loam 010 

Cherry N. of 30th 360 5 3^^ 2 Clay and gravel 012 

5th W. Raspberry 400 5 3^^ 2 Sandy 014 

27th W. Cascade 420 53-^ 2 Hard clay 009 

Old French Road 230 6 2 Hard clay 009 

The costs given in Table XXV are the actual operative costs, exclusive of 
overhead, depreciation and repairs, and pay of watchman. The costs in 
detail for each of these jobs follow: 

Table XXV 

Per 
hn. ft. 

Rankine Ave., N. (1,000 hn. ft. trench) trench 

Operator, 62 hr. at 323^ ct $0. 0200 

Helpers, 115 hr. at 30 ct 0345 

Gasohne, 39 gal. at 24>^ ct 0090 

Oils, 4 qt. at 93^ ct 0004 

Grease, 2 lb. at 73^ ct 0001 

Total (1,000 lin. ft.) '.'.'.'.'.'.*.".'.'.'.".'.'.".'.*.". $0. 0640 

Ranking Ave. S. (800 lin. ft. trench) 

Operator, 26 hr. at 35 ct $0. 0114 

Helper, 38 hr. at 28 ct 0130 

Gasohne, 35 gal. at 25 ct : 0109 

Oils, 4 qt. at 113^^ ct . 0006 

Grease, 1 lb. at 9 ct 0001 

Total (800 hn. ft.) $0. 0360 

22nd W. of Cranberry (665 hn. ft. trench) 

Operator, 4 hr. at 35 ct $0. 002 

Helper, 4 hr. at 323.^ ct 002 

Gasohne, 15 gal. at 25 ct 006 

Oils, 3 qt. at 113^ ct 

Grease, 1 lb. at 9 ct 

Total (665 lin. ft.) $0. 010 

28th W. of Sigsbee (652 lin. ft. trench) 

Operator, 3 hr. at 35 ct $0. 002 

Helper, 3 hr. at 27 ct 002 

Gasohne, 12 gal. at 25 ct 005 

Oils, 4 qt. at 11^^ cf ; grease, 1 lb. at 9 ct 001 

Total (652 hn. ft.) $0. 010 

Cherry N. of Cranberry (360 lin. ft. trench) 

Operator, 2 hr. at 35 ct $0. 002 

Helper, 2 hr. at 273^ ct 002 

Gasohne, 10 gal. at 25 ct 007 

Oils, 3 qt. at 11>^ ct.; grease, 1 lb. at 5 ct 001 

Total (360 hn. ft.) $0. 012 

5th W. of Raspberry (400 hn. ft. trench) 

Operator, 3 hr. at 45 ct $0. 003 

Helper, 3 hr. at 33 ct 002 

Gasohne, 12 gal. at 27 ct 008 

Oils, 1 gal. at 10 ct. ; grease, 1 lb. at 5 ct 001 

Total (400 hn. ft.) $0. 0014 



WATER WORKS 385 

Per 
lin. ft. 
27th W. of Cascade (420 lin. ft. trench) trench 

Operator, 2 hr. at 45 ct $0. 002 

Helper, 2 hr. at 35 ct '. 002 

Gasoline, 8 gal. at 25 ct . 005 

Oils, 1 qt. at 10 ct 

Grease, 1 lb. at 5 ct 

Total (420 lin. ft.) $0. 009 

Old French Road (230 Hn. ft. of trench) 

Operator, 1 hr. at 45 ct $0. 002 

Helper, 1 hr. at 35 ct 002 

Gasoline, 4 gal. at 25 ct 005 

Oils, 1 qt. at 10 ct . 

Total (230 Un. ft.) $0. 009 

The figures on the last six jobs represent the actual time the machine was 
engaged in trenching. On the old French Road work 230 lin. ft. of trench was 
excavated in one hour, while in the 27th St. work 210 ft. of trench was dug in 
one hour. A summary of the operating costs on the six jobs shows the 
following: 

Per 
hn. ft. 

6 jobs trenching (2,727 lin. ft.) trench 

Operator, 15 hr. at 39 ct $0. 0021 

Helper, 15 hr. at 313-^ ct 0017 

Gasohne, 61 gal. at 25.1 ct 0060 

Oils, 13 qt. at 11 ct 0005 

Grease, 5 lb. at 6^^ ct 0001 

Total (2,727 lin. ft.) $0. 0104 

The trenching machine, a Pawling & Harnischfeger, was purchased by the 
Water Department early in 1917 at a cost of $5,650 f. o. b. Erie. 

Cost of Excavating and Backfilling Trench by Machines, — Engineering 
News-Record, May 24, 1917, gives the following. The excavating was done 
by a municipally owned Austin excavator which will dig a trench 72 in. wide 
and cost $10,000. 

The cost of operating this excavator 66 working days for a 54-in. force 
main, at an average depth of 11 ft., was $3665, divided as follows: Repairs, 
$808; coal and oil, $549; labor, $2308. The volume of material excavated, 
based on daily reports, was 39,200 cu. yd., or by computation on approximate 
sections, 43,700 cu. yd. The cost per cubic yard, based on the daily reports, 
was 9.3 cents. 

Labor was paid as follows: Foreman, $4.50; timekeeper (one-fourth of his 
time, as he was on four jobs), $1; engineer, $4; watchman, $3; fireman, $2.75; 
laborers, $2.50; team, $5. The cost of repairs was thus divided: Labor, 
$358; repair parts, $352; repair work at local shop, $98. 

Cost of Backfilling by Steam Shovel. — Backfilling was done by means of a 
small steam shovel. The job was in the outskirts of the city, and the excess 
dirt was easily disposed of. Cost figures are not available, but on another job 
in a built-up part of the city the backfilling of a 48-in. main 9520 ft. long 
cost $1146, or 4.8 cents per cu. yd. The cross-section averaged 75.3 sq. ft 
gross, or 62.8 net, for backfill, after deducting 12.5 sq. ft. for the 48-in. pipe. 
There were 22,143 cu. yd. in the trench and 1590 cu. yd. in bell holes, making a 
total backfill of 23,733 cu. yd. against a total excavation of 29,757 cu. yd. 
25 



386 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



The cost of the backfilling, plus the hauling away of excess material (6024 
cu. yd.) and the refilling of the street surface, was $6302, or a unit cost of 
21.2 cents. The cost of removing excess material and refinishing the street 
surface was $0,839 per cu. yd., a high cost due to long haul. 

The steam shovel engineer was paid $6 a day. Other daily wages, all for 
8 hours, were: Foreman, $2.75; watchman, $3; assistant foreman, for hauling 
material away, $3; teams, $5; and two pitmen, $2.50 each. 

Saving Effected by Using Excavating and Pipe Laying Machinery. — The 
following data are taken from Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 12, 1919. 

Trenching and backfilling machines were first employed by the Detroit 
Water Department in 1916, and in 1917, and their value was so fully demon- 
strated that more equipment was purchased. 

In his report for the year ending June 30, 1918, Geo. H. Fenkell, General 
Manager of the Water Department, gives the following table showing the 
saving effected by the use of machines: 



Size — Ins. 

6 

8 

12 

16 



Feet 

laid 

59,238 

33,161 

4,628 

797 



-All hand labor- 



Total 

labor 

cost 

$35,095 

19,108 

5,159 

1,291 



Cost per 

ft. 

$0.59 

.58 

1.11 

1.62 



-Dug and backfilled by machine - 



Feet 

laid 

60,407 

31,007 

5,863 

13,011 



Total 

labor 

cost 

$21,118 

12,550 

2,845 

12,852 



Cost per 
ft. 
$0.35 
.40 
.49 
.99 



Saving 

by 

machine 

per ft. 

$0.24 

.18 

.62 

.63 



On the 42-in. and 48-in. pipe lines a material saving was effected by the use 
of mechanical appliances to replace hand labor. The following are some of the 
most striking instances, the figures being based upon the prevailing scale 
of wages: 

Labor per foot in laying 42-in. and 48-in. pipe will average $8.70 by hand, 
and $3.50 by machinery; caulking averages $1.32 per joint by hand and $0.49 
using pneumatic hammers; handling and lowering each pipe by hand labor 
averages $6.70 and $1.88 using the steam crane. Backfilling ditches on small 
lines costs about 9 ct. per lineal foot by hand and 3}i ct. per foot by machine. 

A Scraper for Backfilling Trenches. — S. Leonard Cyphers gives the following 
data in Engineering and Contracting, July 23, 1913. 

The "Go-Devil" as it was called by the originator, was used on the 154- 
mile oil pipe line near Los Angeles to minimize the cost of back-filling the ditch. 
This ingenius device was designed and first used by James R. Kelly, Super- 
intendent for Mahoney Brothers, Contractors, San Francisco, on the con- 
struction of the 8-in. oil pipe line built by the General Petroleum Co. from 
Shale in the Midway oil fields of California to San Pedro on the coast. It was 
found to be such a success and money saver that it was adopted by other 
contractors in similar work. 

The appliance illustrated was made of a share taken from a Little Western 
Road Grader and a handle was attached in the manner shown. Chains were 
attached to each end of the share by means of hooks designed to shorten 
or lengthen the chains when it became necessary to reverse the action of the 
blade on return work upon the ditch. It is drawn by four head of stock 
attached as shown. The stock are hitched in pairs, one pair being driven 
on the dirt to be turned into the ditch, the other pair on the opposite side of 
the ditch and pulling at an angle of 20° to 30° away from the center line of 
the ditch. 



WATER WORKS 



387 



The labor required consisted of a teamster and one other man whose duty- 
it was to guide the share by means of the handle. In operation the share 
runs at an angle of 20° to 40° to the center line of the ditch, so that in effect 
its action is similar to a plow in throwing a furrow. 

From data kept by the writer, covering a period of several months, and 
from such sections of the previously mentioned line where the use^of this 
"Go-Devil" was practicable the following facts appear: 




Fig. 25. — Scraper for backfilling trench. 



By means of this device, two men and four head of stock were abJe to fill 
approximately 5,000 ft. of ditch, 3 ft. deep and 1>^ ft. wide in a day of nine 
hours at a cost as follows : 

4 head of stock SIO. 00 

1 teamster 4 . 00 

1 laborer 3 . 50 



Total $17. 50 

This shows a cost of about 0.2 ct. per cubic yard. These figures were taken 
where runs were at least one mile long. Under different circumstances, the 
figures would necessarily vary. 

The difficulty encountered in the use of the Go-Devil has usually been 
because of an attempt to move too much dirt at one time, and also because of 
inability to properly handle the stock. Four to six rounds are necessary to 
fill and crown a 3 or 4 ft. ditch. Upon the completion of this number, the 
ditch should be rounded up as well as can be done by hand. 



388 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Table for Estimating Water-Main Extension Costs. — Allen F. Brewer gives 
the following data in Engineering News-Record, May 9, 1918. 

Table XXVI shows how an itemized calculation for unit costs of water 
mains may be prepared. The figures quoted have been assumed arbitrarily, 
merely to serve as an example. 

Such a tabular estimate is of much value where affirmative action is required 
of a State Public Utility Commission before the company may legally charge 
for water supplied by any new extension. It will lessen the work of the 
commission's valuation engineers markedly, usually doing away with aU 
investigation on their part except for a cursory check of the data submitted. 

Table XXVI. — Manner of Deriving Unit Costs of Items Involved in 
Water Main Extensions 

Size of pipe in inches 

Item and description 4 6 8 10 12 

Material: 
Weight per foot, lb 19.33 30.25 42.08 55.91 73.83 

Cost of pipe per ton, f . o. b. siding . $27 . 50 $26 . 00 $25 .50 $25.25 $25 . 25 
Cost of specials at 3 % of cost of 

pipe 83 .78 .77 .76 .76 

Total cost, pipe and specials, per 

ton 28.33 26.78 26.27 26.01 26.01 

Carting from cars to trench at 

$1.00 per torx 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

Cost per ton, delivered 29. 33 27. 78 27. 27 27. 01 27. 01 

Cost per foot, delivered 284 .420 .573 .755 .998 

Joint material (lead and cement), 

per jt $ 0.300 $ 0.500 $ 0.700 $ 0.900 $ 1. 100 

Joint material as above, plus 5 % 

for extras 315 .525 .735 .945 1.155 

Joint material as above, per foot 

(1-12 of above) 026 .044 .061 .070 .096 

Misc. material (blocks, fuel, etc.), 

per ft $ 0.002 $ 0.002 $ 0.003 $ 0.003 $ 0.004 

Total material, per ft $ 0. 312 $ 0. 466 $ 0. 637 $ 0. 837 $ 1.098 

Storeroom expense (3% of mater- 
ial cost) 009 .014 .019 .025 .033 

Total material cost $ 0. 321 $ 0. 480 $ 0. 656 $ 0. 862 $ 1. 131 

Labor: 

Average width of trench, ft 1.5 1.66 1.75 1.83 2.0 

Total depth of trench, ft 3.42 3.57 3.75 3.91 4.08 

Contents of trench per foot, cu. ft . 5.13 5. 95 6. 57 7. 17 8. 16 
Contents of trench per foot, 

cu. yd 19 .22 .243 .265 .303 

Trenching and backfilling (at 60c. 

per yd.), per ft 114 .132 .146 .159 .182 

Laying, calking, setting valves, 

etc 023 .027 .030 .035 .040 

Total, labor laying pipe $ 0. 137 $ 0. 159 $ 0. 176 $ 0. 194 $ 0. 222 

Tools, carting, lost time, overhead, 

etc. (10% of above) $ 0.014 $ 0.016 $ 0.018 $ 0.019 $ 0.022 

Total labor cost $ 0. 151 $ 0. 175 $ 0. 194 $ 0. 213 $ 0. 244 

Total labor and material costs, 

per ft $ 0.472 $ 0.655 $ 0.850 $ 1.075 $ 1.375 



WATER WORKS 



389 



Cost of Laying Cast Iron Water Pipe in the City of Chicago. — Table XXVII, 
published in Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 11, 1911, is a result of the 
compilation of the cost of laying cast iron water pipe in the city of Chicago 
for a period of 10 years. The costs were compiled in the City Engineer's 
office from careful records of contract work. The table has since been used 
as a check on later work and has been found to be very close. The rates of 
wages for all men, and the prices of all kinds of material are given so that by 
the substitution of present rates and prices a very close estimate can be made. 



Table XXVII.- 

I terns 



-Approximate Cost of Laying Cast Iron Water Pipe in the 
City of Chicago 



— ^ Size of pipe in inches 

Weight 4 6 8 10 

Pipe per 12 ft. length 290 420 555 756 

Pipe per ft. in lbs 25 35 47 63 

Yarn per joint in lbs 19 .36 .50 .50 

Yarn per ft. in lbs 016 .03 .042 .05 

Lead per joint in lbs 6 8 11 13 

Lead per ft. in lbs 50 .67 .92 1 . 08 

Cost 

Pipe per ft. at $23 per ton 29 . 4025 .54 .73 

Yarn per ft. at .08 cts. per lb 0013 .0024 .0034 .004 

Lead per ft. at .05 cts. per lb 025 . 0335 . 046 . 054 

Teaming at $1.00 per ton 0125 .0175 .0235 .0315 

Excav. and refilUng 6-ft. trench 095 .120 .130 .16 

Pipe laying, caulking and cutting 015 .02 . 025 . 028 

Total cost for average work per ft 439 .596 .768 1. 01 

Ad. cost for blocking and if needed for 

bracing .04 .05 .08 .11 

Cost of setting valves 1. 00 1. 25 1. 50 

Cost setting single hyd., 12 ft. 4-in. pipe .... 8. 50 Special castings at 2}>4 cts 

per lb. 
Cost setting double hyd., 12 ft. 6-in. pipe. . . 13. 50 Special castings at 2J^ cts, 

per lb. 
Cost building hydrant and valve basins .... 30. 00 

Specials not included in above. 

Repaving per square yard: Cedar block on plank or on crushed stone, 50 cts.: 
brick on concrete, $2.00; macadam, 9 ins. deep, 40 cts.; 12 ins. deep, 50 cts.; 
granite block, $1.50; asphalt, $3.00. 

Rock requiring blasting will cost an average of $3.00 per cu. yd. 



12 


14 


16 


18 


24 


30 


36 


42 


48 


.,000 


1,224 


1,500 


1,824 


3,000 


4,230 


5,400 


7,944 


9,350 


83 


102 


125 


152 


250 


352 


450 


662 


780 


.75 


.84 


1.00 


1.10 


1.50 


1.80 


2.16 


2.50 


3.00 


.063 


.07 


.083 


.092 


.125 


.150 


.180 


.21 


.250 


16 


20 


24 


28 


38 


60 


80 


126 


144 


1.33 


1.67 


2.00 


2.34 


3.17 


5.00 


6.70 


10.50 


12 


955 


1.17 


1.4375 


1.75 


2.875 


4.05 


5.175 


7.61 


8.97 


.005 


.0056 


.0066 


. 00736 


.010 


.012 


.0144 


.017 


.02 


.067 


.0835 


.10 


.117 


.160 


.250 


.335 


.525 


.60 


.0415 


.051 


.0625 


.067 


.125 


.176 


.225 


.331 


.39 


.200 


.21 


.220 


.24 


.30 


.40 


.45 


.48 


.50 


.03 


.045 


.07 


.09 


.20 


.25 


.30 


.40 


.50 


1.30 


1.565 


1.90 


2.28 


3.67 


5.14 


6.50 


9.36 


10.98 


.12 


.13 


.15 


.20 


.25 


.30 


.40 


.45 


.50 


2.20 




3.00 




4.40 


6.15 


8.40 




12 00 



390 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



The costs (Table XXVII) are based on the following rates for labor and 
material. 

8 hrs. = day's work. 

Foreman, $3.75 per day. 

Caulker, $2.50 per day. 

Timekeeper, $2.75 per day. 

Laborer, $2.25 per day. 

Watchman, $2.00 per day. 

Mason, $4.00 per day. 

Helper, $2.50 per day. 

Brick, $6.50 per M. 

Timber, $16 per M. 

Cement, $2.25 per bbl. 

Sand, $1.25 per cu. yd. 

Hydrant covers, $6.75 ea. 

Valve covers, $7.50 ea. 

Bottoms, $1.50 ea. 

4-in. valves, $14.00 ea. 

6-in. valves, $18.00 ea. 

8-in. valves, $ 35.00 ea. 

Hydrants, ea. Dbl., $38.00; Sgl. $26.00 

Cost of Water Mains at Los Angeles. — Table XXVIII from the last annual 
report of Thos. Brooks, Assistant Superintendent and published in Engineer- 
ing and Contracting, March 12, 1919, shows the cost of laying 4-in. and 6-in. 
cast iron pipe in 6 months' periods from July 1, 1911, to July 1, 1918: 

Table XXVIII 

Av. cost Av. cost 

of pipe of labor Average Total cost 

Year per ton per foot per foot per ton 

4-inch 

1911 $32.70 $0.0967 $0,519 $51.90 

1912 33.88 .0995 .548 51.46 

1912 35.05 .1189 .607 56.05 

1913 36.22 .1144 .603 55.62 

1913 32.42 .107 .553 • 51.10 

1914 32.42 .109 .544 50.27 

1914 33.13 .122 .647 59.77 

1915... 30.17 .145 .620 57.18 

1915 28.85 .145 .626 57.68 

1916 31.96 .145 .660 60.83 

1916 38.40 .161 .741 68.33 

1917 43.66 .174 .807 74.42 

1917 55.60 .175 .93 85.52 

1918 75.17 .173 1.14 105.51 

6-inch 

1911 31.60 .133 .775 48.98 

1912 33.71 .127 .782 49.43 

1912 33.04 .163 .859 51.56 

1913 33.93 .1595 .855 51.42 

1913 31.24 .164 .822 49.34 

1914 31.24 .170 .836 50.18 

1914 31 . 20 .149 .833 50. 05 

1915 28.60 .160 .799 48.01 

1915 31.09 .171 .878 52.71 

1916 33.72 .171 .941 56.54 

1916 *34.65 .182 .977 58.71 

1917 40.11 .212 1.07 64.23 

1917 41.43 .221 1.11 66.71 

1918 44.92 .242 1.26 75.23 

It will be noted from the table that the increased labor cost, as might be 
expected, keeps pace with the increasing cost of material. The day wage has 
been raised from $2.25 to $2.50 to $2.75 and $3, but while wages have been 



WATER WORKS 



3^ 



increased, the efficiency shows a decrease of possibly one-third from old 
standards. Foremen with gangs of less than half the normal number, and 
many small instead of long straight-away jobs also show their effect on unit 
costs which in the last year reached the maximum. 

Owing to the war conditions the tonnage of cast iron pipe laid in the fiscal 
year 1917-18 by the Construction Department was the smallest of any year 
in the history of the Department. Only 1,435 tons were laid as against 4,036 
tons for the year preceding and 6,420 tons for the year 1915-16. Of this 
tonnage, approximately two-thirds was in 4 and 6-in. sizes. The tonnage 
represents a footage of 75,799 ft., or 14.36 miles, laid at a total expenditure of 
$103,464. In 1915-16 the average cost of cast iron pipe laid, including resur- 
facing costs was $50.93; in 1916-17 this had increased to $60.60 per ton and 
for the year ending July 1, 1918, the charges had mounted to $72.10 per ton. 

Cost of Laying Water Mains at Hartford, Conn. — During the 1919 season 
the Water Commissioners of Hartford, Conn., laid 37,400 ft. of 4-in. to 4.2-in. 
main pipe. Of this, 3,234 ft. were renewals and 34, 166 ft. were extensions. 
The force employed consisted of two foremen and a total average gang of 42 
men. The following table given in Engineering and Contracting, Dec. 8, 
1920, is from the report of the Commissioners for the year ending March 1, 
1920, and shows the average costs of main pipe work in 1919, and a comparison 
with previous years: 

Cost per linear foot ■ 

1919 

Length Mat'l 

laid incl. 

Size, 1919, transpor- 1918 1917 1916 1915 

inches feet Labor tation Total Total Total Total Total 

4 411 $0.74 $1.06 $1.80 $ $1.20 $0.81 $ 

6 3,560 0.88 1.72 2.60 2.43 1.46 1.26 

8 10,160 0.92 2.20 3.12 3.45 2.41 1.66 1.62 

10 3,773 1.31 3.22 4.53 *4.72 3.00 2.15 1.93 

12 539 1.72 3.71 5.43 4.15 4.12 2.82 2.43 

16 547 1.38 8.17 t9. 55 6.17 4.92 4.58 

* Includes some macadam, t Two special bridge crossings. 

Labor $ 3. 55 for eight hours 

Pipe 60. 00 per ton 

Specials 110. 00 per ton 

Lead 0. 09 per pound 

No overhead charges. 

Only a small amount of pipe laying was done during 1918 by the Water 
Department of Hartford, Conn., due to lack of building and absence of re- 
quests for extensions. The cost of this work was very much in excess of any 
previous figures of the department, due to high wages, excessive cost of mate- 
rials and difficulty in obtaining proper labor. The following table given in 
Engineering and Contracting, May 12, 1920, is from the report of Caleb Mills 
Saville, Manager and Chief Engineer of the Department, and shows the 
average figures for costs in 1918. 

Cost per lin. ft. 

Length laid Material in- 

Size, in. 1918, ft. Labor eluding cartage Total, 1918 

6 1,736 0.83 1.31 2.14 

8 5,431 1.45 2.14 3.59 

10 3,561 1.37 3.56 4.93 

12 336 1.11 3.04 4.15 

16 570 1.29 4.88 6.17 





Increase 


1915 


pet. 


> 3.00 


44 


23.00 


183 


3.95 


82 


12.00 


50 


10.00] 




15.75 


100 


22.50. 




25.06" 




33. 40 \ 


100 


33.10 





392 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The 1918 costs are based on the following: Unskilled labor, average $3.50 
for 8 hours; pipe, $60 per ton; specials, $110 per ton; lead, 9 ct. per pound; no 
overhead charges. 

The following table shows relative costs before the war and during 1918. 



1918 
Labor, average of 45 permanent employes, per 

8-hour day $ 4. 30 

Cast iron pipe per ton 65. 00 

Lead per 100 lbs 7.15 

Meters (% in.) 18. 00 

Valves, 6 in 20. 00 

Valves, 8 in 31 . 40 

Valves, 10 in 49. 00 

Hydrants 2-way 49. 90 

Hydrants 2-way steamer 54. 75 

Hydrants 4-way 66. 10 

Cost of Laying 16 miles of 20-in. Cast Iron Water Pipe. — M. V. Moulton 
in Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 26, 1910, gives the cost of laying the 
20-in. supply main for the city of Cheyenne, as follows: 

Labor Cost of Laying 83,3283^ Ft. of 20-in. Cast Iron Water Main 

Per lin. ft. 

Item Total cts. 

1923<i dys. No. excavator at $10 $1,922.50 *5.24 

146 dys. No. 1 excavator at $16 2 , 336. 00 t5. 84 

2,910 dys. E. & C. bell holes at $2.50 7,275.00 8.73 

949.8 dys. laying pipe at $2.50 2,374. 50 2. 84 

199 dys. yarning at $3.50 696. 50 0. 79 

190 dys. lead heating at $2.75 522. 50 0. 68 

174K dys. pouring at $2.75 479. 87 0. 58 

219 dys. caulking at $3.50 766. 50 0. 92 

2373^ dys. helper at $2.50 593. 75 0. 71 

116 dys. testing at $3 348. 00 0. 42 

304K dys. refilling at $7.50 2 , 284. 00 2. 74 

453 dys. foreman at $4 1,812.00 2.18 

410 dys. teams and teamsters at $5 2 , 005. 00 2. 40 

147 dys. blacksmith, at $4 588. 00 0. 70 

Pumpmen 119. 00 J99. 2 

Total $24,123.12 

* Figured on 36,700 hn. ft. t Figured on 39,600 Hn. ft. % Figured on 1,200 
hn. ft. 

Extra Work in Laying 83,3283^ Ft. of 20-in. Cast Iron Water Main 

Item Total 

Rock excavation near intake $ 48, 00 

Rock excavation west of Round Top 877, 80 

Cutting off 176 pipe 70, 40 

Extra fill near intake ' 162, 30 

Extra depth of trench 698, 59 

Diverting creek 38. 85 

Replacing broken pipe 330, 00 

Hauling pipe 131 . 43 

Total $2 , 357. 32 

Adding these two totals gives $24,123.12 + 2,357.32 = $26,480.44, which 
divided by 83, 328.5 lin. ft. gives a cost of 31.8 cts. per lin. ft. The contract 
price was 39 cts. per lin. ft. 



WATER WORKS 393 

The wages paid did not always correspond to the scale adopted therein, 
but in most cases the average wages paid will be about the same as those given. 
An exception is the cost of teams for backfilling, the actual cost of teams for 
refiUing during May and June being $9.50 for a team and two men. Final 
estimate, including all previous estimates and extras allowed Messrs. Bash 
and Gray, was $35,246,62, making the actual cost to the City of Cheyenne a 
little more than $.42 per lin. ft. The average weight of the 20-in. pipe was 
1,631 lbs., and the cost of the pipe dehvered on the line, including hauling, 
transportation and cost of material, was $29.70 per ton, or $2.02 per lin. ft., 
making the total cost of the line when completed $2.44 per lin. ft. 

So far as possible, the trench excavation was done by a No. and a No. 1 
Municipal Trenching Machines. The former was driven by a 4-cylinder 
gasoline engine and was capable of digging a trench 28-ins. wide and 7 ft, deep. 
The No. 1 was a steam driven machine capable of digging a trench 28-ins. wide 
and 10-ft. deep. 

This machine-dug trench had to be widened and deepened at the bell points 
to allow free access for yarning and calking, considerable hand grading and 
straightening of the trench had to be done also before the pipe could be 
properly laid. All this was hand work and is included in cost data under hand 
grading and bell holes. 

The pipes were lowered and entered by means of a derrick, formed by two 
A-shaped forms connected by a beam, each end equipped with a rope windlass 
and two single blocks; one man at each windlass lowered a pipe and the pipe 
last laid was driven home with the pipe that was still swinging from the derrick. 
This derrick was pulled ahead by a pony. From 15 to 20 pipes an hour could 
thus be placed by a gang of 7 men, though the average daily progress did not 
equal this rate. 

The calking was done with a pneumatic hammer, a small gasoline compres- 
sor, maintaining a pressure of not less than 65 lbs. per sq. in., supplied the 
hammer. This compressor was mounted on an ordinary wagon truck. 

The pipe was tested in sections of variable length, the maximum pressure 
being 150 lbs. per sq. in. 

Cost of Constructing Two 18-in. Cast Iron Wafer Mains by Day Labor for 
the Fort William, Ontario, Water Supply. — The following data, published in 
Engineering and Contracting, May 18, 1910, are from a paper by H. Sydney 
Hancock, Jr., presented to the Canadian Soc. of Civil Engs. 

Supply Main to Reservoir. — The line, which was 10,200 ft. in length, was 
located to avoid solid rock as far as possible; 8,400 ft. was in a marly clay with 
occasional boulders, 6,000 ft. in muskeg and 1,200 ft. in solid rock. The grade 
line was kept at a minimum depth of 4 ft. 6 ins. to insure at least 3 ft. of cover. 
In the muskeg sections clay, on which the pipe was laid was found at a depth 
of about 4 ft. 

One 18-in. gate valve was placed near the middle of the line and a second 
close to the reservoir. A check valve was also placed 50 ft. back from the 
reservoir and two 18-in. valves in the two bye pass lines leading from the 
supply main parallel to the east wall and past the reservoir to the two 18-in. 
pressure mains. A cluster of three 1-in. Brook's air valves at every summit 
and a 6-in., off 18-in., blow off at every depression, a drainage ditch on a 5- 
lOths grade being executed at each. Manholes of dry rubble were built over 
each air valve cluster and over the gate valves. The pipes were of standard 
specification, the limits of weight being from 1,800 to 1,950 lbs. per 12-ft. 
lengths. 



394 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The entire work was done by day labor. Wages paid were as follows: 

Superintendent, per mo $150. 00 

Sub-foreman, per hr ,40 

Blacksmith, per hr .35 

Calkers, per hr .30 

Laborers, per hr .25 

The cost of the work was as follows: 

Item Total Per lin. ft. 

Cleaning and grubbing $ 460 $0. 045 

Trenching and backfilling rock, labor 1 , 698 

Materials 193 



Total $1,891 $0,186 

Earth, labor 4 , 504 

Tools and materials 725 



Total $5,229 $0,512 

Pipelaying, labor 1 , 065 0. 105 

Lead, yarn, tools 1 , 632 0. 160 



Total $2,697 $0,265 

Cast Iron Pipe: 

760,858 tons at $40 $30 , 691 

13,812 sleeves, specials at 3 cts 414 



Total $31 ,105 

Less credits 183 



Net total $30 , 922 $3 , 030 

Hauhng pipe 2 , 130 0. 209 

Manholes, labor 162 

Materials 54 



Total $ 216 $0,021 

Valves 652 0. 064 



Grand total $44 , 198 $4 , 332 

Pressure Main From Reservoir. — This line was 12,520 ft. long, including bye- 
passes. Six inch, off 18-in., "blow-offs" were placed every half mile, as well 
as at depressions. Three clusters of three 1-in. Crispin automatic air valves 
were placed about 4,000 ft. apart. 

The pipe used was 18-in. diameter cast-iron pipe of standard specification, 
from 1,900 lbs. to 2,000 lbs. for all heads over 200 ft., and 1,800 lbs. to 1,900 
lbs. for all heads less than 200 ft., excepting across the property of the Grand 
Trunk Pacific Ry., where no pipe of less than 2,050 lbs. was used. The line 
was cut into three sections by two 18-in. geared gate valves. 

As there was greater possibility of the territory through which this line 
passed becoming inhabited, the minimum depth for the invert of the pipe was 
fixed at 6 ft., but in deference to the wishes of the Grand Trunk Pacific 
Railway Co. the grade line across their property averaged a depth of 12 ft. A 
12-in., off 18 Ins., cross was placed for the future water requirements of the 
Grand Trunk Ry. 

It was decided that the sand and swamp portions of the line could be laid 
more economically during the winter, as at that season the movement of the 
sub-soil water is more sluggish and the depth of frozen ground obviated the use 
of sheet piling. These advantages were considered to more than compensate 
for the cost of shoveling snow and the difficulty of excavating frozen ground. 



WATER WORKS 395 

Seven thousand feet of pipe were laid south from the river in February and 
March at an average rate of 372 ft. per day. The upper section of the pipe 
was laid during May and June. 

No unusual features developed during the progress of the work, the cost of 
which was as follows: 

Per lin. ft. Total 

Clearing right of way $0. 008 $ 103. 50 

Excavating trench labor 0. 423 5 , 294. 10 

Tools 0. 028 356. 25 

BackfiUing and tamping 0. 104 1 , 297. 34 

Total $ 7,051. 19 

Cast iron pipe (18-in.) $3,060 $38,310.87 

Inspection at foundry 0. 021 267. 63 

Pig lead 0.147 1,832.90 

Yarn 0.003 37.45 

Specials 0. 041 541. 56 

HauHng material 0. 048 607. 20 

Total $41,570.61 

Skidding and laying pipe, labor $0. 258 $ 3,228. 02 

Tools, lumber, plant 0. 043 537. 19 

Accident 0.004 52.00 

Total $ 3,817. 21 

Culverts and road repairs $0. 021 $ 262. 81 

6 gate valves 0. 080 1 ,007. 00 

8 blow off valves 0. 015 186. 43 

9 air valves 0.012 151.08 

Total $ 1,344.51 

Manholes, fountain, head walls, etc $0. 057 $ 702. 76 

Engineering and supt 0. 090 1 , 131. 20 

Total cost of pipe line ... $4,463 $55,880.29 

Repairs and alterations at river crossing $ 1 ,015. 40 

Total cost. Section IV $56 , 895. 69 

In the above work common labor was paid 22 >^ to 25 cts. per hour, calkers 
30 cts. per hour and a superintending foreman $150 per month. Cast-iron 
pipe cost $36.75 per ton at the local foundry, and specials $65 per ton. Pig 
lead cost $3.80 per 100 lbs., and yarn 8}i cts. per lb. Nearly half a miie of the 
line was inaccessible to teams, and as a consequence the cost of skidding and 
handling pipe was high. 

Cost of Laying 10,137 Ft. of 12-in. Water Pipe by Day Labor at Tuscaloosa, 
Ala. — The following data were published in Engineering and Contracting, 
July 6, 1910. 

The work consisted in laying 10,187 ft. of 12-in. pipe and erecting thereon 
two hydrants with 92 ft. of 4-in. pipe. Prior to starting the work all the pipe 
had been placed along the line of trench. For laying the pipe five Mueller 
tripod derricks and equalizers were set and 10 lengths or 120 ft. of pipe were 
connected, calked and handled at once. The trench was 3 ft. deep. With 
an average gang of 40>^ men and two teams the work was accomplished in 
19 working days and 23 days total time. The average length of pipe laid 
per 10-hour day was 533.5 ft.; the maximum day's work was 1,059 ft. of pipe 
laid. After completion the pipe was tested to 125 lbs. hydrostatic pressure 
and only two leaks developed. These were at joints whose pipe had been laid 
one length at a time in crossing another pipe line and where the ground was too 



396 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

rough to permit lining up 10 lengths at once. There were no leaks in any of 
the joints caulked on the surface. 

The wages paid, working a 10-hour day, were: Laborers, $1.25; yarners 
and calkers, $1.50 and $2; foreman, $2, and team and driver, $3.50 The cost 
of the work was as follows: 

Labor $1,051.69 

950 lbs. oakum at 33^^ cts 33. 25 

15,864 lbs. lead at 5.15 cts 817.00 

1 ,800 lbs. coal at $2 per ton 1. 80 

15 gals, coal oil at 17 cts 2. 55 

Lanterns, nails, etc 11 . 95 

Total $1 , 918. 24 

This gives a cost of 18.9 cts. per lin. ft. of pipe laid. A bid received for 
the work asked 30 cts. per lin. ft. for laying the 12-in. pipe, 10 cts. per lin. 
ft. for laying the 4-in. pipe, and $3 each for setting the hydrants or a total 
of $3,056.30. 

Cost of Laying 12-in. Pipe in Deep Trench with Quicksand Bottom. — L. R. 
Howson, who was Resident Engineer in charge of the construction of the 
gravity water supply for Norway, Mich, gives the following data, in an article 
describing this work, in Engineering and Contracting, Dec. 13, 1911. 

The system as planned comprises a 12-m. cast iron pipe connection between 
the lakes, an inlet in Forest Lake, a concrete screening chamber on the shore 
of Forest Lake, a 12-in. cast iron gravity pipe hne 23,000 ft. in length, a rein- 
forced concrete reservoir and connections with the present distribution system 
and pumping station. 

No exceptional difficulties were encountered until the "deep cut" section 
of 4,000 ft. nearest the lake was reached. This section had an average cut 
of about 14 ft. with a maximum of 21 ft., and the amount of water in the ditch 
varied from 4 to 9 ft. in depth when the pumps were closed down. The orig- 
inal contractor removed the top 6 ft. of material with teams and slip scrapers, 
then started his sheathing and hand excavation. For the first few hundred 
feet the water was taken care of by two diaphragm pumps, the ditch being 
dammed with sod behind each bell to prevent flow from behind. Progress 
became continually slower, and it was apparent that power pumps and other 
methods must be used and the contractor defaulted. 

The National Surety Co. as bondsmen, sublet the contract to a Chicago 
contracting firm, who started on the deep cut after numerous delays. They 
tried two No. 2 Nye vacuum pumps to handle the water, but as the entire 
trench was in a sand carrying a great deal of water, the vacuum pumps on 
open suction cared for only a short length of ditch, and progress was still very 
slow. An Emerson vacuum pump with well points was next tried. Four 
manifolds of well points each 20 ft. long and carrying 16 l>^-in points 36 
ins. in length were purchased, and in this way 80 ft. of ditch could be opened 
and pipe laid at one pump setting. 

Contractor No. 2 also handled his top material differently, using a 30-ton 
steam shovel with 30-ft. boom and 1-yd. dipper. Owing to the quicksand bot- 
tom, the necessity for tight sheathing and the presence of large boulders, this 
proved to be an impracticable way of removal. This contractor too became 
discouraged after laying only 500 ft. in three months of experimenting and also 
defaulted. 

The city of Norway was in great need of water at this time (July, 1910), 
and decided to complete the work under the supervision of the engineers by 



I 



WATER WORKS 397 

force account. The steam shovel was dismantled and the top material re- 
moved by scraper as before, at a considerable reduction in cost due to the 
excessive amount removed by the steam shovel to cut out its running benches. 
The Emerson pump and well points were now operated day and night, and 
in this way effectually lowered the ground water level below the grade. Lead 
wool had been used in the joints, but when the trench was dried by continuous 
pumping the poured joint was again adopted. Sixteen foot planks were used 
for sheathing, and three or four sets of 4-in. X 8-in. stringers were required. 
In some places the bank was so heavy that braces were necessary at 3-ft. 
intervals and 6 ft. was standard. Bell holes were kept dry with diaphragm 
pumps where necessary. 

Progress and Cost. — Proceeding in this way, an average of 50 ft. per day was 
laid at a cost of $2.57 per ft. Deducting salvage in pumping machinery and 
planks purchased, the net cost was a trifle under $2.50 per lin. ft. Common 
labor was paid at the rate of 25 cts. per hour. 

After the city assumed charge of the work, there were no accidents or delays 
of any kind. Previous to this, one man had been killed and four "bottom 
men" buried in a quicksand "cave-in" for 14 hours before they could be re- 
moved. The ditch besides having depth, quicksand and water, paralleled 
a railroad track but 25 ft. off center, and the jar from passing trains added new 
difficulties to those already present. The last 500 ft. of pipe was laid along 
the edge of the lake some 10 ft. from the water, and from 6 to 7 ft. below the 
water level, but due to the impervious character of the deposit in the lake bed, 
the difficulty of handling the water was less than was found in caring for 
the ground flow further removed from the lake. 

Cost of Laying 10,693 Lin. Ft. of 8-in. Water Main at Tuscaloosa, Ala. — 
C. E. Abbott gives the following data in Engineering and Contracting, Nov. 
16, 1910. 

On July 22, 1910, work was started at Tuscaloosa, Ala., of laying an 8-in. 
main to the A. G. S. depot, a distance of 10,693 ft., inserting 10 valves and 
locating thereon 23 fire hydrants and 7 specials for future extensions, using 
60 ft. of 6-in. pipe and 312 ft. of 4-in. pipe. Prior to starting this work all pipe, 
fittings, valves and hydrants had been distributed along the route. This 
main was laid to replace a 4-in. and 3-in. main along the main thoroughfare 
to the cemetery and the A. G. S. depot. 

The streets had been graveled and rolled with a 5-ton roller, making the 
first 6 ins. of very hard picking. The trench was 3 ft. deep from the surface 
of the ground the entire distance, except 420 ft., which was 5 ft. 

The main was tested to 125 lbs. hydrostatic pressure without a single leak. 

The work was done by day labor under the personal supervision of the writer 
at the following cost. 

Labor $ 986. 43 

11 , 275 lbs. lead at $4.85 546. 84 

760 lbs. oakum at 3 K cts 26. 60 

1,000 lbs. coal at $2 per ton 1 . 00 

Nails, etc .60 

Oil 2. 55 

8-in. plug wood 1 . 50 

Total $1 , 565. 52 

This gives a cost of 14.2 cts. per lin. ft. 

In laying this pipe, 120 ft. were laid at a time, using tripod derricks, equal- 
izers, tongs, etc. 



398 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



The time required to complete this extension was 15 days, of 10 hours each; 
average number of men each day, 44 4-5 ; greatest number of feet of pipe laid 
in one day, 994; average number feet per day, 737 2-3; price paid labor, 12>^ 
cts. per hour, yarners and calkers 15 and 20 cts. per hour. 

Cost of Laying 1924-Ft. of 4-in. Water Pipe Extensions. — The following 
table is prepared from data given by Clark A. Bryan in Engineering and 
Contracting, July 2, 1913. 

Table XXIX. — ^Labor Cost of Layijs 

Total 

Item hours 

Foreman 170. 5 

Plowing 11.5 

Excavation 678. 

Pipe laying 122. 5 

Pouring and caurking joints 249. 

Backfilling and tamping 254. 5 

Cleaning up 36. 

Hauling 45. 

Total 16. 60 



a 1924-Ft. 


OP 4-IN. 


Pipe 


Hours per 




Cost per 


foot of 


Rate per 


foot of 


pipe 


hour 


pipe, etc. 


0.0886 


$0.30 


2.68 


0. 0060 


0.525 


.31 


0.3530 


0.175 


6.18 


0. 0635 


0.175 


1.11 


0. 1295 


0.22 


2.85 


0. 1326 


0.175 


2.32 


0.0187 


0.175 


0.33 


0. 0234 


0.35 


0.82 



CjL/JSS 


6. 


H. 


Hearc/ In Fee-f- 


700 


600 


Pressure in lb. 


303 


347 


WelcrhlafBell 


329 


319 


Welcrhl-ofBeac^ 


3 


3 


TolalWelqH-of 
Flpeivl(?/JSFI: 


3m 


4156 




Bell and 5pigo+ Joinf 
7r- 




FiG. 26." 



?>'©©ye_ Joint 
-Types of pipe joint used in solid ground and soft ground. 



WATER WORKS 



399 



The work consisted in laying five 4-in. extensions to the warer system of 
Ridgely, Md. A 4-in. hydrant was installed at the end of each line by 4 X 
4-in. tees and no valves were used. The pipe was laid at an average depth of 
4-ft. 2-ins. in easily excavated, sand, loam and clay. To break up the first 
2-ft. of the excavation a new ground plow attached to a traction engine was 
used with success on 1414-ft. of the trench. The work was done by force 
account Mr. Bryan being the Resident Engineer in Charge of Construction. 

Of the five different connections, the maximum cost was 18.8 cts. per ft. 
for labor and the minimum cost was 14.4 cts. per ft. 

Construction Cost of San Francisco's High-Pressure Fire Mains. — The 
following data are taken from an article in Engineering News, Feb. 18, 1915. 

In the construction of the high-pressure system of San Francisco, after 
numerous tests, the types of pipe joints shown in Fig. 26 were finally approved. 
The bell and spigot joint was used in solid ground and the sleeve joint, which 
allows a greater displacement of the pipe without leakage, was used in soft 
ground and in places most susceptible to earthquake action. 

The fire mains were constructed under contract, the following table gives 
the cost of labor, as estimated by the engineers in charge of construction. 



Table XXX. — Cost of Labob, as Estimated by Engineers in Charge of 

Construction 

1. Trench Work: 

Removing pavements having concrete base, $0.06 per sq. ft. 
Removing pavements without concrete base: not counted separately, as cost 
was found to be practically equal to that of an equal volume of ordinary digging. 
Excavating and backfilling trenches and removing surplus excavated material. 

Labor cost per cu. yd. 

Congested Average 

Nature of ground district conditions 

Sand, about one-half lagged $1. 10 $0. 95 

Sandy clay 1.25 1.10 

Hard clay 1. 40 1; 25 

Soft rock (shale, red chert) .... 1 . 40 

Hard rock (gadding, some blasting) $4. 00 $6. 00 

2. Laying Pipe (Not including setting valves and hydrants): 

Cost of labor, per foot • 

Kind and size of pipe Hauling Laying Calking Testing Total 

Congested district: 
Bell and spigot pipe: 8-in. (hydrant 

connection; all joints bolted). . $0.05 $0.17 $0.25 $0.02 $0.49 

10-in 0.06 0.16 0.11 0.02 0.35 

12-in 0.07 0.17 0.11 0.02 0.37 

14-in 0.09 0.26 0.12 0.02 0.49 

16-in 0.11 0.19 0.16 0.02 0.48 

18-in 0.12 0.25 0.14 0.02 0.53 

Spigot pipe, sleeve joints: 

10-in 0.07 0.13 0.14 0.02 0.36 

12 in 0.08 0.13 0.17 0.02 0.40 

14-in JO. 10 0.13 0.20 0.02 0.45 

16-in 0.12 0.23 0.21 0.02 0.58 

18-in 0.14 0.15 0.24 0.02 0.55 

Average conditions: 
Bell and spigot pipe: 8-in. (hydrant 

connections; all joints bolted).. $0.03 $0.29 $0.12 $0.01 $0.45 

12-in 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.01 0.19 

14-in 0.07 0.09 0.08 0.02 0.26 

16-in 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.02 0.32 

18-in 0.10 0.19 0.14 0.04 0.47 

Spigot pipe, sleeve joints: 

12-in 0.06 0.11 0.14 0.02 0.33 

16-in 0.09 0,06 0.15 0.03 0.33 



400 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Note: Cost of calking, per joint, was as follows: 

Congested district Average conditions 

8-in. joints $0. 90 $0. 90 

10-in. joints 0. 85 .... 

12-in. joints 1 . 00 0. 78 

14-in. joints • 1. 10 0. 90 

16-in. joints 1. 25 1. 23 

18-in. joints 1 . 40 1 . 44 

3. Setting Gate Valves and Hydrants: 

8-in. gate valves, each $ 4. 50 

10-in. gate valves, each 4! 50 

12-in. gate valves, each 6. 00 

14-in. gate valves, each 7. 50 

16-in. gate valves, each 10. 00 

Hydrants, each 5. 00 

4. Miscellaneous Items: 

Setting manhole castings ; $ 7. 00 per ton 

Bolting joints of pipe lines $24. 00 per ton 

Concrete valve vaults — labor only $ 9. 60 per cu. yd. 

Setting reinforcing steel in valve vaults $14. 00 per ton 

Laying creosoted wooden telephone duct $ 0. 036 per duct-foot 

5. Wage Schedule, per day of eight hours: 

Superintendent $ 6. 00 up 

Foreman $ 4. 00 to $5. 00 

Straw boss $ 3. 50 to $4. 00 

Calker and yarner $ 4 . 00 

Leadman $ 3. 00 to $3. 50 

Laborer, watchman $ 3. 00 

Team and driver, 4-horse $10. 00 

Team and driver, 2-horse $ 6. 00 

Team and driver, 1-horse $ 4. 50 

Note: The above figures include only the wages of foremen, mechanics and 
laborers immediately engaged upon the work. Add 10% for general superin- 
tendent, timekeepers, watchmen, service wagon, and depreciation and repair 
of tools. The total cost of construction to the contractor will be obtained by 
adding the cost of all materials used, and the overhead expense, including 
office expense, liability insurance, etc. 

The excellence of the workmanship on San Francisco's high-pressure pipe 
system is iUustrated by a comparison with New York's fire system. The latter 
comprises 105 miles of mains, which are maintained under a pressure of 30 lb. 
per sq. in., and from which the leakage is approximately 850 gal. per minute or 
1,200,00 per day. The San Francisco system contains 71.81 miles in which an 
average pressure of 200 lb. per sq. in. is maintained and the leakage is only 
152,000 gal. per day, equivalent to a leakage of only 59,000 gal. per day 
under a pressure of 30 lb. per sq. in. Since the length of pipe in the San 
Francisco system is only 71.81 miles, and that in the New York system 105 
miles, this 59,000 gal. per day in 71.81 miles of pipe is equivalent to 86,000 gal. 
per day in 105 miles of pipe, or the leakage per mile in San Francisco's system 
is only 7.2 % of the leakage in the New York system. 

Perhaps the principal reason for the tigfitness of the system were the tests 
which were made before the work was accepted, as follows: 

Test pressure, 

Class of pipe Use of head of lb. per sq. in. 

G & H 600 to 760 ft. 450 

F 500 to 600 ft. 400 

E 400 to 500 ft. 350 

D 300 to 400 ft. 300 

C 200 to 300 ft. 250 

B 100 to 200 ft. 200 

A to 100 ft. 150 



WATER WORKS 401 

After several blocks of pdpe were laid and calked, the trench between the 
joints was backfilled, and the bells left exposed. The pipe was then tested, 
the test pressure varying with the class of pipe. 

Pipe to be tested was filled with water and the specified pressure applied by- 
means of a double-cylinder force pump. This pressure was maintained for 20 
minutes. If during that period the additional water introduced to keep the 
pressure constant exceeded 0.0055 gal. per lineal foot of pipe joint under test, 
the contractor was forced to recalk all joints that gave any evidence of leakage. 

Cost of Making an 18-in. Tap on a 24-in. Water Main« Without Interrupting 
Service, at Columbia, South Carolina. — F. C. Wyse, gives the following matter 
in Engineering and Contracting, July 4, 1913. 

The pipe on which the tap was made is 24 ins. in internal diameter and 
25.80 ins. externally, and carries a pressure of about 20 lbs. per sq. in. The 
excavation was in earth bearing a large quantity of spring water and no record 
of cost of excavation was kept for the reason that the work was prosecuted 
intermittently and only at favorable times. A pump was necessary all the 
time, and the entire hole was close sheeted in order to preclude any accident to 
the machine by sliding mud. The excavation, however, was no larger than 
would have been necessary for the cutting in of a tee, and practically the same 
amount of sheeting would have been used, therefore in making a comparison 
of costs it would be accurate to place the coat of excavation the same in both 
cases. 

A 24-in. by 18-in. clamped sleeve, internal diameter 26^4 ins., and weighing 
1,400 lbs., was adjusted on the pipe with lead wedges. Mud rolls were then 
placed at each end and in the neck of the sleeve and the lead was poured in the 
usual manner. This gave a sheet of lead approximately },i in. thick between 
the sleeve and the pipe to be tapped. The ends were calked first then the lead 
in the neck, and the neck lead very carefully trimmed in order not to come in 
contact with the steel cutter. Onto the neck of the sleeve an 18-in. flanged 
valve weighing 1,600 lbs. was bolted, and to the valve the tapping machine, 
weighing 1,000 lbs., was bolted. A derrick supported the weight of the 
machine. The cutter was then started through the open valve and the cut 
was completed in 43^^ hours, the cutter being turned by hand ratchets. After 
the cut was made the shaft was withdrawn, the valve closed, and machine 
removed. 

The plug cut out remained tightly in the cutters, the center tapered drill 
helping in this. The plug was a clean cut, there being no break in the metal 
other than about He in. thickness of the inside shell. There were no leaks 
other than through the stuffing box of the machine which amounted 
to nothing. 

The cost of the work was as follows: 



Sleeve and valve $210 .00 

Freight on sleeve, valve and machine coming, and machine 

returning 32 .42 

350 lbs. lead at 5 cts 17 .50 

Dray age on material with department truck 1 .50 

Labor placing sleeve, valve and machine (5 hours; 4 .80 

Labor operating and removing machine (4).i hours) 5 .55 

Total cost without excavation $271 .77 

26 



402 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The work was done by the water department forces, the men being paid as 
follows : 

Foreman, $2.75; calkers, $1.50; and helpers, $1.25 per day of 10 hours. 
More men were used in operating the machine than in placing the sleeve, 
hence the higher cost for a shorter time. 

Relative Efficiency and Speed in Making Poured Joints and Lead Wool 
Joints also of Hand and Pneumatic Hammer Caulking. — The following data 
are taken from an abstract, of a paper before the Annual Convention of the 
American Society of Municipal Improvements by Andrew F. Macallum, 
City Engineer of Hamilton, Ontario, published in Engineering and Contract- 
ing, Oct. 20, 1915. 

It was found that with the pneumatic hammers between four and five 
poured lead joints could be caulked to every one in which lead wool was used. 
This difference was due, generally, to the hammers becoming wedged in driving 
in the lead wool. It was also found that the compression in the caulking went 
deeper in the poured than in the wool joint, thus giving greater density. 

Several alternate joints were caulked by the pneumatic hammers and by 
hand and this section was gradually put under pressure. It was found that 
every joint caulked by hand commenced to leak slightly at 110 lbs. pressure 
but that the pneumatic caulked joints remained tight. 

To compare the relative speed of hand and pneumatic caulking, tests were 
made with the results shown in the following; 











fl 






0) 




03 




1 


>> 


^ 


Pi 




P4 


i 








*© 


c3 


'o 


'3 


2 




0) o 


1^ 




6 o3 


Jt 


O 03 


1- 


36 


c. 


sy2 


121 


1 


2 


4 


2 


12 



30 C. 3 90 1 2 6 2 15 

From the above it will be seen that on the 36-in. pipe the machine men 
caulked three times as many joints as the hand men and 2y2 times as many on 
the 30-in. pipe. 

Cost of Cement Joints for Cast Iron Mains. — In 1912 the city of Long Beach, 
Cal., began the use of cement joints with its cast iron water pipe. At the 
present time the city has 60 miles of mains, ranging from 4 in. to 24 in. in 
dis^meter, laid with joints of this type. All these pipes are under pressures 
ranging from 40 to 80 lb. per square inch and are giving perfect satisfaction. 
In a paper presented April 18, 1917 before the American Society of Civil 
Engineers Clark H. Shaw, Hydraulic Engineer Long Beach Water Department 
describes Long Beach's method of making these joints. The following, 
abstract from Mr. Shaw's paper, is taken from Engineering and Contracting, 
Dec. 12, 1917. 

In making the cement joint the pipe is placed and spaced in the usual 
manner. A thin backing of the best dry jute is used instead of oakmn, as the 
jute is free from oils and grease (which should be avoided). A Portland 
cement, conforming to the specifications advocated by the American Society for 
Testing Materials, is used. The dry cement is placed on a piece of canvas 
(usually a cement sack ripped open) and moistened just so that when thorough- 
ly mixed by hand it will be of such a consistency that when gripped tight it 
will hold the form of the hand and when dropped 12 in. it will crumble. 



WATER WORKS 403 

The canvas containing the cement is placed under the bell and the cement is 
tamped into place by hand with a caulking iron until the bell is about half full. 

It is then caulked with heavy blows until the cement is thoroughly packed in 
the back of the socket. This process is continued until the bell is packed solid 
out to the face. A small bead of neat cement in a plastic condition is then put 
on, using the caulking iron as a trowel. As soon as the initial set of the cement 
in the bead has taken place the joint is covered with earth to protect it from 
the air and sun. In backfilling, the excavated material is always settled with 
water, which helps to cure the exposed portion of the joint. 

In Mr. Shaw's opinion, the bead is essential, as the cement packed in the 
bell is so dry that without protection it would absorb moisture from the water 
used in settling the trench. It is believed that, should the joint develop 
seepage when the pressure is put on in the main, the cement, being dry, would 
expand and aid materially in keeping the joint tight. 

Experiments on cement joints constructed without the bead showed that, 
24 hours after completion, they absorbed water readily. In cases where 
seepage has developed and has subsequently closed, it is assumed that the dry 
cement absorbed the moisture from the inside, expanded, and filled the seepage 
pores. 

About 20 per cent of the cement is wasted by falling off the canvas or being 
thrown out by the caulker. If any dust or earth from the trench falls on the 
canvas or in the cement, it is immediately taken out, together with enough 
cement to make sure that the remainder is clean. In mixing the cement with 
water, care is taken that there shall be no lumps in the material, no matter 
how small. If any cement is left on the canvas when a joint is completed, it 
is used on the next joint, provided the work is continuous, otherwise new 
batches are made. Special blunt caulking tools are used. 

The joint is allowed to stand 48 hours before the pressure is turned on and 
the main is put into regular service. Cement joints have been used with 
satisfactory results, however, 12 hours after completion, but this is not con- 
sidered safe practice. 

At San Diego, Cal., a pressure test was made by caulking a 6-in. cast-iron 
tee, one side of the tee being filled with a plug and each of the two ends filled 
with short lengths of cast-iron pipe with plugs caulked in the ends. As the 
pieces of pipe caulked in the tee were scrap ends cut from other pipes, they 
had no bead on the joint end, and, notwithstanding the fact that the joint was 
made with smooth pipe, it took a pressure of more than 300 lb. per square 
inch to force the pipe out. The test was made about 48 hours after the joint 
was made. 

In another test, made at Winnipeg, Man., three lengths of 6-in. pipe were 
laid with four cement joints, on Jan. 13, 1916. After 6 days, pressure was 
put on the pipe, in increments of 25 lb., and the joints were found to show no 
leakage or moisture, up to 125 lb. At 150 lb. one joint showed moisture 
on the surface of the cement. 

On Jan. 24 another test was made, and at one joint inoisture appeared at 
175 lb. On Jan. 31 this joint showed moisture with 200 lb., and also on 
March 15, with a pressure of 225 lb. This joint was the weakest of the four. 
The pressure was kept on the pipe about one-half hour in each case. 

The cement joint can be taken apart in a very simple and economical way 
The pipe is uncovered about one-half, or a little below the center. At the 
joint where the original bell-hole was dug, the trench is usually made wider 
on the sides (but not deeper under the pipe, in order to permit the caulker to 



404 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



I 



work at the joint. The upper half of the joint is cleaned out with a cape-chisel ; 
then, with tripod and blocks, the free end of the pipe is raised until the lower 
half of the joint breaks free from the bell. The pipe seldom has to be pulled 
out of the bell, as it nearly always works itself out as the free end is lowered. 
If portions of the cement stick to the spigot end of the pipe, or fail to be entirely 
crushed in the bell, it is a very simple matter to clean out the bell with a cape- 
chisel, or knock the cement from the spigot with a hammer. 

On occasions, after a joint has been cemented tight in the line, it is necessary, 
to cut it out entirely (such as for laying a valve on its side; turning a tee or Y 
in another direction; adjusting a tee to conform to or meet a grade; avoiding a 
sewer connection or any other unforeseen obstacle). Table XXXI has been 
compiled from records of the actual time spent in doing such work. 

At Long Beach unit costs have been kept on all construction, covering 
nearly the entire 60 miles of cast-iron water mains. Table XXXII has been 
carefully compiled from these unit costs, and presents data concerning cement 
joints. * 

Table XXXI. — Time Required for One Man to Dig Out a Complete 
Cement Joint, Without Removing Fitting or Gates From the Line 

Size Time 

4-in 18 min. 

6-in 22 min. 

8-in 26 min. 

10-in 30 min. 

12-in 38 min. 

14-in 48 min. 

16-in 60 min. 

Table XXXII. — Data Relative to Cement Joints 



Size of pipe 
4-in 


Rings of jute 
per joint 
2 
2 
2 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 


Jute per joint 

in pounds 
(approximate) 

0.14 

0.19 

0.24 

0.43 

0.51 

0.58 

0.66 

0.73 

0.80 

0.95 


Number of 

joints per 

94-lb. sack 

of cement* 

24 

18 

14 

11 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 


Number of 

joints per 

8-hour day 

(one caulker) 

50 


6-in 


42 


8-in 


34 


10-in 

12-in 

14-in 


28 
24 
20 


16-in 

18-in 

20-in 

24-in 


17 
14 
11 

7 



♦Including the 20 per cent of cement wasted or left over. 

Cost of Repairing Fire Hydrants by Welding. — Engineering and Contract- 
ing, Aug. 13, 1919, gives the following: 

In a discussion of damages to fire hydrants by motor vehicles at the (1919) 
convention of the American Water Works Association, Wm. W. Brush, 
Deputy Chief Engineer Department of Water Supply, Gas and Electricity 
of New York City, states that during the past two years an average of about 
400 hydrants were damaged yearly by motor trucks, requiring an annual 
expenditure of about $12,000 for repairs. Repairs are made by welding by the 
oxyacetlene process. The hydrant is taken to the city shop and the broken 
section ground away to a bevel of about 45°, and then new metal is fused in at 
the break. If the portion of the hydrant thus treated is to be exposed above 
the ground it is finished off after the welding process is completed. If it is to 
be below the ground the rough surface is not finished off. 



WATER WORKS 



405 



Mr. Brush gives the following costs on this work: The cost of replacing 
a broken hydrant when the old hydrant is salvaged and repaired, is as 
follows: welding standpipe of hydrant, $10; assembling hydrant, one mechanic 
$5 per day, y2 day, $2.50; total cost of repairing salvaged broken hydrant, 
$12.50. The cost of removing and resetting the hydrant where it has to be 
taken up about 3 ft. below the surface of the ground is as follows: 

1 caulker, one day $ 5. 00 

2 laborers at $3.25 per day each 6. 50 

1 Ford car, one day 3. 00 

Relaying 16 ft. of sidewalk at 30c per foot 4. 80 

Contingency .70 

Total $20. 00 

The greater part of that $20 would be eliminated in the case of a hydrant 
that has a flange at the level of the sidewalk. 

In the same discussion F. W. Cappeten, City Engineer of Minneapolis, 
Minn., stated that in his city 43 hydrants had been broken by motor vehicles 
in 16 months. The average expense per hydrant was as follows: 

Excavation, removal and resetting $14. 40 

Shop work and assembling 3. 84 

Welding (done by private concerns) 10. 47 

Cartage 2. 50 

Total $31. 21 




Fig. 27. — Machine for bending pipe. 



Cost of Pipe-bending with a Machine (Engineering and Contracting, 
June 10, 1917). — A labor-saving device is used by the Philadelphia Suburban 
Gas & Electric Co., Chester, Pa., for the cold bending of 8-in. pipe. The 
machine is described by Charles Wilde, Engineer of Mains, in a paper pre- 
sented to the October, 1916 meeting of the American Gas Institute. The 



406 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



arrangement consists of a 10-in. I-beam, 10 ft. long, braced with l^-in. tie 
rod; two ^-in. chains 8 ft. long one at each end of the beam and an ordinary 
20-ton screw jack and block. To operate, all that is necessary is to link the 
chains around the pipe and I-beam by means of a slip link, place the jack and 
pipe block in position between the pipe and the beam, and then by the force 
of the jack make the bend. If the bend required is only a slight one, it may 
be made without any shift of the machine. If it is a bend of any considerable 
extent, the machine should be shifted one way or the other, bending the pipe 
a few degrees until the required bend is made. 

With this machine four men can make a bend in an 8-in. pipe, depending, of 
course, upon the radius and degree of the bend required, in from }i to 2H 
hours. To make the same bend — when possible to be made — in the old way 
would require about 25 men, who would never lose less than half an hour 
from their regular work, and would often require twice this time. 

Unit Costs of Laying Standard Screwed Steel Pipe. — The following tabula- 
tions are taken from data compiled by George Wehrle, Supt. of the Gas Dept. 
of the Denver Gas and Electric Light Co. and were published in Engineering 
and Contracting, Jan. 8, 1919. 



Trenching and Backfilling 







Cu. ft. per 






foot of 






trench 


Size of pipe 


Width 


1 ft. deep 


IH 


18" 


1.50 


W2 


18'' 


1.50 


2 


18" 


1.50 


3 


18" 


1.50 


4 


20" 


1.66 


6 


22" 


1.83 


8 


24" 


2.00 



Cost of excavating and 
backfilling at SO.Ol 

per man-hour 

Cu. ft. per Per cu. ft. Unit cost 
man-hour of excavation per foot 



$0.00111 
.00111 
.00111 
.00111 
.00111 
.00111 
.00111 



$0. 00166 
.00166 
.00166 
.00166 
.00184 
. 00203 
. 00222 



Note. — To find local cost per foot for trenching and backfilling multiply unit 
cost per foot by local wage per man-hour and by depth of trench. 



Laying Pipe 



Weight of 
pipe per ft. 
Size of pipe, in lb. 

\yi..... 2.28 

iy2 2.73 

2 3.68 

3 7.62 

4 10.89 

6 19.19 

8 28.81 



Weight of 
pipe per 

man-hour 
237.5 
236.4 
238.2 
278.9 
289.6 
303.2 
302.5 



Feet of 

pipe per 

man-hour 

104.2 

86.6 

65.0 

36.6 

26.6 

15.8 

10.5 



Feet of pipe 

laid per 

per hour 

by gang 

312.5 

260.0 

195.0 

110.0 

80.0 

47.5 

52.5 



Unit cost 

per ft. at 

$0.01 per 

man-hour 

$0. 000096 

.000116 

.000154 

. 000273 

. 000376 

. 000633 

. 000952 



Note.— Laying pipe covers, reversing of couplings and handling of the pipe 
from the curb line to the trench and lowering into same. The weight of pipe per 
man-hour is not constant due to the reversing of a variable number of couplings 
per unit weight of different size pipes. To find the local cost per foot multiply 
unit cost by local pipemen hourly wage. 

The number of men engaged in laying pipe is taken as 1 foreman and 2 pipe- 
men for all sizes with the exception of the 8-in. pipe when 4 pipemen are used. 



WATER WORKS 



407 



Jointing 

Unit cost 

Joints per Ft. of pipe per ft. at 

Number hour per per hour $0.01 per 

Size of pipe of men gang per gang man-hr. 

IH 2 9 180 $0.000111 

IH 2 8 160 .000125 

2 2 6 120 .000166 

3 2 4 80 . 000250 

4 2 3 60 . 000333 

6 2 2 40 . 000500 

8 3 2 40 . 000750 

Note. — Jointing pipe covers the work of entering and screwing up pipe in the 
trench. The number of joints per man-hour varies as the diameter of the pipe. 
To find local cost per foot multiply unit cost per foot by local wage scale per hour. 

Explanation of Summary Table for Standard Screwed Steel Pipe. — Column 
A— Cost per foot for trennhing and backfilling a trench 1 ft. deep at a labor 
cost of 1 ct. per hour. For local costs per foot multiply by depth of trench 
In feet and by labor wage rate per hour. 

Column B — Cost per foot for laying pipe at a 1 ct. per hour wage scale. 
For local costs per foot multiply by local wage rate in cents per hour. 

Column C — Cost per foot for jointing pipe at a 1 ct. per hour wage scale. 
For local cost per foot multiply by local wage scale in cents per foot. 

Column D — Cost per foot of pipe at 1 ct. Substitute local cost per foot. 

Column E — Drayage cost per foot at $1 per ton-mile. For local cost per 
foot multiply by the local drayage rate per ton-mile. 

Column F — Storage and handling cost assumed to be 4 per cent of material 
cost regardless of locality. 

Column G — Supervision, engineering, contingencies, assumed to be 10 per 
cent of total cost regardless of locality. 



Summary op Unit Costs 



-Labor- 



Size Trenching 

of and 

pipe, backfilling Laying Jointing 

inches A B C 

IH...... $0.00166 $0.000096 $0.000111 

m 00166 .000116 .000125 

2 00166 .000154 .000166 

3 00166 .000273 .000250 

4 00184 .000376 .000333 

6 00203 . 000633 . 000500 

8 00222 . 000952 . 000750 



-Material- 



Pipe Drayage Storage 
D E F 



$0.01 $0.00114 
.01 .00136 



.01 
.01 
.01 
.01 
.01 



.00184 
. 00381 
. 00544 
. . 00959 
. 01440 



4% 

4% 
4% 
4% 
4% 
4% 
4% 



General 
super- 
vision, 
■ engineer- 
ing, 
contin- 
gencies 
G 
10% 
10% 
10% 
10% 
10% 
10% 
10% 



Cost of Incasing Steel Pipe with Concrete. — H. R. Case, Manager, Temes- 
cal Water Co., gives the following data in Engineering News-Record, Sept. 
20, 1917. 

Long stretches of old riveted-steel water pipe have been successfully incased 
in reinforced concrete with an economical method in use by the Temescal 
Water Co., Corona, Calif., for the past four years. 

The details were worked out for use in covering 10,000 ft. of 24-in. riveted- 
steel pipe line used as inverted siphons working up to 80 ft. head. This line 
was laid 30 years ago and is beginning to give way near the ends of the siphons, 
and where light weight steel was used on account of low heads. Possibly 



408 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



95% of the iron is still in the pipe, but it has rusted badly and pitted particu- 
larly at the seams, so that it has been necessary to make repairs during the 
irrigation season. The system not only protects the outside of the pipe and 
prolongs its life by the jacket of reinforced concrete, but eventually utilizes 
all the iron in the old pipe, and when it has disappeared leaves a reinforced- 
concrete pipe without joints, sufficiently strong to carry the pressure. 

Figure 28 shows the details of the wood form used in covering the 24-in. 
pipe. The forms are constructed of Oregon pine and lined with No. 26 black 
iron, which saves not only the forms but much material, making a smooth 
outside surface to the finished pipe. Forms for 24-in. and larger pipe are 
made in 8-ft. lengths, while the smaller sizes are made up in 12-ft. lengths. 



i%/f.J^^ 




Ncx26tron 
Lining- 



Fig. 28. — Old steel inside form for new concrete pipe. 



After the steel pipe is uncovered it is thoroughly scraped and cleaned with 
steel brushes. The ground under the pipe is then shaped to the required 
depth, the pipe being supported on wood blocks until the forms are set. 
Bedplates of 2 X 4s are then spaced with a template, similar to the end section 
of the form, on each side of the pipe to support the forms when in place. 
The wire-me^h reinforcement cut to 50- or 75-ft. lengths is then wound 
spirally around the pipe and supported where the edges unite by small cement- 
mortar blocks made in the form of truncated pyramids, 1>^ in. high, 2 in. 
square at the base and ^ in. at the apex, which is placed next to the pipe. 
A man with a hand mold will make 2,500 or 3,000 of the small blocks in nine 
hours. The edges of the mesh rest on the base of the little pyramids, thus 



WATERWORKS 409 

keeping the wire mesh spacied a uniform distance from the steel pipe or forms. 
As the blocks are placed, the edges of the wire mesh are tied together with 
No. 24 soft stovepipe wire. 

The forms are then placed on the 2 X 4s and held rigid by the two >^-in. 
bolts as shown. The wood blocks supporting the pipe are removed, and the 
pipe is held in place by a strand of wire and a turnbuckle clamp until the form 
is filled to a point where the concrete will support the pipe. The concrete 
is a l:2yi: 1 mixture of cement, sand and crushed rock or screened gravel of 
^^-in. maximum size. It is mixed by hand and poured rather wet, being 
worked to place with a light rod and by tapping the forms with a hammer. 
In laying the pipe up hill the top openings, as the forms are filled, are closed 
with covers clamped to place until the concrete sets slightly, when the covers 
are removed and the surface is well trowled and smoothed. The next morning 
the forms are removed, and the pipe is painted with neat cement. The pipe 
is then covered with soil and kept wet for two weeks. 

Progress and Cost. — Twelve men will easily build and backfill 140 ft. of 
18-in. pipe, 100 ft. of 24-in. or 80 ft. of 30-in. pipe in a day of nine hours. 

The company is replacing 30-in. steel pipe under 40-ft. head, placed on 
bridges, with concrete siphons of the same size, at a cost of $2.50 per ft., 
including the ditching. Covering 24-in. pipe including the digging costs 
$1.70 per ft., and 18-in. pipe $1.40 per ft. Cement is $2.30 per barrel and 
labor from $2.25 to $2.50 per day. 

Cost of Wood Stave Pipe at Seattle, Wash. — The following data, taken 
from Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 13, 1918, show the cost of wood stave 
pipe in place at Seattle, Wash. The work was done in 1914 by the municipal 
water works of Seattle. The figures cover the cost of 42-in. and 54-in. pipe 
and are based on lumber at $31.25 per M ft. B. M. in place, steel bands at 
4>^ ct. per pound in place and common labor at $2 to $2.25 per day: 

Cost of 42-in. Pressure Pipe in Place Per Lineal Foot with 3 ^^-in. Bands 

Per Foot 

Per lin. ft. 

27 ft. B. M. of fir staves at $31.25 per M $0. 844 

3 ^-in. bands 403-^ lb. at 43^^ ct 1. 822 

3 mal. iron shoes, 5.64 lb., at $0.0515 0. 290 

48 cu. ft. ex. back fill per lin, ft. at 31 ct. per yd 0. 551 



Total f3. 507 

Cost of 54-in. Pressure Pipe in Place per Lin. Ft. with 3 ^-in. Bands 

Per Foot 

33 ft. B. M. fir staves at $31.25 per M $1. 03 

3 ^-in. bands 523^ lbs 2. 36 

3 mal. iron shoes, 5.64 lb., at $0.0515 0. 29 

63 cu. ft. excavation at $0.31 cu. yd 0. 72 



Total $4.40 

42 in.— 25 ft. B. M. per ft 25 to 27 staves 

44 in. — 26 ft. B. M. per ft 26 staves 

54 in. — 33 ft. B. M. per ft 33 staves 

*51H. in.— 40 ft. B. M. per ft 32 staves 

60 in.— 46>^ ft. B. M. per ft 37 staves 

48 in.— 30 ft. B. M. per ft 30 staves 

The staves for this 513'^ in. pipe are thicker than for the other sizes. 

Forty eight-inch Wood Stave Pipe Line Across Marsh Land, Atlantic City, 
N, J. — George L. Watson, Engineer for the contractor describes in detail the 
methods employed and the difficulties encountered in carrying on the con- 



410 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

struetion of the 48-in. wood stave pipe line supplying Atlantic City, In the 
Sept., 1912 number of the Journal of the American Society of Engineering 
Contractors. The following data are taken from an abstract of Mr. Watson's 
paper published in Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 30, 1912. 

The work consisted of constructing 25,500 lin. ft. of 48-in. continuous 
wood stave pipe with three submarine "thorough-fare" crossings. The 
contract price for which was approximately $225,000. 

The marsh, across which the pipe runs, is flooded at high tide and at times 
the work was completely stopped because of the water that covered the 
meadows. The surface of the marsh was so soft that it was necessary to 
float the pipe on a 2 X 12-in. plank cradle. This consisted of a 2 X 12-in. 
plank on each side of the bottom of the 2>^-ft. ditch, in which the pipe was 
constructed, with the cross-pieces of the same size every 4 ft. Manholes 
were constructed at intervals of 1.000 ft. To protect the pipe line across 
the meadows from wave and ice action it was necessary to construct fenders 
on each side of the pipe embankment. 

Construction of the Pipe. — The actuai construction of the pipe was sub- 
divided into sections. The excavation gang consisted of a Parsons Trenching 
machine and six men, and this outfit was about 1,000 ft. ahead of the finishing 
gang. This machine crept along and excavated a trench 5 ft. wide and 2 ft. 
deep, and at the rate of 500 ft. of ditch per day. However, there were so many 
delays not due to any defect in the machine, that it was not found expedient 
to continue to use this machine for more than 2>^ miles of the work. 

Following this machine was a gang of about 20 men and a foreman, who had 
to maintain the trench the proper width. This was necessary because the 
banks continually pushed toward each other into the trench, and, therefore, 
this gang was generally only about 500 ft. ahead of the men who were placing 
the cradles or foundation for the pipe. It was necessary to keep the ditch 
about 8 ft. wide to allow the men to do all the work properly and to cinch 
the bands. 

The foundation gang consisted of six men and a foreman, and their duty was 
to build the timber foundation upon which the pipe was laid. 

Then came the pumping gang, which consisted of six men, one engine man 
or pump man, and one foreman, and whose duty was to keep the ditch dry 
ahead of the pipe layers. Their outfit consisted of a larry upon which was 
mounted a 10 h.p. Olds gas engine, belt-connected to a 6-in. centrifugal pump, 
sod spades and other necessary tools. They divided the trench into sections 
by means of bulkheads, and kept dry only the sections in which the men were 
working, while other men threw up low dikes around the excavation to 
hold back tides as long as possible. It cost about 2 cts. per linear foot to 
build these dikes. 

The pipe-laying gang consisted of 13 men and a foreman, and they were 
divided up so that in laying the pipe each man had only one portion of the 
work to perform. Two men were located on the bank as peddlers to handle 
the material of which the pipe was assembled, one man was located inside the 
pipe with mallet and chisel to set the staves and round them out, and two 
men placed at the end of the advanced pipe to assist in setting the staves. 
Along each side of the ditch three men would set the forms, and shape the 
section, while two men at the head of the section were employed to drive the 
staves home and band them up. 

To assemble the pipe a form consisting of a piece of 3-in. pipe bent to a 
radius of 26>^ ins. and reaching half-way up to the circumference was laid 



WATER WORKS 411 

about 2 ft. back of the end of the advancing staves. This form was generally 
laid flat upon one of the foundation cross-pieces; then five or six staves 
were set at the bottom and tapped into position; and immediately thereafter 
the form was raised to an upright position, thus shaping the bottom of the 
pipe. The inside form, which consisted of a piece of 2-in. gas-pipe bent to a 
radius of 24-in., was next placed inside the lower portion of the pipe. It was 
set on the inside of the pipe directly over the outside form and the additional 
staves were then placed under the direction of the foreman at the head of the 
pipe who calls out whether he wants a long or a short stave. As soon as the 
circle was completed a band was slipped on at the head of the pipe and loosely 
cinched; one of the side staves was then marked with a pair of calipers and 
every sixth mark crossed as a guide to the "banders" who followed. 

About ten bands were shpped on a section, which was then "rounded out," 
rolled and "driven home," after which the gang proceeded to lay the next 
section. 

The pipe gangs averaged about 150 lin. ft. of pipe per day, while the best 
day's work of any one gang was 680 ft. Under ordinary conditions 400 ft. 
was a fair day's work, but the construction was much delayed because the 
men could not stand in the ditch without a platform or they would sink in the 
mud up to their waists, which, together with the large amount of water that 
had to be pumped was the cause of the slow progress made. 

The tides also proved troublesome, especially when the wind was contrary, 
and at times the work was completely stopped because of the water that 
covered the meadows. Another thing that was a constant source of delay was 
the effect of the weather on the staves. The specifications called for 29 staves 
to complete the circle. During good and dry weather there was no difficulty 
in inserting the required number, but the slightest change in the weather 
affected the lumber, and if the air was damp or if it rained it was impossible 
to use all the staves. In that case, unless the work was to be stopped entirely, 
28 staves and one strip cut out of a full stave had to be used. 

Following the pipe layers came the band gang, which consisted of a foreman 
and 20 laborers, with four "band men." The latter were paired, one of each 
pair on opposite sides of the pipe. They slipped the bands on the pipe at the 
marks made by the pipe layers and tightened the nuts so as to merely hold 
the shoes in position. 

The cinching gang, which came next, consisted of from 30 to 40 men and two 
foremen. This gang had to tighten the nuts on the bands to almost their 
final position by using a brace wrench. At the extreme end of this gang were 
four "spacers," who hammered the bands to their ultimate position and gave 
the nuts their final tightening. After them came the painters, who applied 
on the bands the remaining coat of rust preventive, as demanded by the 
specifications. 

Finally, the gang which completed the embankment over the pipe varied 
from 10 to 40 men, depending upon the tides and conditions that influenced 
the building of the pipe. 

Cost Data 

The following are cost data for various operations of the pipe line work. 

Pipe Line Materials 

Staves, $47.17 f. o. b. cars job. 
Bands, $2.20 per 100 lbs. f. o. b. cars job. 
Saddles, $3.50 per 100 lbs. f. o. b. cars job. 
Clips, $3.50 per 100 lbs. f. o. b. cars job. 



412 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Staves 

Unloading from cars and hauling to job, 2 miles $ 1. 00 

Sorting into sections and unloading 5. 00 

Loading on larries (teams $5.00 per day, 10 hrs.) 2. 10 

Delivering in sections along R. O. W 1 . 05 

Per cent of cost of track and laying 30-lb. rails 0.15 

Supervision 2. 30 

Total labor cost along ditch $ 1 1 . 60 

Cost lumber 47. 17 

Cost per M. ft. B. M $ 58. 77 



Bands 

Unloading from cars at Atlantic City, giving second coating of 
asphaltum as called for by Specs, reloading and shipping to Absecon, 

N. J., per 100 lbs $ 0. 10 

Unloading from cars and haul to job . 035 

Rehandling in yard . 015 

Third coating in troughs. (Laborers at $2.00 per 10 hrs.) .20 

Loading on cars .02 

Delivering along R. O. W .22 

Per cent of cost of track laying . 005 

Supervision . 015 

Labor cost per 100 lbs $ 0. 610 

Band cost per 100 lbs 2. 20 

Total cost per 100 lbs $ 2. 810 

Saddles 

Unloading from cars at Atlantic City, giving second coating of 

asphaltum, reloading and shipping to Absecon, N.J $ 0. 05 

Unloading from cars and hauling to job . 035 

Rehandling in yard . . .' . 015 

Third coating in trough .10 

DeUvery along R. O. W .22 

Loading on cars , .01 

Per cent of cost of track laying . 005 

Supervision . 015 

Labor cost per 100 lbs $ 0. 45 

Saddle cost per 100 lbs 3. 50 

Total cost per 100 lbs $ 3. 950 



Clips 

Cost per 100 lbs. in kegs delivered along the line of work . 



$ 3.68 



Trenching 

Cutting trench 2^^ ft. deep, 6 ft. wide by Parsons trenching machine, 
trench filled with water, machine carried on heavy 4 X 12-in. 
planks 12 ft. long laid crosswise of trench, with 4 X 6-in. planks 24 
ft. long laid on top for traction wheels to rest on, coal ($5.00 per ton) 
carried to machine by men in 50-lb. sacks across marsh, water 
rolled in barrels across marsh one-half mile to machine — cost per 
lineal foot $ 

Trenching by hand, cutting ditch to 8-ft. width, trimming bottom and 
sides, men in ditch standing on movable platform which was 
dragged along with them. All spoil thrown one side only 

Backfilling pipe, using material excavated from trench and placing 
same over pipe, per linear foot 



0.20 



.09 
.09 



WATER WORKS 413 

Cost of Building Pipe 

Actual cost of building pipe in meadow exclusive of foundation or repainting 
or surplus enbankment, not called for by original specifications 

29 ft. B. M. at .05877 $ 1. 704 

80 lbs. bands at .0281 2. 248 

10 lbs. saddles at .0395 .395 

Total material per linear foot of pipe $ 4 . 397 

Machine trenching .20 

Hand trenching .09 

Pumping .10 

Laying pipe .13 

Banding ; 11 

Cinching .42 

Spacing . 103 

Painting .05 

Backfilling .09 

General supervision .14 

Tools .10 

General expense .22 

Total cost per linear foot *. , $ 6. 150 

Actual cost of building pipe in Boulevard, trench 8 ft. wide, 7 ft. deep, running 
sand, water 18 ins. below surface, close sheeting, no allowance made for sheeting 
lumber, which was afterward used in fenders. 

Total cost materials $ 4. 397 

Excavation at .31 .63 

Sheeting 16 sq. ft. at .023 . 368 

Pumping .16 

Laying pipe .22 

Banding .13 

Cinching .48 

Spacing .12 

Painting . . 055 

Backfilling .15 

Removing sheeting .24 

General supervision .14 

Tools .10 

General expense .22 

Total cost per linear foot • $ 7. 410 

Actual cost of building pipe along side of Meadow Boulevard Road, extra was 
paid for removal of sloping shoulder, trench 8 ft. wide, 3 ft. deep, in moist sand. 

Total cost, materials $ 4*. 397 

Excavation ,07 

Laying pipe .09 

Banding , .07 

Cinching • , 383 

Spacing .09 

Painting $ .04 

BackfiUing .08 

General supervision , • .14 

Tools .10 

General expense . 22 

Total cost per Hnear foot $ 5. 680 

Actual costs of building pipe on trestle over thoroughfare crossings 3 hrs. per tide. 

Total cost, materials $ 4. 397 

Temporary working platforms .20 

Additional cost, lighters and scows .10 

Laying pipe .13 

Banding .10 

Cinching .40 

Spacing .10 

Painting . 053 

Blocking and temporary wedges .12 

General supervision .14 

Tools .10 

General expense .22 

Total cost per linear foot 1^ 67660 



414 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Embankment 

Cost of constructing an embankment 18 ins, thick on top and 2 ft. thick on 
sides over pipe, to a width of 6 ft. at the top, 12 ft. at meadow level, all material 
taken from meadow, 16 ft. from center of pipe, trench to be cut even and graded, 
to act as drain for water in pipe trench. 

1 foreman at $4.00 $ 4 . 00 

1 sub-foreman at $2.50 2. 50 

15 laborers at $1.75 26. 26 

1 waterboy at $1.00 1. 00 

Per cent of cost of tools for sharpening 1 . 00 

150 ft. per day $ 34. 75 

Cost per linear foot . 231 

Timber Foundation — Extra Work 

Timber per 1,000 ft. f . o. b. Atlantic City $ 26. 50 

Hauling to job, 6 miles, one trip per day 5. 00 

Unloading to cars and pushing along line 10. 00 

Unloading from cars, sawing and assembling along ditch 1. 50 

Placing in position and spiking 5. 00 

Supervision 2 . 00 



Cost per M $ 50. 00 

Cost per foot of pipe .45 

Erection of Laborers^ Quarters, etc. 

Cost based on 25,500 linear feet of pipe, for building and erecting one bunk 
house of 150 men capacity, one house of 100 capacity, one mess house, one 
store house, etc. 

One storehouse and one foremen's quarters, no lumber taken into account, 
as the houses were torn down and the lumber used in the pipe foundation when 
a change of base was made. 
Cost per foot of pipe $ 0. 18 

Fender Construction 

The operation costs per day of the pile driving crew were as follows : This crew 
was paid 12 hours for a day's work, but worked only 8 hours, 4 hours on each 
rising tide. • 

1 foreman at .80 $ 9.60 

1 engineman at .30 3 . 60 

1 topman at .225 2. 70 

2 deck hands at .20 4. 80 

2 set men at .20 4. 80 

1 boatman at .20 2. 40 

Labor per day $ 27. 90 

Coal 2. 00 

Scow rental 8. 00 

Total cost per day $ 37. 90 

8 piles for 2 tides, cost per pile 4. 74 

Cost per foot of pile driven . 157 

This cost is high, but it must be borne in mind that the tide rose and fell so 
.quickly that only 4 piles could be driven in one tide, while with deep water 25 
piles could and have been placed under like conditions. 

Fenders 

One 30-foot pile every 5 feet. 

Stringers, two 2-in. by 12-in. lower, two 2-in. by 12-in. upper notched in piles, 
and bolted with 1-in. by 8-in. bolts with O. G. washers. Uprights 2-in. by 12-in. 
— 6 feet long, 2 bolts, one in upper and one in lower stringer, 4 O. G. H-in. 
washers. Fenders painted with bituminous paint. 




WATER WORKS 415 

Based on 10 linear feet of fender: 

60 feet of creosoted piling at .28 $ 16. 80 

Hauling piling 2. 00 

Driving piling •. 9. 42 

120 feet B. M. uprights, $36.00 on job 4. 32 

80 feet B. M. stringer^, $36.00 on job 2. 88 

Placing lumber and bolts, including boring holes 47. 00 

Painting 1. 00 

Bolts and huts 4. 80 

Supervision 5 . 00 

Cost per 10 linear feet of completed fender $ 93. 22 

Cost per linear foot 9. 32 

Bottom stringers and bolts below low water 2 hours work per day, all timber 
floated out in position, bored and bolted and placed by men in small row boats; 
on scows or lighters to be had. 

Scale of Wages 

Pipe layers, $2.00 per 10-hour day. 

Cinchers, $2.00 per 10-hour day. 

Banders, $2.25 per 10-hour day. 

Spacers, $2.25 per 10-hour day. 

Painters, $1.75 per 10-hour day. 

Laborers, $1.75 per 10-hour day. 

Superintendent and engineer, $11.66 per day — $350.00 per month. 

General foreman, $5.00 per day. 

Gang foremen, $4.00 to $3.00 per day. 

Excavation foremen, $3.50 per day. 

Pump men, $3.50 per 10 hours. 

Watchmen, $2.00 per 10 hours. 

Wages paid were high, as all work was in water always at least 18 ins. deep, 
boots' average life 4 weeks with good care, cost $5.50 per pair wholesale. Hard 
to keep men at work, 600 to 700 on payroll — 200 to 300 working. 

Cost of Driving Piles for Manholes. 

Four 30-foot piles for each manhole. Manholes 1,000 feet center to center. 
Cost includes building pile driver, assembly of plant, driving piles, moving 
driver, dismantling and returning to store yard and completion. 

Lumber for machine, except skids $ 90. 00 

Delivery at Absecon Camp 20. 00 

Hauling engine from Atlantic City to Absecon 15. 00 

Bolts, lines, bars, rollers, nippers, tools, etc 80. 00 

Labor assembling driver — 

Foreman carpenter at $5.00; 3 laborers at $2.00, 4 days 44. 00 

Total cost plant $249. 00 - 

Dismantling engine and haul to yard 10. 00 

Dismantling leads and skids and haul to yard 22. 00 

$281.00 
Less credit for skids, rope and tools charged to another branch on 

completion of driving 56. 00 

Total charge against the work for plant $225. 00 

It must be remembered the machine started at Absecon end and worked 
toward Atlantic City; all piles were delivered at Absecon with exception of 12, 
which were delivered on *'01d Turnpil<:e Road;" therefore machine had to 
carry with it 40 piles. As each manhole required 4 piles, each move meant 4 
piles less to drag forward, but you can see the handicap the work was done under 
having no base of supplies. This crew started out before track was laid or 
shanties built and water sometimes 2 feet deep on meadows, so that machine 
had to be blocked up or fire would be put out. 



416 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Pile Driving Crew 

1 foreman at $4.00 $ 4.00 

1 engineman at $3.50 3. 50 

1 top man at $2.25 2. 25 

4 laborers at $2.00 8. 00 

2 hours of superintendent's time at $1.16 2. 32 

2 hours of timekeeper's time at .30 .60 

Coal, delivered within 2 miles of work and carried in 50-lb. sacks across 

marsh by men, per day — Coal cost delivered $5.00 per ton 4. 10 

Water rolled in barrels }^i mile across marsh 1 . 05 

Oil, waste, etc .09 

Rental charge on engine and boiler 2. 00 

Total cost per day $ 27. 91 

Number of days worked 16 

Total cost of labor $446. 56 

Total cost of plant 225. 00 

Entire cost of work $671. 56 

52 30-ft. piles driven in place: 

4 piles, each 1,000 feet, cost per pile $ 12. 915 

Cost per linear foot of pile .43 

Manhole Gang 

1 foreman at $3.50 $ 3. 50 

6 skilled laborers at $2.00 12. 00 

1 hour timekeeper at $3.00 . .30 

1 hour superintendent at $11.66 1. 16 

Per cent of waterboy .09 

Cost per day $ 17. 05' 

Time required to set manhole complete, 2 days 2 

Labor cost to set $ 34. 10 

Per cent of plant cost 1 . 30 

Unloading and hauling material 5. 00 

Cost each $ 40. 40 

Cost of constructing manholes on meadow upon piles driven by pile driving 
crew. Weight of completed manhole, 43^^ tons. Composed of 1 Tee (4,000 lbs.), 

2 Bells and Flange Pins (4,200 lbs.), 88 1^^-in. by 734-in. Tobin Bronze Bolts 
and Crex Nuts, 23^-in. Seamless Tubular Lead Gaskets, 1 Manhole Plate and 
Bolts. Base of supplies, average l}i miles. Plant used to set manhole — 1 
tripod, 1 5-ton chain hoist, 1 2-ton chain hoist, six 10-in. X 10-in. X 30-ft. 
timbers, 8-in. X 8-in. blocking, chains, tackle, wrenches with 3-ft. handles, 
spades, cross-cut saws, diagraphm pump, 1 timber cart, wheels, 48-in. with 10-in. 
tread (iron), coup hooks, etc., rollers. 

Manholes 

Unloading from cars at Absecon and hauling to end of track at Absecon 

Camp, $1.00 per ton by contract $ 5. 00 

Loading on cars and transporting to end of track 2. 10 

Unloading on cribs .80 

Excavating around piles 8 ft. by 8 ft. by 3 ft. 6 ins. water level at sur- 
face requiring constant pumping 3. 30 

Cutting off 4 piles and capping .60 

Skidding casting over hole and cribbing 6. 20 

Bolting on 2 bell pieces, including gaskets 12. 00 

Lowering into position and adjusting 3. 10 

Supervision 6. 00 

Percentage of plant cost less credit 1 . 30 

Total labor cost each for setting $ 40. 40 

Total labor cost each for piles 51 . 66 

Total labor cost for foundation and setting $ 92. 06 

Cost of 4 piles delivered 16. 00 

Cost of 2 caps delivered 2. 04 

Final cost, including piles, foundation and labor $110. 10 



WATER WORKS 417 

Cost of building intersection at Sta. 78 -}- composed of two 48 X 42-in. 
reducers, two 42-in. gate valves, one 42 X 42 X 42-in. T., one 42-in. blank 
flange, 200 Tobin bronze bolts, five lead gaskets, etc. Nearest supply depot/ 
3 miles. Intersection located within 300 ft. of W. J. & S. R. R. main line; made 
arrangements with railroad to load all material on flat car at Atlantic City ; haul 
to job at night and railroad to unload all material on ground by railroad derrick. 
Unloading from cars at Atlantic City at contractor's plant ; by derrick 

of all material for intersection $ 8. 70 

Loading on flat cars at contractor's plant at Atlantic City of all 

material and tools for intersection 12. 30 

HauUng to job by railroad and unloading on ground, railroad derrick 

used 25. 00 

Excavation 8 X 8 X 3 ft. 6 ins. water level at surface requiring con- 
stant pumping 18. 23 

Cutting off" 12 piles and capping 1.97 

Laying boards for track to skid castings 2 . 00 

Skidding over in position over caps of all castings 62. 10 

Bolting up, including gaskets and blocking . 42. 00 

Removing blocking and lowering into position 18. 30 

Supervision 18 . 00 

Percentage of plant cost less credit 2 . 60 

Total labor cost for setting $211. 20 

Total labor cost for piles 154. 98 

Total labor cost for foundation and setting $366. 18 

Cost 12 piles dehvered 48. 00 

Cost caps — 10-in. by 10-in. — delivered 19. 82 

. Final cost, including piles, foundations and labor ; . .- $434. 00 

Curves for Estimating the Labor Cost of " Continuous Stave Pipe." — 
The following data are taken from an article in Engineering and Contracting, 
Feb. 17, 1915, by Andrew Swickard, Hydraulic Engineer. 

The total cost of a "continuous stave pipe" is made up of numerous items 
and is about as follows: 

Staves — 

Cost of rough lumber: 1 

Yarding 

Handling to mill [ Factory price f . o. b. cars 

Milling - 

Interest and insurance J 
Transportation: 

Railway or boat. 

Wagon or auto truck to convenient points. 

Distribution along the line. 
Construction: 

Assembling the staves, including tongues, with only enough bands on to 
hold them together. 
Bands — 

Factory cost of rods: 

Freight charges. 

Wagon haul. 

Distribution along pipe line. 

Bending to proper form. 

Painting. 
Factory cost of shoes: 

Freight. 

Haul. 

Distribution 

Painting. 

Assembling on pipe, spacing and backclinching. 
Tongues — 

Factory cost of band iron: 

Freight. 

Hauling. 

Cutting into proper lengths. 

Painting and distribution. 
27 



418 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



The cost of transportation is incidental to the distance and other physical 
conditions attending any given project. The same applies to the distribution 
of the material along the pipe line. If the topography is such that wagons can 
be drawn along in the immediate vicinity of the pipe line, the task is easy but 
if the line is along the side of a steep canyon and the material must be hoisted 
from below or let down from above by means of an aerial tramway, or other 
similar means, the cost becomes comparatively high. 

After the staves have been distributed along the line at convenient points, 
in piles averaging about 300 ft. apart and each pile containing enough staves 
to fill in the intervening gaps, the material must be sorted and laid ahead of the 
construction party in piles containing the number of staves necessary to com- 
plete the ring of the pipe. This phase of the distribution is a part of the cost 



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£ 


-JL 1 hesymbo (^)represenvs 








n lUiS'sizesJhese reor sinqis cos.p« 


iTTfTTfT — 


II 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 II 



54 



25 50 75 100 125 
Cost per lineal foot cfpipe in cents 



Fig. 29. — ^Labor cost curve for continuous wooden stave pipe. 
Curve gives labor cost of assembling the staves, inserting the metal'tongues, 
putting on 5 or 6 bands per 10 ft., driving the staves end- wise, and sorting and 
distributing the staves from piles about 100 ft, apart. 



of assembling the staves in the pipe. The cost of assembling the staves with 
only enough bands put on to hold them together varies with local conditions. 
The cost curve shown in Fig. 29 is an average of actual costs for sizes of pipe 
below 9 ft. in diameter; above 9 ft. the curve is merely extended. This curve 
is based on 9 hours labor at $2.50 per day, one foreman at $3 per day, and part 
of a general foreman's time, say }i of $6 or $1.50 per day. 

The cost of assembling the staves of a 66-in. pipe as represented in Fig. 29 is 
28 cts. In an actual case where the average length of pile set up per day was 
64 lin. ft. the detailed cost was as follows: 



WATER WORKS 



419 



Per day 

Part of superintendent's time $ 3. 00 

Foreman 3 . 00 

Four assistant builders 10. 00 

One distributor of material f 2 . 50 

Water boy -50 



64)$19.00 



*Cts. per foot of pipe. 



29.7* 



The crew putting on and placing the bands would follow the assembling 
gang, and following these would be the back-cinchers. When the spacing of 

Co 5 f per Band in Cents 

50<t 40(t. 30 





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1 




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m zo 30 do 

Cost per Band in Cents 

Fig. 30. — Labor cost curves for fitting on bands on continuous wooden stave 

pipe. 
The solid line represents the cost of distributing, putting on, spacing and 
cinching. The dotted line includes bending, painting and paint in addition to 
the other items. 

the bands averages about 3 ins., two men ordinarily can put on and space the 
bands as fast as the pipe can be assembled. The size of the pipe and whether 
the band is in one or two parts will influence the progress made. Because 
of the same influence the number of the back-cinching crew will vary from 4 to 
8 men in order to keep up with the assembling of the pipe. Fig. 30 represents 
the cost per band in place on the pipe, painted and back-cinched or finally 
tightened. 

A band passes through a number of stages of preparation before it is finally 
disposed of on the pipe; it must be bent to the proper form, dipped in paint, 



420 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



distributed, assembled and spaced on the pipe, hammered to a proper seating 
on the wood, and finally cinched. The dotted line in Fig. 30 represents the 
cost of putting a band through this process, and Figs. 31 and 32 represent the 
cost of each of the separate steps. 

The bending and the painting of the rods is usually done immediately along 
the pipe line, it being more convenient to deliver the bands straight than bent. 
Also it is desirable to keep the handling of the bands, after they are painted, 
at a minimum. 

The bending or shaping of the bands requires one man at a bending table. 
The table is a substantial structure as high as a man's waist, with a raised 



Cosi 
f6 1 


Cent5 Per Bond 
5 14 13 la II 10 


















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2J4 5 6 7<5 5 

Cost in CenfB per Band 

Fig. 31. — Labor cost of building, painting and distributing bands for wooden 

stave pipe. 
Cost of painting includes paint. Distributing cost covers carrying band from 
dipping tank, located at about 300 ft. intervals along the pipe line. The symbols 
along the bending and painting curves are average cost, those along the distri- 
bution curve are the result of computations from relative information. The 
painting cost includes that of the rods, shoes and tongues. 



circle or half circle on the top, around which the band is bent. A full circle is 
used when the rod is in one piece and the half circle when the rod is in two 
pieces. 

The quantity and the character of the paint used will affect the cost of the 
painting; the quality only as far as. the price is concerned, but the character 
will influence the thickness of the coat and waste. The use of a paint that 
dries rapidly and thickens quickly in the dipping vat, and therefore requires, 
frequent additions of a thinner, will result in considerable waste, especially on 



WATER WORKS 



421 



the dripping board ; the paint that drips from the bands will become too thick 
to run back into the vat. 

The distribution of the bands after being painted should have considerable 
attention in order to keep the cost at a minimum. They are best placed when 
left in bundles alongside the line, out of the way of the stave assembling 
crew but so that the band assemblers have merely to reach for them. The 
number of bands distributed over, say, every 50 ft. should be determined by 
the band spacing over the given distance. 

The cost of back-cinching, which consists of hammering the bands to a 
proper bearing on the staves and cinching them down tight, is the most varia- 



Cosf Cenfs Per Band ' 
18 n 16 15 14 13 /2 11 10 




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Cosf in Cents per Band 

Fig. 32. — Labor cost of assembling and spacing bands on pipe and back-cinching 
on wooden stave pipe. 
Black-cinching consists of tightening and hammering bands to a proper bear- 
ing in the wood. The symbols represent average costs; the variation in the cost 
of back-cinching is much greater than for any other item of cost because 
all classes of labor are employed on this part of the work. 



ble of any item of cost connected with the actual construction of the pipe. It 
is a thoughtless sort of job and men, good, bad, and indifferent, are usually 
put at this task; the resulting cost in a way corresponds with the men. 

The cost diagrams give average costs for building "continuous stave" 
pipe. The cost will be affected by: the quantity of pipe to be installed, the 
character of the season as affected by the locality, the physical character of 
the country over which the pipe is located, and the kind of labor that is avail- 
able. A pipe built on a bench cut into a rugged mountain side, where nearly 
every section of pipe set up will have to be curved, would run up in cost. The 
assembling of the staves under such condition might exceed the cost given by 



422 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

the curve by 50 per cent. The cost of the items connected with the banding 
of the pipe would not vary nearly as much as the stave work under such 
conditions. 

Example of Use of Unit Costs. — As an example of the use of the cost of the 
various items, we will apply them to an assumed case, as follows: 

The pipe to be 60 ins. inside diameter; staves 2y2 ins. thick, milled from 3 X 
6-in. stock, 36 staves to complete the ring, requiring 54 ft. B. M. of rough 
lumber per foot of pipe, the actual material in the finished staves being 75.7 
per cent of that in the rough material or 40.9 ft. B. M. 

The total length of the pipe being, say, 30,000 lin. ft., requiring a total of 
90,000 bands, or an average of 3 bands per foot; the rods to be made from H- 
in. round and in two parts, the two parts together weighing 19.5 lbs. ; the two 
shoes for each band weighing 3.5 lbs., or 1.75 lbs. each. 

The metal tongues for the stave joints will be approximately 2>^ in number 
per foot of pipe, weighing 1 lb. if cut from No. 10 iron, 1>^ ins. wide. 

Assume that the freight on the staves is 20 cts. per 100 lbs. and that the 
cost of the haul from the railway point of delivery is $1.25 per ton; that the 
freight on the rods, shoes, and band iron is 75 cts. per 100 lbs. and the hauling 
$1.25 per ton. 

Assume that the staves cost f. o. b. cars $38 per 1,000 ft. B. M. of rough 
lumber; that the rods cost $1.95 per 100 lbs., f. o. b. cars; the shoes $3.50 per 
100 lbs., and the band iron $2 per 100 lbs., f. o. b. cars. 



Lbs. 
Assume weight of staves averages 2,700 lbs. per 1,000 ft. B. M., then 

+u • v,+ r . . • . 2700 X 40.9 __ ._ 

the weight per foot of pipe is Tnofi ~ 110. 43 

Bands weigh per foot of pipe (19. 5 + 3. 5) X 3 = 69. 00 

Tongues 1. 00 



Total weight = 180. 43* 

*Lbs. per foot. 



Estimated Cost per Foot of Pipe. 
• Staves — 

- . ^ . . $38.00 X 54 .^ ^^^ 

Material, — y— = $2. 052 

Waste, >^ of 1 % . . . = 0. 010 

-'^-- ^-^^^^^>H^ocf^° = 0- 

— ^-^^S^^-^F-^ = -- 

AssembHng (from Fig. 29) = 0. 230 $2. 582 

Tongues — 

Material, 1 lb. X $0. 02 = 0. 020 

Waste, 1H% = 0. 003 

Freight, ^^^'^^Q-^^ = 0.008 

„ , 1 lb. X $1.25 „ ^^. 

Haul, —2000 •••= ^-OOl 

Cutting into clips = .002 .034 



WATER WORKS 423 

Bands — 

_. , 19. 5 lbs. X 3 X $1.95 , ,^, 

Rods, ^ = 1.141 

Waste, H oi 1% = 0. 006 « 

T? • u+ 19. 5 lbs. X 3 X $0.75 

Freight, ^nfi = 0- ^^^ 

„ . 19. 5 lbs. X 3 X $1.25 ^ ^_ 

^^^^' 2000 • = ^-^^^ 

Shoes, ?:Aib?^3_2a53^ ^ ^3^^ 

Waste, 1 % = 0. 003 

^ . , ^ 3. 5 lbs. X 3 X $0. 75 ^ _^ 

Freight, -^r = 0. 079 

„ , 3. 5 lbs. X 3 X $1.25 ^ ^_ 

Haul, 2000 = ^'^^^ 

Bending (Fig. 31 ), 1.05 cts. X 3 = 0. 032 

Painting (Fig. 31), 1.90 cts. X 3 = 0. 057 

Distributing (Fig. 31), 3.20 cts. X 3 = 0. 096 

AssembHng (Fig. 32), 1.50 cts. X 3 = 0. 045 

Cinching (Fig. 32), 6.50 cts. X 3 .... ; . = 0. 195 2. 452 

Special connections, say = 0. 045 

Repairing leaks, say = 0. 025 0. 070 

Interest and depreciation on tools, say 0. 015 

Overhead charges, say 0. 025 



Actual cost per foot $5. 178 

Total cost, $5,178 X 30,000 = $155,340. 00 

The cost of excavating for the bed or trench for the pipe has not been con- 
sidered; that being practical only after conditions are thoroughly known. A 
number of other items of expense might be necessary, such as backfilling under 
and perhaps over the pipe, building roads along the pipeline, bridges to carry 
the pipe over water-ways, hoisting the material from a road in the bottom of a 
canyon to the pipe line on the mountain-side above, and others. 

Cost of Repairing the Cedar River Wood Stave Pipe Line of the Seattle 
Water Works. — The following statement, of the methods and costs of repairing 
the Cedar River continuous wood stave pressure pipe line of the Seattle water 
works, was pubhshed in Engineering and Contracting, March 18, 1914, and 
was compiled fron information furnished by L. B. Youngs, Sup't of the Seattle 
Water Department.* 

Cedar River Water Supply Pipe Line No. 1 was put in commission in Jan., 
1901. The pipe is mainly 42 ins. inside diameter, though some parts 
are 44 ins. It is built of 6-in. staves made from the native Douglas firs. 
These staves are cut from 2-in. X 6-in. scantling dressed outside and inside 
to true circumferential, and on the edges to radial lines. 

After 13 years the steel bands do not seem to be seriously corroded. The 
staves, however, or more accurately speaking, individual staves here and there, 
began to show evidence of serious decay as early as seven years after installa- 
tion. Other staves right alongside of them have remained practically sound. 
It has been necessary, therefore, to renew certain staves, rather than to renew 
the pipe as a whole. At some places, where the pressure is light and where the 
covering is of loose gravel which readily admits the air and changes of tem- 
perature, sections from a few hundred to a few thousand feet have been fully 
replaced, after a use of 12 years, with new pipe, using, of course, the old steel 
bands. 



424 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



The method of repair is simple. It consists of uncovering the pipe, loosen- 
ing the bands, taking out the decayed stave, inserting the new stave in its 
place, and cinching the pipe up again. 

After the staves have been planed to form in the mill they are IH ins. thick. 
These staves will hold water very often until in some places they are decayed 
until there is only a shell ^ in. thick. Of course this is where the pressure is 
comparatively light, and the backfilling compact. Sapwood naturally decays 
rapidly and the department specifies that not more than one-fourth of the 
thickness of the stave, and then only on the inside, shall be sap. 

Following is a detailed statement of the actual cost of replacing 1,600 lin. ft. 
of 44-in. pipe in 1913. Common labor was $2.75 per day. 

The work was done by day labor under departmental direction. 



Table XXXIII.- 

Cost of Labor: 

Item: 
Excavation — 

130 days labor. . 

28^^ days team . . 
Wrecking pipe — 

30 days labor. . . 
Painting staves — 

17 days labor. . . 
Erecting pipe — 

72 days labor. . . 
Cinching pipe — 

58 days labor. . . 
Tamping pipe — 

78 days labor. . . , 

26 days team . . . . 



-Cost of Rebuilding 1,600 Ft. of 44-in. Wood Stave Pipe 
AT Seattle, Wash., in 1913 



Total cost of labor, 1,600 ft. pipe. 

Total cost of labor, 1 ft. pipe 

Cost of Material: 



Item: 
42,551 ft. stave lumber at $31.25 per M . . . 
Hauling staves — 

6 days labor 

IS^i days team 

155 gals. C. A. wood preserver at 65 cts . . 



Amt. 
$ 357. 50 
141.25 

82.50 

46.75 

198. 00 

159.50 

214.50 
130. 00 

$1,330.00 

$0.83 



Amt. 
$1,329.72 

16.50 

68.75 

100.75 



Total cost of material, 1,600 ft. pipe 

(exclusive of iron bands and shoes) ... $1 , 515. 72 



Cost 

' 498! 75 

82.50 

46.75 

198.00 

159.50 

' 344! 50 



Cost 
$1,329.72 



85.25 
100. 75 



Total cost of material perl in. ft. of pipe . 
Total cost of labor per line ft. of pipe.. . . 



Total cost of pipe rebuilding per lin. ft. 



Cost per 
lin. ft. 

"iolsi" 

0.05 
0.03 
0.12 
0.10 



0.22 



Cost per 
lin. ft. 
$0.83 



0.05 
0.06 



$0.95 

.83 



$1.78 



The painting mentioned under labor is an experiment. The department 
officials cannot say just what its effect will be. 

Life of Service Pipes. — The following data, from the Preliminary Report 
of Committee on Service Pipes submitted at the Portland, Me. Convention 
of the New England Water Works Association, are given in Engineering and 
Contracting, Dec. 11, 1916. The figures given are the averages of replies 
received from a large number of questionnaires sent out by the committee. 



WATER WORKS 425 

Years before Life of pipe 
trouble begins (years) 

Plain iron or steel 12 16 

Galvanized 15 20 

Lead . 10 35 

Lead lined 10 23 

Cement lined 14 28 

Methods and Costs of Thawing Water Mains and Services. — Data on 
the 1917-18 experiences of 96 cities with frozen water mains and services are 
included in the report of a special committee of the New England Water Works 
Association. The methods employed by these cities in thawing are summar- 
ized by Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 18, 1919, in the following table: 

Mains, Services, 
No. cities No. cities 

Electricity 36 31 

Steam 8 8 

Hot water 4 11 

Electricity, hot water 5 24 

Electricity, steam 5 6 

Electricity, hot water, steam 2 10 

One city reported that the blow torch was employed in thawing services; 
another city employed fire. 

The cost of thawing with electricity per job varied from $20 to $1. A sum- 
mary of the costs is as follows: 

No. cities Reported cost No. cities Reported cost 

3 $20 10 $10 

1 18 3 $8 to $10 

3 $15 to $16 21 $5 to $8 

3 12 6 $3 to $5 

2 11 5 Less than $3 

The cost of thawing with steam ranged from $4.50 to $75, the later figure 
being reported by Stamford, Conn. One city reported a cost of $5, one a cost 
of $17.70, one $20, one $9.41, one $7.63, one $4.50, one $7.50, one $6.50, one 
$16.50, and one $14. 

The reported cost of thawing with hot water ranged from $2 to $20. Four 
cities reported the cost as being $2. One a cost of $2.67; three a cost of $3; 
five a cost of $4 to $5 ; three a cost of $5 to $6 ; one a cost of $1 1.20 ; one $14, one 
$17 and one $20. One city reported the cost as being 5 cts. per foot of pipe 
thawed. 

Three cities reported on the cost of thawing by fire. In one case the cost 
was $11.16, in another $10.96 and in the third $10 to $30. 

Cost of Water Main Cleaning in Kansas City, Mo. — The following data are 
taken from an article by Charles S. Foreman in Engineering News-Record, 
June 16, 1921. 

Mr. Foreman believes that the following essential facts based upon his 
experiences will help to answer some of the questions which are usually asked : 

(1) Cleaning can be so arranged that a main need not be out of service 
longer than twelve hours for cleaning. (2) The cleaning process is not injur- 
ious to the mains. (3) An increase in carrying capacity of from 60 to 85 per 
cent was obtained in large mains and the carrying capacity of such mains was 
restored to that of new pipe. (4) The saving in coal costs alone, derived from 



426 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

cleaning, will pay the entire cost of cleaning within from one to three years. 
(5) Laying of additional mains to obtain increased capacity can be postponed 
until the consumption demands are equal to the maximum capacity of the 
old main on the basis of new pipe. (6) When taking as credits such items as 
coal saving and postponement of obligatory laying of new mains the entire 
cost of cleaning is saved within from six months to a year. 

The contractor's price for cleaning ranged from 26c. per foot for 16-in. pipe 
to 45c. per foot for 36-in. pipe and the total cost, including all expenses for 
operating valves, cutting and repairing pipe and for all necessary sleeves and 
material was $22,046 for 43,837 lin. ft. of pipe cleaned, or 50.3c. per lineal foot 
for all sizes. The total cost of cleaning the various sizes including pavement 
repairs and operation of valves, etc., was as follows: 

Cost per 

Length, ft. Size, in. Total cost lineal foot, cents 

7,202 16 $2,472.52 34.3 

7,280 20 $3,056.80 41.9 

3,371 24 $1,813.56 53.5 

8,984 30 $5,604.93 62.3 

17,000 36 $9,098.28 53.5 

The table on the following page shows the length of time in service, the 
annual operating: cost for coal before and after cleaning of the various sizes 
cleaned, the investment required and the annual interest thereon to obtain the 
increased capacity by laying new mains, and the total annual saving all being 
based on 5,000 ft. of each size and on the normal flow through the pipe at time 
tests were made. 

Cost of Cleaning Water Mains of Louisville, Ky. — The following notes are 
taken from an article by F. Osborne Redford published in Engineering and 
Contracting, Sept. 6, 1911. 

Cost of Cleaning FoUr-inch Mains in Louisville. — The cost of cleaning 4-in 
mains for the Louisville Water Company is given below. These costs are fo 
the work done from June 2 to June 12 inclusive, 1909. These dates are selected 
because at that time the most troublesome section of the city mains where 
being cleaned. During these eleven days 7,937 ft. of 4-in. mains were cleaned 
at a contract price for all labor and material of 7 cts. per ft. The total cost to 
the city was, therefore, $555.59. 

Actual Cost. — The actual cost of labor and material used in this job was aa 
follows : 

42 4-in. sleeves $ 55. 88 

63 ft. 4-in. pipe 18. 26 

Yarn 0. 60 

Lead 12. 00 

Cement 8. 00 

Sand 0. 65 

Labor 162. 99 

Teams 32. 00 

Overhead charges 44. 69 

Total actual cost $335. 07 

Actual cost per ft., 4>4 cts. 

It should be noted that the mud and incrustation encountered on this section 
of 4-in. pipe nearly closed the main. The deposit in this section of the city 
was mostly a yellow mud from the Ohio, with just a very thin scale of incrusta- 
tion at the bottom of the main. The capacity of this main was increased 550 
per cent by cleaning. 



WATER WORKS 



427 



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428 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cost of Cleaning Six-inch Water Mains in Louisville. — The contract price 
for cleaning the 6-in. main on 9,183 ft. of main, for labor and material, was 
8 cts. per foot. The total contract price was $734.64. 

Actual Cost. — The actual cost for labor and material was as follows: 

33 6-in. sleeves $ 55. 77 

9 ft. of 6-in. pipe 3. 30 

Lead 1 1 . 72 

Yarn o! 39 

Cement 4 . 60 

Sand o! 60 

Labor 131 . 69 

Teaming 24.00 

Overhead charges 28. 00 

Total actual cost $260. 07 

Actual cost per ft., 2.83 cts. 

The writer also cleaned water mains in Middletown, Pa., for the Middle- 
town Sawtara Consolidated Water Co., and found the cost of the work there 
about the same as in Louisville. 

Cleaning Large Mains. — The machine used for cleaning larger size pipe such 
as 8-in. and over is of similar design, with a double plunger in the rear so as to 
propel the machine with water power, thereby doing away with the cable used 
with the smaller type of machine. 

The writer knew of one case in the East where about five miles of 20-in. 
main was cleaned at a contract price of 60 cts. per ft. This price was exhorbi- 
tant. As a matter of fact the entire five miles of pipe were cleaned in about two 
weeks at a total cost not exceeding $1,500. It has been the writer's observa- 
tion that such exorbitant prices have kept many water companies from clean- 
ing their mains by contract. It is the judgment of the writer that water 
companies would save a great deal of money by cleaning their own mains. 

Prices per Linear Foot for Cleaning Water Pipe. — The following data are 
taken from an abstract, of a paper by Caleb M. Saville, Chief Engineer of the 
Board of Water Commissioners of Hartford, Conn, before the New England 
Water Works Association, published in Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 
18, 1914. 

The city of Hartford, Conn, is supplied with water by gravity, there being 
three mains connecting Reservoir No. 1 with the city as follows: two 20-in. 
mains and one 30-in. main. The south 20-in. main originally laid in 1867 
had been largely relaid. The north 20-in. main was laid in 1875 and was there- 
fore 37 years old when cleaned. The 30-in. main was laid in 1896 and was 
16 years old when cleaned. 

The supply of water was inadequate through these pipes and there was 
considered the advisability of constructing a new connecting main or of clean- 
ing the existing mains. 

If a new supply pipe was laid it would be at least 36 ins. in diameter and 
about 33,000 ft. long. At a minimum price of $8.25 per linear foot, this line 
would cost about $270,000, the interests on which at 5 per cent simple interest 
would be $13,500 per year, and at compound interest the charge would be 
$74,500 in five years. 

The preliminary estimate for cleaning three miles of 30-in. and six miles of 
20-in. pipe was $15,300, a little more than the interest for one year on the 
amount necessary to lay a new 36-in. main. If, therefore, the construction 
of the 36-in. main could be put off for five years without detriment to the 
service, the saving to the city was estimated to be about $60,000. 



WATER WORKS 429 

The list prices quoted by the National Water Main Cleaning Co., of New- 
York, for doing work in the distribution system were: 

List Prices Per Linear Foot op Water Pipe for Mechanical Cleaning 

Cost per 

Diam. of pipe ft., cts. 

6-in . 16 

8-in 17 

10-in 18 

12-in 22 

16-in 26 

20-in 30 

24-in 40 

30-in 65 

36-in 80 

These list prices were stated to be for average conditions for lengths of five 
miles or more only for purposes of preliminary estimate, and were submitted 
with the reservation that local conditions might cause considerable variation 
either way. In Hartford a price of 28 cts. per linear foot for 20-in. pipe was 
given for a 3-mile contract, with a further reduction if a greater length was 
cleaned. The conditions were exceedingly favorable for a large part of the 
way on account of few consumers on the line, advantageous location of gate 
valves and blow-offs for cutting out sections of proper length and also because 
of a parallel main with cross-connections which gave ample water for operating 
the machine without interference with the city supply. 

A contract was entered into Sept. 4, 1912, with the National Water Main 
Cleaning Co. to clean, on trial, 3 miles of 20-in, pipe, and if satisfactory results 
were obtained the cleaning process might be continued through several miles 
additional of 20-in. and three miles of 30-in. pipe. 

Work was begun Sept. 6 and suspended on Oct. 24 on account of scarcity 
of water in the reservoirs. The results were very satisfactory and during 
this period, 49 days, a total of 33,093 lin. ft. was cleaned. On this section 
there were 154 service pipes which were shut off during cleaning and only four 
were at all interfered with by the cleaning operations. Three of these were 
extension meters located at the street line with no curb cocks, and it was neces- 
sary to remove the meter and clean out the dirt. The other service affected 
was plugged, but was easily relieved by a force pump. 

The usual force employed on this work was a superintendent, a foreman, 
a calker, 14 laborers and a double team for carting pipe, materials and supplies.. 

Under average conditions 3,000 lin. ft. was found to be the maximum effect- 
ive length for cleaning. The contractor stated that 5,000 ft. had been 
successfully cleaned by him elsewhere, although in some places it had been 
possible to go only 1,500 ft. at a time, using water to drive the machine. If 
the machine is drawn through by a cable, the length of section is from 500 
to 1,200 ft. It is stated that the machine can be operated by water under 
heads of as low as 10 or 12 lbs. The least available head on the Hartford lines 
was somewhat greater than this. 

Relative Merits and Costs of Dug and Driven Wells. — The following data, 
given in Engineering and Contracting, July 14, 1915, are taken from a paper 
before the Boston Society of Civil Engineers by William S. Johnson, Consulting 
Engineer and published in the Journal of the Society for May, 1915. 

As to the relative merits of driven wells, dug wells or filter galleries, there is 
no question but that dug well is the most satisfactory, provided the conditions 
are favorable and if the expense is not too large. Where water is obtained 



430 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



from some neighboring water source and the depth of porous material is small, 
a filter gallery parallel to the shore of the surface source may be desirable. 
Where the water-bearing soil is at some considerable depth it is almost invari- 
ably much cheaper to obtain water by means of tubular wells. 

Table XXXIV.— ^Cost of Dug Wells 



Year 
Place built 

Bedford... 1909 

Avon 1895 

Canton 1889 

Cohasset 1909 

Greenfield 1913 

Henniker, N. H 1914 

Manchester 1892 

Marblehead 1912 

Middleborough 

Waltham 

West Warren 1913 

Winchendon 1911 



Depth 


Diameter 




in ft. 


in ft. 


Cost 


21.0 


20.0 


$ 3,981 


22.0 


20.0 


3,317 


29.0 


40.0 


8,555 


33.67 


25.0 


3,500 


31.0 


40.0 


7,850 


25.15 


20.0 


2,141 


29.0 


32.0 


10,476 


31.0 


25.0 


6,100 


22.0 


26.0 


4,964 


18.0 


40.5 


8,940 


18.0 


20.0 


3,800 


35.0 


40.0 


7,815 



Between these two extremes the best method to adopt must be determined 
by local considerations. One of the advantages of the dug well is that there is 
a large body of water in store from which to draw while the pumps are being 
run, and when this is exhausted the well has the time until the pumps are next 
operated to recover. This means that pumps of larger capacity can be used 
than with the driven well plant. Furthermore, under these conditions the 
average suction is likely to be less, as in the case of driven wells the ground 
water level at the wells goes down quickly when the pumps are started. 

Perhaps the chief advantage, however, of the large well is the avoidance of 
, troubles from sand and air which are likely to occur in any driven well plant. 

Construction of Wells. — The construction of tubular wells and the method 
of making connections with the suction pipe are of the greatest importance, 
as the leakage of a small quantity of air will cause endless trouble; and it is 
also desirable that it should be possible to cut out any particular well from the 
system. 

Table XXXV. — Cost of Tubular Wells 



Place No. and 

Ashland 12-23^ 

East Brookfield 9-23^ 

East Douglas • 9-23^ 

Duxbury 22-23^ 

Littleton 10-23^ 

Merrimac 18-2)^ 

North Chelmsford 20-23^ 

Oxford.... 15-23^ 

Pepperell 34-23^ 

Plainville. 11-23^ 

Uxbridge 16-23^ 

Wrentham 9-23^ 

State School 6-23^ 

Fairhaven 30-23^ 

Wareham 12-23^ 











Cost, in- 










cluding 










suction 




Depth, 


Cost 


Cost to pump- 


size in ft. 


of wells 


per well 


station 


in. 


25-32 


$1,267 


$105.00 $1,460 


in. 


20.7av. 


604 


67.20 




in. 









629 


in. 


27.8 av. 






3,324 


in. 


22 av. 






2,000 


in. 


35 av. 






3,100 


in. 


30 av. 


2,800 


140.00 




in. 


24-28 






800 


in. 


19-28 


2,704 


79.50 


3,200 


in 


25-50 


4,500 






in. 


26-35 


1,800 


112.50 




in. 


29 av. 


1,048 


116.50 




in. 




680 


113.20 




in. 


223-^ av. 


2,040 


68.00 


5,645 


in. 


39 av. 


1,160 


97.00 





WATER WORKS 431 

The usual size of driven wells in New England is 2^ ins. The adoption of 
this size is simply the result of experience, as it is found that this is about as 
large a pipe as can well be driven under ordinary conditions, and it is, of course 
desirable to have the pipe as large as is feasible. For the well, an extra heavy 
wrought-iron pipe should be used, as in the process of driving the pipe receives . 
very hard treatment and it requires a heavy pipe to stand the strain. The 
pipes are driven with open ends except in the case of very fine sand, when 
strainers have to be resorted to. The bottom length of pipe is perforated 
with a large number of small holes about ^ in. in diameter for a distance of 
perhaps 2 ft. from the end of the pipe. 

The two methods of driving the pipes most commonly in vogue are the use 
of a tripod carrying a pulley block over which the rope carrying the driving 
weight passes to men standing on the ground, and the use of a platform, 
clamped to the well casing above the ground, upon which the men stand and 
lift the driving weight by hand. The use of the tripod is the simpler, but the 
platform has the advantage of carrying the weight of the men upon the pipe, 
which assists materially in sending the pipe down with each blow. It would 
seem that the raising weight by a rope would be much easier for the men 
than to stoop and lift the weight as is necessary with the platform. Men, how- 
ever, incline toward the platform method. 

After the pipe is driven and washed out, it is cut off at the level at which the 
suction is to be placed. A long-turn T is put on and then the pipe is continued 
up to somewhat above the surface of the ground, the object of the extension 
to the surface being to provide access to the well for cleaning out, as sand is 
likely to work into the pipe. The well is then connected to the suction with 
2 3'^ -in. pipe and a lead gooseneck, each connection being provided with a gate 
so that it can be shut off in case it gives trouble. The object of the piece of 
lead is to give flexibility to the connection and prevent danger of leakage. 

Cost of Water Supply Wells in Iowa. — The following table is arranged from 
data published in Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 27, 1915 given by Prof. 
John H. Dunlap in University Extension Bulletin No. 8 of the State University 
of Iowa. 



432 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table XXXVI. — Cost of Water Supply Wells in Iowa 





ii 












s 




■t^ 




S 










§ 


B 


'$■ 


I 


Place 


8 


6 




Diameter 




o3 

1h 


+3 

II 






1 


1 


] 


ns. 


" 1 


1 

(A 


1 




Q 


Z 


Q 


Top 


Bottom H 


^ 


H "" 











Dug wells 










Clarinda 


1905 


1 


65 


10 ft.- 


-cement curb 


Gvl. 


$5,000 $77.00 


Red Oak 




1 


. 59 


18 ft. 
curb 


-cone. 


block 


Gvl. 


5,500 








93.20 


Ida Grove .... 


1914 


1 


30 


225 ft 


.-brick curb 


Gvl. 


2,200 


73.50 








Shallow wells 










Le Mars 




1 

28 


60-65 
30-45 


36 
1-2 


36 
12 


60-65 Gvl. 
30-45 R. S. 


500 
33,823 


8.00 


Boone 


ioii*" 


32.25 


Shenandoah.... 


1892 


6 


46-48 


6 


6 


46-48 


Gvl. 


1,200 


4.25 


Marshalltown. 


1900-14 


51 


37.5 


6 


6 


37.5 


Gvl. 


5,610 


2.93 


Muscatine 


1902 


14 


48-50 


6 


6 


48-50 


Gvl. 


1,400 


2.04 








Deep wells 










Waterloo 


1910-11 


1 


1,365 


20 


12 


860 


Ss. 


$10,855 


$ 7.95 


Mason Cityi... 


1913 


1 


1,200 


20 


12 


280 


Ss. 


5,975 


4.98 


Waterloo 


1905-7 


1 


1,377 


16 


8 


776 


Ss. 


8,054 


5.85 


Mason City. . . 


1912 


1 


1,217 


16 


10 


160 


Ss. 


6,295 


5.17 


Waterloo 


1904-5 


1 


1,373 


16 


8 


862 


Ss. 


5,956 


4.35 


Fort Dodge.. . 


1907 


1 


1,828 


15 


5 




.... 


8,000 


4.37 


Algona2 


1914 


1 


998 


12 


10 


"374 


Ss. 


5,100 


5.10 


Rockwell City 


1912 


1 


1,543 


12 


6 


1,470 


Ss. 


7,340 


4.75 


Charles City... 


1914 


1 


250 


12 


10 


75 


Ls. 


1,000 


4.00 


Waverly 


1899 


1 


1,720 


12 


8 


100 


Ss. 


3,300 


1.92 


Cherokee 


1913 


1 


200 


10 






Ss. 


1,920 


9.60 


Rockwell City 


1904 


1 


950 


10 


"6 


"566 


Ls. 


4,750 


5.00 


Cedar Fallss. . 


1912 


3 


125 


10 


8 


120 


Ls. 


1,800 


4.80 


Glenwood 


1891 


1 


2,000 


10 


4 


1,773 




7,265 


3.64 


Charles City . . 


1905 


1 


1,589 


10 


8 


851 


'Ss.' 


5,346 


3.36 


Mason City. . . 


1911 


1 


865 


10 


8 


175 


Ss. 


2,712 


3.13 


Fort Dodge . . 


1913 


1 


200 


■8 








1,500 


7.50 


Cherokee 


1913 


1 


209 


8 




117 


*Ss.' 


700 


3.35 


Charles City. . 


1914 


1 


250 


6 


'6 


75 


Ls. 


426 


1.70 


Waterloo 


1913-14 


1 


1,377 








Ss. 


8,356 


6.07 



Note— 

1. Drilled 24 ins. in diameter and filled with concrete outside 20-in. casing 
to cut off surface water. 

2. The 10-in. casing is 374 ft. long, and extends to the surface inside the 
12-in., which is 304-ft. long. 

3. Double cased with 70 ft. of 12-in. casing and then 120 ft. of 10-in. inside. 
*Gvl. = Gravel, R. S. = River Sand, Ss. = Sandstone, Ls. = Limestone. 



CHAPTER VIII 
WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 

The subject of water purification and treatment is a growing one and its 
importance becomes greater with increasing population and the consequent 
danger of contamination of public water supply. In this chapter are included 
not only, general data on the cost of constructing and operating water-treat- 
ment plants but also detailed costs of specific operations. 

Further cost data on this subject will be found in Gillettes' "Handbook of 
Cost Data." For costs of pumps and pumping the reader is referred to 
Gillette and Dana's "Handbook of Mechanical and Electrical Cost Data." 

Hypochlorite and Liquid-chlorine Costs. — The following data published 
in Engineering News-Record, May 3, 1917, are taken from a paper by Phihp 
Burgess, before the Indiana Sanitary and Water-Supply Association in Feb. 
1917. 

Hypochlorite and liquid chlorine at Indiana water-treatment plants in 
1916 averaged 8.5 lb. of hypochlorite and 1.8 lb. of liquid chlorine per 
1,000,000 gal. of water treated. The average costs were 5.3 and 16c. per lb. 
respectively. Thus liquid chlorine cost only 60% as much for material as 
hypochlorite. 

Cost of Liquid Chlorine Treatment of Water. — Engineering and Contract- 
ing, April 10, 1918, publishes the following cost data on the operation of liquid 
chlorine plants given in a recent technical paper of the New York State Depart- 
ment of Health prepared by C. M. Baker,' assistant engineer, Division of 
Sanitary Engineering. The figures show the approximate cost of apparatus, 
maintenance and operation of the plants at Hudson Falls, N. Y., and West- 
field, N. Y. The costs of chlorine treatment at these two plants was as 
follows: 

Hudson Falls 
Apparatus — 

Chlorinator $400. 00 

Apparatus for testing B. coli 25. 00 

Incubator 10. 00 

Total $435. 00 

Yearly cost, interest at 5 per cent $ 21. 75 

Operation — 

Chlorine, 100 lb. at 93^^ ct $ 9. 50 

Freight 1.05 

Trucking .50 

Total $ 11. 05 

Yearly cost based on treating 600,000 gal. per day with .3 

parts per million of chlorine 60. 44 

Maintenance per year 15. 00 

Total yearly cost $ 97. 19 

Cost per 1,000,000 gal. water treated » 0. 44 

28 433 



434 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Westfield 
Plant- 
Apparatus $450. 00 

Building 125. 00 

Stove : 10. 00 

Total $585. 00 

Yearly cost, interest at 5 per cent $ 29. 25 

Operation — 

Chlorine, 100 lb., at 17^ ct $ 17. 50 

Freight .65 

Cartage 1 . 25 

Total cost of chlorine per 100 lb $ 19. 40 

Yearly cost of chlorine based on treating 1,000,000 gal. per 

day with .3 parts per million of chlorine. . . 177. 00 

Attendant per year 100. 00 

Oil for heater 20. 00 

Maintenance per year, estimated 20. 00 

Total yearly cost $346. 25 

Cost per 1,000,000 gal. water treated 0. 95 

At Hudson Falls the plant is located in the pumping station and is attended 
by the engineer, thus eliminating the cost of the building, heating and 
attendance, while at Westfield the plant is 2 miles in the country and a new- 
separate building had to be constructed to house the apparatus. The other 
item of difference in cost is chlorine. With the cost of chlorine the same at 
Hudson Falls as at Westfield, viz., 173^ ct. per pound, the total cost per 
1,000,000 gal. of water treated would be $0.64 instead of $0.44. 

Cost of Electrolytic Chlorine. — The following matter is taken from an 
abstract published in Engineering News — Record, May 24, 1917, of a paper 
before the American Water Works Association by F. H. Pitcher and James 
O. Meadows, respectively chief engineer and filter superintendent of the 
Montreal Water and Power Co. 

The electrolytic-cell installation has been in service since only the first part 
of 1917, but during that time many interesting data have been secured. 

The chlorine-cell installation includes a salt-storage bin having a capacity 
of 40 tons of salt, the brine saturating and purifying equipment, two 15-hp. 
motor generator sets, four chlorine cells, and the silver ejectors and distri- 
buting lines for applying the chlorine water to the water to be treated. 

The brine saturating and purifying equipment consists of three vertical 
galvanized-iron saturators, 27 in. in diameter by 6>^ ft. in height, provided 
with a spray system at the bottom and an outlet 6 in. from the top and two 
concrete reaction tanks having a capacity of 82 cu. ft. each. These tanks 
are built with sloping bottoms and have a pipe grid for air agitation. Two 
sand filters are provided for filtering the purified brine, which passes from the 
filters to the two concrete storage tanks, having a capacity of 276 cu. ft. each. 

The distributing lines for applying the chlorine water to the water to be 
treated are 1-in. chemical hose lines. The chlorine gas is ejected into the 
water by means of a silver ejector, which maintains a 4-in. vacuum on the 
chlorine cells and takes the gas from the chlorine main through the ejector to 
distributing lines. 

The electrolytic cell is of the Allen-Moore type. It is a standard 600-amp. 
cell and is 7 ft. long by 20^8 in. wide. Each cell is provided with Acheson 
graphite anode plates and pure wrought-iron perforated cathode plates. The 
Allen-Moore cell is of the unsubmerged diaphragm type and uses asbestos 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 435 

paper for the diaphragm material. Unlike several other types of electrolytic 
chloroine, cells the cell box of the Allen- Moore cell is made of concrete, prop- 
erly protected at the surface to withstand the chemicals. 

The cells are connected in series and are provided with short-circuit switches 
or cutouts. The voltage carried on each cell is approximately 3.3 volts, and 
each cell is capable of producing 32 lb. of chlorine per 24 hours. 

Cost of Chlorine Production 
The annual cost of production is estimated as follows: 

Salt at $8 per ton $ 500 

Power at $30 per horsepower 450 

Interest at 6 % on $5,000 300 

Depreciation at 15 % 750 

Labor and superintendence 500 



$2 , 500 



Three chlorine cells furnish the requisite amount of chlorine for sterilization, 
yielding 90 lb. of chlorine gas per 24 hours, or 32,850 lb. per year, making the 
cost of chlorine produced 7.6c. per pound. 

Comparison with Present Hypochlorite Cost 

The annual cost of sterilization previous to the installation of the chlorine 
cells was as follows : 

Chloride of lime at 3.75c. per lb $4 , 105 

Interest at 6 % 150 

Depreciation at 5 % 125 

Labor and superintendence 500 

Total $4 , 880 

As the amount of chloride of lime required was 300 lb. per day, or 100 lb. 
of available chlorine, the cost per pound was 13.4c. or 5.8c. per lb. more than 
chlorine produced by the electrolytic cells. 

With normal market conditions the annual cost of the two forms of treat- 
ment would be approximately the same, if one did not consider the general 
depreciation that chloride of lime causes about a water-purification plant. 

The three cells required to supply the chlorine consumed for sterilization 
are operated with a current load of 500 amp. and 13 volts. The electro- 
lytic cells require very little attention and up to date have given excellent 
satisfaction, 

Advantages of Metal and Rubber Tubing for Conveying Alum and Hypo- 
chlorite Solutions. — Charles W. Saxe, Chemist in Charge of the Newport, R. I. 
Water Filtration Plant, gives the following notes in Engineering and Contract- 
ing, March 19, 1913. 

The conveying of "Alum" solution to the point of application in mechan- 
ical filter plants is attended with trouble from the pipes rapidly clogging up 
and thus hindering the flow. 

At the Newport, Rhode Island, water works prior to August, 1912, the 
solution was fed through a 13^ -in. lead pipe by gravity a distance of 120 ft. 
It was very difficult to clean out the deposit and also to make the lead flange 
joints tight again. Inch and a quarter 2-ply chemical rubber hose was sub- 



436 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

stituted in August and so far, 6 months, has needed no cleaning. When this 
is desired the two lengths are taken apart and are laid out on a flat surface. 
The hose is lightly rolled with a short piece of board and is then flushed out. 
The 3,000 grain per gallon "Alum" solution appears to have no effect on the 
rubber. 

Hypochlorite of lime of >^ per cent strength is best carried in galvanized 
iron pipe. A thin crust forms inside at first but it does not increase rapidly. 
The 2 per cent "Soda" solution is being carried in galvanized iron pipe also. 

Operating Costs of Ultra-Violet Sterilization Plants. — The following 
statement as to the operating costs of ultra-violet ray water sterilization plants 
is quoted, by Engineering and Contracting, Nov, 25, 1914, from a paper 
before the American Water Works Association by Dr. Max von Reckling- 
hausen of New York City: 

Operating costs will vary with the size and the running hours of the plant, 
and the coefficient of safety for the ultra-violet ray treatment. According 
to the quality of the water I expect in large plants which run 24 hours that 
the current consumption will vary between 30 and 125 kw. hours per 1,000,000 
gals., allowing for a large safety coefficient. The labor charges are negligible 
as the apparatus only needs an occasional cleaning and starting of lamps. 
Apart from this the lamps have to be repumped and repaired from time to 
time. When the water is of variable physical quality, one will have so to 
establish the plant that all the lamps will be running during the period of least 
transparent water and only some of them during the period of best 
transparency. 

Copper Sulphate Treatment for Algae. — The following matter is given in 
Whipple's "The Microscopy of Drinking Water" (1914). 

In 1904 Dr. George T. Moore and Karl F. Kellerman, of the Bureau of 
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture published a report stating 
the results of successful experiments made by them in the eradication of 
algae and other microscopic organisms from reservoirs by the use of copper 
sulphate. This report immediately attracted wide attention and the method 
was tried in many places. Nearly ten years' experience has shown its advan- 
tageous use in many situations and has likewise developed some of its short- 
comings. 

Copper sulphate had been used as a fungicide long before Moore proved its 
worth for destroying algae. Many experiments had been made by Miquel, 
Devaux, and many others, which showed that very minute doses of poisonous 
substances were able to destroy the unicellular microscopic organisms, but 
Moore deserves full credit for the use of copper sulphate in water-supplies. 
The first practical test on a working scale was made by him at the water-cress 
beds in Ben, Va., in 1901, where a troublesome growth of Spirogyra was 
eliminated. 

Effect of Copper on the Human System. — The first question that was nat- 
urally raised when the copper treatment was mentioned was its possible 
effect on the human system. Moore had collected extensive data to show the 
extent to which copper salts were used in medicine and the wide distribution 
of copper in nature, its presence in vegetables and even in natural waters 
themselves. Clark showed that some natural waters in Massachusetts 
contained small amounts of copper. Experience with the use of copper in 
many water-supplies has fully demonstrated the innocuous character of this 
treatment if properly carried out. It is not a matter, however, that should 
be left to the ordinary laborer. It needs intelligent and continual supervision. 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 437 

Method of Applying Copper Sulphate. — The method of appUcation is ex- 
tremely simple. Ordinary commercial crystals of blue- vitriol are used. 
The required quantity of these crystals is placed in a coarse, bag, gunny-sack, 
perforated bucket, or wire basket, attached to a rope and drawn back and 
forth in the water at the stern of a rowboat. Or an outrigger may be 
arranged so as to drag two or more bags at the same time, thus cutting a wider 
swath. By rowing slowly along about 100 lbs. can be thus dissolved in an 
hour. By using several boats quite a large reservoir can be covered in a 
working day. For a very large reservoir a motor launch may be used. In 
making the trips the parallel paths of the boats should be about 20 ft. apart. 
Care must be taken not to row too slowly, as too great a concentration 
may be obtained near the bags, and if fish should swim into this overdosed 
water they might be poisoned. 

It is generally preferable to carry out the treatment on a day when the wind 
is blowing, so that the circulation of the water may more readily distribute 
the chemical. Advantage may be taken also of vertical convection currents. 
If the algae to be killed are near the surface the application should be made 
early in the day when the surface-water is warming and tending to become 
stratified ; but if the algae are well scattered through the water it is better to 
make the application toward night. It will often be found best to row against 
the wind. It has been found difficult to treat a frozen resetvoir with copper 
sulphate, as the chemical does not diffuse readily, but precipitates at the bot- 
tom near the point of application. The solution of copper sulphate is heavier 
than water. 

Quantity of Copper Sulphate Required. — It is of great importance that just 
the right quantity of copper sulphate be used. If too little is applied the 
algae will not be destroyed ; if too much is used, there is danger that fish may be 
killed and there is also the money waste. 

In deciding upon the quantity to be used several factors need to be con- 
sidered, such as the kind of algae present, the amount of organic matter in the 
water, the hardness, the presence or absence of carbonic acid, the temperature, 
the kind of fish present, and of course the quantity of water to be treated. 

It is hazardous for one not familiar with the various matters in- 
volved to attempt to treat a water-supply with copper, as the effect of 
overdosing rnay produce disastrous results in the destruction of fish and other 
animal organisms. Of particular necessity is it to know what organisms are 
present that need to be killed. For this a microscopical examination is 
essential-. Fortunately this is an easy matter for a water-works superin- 
tendent to determine. 

Quantity Required to Eradicate Different Organisms. — Organisms differ 
considerably in their susceptibility to copper sulphate. Some of the blue- 
green algae are destroyed by the application of only one part of copper sulphate 
in ten million parts of water, while other organisms require more than ten 
times as much as this, and some twenty times as much. One of the organisms 
most easily killed is Uroglena which can be eradicated by using as little as one 
part of copper sulphate in twenty million parts of water. 

It is probable that the stage of growth of the organisms is also a determining 
factor and that the presence or absence of carbonic acid is important. Differ- 
ent observers have brought in different figures for the quantities that have 
proved efficacious with the same organisms. It is impossible to state any 
very definite figures for the quantities required, but the following figures 



438 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



chiefly given by Kellerman, one of the originators of the method, are beUeved 
to be as reliable as any. 



Table L — Quantity of Copper Sulphate Required for Different 
Organisms 



Organisms 
Diatomaceoe: 

Asterionella 

Fragilaria 

Melosira 

Synedra 

Navicula 

Chlorophycece: 

Cladophora 

Conferva 

Hydrodictyon . . 
Scenedesmus ... 

Spirogyra 

Ulothrix 

Volvox 

Zygnema 

Microspora 

Draparnaldia . . . . 

Raphidium 

Coelastrum 

Cyanophycece: 

Anabsena 

Clathrocystis . . . . 
Coelosphsearium . 

Oscillaria 

Microcystis 

Aphanizomenon . 

Protozoa: 

Euglena 

Uroglena 

Peidinium 

Glenodinium . . . 
Chlamydomonas 
Cryptomonas . . . 
Mallomonas . . . . 

Dinobryon 

Synubra 

Schizomycetes: 

Beggiatoa 

Cladothrix 

Crenotbrix 

Leptomitus 





Pounds per 




milUon gallons 


Parts per milUon 


of water 


0.10 


6.8 


0.25 


2.1 


0.30 


2.5 


1.00 


8.3 


0.07 


0.6 


1.00 


8.3 


1.00 


8.3 


0.10 


0.8 


0.30 


2.5 


0.20 


1.7 


0.20 


1.7 


0.25 


2.1 


0.70 


5.8 


0.40 


3.3 


0.30 


2.5 


0.30 


2.5 


0.30 


2.5 


0.10 


0.8 


0.10 


0.8 


0.30 


2.5 


0.20 


1.7 


0.20 


1.7 


0.10 


1.2 


0.50 • 


4.2 


0.05 


0.4 


2.00 


16.6 


0.50 


4.2 


0.50 


4.2 


0.50 


4.2 


0.50 


4.2 


0.30 


2.5 


0.10 


0.8 


5.00 


41.5 


0.20 


1.7 


0.30 


2.5 


0.40 


3.3 



The figures given may be assumed to apply at a temperature of 15° C. or 
59° F. Moore and Kellerman state that these should be increased or de- 
creased by about 2.5 per cent for each centigrade degree below or above 
15° C. 

They also state, though with less assurance, that an increase of 2 per cent 
should be made for each ten parts of organic matter per million and an increase 
of 0.5 to 5 per cent for each ten parts per million of alkalinity. A 5 per cent 
increase should be made if the amount of carbonic acid is small. 

Calculating the Volume of Water to he Treated. — Usually the quantity of 
water to be treated is not known exactly, but has to be estimated. The 
following data will assist in making this estimate. 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 439 

The problem is first to find the number of million gallons of water in the 
reservoir. When this has been found, the total quantity of copper sulphate 
required is ascertained by multiplying this by the figure in the last column of 
the preceding table corresponding to the organism that is to be killed. 
This must then be increased or decreased slightly to take account of the 
other factors above mentioned. 

One million gallons of water represents a depth of about 3 ft. over one acre. 
Hence the number of acres of water surface, multiplied by the average depth 
of the water divided by 3 gives approximately the number of million gallons of 
water in the reservoir. In an ordinary reservoir the average depth may be 
taken as about one-third of the maximum depth. 

If the reservoir to be treated is so deep that the lower strata are stagnant 
the calculation should be made to include only the water above and within the 
transition zone. 

Safe Limit for Treating Water to Prevent Killing Fish. — Kellerman recom- 
mends that in order to prevent killing certain fish the following limits should 
be set to the amount of copper sulphate applied to water. 

It will be seen that some of the amounts required for algae destruction are 
critically near the amounts that will kill fish. This explains the need of 
cautious application of this remedy. 

Pounds per 
million gallons 

Fish Parts per million (approximate) 

Trout 0.14 1.2 

Carp 0.30 2.5 

Suckers 0. 30 2.5 

Catfish 0.40 3.5 

Pickerel 0.40 3.5 

Goldfish 0. 50 4.0 

Perch 0.75 6.0 

Sunfish 1.20 10.0 

Black bass 2.10 17.0 

Copper Sulphate as a Disinfectant. — Copper sulphate will destroy bacteria 
if a sufficient quantity is used. The amount required is considerably greater 
than that needed to destroy algae. For killing bacteria copper sulphate is less 
efficient than hypochlorites or liquid chlorine. 

Hypochlorite Treatment for Algce. — Algae may be killed by the use of hypo- 
chlorite, but just as this substance is better than copper sulphate for bacterial 
disinfection so the copper treatment is generally better than hypochlorites 
for the destruction of algae. 

Comparative Costs of Coagulation. — The following matter is given in 
Stein's "Water Purification Plants" (1915). 

Fig. 1 shows the costs of treatment of water by several methods with 
various amounts of coagulant, and also the cost of removing various amounts 
of acids. The cost of chemicals includes freight, unloading and cartage, 
deterioration, and the rehandling in charging the chemical tanks. The costs 
per hundred pounds used were: aluminum sulphate, $1.10; ferrous sulphate, 
$0.70; lime, $0.35; soda ash, $1.00. For large-sized plants these values could 
be reauced. From these curves it is evident that the iron and lime treatment 
is cheapest, followed by alum and natural alkalinity, alum and lime (sufficient 
to produce no CO2), alum and soda ash, while alum and soda ash (no CO2) is 
most expensive. It is also evident that by increasing the amount of lime used 
with the iron, the cost of this process may rise above that of alum and lime. 
The iron-lime treatment is slightly more effective for high turbidities, a fact 



440 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



not brought out by these curves. For acid removal, Ume is by far the cheapest 
reagent. 

Economic Size of Sand Filter Beds (Engineering and Contracting, Aug. 
19, 1914). — The proper size of beds is a question of economical construction. 



eottnW J^d s;TOd ui AlPT^V *0§ H 





TTTr 


rn=Tr 




rm 


1 p l[ 1 [^^'^^^ 


^B^ 


[lll^ 1^^ 


mmm 


P^^^ m^^^ 




;!-i:::::: :+:::' :::::::::;: ::S|:: ;:|::^:g:::::::fe;::| |^^ 


kt\h[M^" 


pIPIII 


m^'^M 


Silflftii^ 


rHnil 


[ 1 [\[[||^y|||j]ii^ 1 Mj]jff|i 1 y[m\\ h4J: 


giffi||M 


._i ...^_i:|:.i: \-^j\- (""T"""^ T^t""'^"""'^"t1" 




:4::::::: :: : ::r : : ::::::±: t :±+ ::::::::::i::±::±::::^±^ ^::: J^ 


S+^S±s-- 


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^SH' 


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ffi^ili"' 


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L| P 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 sj 




n^H"^ 1 




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^^r^===^^^'lli^ = ^= = ^^-r^^#-r^#==^=^¥=^#=^=^^J^=t? 


4=pq: If 4- IE,. 


:sL:: iT^.S^Oin: 1 6-lJ..i-L--Hl- jll . ■! 1 ! , — L.4I..I4. 

ffi;:::;:;|g);g|=:;:|i;i::g:iSSiffl^^:i:;ii 


wSff5±ffl| 


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nUP^H 


J^tiffiS^StfiT^ 


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m 


ft 








p: 


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/ill " 


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^^ 








^^M^ 


rfe 




|:: 


5 


:::::x±;: ^::±:;::±:;:::S:: |^: :: + 


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i 




-xS -^ 




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:::!:i:i::iiiii:l 


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noiiBQ JLOd suiBJO ui pasn ^jubiiiSboo 



The larger the beds the less the cost per acre. Covered beds, which are 
generally used, vary in size from 0.4 to 0.8 acres. 

The following calculation from an article on the purification of public 
water supphes, by C. H. R. Fuller, pubUshed in the Aug. 1914 issue of Apphed 
Science, is of assistance in determining the economical number and size of beds. 
The cost of a filter may be estimated as made up of two items, (1) a portion 







n = — 
Q 


+ 1 








The total cost is 


K = 


Cn -\- c n q 












= 


<t-) 


+ cq\ 


(A 


+ 


1 




= 


CA 

— ■ -^ C + 
q 


cA + 


cq 






We then have 


dK 
dq ~ 


CA 

+ c 










When for a minimum cost 












q2 = 


^A. 











WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 441 

proportional to the area, which would include cost of bottom, filling small 
drains, covers, and end walls, assuming basins rectangular and placed side by 
side, and (2) a portion nearly independent of the size, such as cost of piping, 
valves, valve chamber, division walls, etc. 

Let c = Cost of first portion per acre, 

and C = the cost of the latter portion per filter. 

If q = area of one filter * 

n = number of filters 
A = Total net area required. 
Then, assuming one filter in reserve 

4 

(1) 

(2) 



(3; 



(4) 
c 

Ic 

i. e. the economical area of one filter is proportional to ■\/a and to \/— • 

"C" 

The larger the value of "c," the smaller is "e." The values of will 

c 

hardly be larger than 1/9 or less than 1/16, giving a value of "q" = ^ \/a 

to H s/a. Thus, when A = 9 acres, the capacity q = ^i to 1 acre giving 9 

to 12 beds. Where A = 1 acre, the capacity would be J4 go H acre giving 

3 to 4 beds. Larger beds than 1 acre are undesirable on account of increased 

difficulty of operation. 

Filter beds are usually rectangular and arranged side by side. It is usual 

to place them in two rows with a space between for sand washing, regulating 

houses, etc. The economical proportions of the beds is given by the following 

formula: 

6 _ n + 1 

a 2n 

where 6 = width, a = length, and n = number of beds in a row. 

Cost per Million Gals, of Constructing and Operating Slow and Rapid Sand 
Water Filtration Plants. — Engineering and Contracting, June 17, 1914, pub- 
lishes the following data given in a paper by George A. Johnson before the 1914 
convention of the American Water Works Association. 

Relative Cost of Slow Sand And Rapid Sand Filtration. — In discussing the 
cost of building water filtration works of the slow sand and rapid sand types, 
respectively, consideration will be given only to those items referring to the 
filter plant proper. Cost of land, pumping machinery outside connecting 
piping, intakes, etc., in fact everything outside the filtration plant proper, 
will not be considered. 



442 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



For slow sand filter costs the items will include the necessary filter buildings 
and filters with all appurtenances, all inside piping, sand handling apparatus 
preliminary sedimentation basins, preUminary filters and appurtenances and 
clear water reservoirs. 

For rapid sand filter costs the items will include the filter buildings and 
filters with all appurtenances, all inside piping, filter washing apparatus 
coagulating and clear water basins. Thus a fairly good idea may be had of 
the relative cost of building purification plants of the two types. 

Table II. — Cost of Construction of Slow Sand and Rapid Sand 
Water Filtration Plants 

Present daily Approximate cost 

filtering capacity, per 1,000,000 gals. 

City gals. daily capacity 
Slow sand: 

Albany, N. Y 20,000,000 $20,000* 

Pittsburgh, Pa 200,000,000 26,000* 

Philadelphia, Pa.: 

Torresdale 250,000,000 37,700* 

Upper Roxborough 28 , 000 , 000 29 , 800 

Lower. Roxborough 17,000,000 26,300* 

Belmont 60,000,000 45,200* 

Washington, D. C 100,000,000 30,000t 

Rapid sand: 

Cincinnati, Ohio 112,000,000 11,4001: 

Columbus, Ohio 30,000,000 13,000§ 

Dallas, Texas 15,000,000 13,000 

Harrisburg, Pa 16,000,000 10,300 

Little Falls, N. J 32,000,000 15,000 

Lorain, Ohio 6,000,000 14,000 

New Milford, N. J 24,000,000 11,000 

Watertown, N. Y 8,000,000 11,250 

w«i„v,+o^ o,r^,.o«o= / Slow sand *. $32 , 600 

Weighted averages | ^^^^^ ^^^^ 12 , 100 

* Cost of preliminary filters included, f Cost of Dalecarlia Reservoir not 
included. Cost of McMillan Park Reservoir included, and also cost of remodel- 
ing Georgetown Reservoir, as well as cost of coagulating basin, t Cost of large 
plain sedimentation basin not included. § Cost of softening works not included. 



Table III. — Cost of Operation and Maintenance op Slow Sand and Rapid 
Sand Filtration Plants 

Cost of operation 

Average volume of and maintenance 

water filtered daily, per 1,000,000 gals. 

Year City gals. of water filtered 
Slow sand: 

1911 Albany, N. Y 20,000,000 $2.50 

1912 Pittsburgh, Pa 100,000,000 3.41 

1911 Philadelphia, Pa' 9,000,000 5.62 

1911 Philadelphia, Pa. t • 13,000,000 3.59 

1911 Philadelphia, Pa.t 38,000,000 3.88 

1911 Philadelphia, Pa. § 202,000,000 1.91 

1912 Washington, D. C 62,000,000 4.01 

Rapid sand: 

1912 Cincinnati, Ohio 50,000,000 4.12 

1911 Harrisburg, Pa 9,000,000 3.93 

1912 Little Falls, N. J 30,000,000 3.20 

1912 Louisville, Ky 25,000,000 3.48 

1912 New Orleans, La 16,000,000 6.32 

w^i„v.+^^ o,r^.o,,^ / Slow sand $2. 86 

Weighted average | ^^^^^ ^^^^ 4 q4 

* Lower Roxborough; t Upper Roxborough; t Belmont; § Torresdale, 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 443 

John H. Gregory, who has been personally connected with 7 out of the- 15 
plants mentioned above, gives the following data in a discussion of the paper 
prepared by Mr. Johnson, which was delivered before the same convention. 

Cost of Construction. — It is exceedingly difficult to compare satisfactorily the 
costs of construction of different plants, even where the fullest information 
regarding the same is available. Those who are not well posted as to the 
history of some of the plants cited in the table may possibly be misled as to 
the cost of building both slow and rapid sand filters if they accept the 
figures of the author without full knowledge of local conditions. 

One of the features which very materially affects the cost of such works is 
the total reservoir capacity provided, that is, the combined capacity of the 
settling basins and of the clear water reservoirs. To illustrate: The rapid 
sand filter plant at Little Falls, N. J., which, in the author's table is the most 
expensive one cited, and which cost $15,000 per 1,000,000 gals, daily capacity, 
has a coagulating basin capacity of 1.3 hours and a filtered water reservoir 
capacity of 2.6 hours, or 3.9 hours total reservoir capacity. At Columbus, 
Ohio, the rapid sand filter plant there, which the author states cost $13,000 
per 1,000,000 gals, daily capacity, the next to the highest in cost cited, has a 
settling basin capacity of 12 hours and a filtered water reservoir capacity of 8 
hours, making a total reservoir capacity of 20 hours, or five times as much 
reservoir capacity as that of the Little Falls plant. If the reservoir capacity 
of the Little Falls plant had been approximately that of the Columbus plant 
the cost of construction of the Little Falls plant would have been materially 
increased over that given by the author. Again, the New Orleans rapid sand 
filter plant might be cited, which has 35.2 hours total reservoir capacity, 
or practically nine times as much reservoir capacity as that of the Little Falls 
plant. Other factors which affect the cost of construction are the character of 
the raw water, the rate of filtration, the character of the construction of the 
works, etc. 

In his reference to the Albany slow sand filter plant the author gives its 
capacity as 20,000,000 gals, daily. The Albany plant as originally built before 
the pre-filters were added had a capacity of 15,000,000 gals, daily. The addi- 
tion of the pre-filters increased the capacity of the plant very materially so that 
at the present time the capacity is probably in the neighborhood of 28,000,000 
gals, daily. If the capacity is taken at 28,000,000 instead of 20,000,000 
gals, daily the cost of the plant would be about $14,300 instead of $20,000 per 
1,000,000 gals, daily capacity as given by the. author. 

The Philadelphia slow sand filter plants were expensive plants to build. 
They differ in one way from many of the other filters of the same type that 
have been built in that underneath the filter floors and carried up all around 
the sides of the filter is a layer of puddle. This item alone materially increased 
the cost of construction. The Lower Roxborough and Upper Roxborough 
plants were built on high ground in an isolated section several miles from the 
nearest railroad, and the cost of delivering materials to such plants was higher 
than would ordinarily be the case. 

In the cost of the Lower Roxborough plant the author did not include the 
cost of the Lower Roxborough Reservoir which was built many years before, 
and which supplies settled water to the filter plant. Again, a similar condi- 
tion exists at the Upper Roxborough filter plant with regard to the settling 
basin. The New Roxdorough Reservoir was built some ten years earlier 
than the filter plant, and the author has not included its cost in the cost of 
the filter plant. Strictly speaking, the costs of the reservoirs should be in- 



444 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

eluded in the costs of these two plants so that the figures would be comparable 
with the costs of the other slow sand filters cited. 

The Philadelphia plants were built during a period of very high prices, 
and to use the costs of construction of these plants to indicate the 
reasonable cost of slow sand filters may be very misleading except 
to those who are familiar with the early history of these works and who 
are aware that the costs were high and that the plants could be duplicated at 
less cost. 

The largest slow sand filter plant under construction in America at the 
present time is at Montreal, and, when completed next year, will have a 
capacity of 60,000,000 U. S. gals, daily capacity. The total cost of the plant, 
on the basis of the lump sum contract prices, including the low lift pumping 
station, will be about $22,600 per 1,000,000 gals, daily capacity. Deducting 
the low lift pumping station the cost will probably be about $21,000 per 
1,000,000 gals, daily capacity. 

It would have been interesting if the author had cited the cost of the slow 
sand filter plant which was completed at Toronto about two years ago. This 
plant has a capacity of 48,000,000 U. S. gals, daily, assuming one-sixth of 
the filter area to be held in reserve, and based on a rate of filtration of 6,000,000 
U. S. gals, per acre daily, the rate for which the plant was designed. The cost 
of the plant, omitting the low lift pumping station, was only about $12,700 
per 1,000,000 gals, daily capacity. 

In considering the weighted average cost of slow sand filters given by the 
author, namely, $32,600 per 1,000,000 gals, daily capacity, it may be well to 
bear in mind that the Montreal plant will cost only about $21,000, that the 
Albany plant cost about $14,300 and the Toronto plant only $12,700 per 
1,000,000 gals, daily capacity. 

In referring to the cost of rapid sand filter plants the author cites the Colum- 
bus plant as costing $13,000 per 1,000,000 gals, daily capacity. This plant was 
designed and built under the speaker's direction and is a water-softening as 
well as a rapid sand filter plant. The speaker is not informed as to what 
items the author included in arriving at the cost of the Columbus plant, but 
in the speaker's judgment the Columbus plant, considered as a rapid sand 
filter plant alone, cost nearer $15,000 than $13,000 per 1,000,000 gals, daily 
capacity, the figure given by the author. 

Another rapid sand filter plant which the author might have cited is that at 
Toledo, Ohio. Part of the plant was built for a capacity of 60,000,000 gals, 
daily, although the present capacity of the works is considerably less. In- 
cluding only such items as are chargeable to the filter plant proper the works 
cost about $14,500 per 1,000,000 gals, daily capacity. 

Another rapid sand filter plant which might have been cited is that at 
Grand Rapids, Mich. The plant was completed inside of the last two years 
and has a capacity of 20,000,000 gals, daily. The cost of the plant, as given to 
the speaker by the Grand Rapids officials last year, including such items as are 
chargeable to the filter plant proper, was $16,300 per 1,000,000 gals, daily 
capacity. 

In December, 1912, the city of New York received bids for a rapid sand 
filter plant to be located at Jerome Park Reservoir and having a capacity of 
320,000,000 gals, daily. Taking the lowest bid received and adding to it the 
cost of the buildings and other necessary work, the Jerome Park filter plant, 
which would have been the largest rapid sand filter plant in the world , would 
have cost $18,400 per 1,000,000 gals, daily capacity. When the plant is built, 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 445 

the actual cost will probably be in the neighborhood of $20,000 per 1,000,000 
gals, daily capacity, as much of the excavation for the plant has already 
been completed. 

The author gives the cost of the Cincinnati rapid sand filter plant, which has 
a daily capacity of 112,000,000 gals., as $11,400 per 1,000,000 gals, daily 
capacity, and states that the cost of the large, plain sedimentation basins is 
not included. At Cincinnati there are two large settling basins to which the 
raw water from the Ohio River is pumped. The water is first settled in these 
two basins, and is then delivered to the coagulating basins at the filter plant. 
There is no question in the speaker's mind but that the settling basins are part 
of the filter plant at Cincinnati, but just how much of the cost of the same 
should be chargeable to the filter plant may be a question. Mr. J. W. EUms, 
the superintendent in charge of the filters at Cincinnati, in a paper printed 
in the Journal of the Association of Engineering Societies in January, 1912, 
states : 

The settling reservoirs, which have a capacity of 330,000,000 gals. -of avail- 
able water, are in part a portion of the water purification plant, although they 
also serve the purpose of storage basins and were designed for such a use quite 
as much as they were for sedimentation purposes. 

The two settling basins cost $1,521,000, or about $13,600 per 1,000,000 gals, 
daily capacity of filter plant. Adding this cost to that of the filter plant 
would give a total cost of $25,000 per 1,000,000 gals, daily capacity. As the 
settling basins serve as storage reservoirs also it may be reasonable to charge 
the filter plant with perhaps only half their cost. On this assumption the 
cost of the settling reservoirs chargeable to the filter plant would be $6,800 
per 1,000,000 gals, daily capacity, thus making the total cost of the filter 
plant $18,200 per 1,000,000 gals, daily capacity. 

Still another plant which the author might have cited, and among the best 
in the country, is that at New Orleans, which has a capacity of 40,000,000 gals, 
daily. Including only such items as are chargeable to the filter plant proper 
the cost of the New Orleans plant was about $30,200 per 1,000,000 gals, daily 
capacity. 

The weighted average cost of the Columbus, Toledo, Grand Rapids, 
Cincinnati and New Orleans rapid sand filter plants is $18,600 per 1,000,000 
gals, daily capacity, while the author gives a weighted average cost for rapid 
sand filters as $12,100. In other words, the weighted average cost of the 
five plants just cited, all of which are in operation and which are among the 
best in the country, is over 50 per cent higher than the weighted average cost 
given by the author. 

The speaker has but little further to say on the subject of costs except that, 
in his judgment, the weighted average costs as given by the author are too 
high for slow sand filters and are too low for rapid sand filters. Similarly the 
fixed charges on the costs of construction would respectively be too high for 
slow sand and too low for rapid sand filters. 

The speaker is not presenting any brief for slow sand filters. The rapid 
sand filter is more flexible than the slow sand filter and in the majority of cases 
in the United States is better adapted to the purification of water than is the 
slow sand filter. The slow sand filter has done and is still doing good work 
in this country, and the present status of water purification is, to a large 
extent, due to the introduction of the slow sand filter. 

Relative Cost of Mechanical and Slow Sand Filtration. — The following 
data are arranged from a report to the Commissioner of Works of Toronto, 



446 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Ont. by Allen Hazen, Consulting Engineer, as published in Engineering and 
Contracting, Jan. 15, 1913. 

Mechanical filters Slow sand filters 

Head required for filter operation 10 ft. 5 ft. 

Settling and coagulating basin Required Not required 

Average cost per mil. gals, storage. . . . $12,000^ 

Average cost per mil." gals, daily output 1 , 500 

Filters: 

Average cost American conditions .... $25 per sq. ft.^ 

Probable cost in Toronto $30 per sq. ft. $70,000 per acre^ 

Estimated cost per mil. gals, daily 

capacity $11,500 $14,000 

Pure water and reservoir piping Assumed the same for both types 

of filters 
Cost of construction (exclusive of 
piping) per mil. imperial gals, daily 

capacity^ : $15,000 $14,000 

Cost of operation per mil. imperial gals. 
Additional cost of pumping account 

of greater lift $.30 

Sulphate of alumina, 172 lbs. per 

mil. gals. @ $25 per ton $2.15 

Other costs of operation, including 
superintendence, labor, laboratory 
expenses, repairs, renewals, heat, 
light, drainage, oil waste and pump- 
ing wash water $2. 35 

Total operating cost per mil. imp. 

gals $4.80 $1,835 

Relative efficiency No appreciable difference" 

Notes. — (1) The settling and coagulating basin should be of concrete and 
covered similiar in general design to the filters but with its flow line 5 ft. 
higher, and with the bottom sloped to drains to facilitate cleaning out the 
sludge produced by the action of the chemical on the water. The average 
depth of the basins would be about 15 ft. — Baffles and other appliances would 
be required. 

2. The filter tanks would be of concrete and about 8 ft. deep similiar in 
design to those in use at Cincinnati, Columbus, New Orleans and many other 
places. Mr. Hazen usually allows 430 sq. ft. of net filter area for each million 
Imperial gals, daily capacity. In the case of Toronto the lake water is 
usually clear and of very constant composition, as compared with river 
waters. He assumes 385 sq. ft. of net filter area sufficient. 

3. The actual cost of the existing sand filters was $57,000 per acre, including 
all contingencies. Including 10 per cent for engineering makes the total 
$62,700 a very low cost. Mr. Hazen assumes that the filters may cost 10 per 
cent more or $70,000 per acre. 

Each acre of net filter surface has a nominal capacity of 5,000,000 Imperial 
gals, per day. 

4. Adding the costs of coagulating basin and mechanical filters we have 
$13,000 per 1,000,000 gals, daily capacity. Add to this 15 per cent for 
engineering and contingencies; the total probable cost is $14,950, or say 
$15,000 per 1,000,000 Imperial gals, daily capacity. 

5. Cost of Operation of Sand Filters. — The cost of operating sand filters, 
including superintendence, laboratory expenses, and the cost of pumping 
wash water, but excluding the cost of the main pumping, was estimated at 
$1.83 per 1,000,000 Imperial gals., in a communication to Mr. Rust, the 
former City Engineer, dated Nov. 20, 1908. The records of operation for the 
present year indicated a cost a third less than this, but it must be remembered 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 



447 






that in subsequent years it may be necessary to handle more sand than in the 
first period, when everything is clean, and Mr. Hazen therefore deems it wise 
to use the same figure that he used four years ago. 

6. Relative Cost of Operation. — The estimated costs of operation, excluding 
pumping, per 1,000,000 Imperial gals., are as follows: • 

Mechanical filters $4. 80 

Sand filters . 1.83 

Mechanical filters cost 2^i times as much to operate. This is mainly due 
to the cost of the chemicals required with them. 

Relative Efficiency of Sand and Mechanical Fitters. — Lake Ontario water 
lends itself admirably to the sand filter treatment and excluding the effect 
of hypochlorite, better and more reliable bacterial or hygienic results will be 
obtained by sand filters than can be obtained by mechanical filters. 

From a physical standpoint there is no appreciable difference ; either kind of 
filters will yield water free of color and turbidity and otherwise satisfactory. 

With the systematic use of hypochlorite in the effluents, Mr. Hazen con- 
siders that any difference that there might otherwise be in favor of sand filters 
is eliminated. The hypochlorite treatment conscientiously used can be 
depended upon to correct any falling off in efficiency that there may be with 
filters of either system, and he considers that the results will be satisfactory 
from a hygienic standpoint in either case. 

From the standpoint of certain mechanical uses to which the water may be 
put, and especially with reference to boiler feed water, the sand filters have a 
certain advantage. The hardness in Lake Ontario water is in the form of 
carbonate or temporary hardness. This is the least objectionable form of 
hardness. The use of chemicals in the water changes a certain part of the 
carbonate hardness to sulphate or permanent hardness, and this is more in- 
jurious than the carbonate hardness, especially in boilers. If there were 
other and sufficient reasons for using chemical treatment, it would be recom- 
mended, notwithstanding this condition. In the absence of such reasons, it 
must be recognized that whatever change grows out of the chemical treatment 
tends to make the water less desirable and is to be avoided as far as may be. 

Cost of Water Purification Plants in Illinois. — The following data given in 
Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 11, 1914, are taken from a paper before the 
Western Society of Engineers by Edward Bartow and Paul Hansen, Director 
and Engineer, respectively of the Illinois State Water Survey and published 
in the journal of the society, December, 1913. 

Table IV. — Data on Some Water Purification Plants in Illinois 

Wauke- 
City gan 

Population 18,000 

Source of supply L. 

Michigan 

Ownership M 

Reaction chamber, minutes .... 

Coag. basins, hours 

Filters, M. G. P. D 

Clear well, hours 

Type of plant Sterili- 
zation 

Chemicals used H 

Cost of plant per M. G. D $300 

Legend: A — Alum. L — ^Lime. I — Iron. H- 



Mt. 


Rock 






Carmel 


Island 


Quincy ] 


Decatur 


8,000 


26,000 


37,000 


35,000 


Wabash 


Miss. R. 


Miss. R 


Sanga- 
mon R. 


P 


M 


P 


M 






16.5 


16.0 


2.7 


12.0 


4.6 


4.0 


1.5 


6.0 


6.0 


9.0 


0.75- 


24.0 


0.7 


4.0 


Rapid 


Rapid 


Rapid 


Rapid 


sand 


sand 


sand 


sand 


A-H 


A-H 


A-L-I-H 


A-H 


$6 , 700 


$10,800 


$11,100 


$15,400 



-Hypo. M — Municipal. P— Private. 



448 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Cost of Water Purification and Pumping Plant at Bridgeton, N. J.— The 
following data are given by Henry Ryon in an article published in Engineering 
and Contracting, March 4, 1914. 

The 3,000,000 gal. water filtration and pumping plant at Bridgeton, N. J., 
a city of approximately 15,000 inhabitants, was placed in regular operation on 
Nov. 1, 1913. As shown in Fig. 2, the purification plant consists of concrete 
coagulating basin, rapid sand filters, clear water basin, necessary chemical 
storage and mixing facilities and piping and the pumping plant consists of 
pumping station, coal bunker, pumps and boilers and chimney. 

The 30-in. intake was built of vitrified tile pipe and cost $3.70 per lineal ft. 
complete. The maximum cut on the total length of 8,500 ft. was 14 ft. 




-General plan of Bridgeton, N. J., water works pumping station and 
purification plant. 



The coagulation basin has a capacity of 150,000 gals, or about an hour's 
flow. The filters, each 12 ft. by 14 ft. 6 ins., are arranged in two rows of three 
each on opposite sides of the operating floor and pipe gallery. They are oper- 
ated at the rate of 500,000 gals, per day (120,000,000 gals, per acre per day). 
The clear water basin is located beneath the filters and has a capacity of 
200,000 gals. This basin extends far enough beyond the end of the filter 
house to allow four additional filter units to be built on its roof at some 
future time. 

The cost of the filter plant was as follows: 

Coagulation basin $ 5 , 820 

Filters 17,960 

Clear water basin 13 , 256 

Making the cost of filter plant proper $37,000 or $12,300 per million gals, 
capacity. 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 



449 



The pumping plant consists of two cross compound pumping engines of the 
crank and fly wheel type with capacities of 5,000,000 and 3,000,000 gals, per day 
respectively. The larger pump had been in service at the old pumping station 
for several years. The steam for the pumps is supplied by two 125 h.p. water 
tube boilers and as with the pumps, only one boiler is used at a time, the other 
being held in reserve. 

Under working conditions (average total head about 205 ft.) 430 gals, of 
water are pumped per pound of coal. This includes the coal burned to furnish 
steam for the blower and other small engines at the plant. 




U"C/a^ ^ B-i F il hred wafers , ! . )}Cr/6x/6 rgg ^ _ _ -^^M. H^ 



- 22" ^>t- setvei- 



FiG. 3. — Layout of water filtration plant of Whiting, Ind. 



The cost of the pumping station and equipment was as follows : 

Pumping station $30 , 003 

Coal bunker 3,919 

Pumps and boiler 21 , 934 

Chimney 3 , 020 

A total of $58,876 for the plant or about $19,600 per million gals, capacity 
including duplicate machinery. 

During the period the complete plant has been in operation the cost per 
miUion gals, of water supplied has been $31.40. This figure includes interest 
and sinking fund and maintenance of the distribution mains. 

Cost of Rapid Sand Filtration Plant of Whiting, Ind. — Renville S. Rankin 
describes the filter plant of Whiting, Ind., in Engineering and Contracting, 
Se^t. 10, 1919, from which article the following is taken. 

Fig. 3 shows the general layout of the plant, the capacity of which, based 
upon the filters is 4,000,000 gal. per 24 hours. 
29 



450 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



The dimensions, capacity and operating period on the basis of 4,000,000 gals, 
per day are as follows: 



Item and number of 

units Dimensions, ft. 

Aerator (1) 30 X 48 (in plan) 

Mixing basin (1) 33 X 12 X 5 ft. deeo 

Coagulating basins (2). . 40 X 81 X 16 ft. deep 

Filters (6) 12 X 19. 5 

Filtered water \ 
storage basin (1) i 
Auxiliary filtered 1 
water basin (2) / 

Head house 4 stories 

Pumps 

High service (2) 

(2) 



94 X 91.x 14 ft. deep 
45 X 18 X lift, deep 



Wash water (1) . 



Capacity, gals. 



700,000 
666,000 (each) 

890,000 



5,000,000 
3,000,000 
5,000,000 



Capacity, 
hours 



4.2 



5.3 



The contract cost of the entire work was as follows : 

Entire plant, excepting 5 pumps $179,742 

Pumps 11,845 



Total $191,587 



On the basis of 4,000,000 gals, per day the contract cost (June, 1919) is 
$47,900 per million gals, to which should be added say 15 per cent for engi- 
neering and contingencies making the total $50,300 per million gal&. 

Cost of Rapid Sand Filtration Plant at Columbus, Indiana. — The following 
data, given by Philip Burgess, Consulting Engineer and designer of the plant 
in a paper before the Indiana Sanitary and Water Supply Association at the 
1913 annual convention, are taken from an abstract of the paper published 
in Engineering and Contracting, March 5, 1913. 

Devices for Preparing and Applying the Chemical Solution. — The devices 
provided at Columbus to introduce the alum comprise a concrete dissolving 
tank, two solution storage tanks, two solution pumps, a chemical feed regula- 
tor, a raw water weir box, and all necessary solution piping. 

The chemicals are stored in a room 24 ft. wide by 36 ft. long in which is 
placed also the mixing tank. Beneath the latter are constructed two rein- 
forced concrete solution storage tanks, each 5 ft. 6 ins. by 6 ft. 4 ins. by 8 ft. 
deep, containing 2,080 gals. The solution pumps have a capacity of 10 gals, 
per minute and lift the solution from the tanks into the chemical regulator, 
located in the pipe gallery near the raw water weir box. An overflow carries 
the excess of solution back to the storage tanks. 

Coagulating Basins. — The coagulating basins are two in number, each 106 
ft. 8 ins. long, 78 ft. 6 ins. wide, with an average available depth of 15 ft. 4 ins. 
The basins are built of reinforced concrete and are uncovered. The total 
capacity of the two basins is 955,000 gals., equivalent to 5.7 hours' treatment 
on the basis of 4,000,000 gals, daily capacity. 

Each basin is divided longitudinally by a reinforced concrete baffle into two 
equal compartments so that the length of flow through each basin is 213 ft. 
Consequently, the maximum velocity of flow through the basin is 0.6 ft. per 
minute. 

The basins are designed to operate semicontinuously and there is provided 
a sludge disposal system in each of the first compartments to provide for the 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 451 

removal of sludge without emptying the basins. Each sludge disposal system 
is divided into two sections and comprises 6 lines of 4-in. double strength soil 
pipe drilled with ^-in. holes 30 ins. apart. Each of the four sections dis- 
charges through an 8-in. pipe controlled by an 8-in. quick-opening valve, 
located in the pipe gallery of the filter house. 

For the further removal of sludge and for the complete emptying of the 
basins, there are provided four 8-in. inlets into a 12-in. main drain. 

The inlet to each basin is a 16-in. cast iron pipe leading from the raw water 
weir box to the center of the first compartment and controlled by a gate valve 
located in the pipe gallery. Each basin discharges at the top through 15 4-in. 
round openings extending across t'he entire section of the compartment and 
leading into a reinforced concrete trough in the pipe gallery. A 16-in. pipe 
with four 12-in. branches carries the treated water to the filters. 

Filters. — The filters are four in number, each 29 ft. 9 ins. by 20 ft. 10 ins. 
by 10 ft. 6 ins. deep. The- tanks were built monolithically of reinforced 
concrete. Each is divided into two sections by a central gutter 18 ins. 
wide. Each filter has a total sand area of 350 sq. ft. and a nominal capacity of 
1,035,000 gals, when operated at a rate of 125,000,000 gals, per acre daily. 

Probably the most important feature in the design of any rapid filter is the 
method provided for washing. The principal adopted at Columbus is that 
developed by Mr. Ellms at Cincinnati and is based on an upward flow of 
wash water at a rate of 24 ins. rise per minute. No agitation other than the 
high rate of washing is provided. 

The strainer systems comprise concrete channels 12 ins. apart covered with 
perforated brass plates and are of a design similar to that developed at Cincin- 
nati except that the concrete channels extend laterally insetad of longitudi- 
nally across the tanks. Beneath the central gutter of each filter is a main 
effluent channel of reinforced concrete 18 ins. square and the discharge from 
this main channel is through 42 2-in. wrought iron nipples extending into each 
channel of the strainer system. 

Clear Well. — The clear well is constructed beside the coagulating basins and 
is a rectangular reinforced concrete tank covered with a concrete slab roof. 
It is 110 ft. 3 ins. long by 47 ft. wide and has an available depth of 14 ft Its 
total capacity is 534,000 gals, and in order to make the entire storage available, 
the inlet to the discharge pipe is placed in a sump 4 ft. by 3 ft. deep. When 
the plant is operated at full capacity the period of storage available in the 
clear well is 3.5 hours, and the elevation of high water in the clear well is such 
that there is a minimum available head of 9 ft. on the filters. 

Filtered water is conveyed from the clear well to the present pumping sta- 
tion through a 20-in. cast iron suction line, approximately 470 ft. long, con- 
structed at large expense, because the trench is for a considerable distance 
over 20 ft. deep. 

In order to furnish the required quantity of wash water, there is provided a 
60,000-gal. steel tank and tower supplied by a 2-in. connection to a 4-in main 
of the distribution system. The bottom of the tank is 18.4 ft. above the 
gutters in the filters. The tank is of the so-called "railroad" type with an 
elliptical bottom and a 4-in. riser pipe. In order to maintain a constant 
depth of water in the tank and to prevent its overflow, an automatic altitude- 
controlling valve is provided in the 2-in. supply line. 

Cost of Construction of Purification Plant. — The contract for the filter plant 
was awarded in July, 1912. In the following table are shown the costs of the 
several items comprising the work: 



452 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



1. Coagulating basins, filters, pipe gallery, chemical laboratory, and 

office building, filter building together with, all necessary inside 

pipes, valves, etc $38 , 454 

2. Clear well, complete 6 , 600 

3. All outside cast iron and tile pipe lines, including raw water force 

main, high service suction, main wash water line, and all drains. . 7,700 

4. 60,000 gal. steel tank and tower furnished and erected by the Chicago 

Bridge & Iron Works 2, 150 

5. Raw water pump house, including foundations and erection of the 

raw water pumps and changes in present suction lines 2,713 



Total contract price $57 , 617 

The raw water pumps each of which has a capacity of 4,000,000 gals, daily 
against a maximum lift of 55 ft., are a centrifugal motor-driven pump with a 



/-' -W i/ \ \ / 

/'' ///.■ .'/ Prdposeel / 
// ;/f/ /Settling 6asln4 



/ / // ,'.''/ /oeiiiing Dosm* > ; 

/ / // /iA. \ k. % 

/ / ./''' #" MXi \ P 




■ / / i* TNew§oilerHousejVy-fi WT 1 Jewell RIters I \ 



.Old EngineMouse 



3 „cQId Boiler House ! \ ' 



'Drain Well ^/., 

\j^iyashii'of^rTar,Jf /\^^^ 



/ f 

Fig. 4. — Quindaro station of Kansas City, Kan., Water Works. 

guaranteed combined efficiency of 65.5 per cent and cost $940, and a centri- 
fugal steam turbine-driven pump with a guaranteed duty of 36,500,000 ft.- 
Ibs. when operated non-condensing, and of 64,600,000 ft.-lbs. when operating 
condensing, and cost $1,228. 

Cost of New Plant for the Purification of the Water Supply Kansas City, 
Kansas. — Engineering Record, Jan. 27, 1912, gives the following cost of con- 
structing the new 6,000,000 gal. rapid sand water purification plant of Kansas 
City, The work was done by contract in connection with the relhabilitating 
of the waterworks system purchased by the city from the Metropolitan Water 
Co. 

Fig. 4 shows the general layout of the entire station and includes both the 
original plant and the additions, the costs of which follow. 

Without going into the details the costs of the new pumping station and 
pumping station equipment were as follows: 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 453 

Pumping Station 

Pump house basement 60 X 120 ft. (21 ft. deep) $ 25,922. 83 

Boiler house foundation, 50 X 108 ft 6,035. 00 

Stack foundation 977. 00 

Pump house and boiler, house 48,748. 17 

Chimney 5,089.00 

Steel supports to floor 1 , 855. 43 

Tile floor 2,241.13 

Grading about station 1 , 667. 36 

$ 92,535.92 
Pumping Station Equipment 

Snow steam pump, 12,000,000 gals, daily $ 38,595. 00 

Strait pumping engine, 15,000,000 gals, daily 18,600. 00 

Turbo generators, two at 70 kw. each 5,943. 84 

Turbo generator condensers 800. 00 

Boilers, two at 600 hp. each 27,007. 00 

Snow pump foundation 1 , 334. 02 

Strait pump and turbo generator foundations 1,923. 60 

Boiler foundations 719. 40 

Switchboard and electric wiring 3,937. 79 

Steam piping 4 , 793. 19 

Miscellaneous labor in and about the pump house and in installing 

steam pipes and small water pipes 3 , 355. 40 

Miscellaneous material, piping, fittings and similar materials 2, 117. 70 

$109,126.94 

Inadequate settling facilities provided for the old filters (5,000,000 gals, 
rated capacity) by the two steel tanks 50-ft. in diameter and 25-ft. high 
necessitated building the new settling basins large enough to give preliminary 
treatment for both the old and new filters. 

Settling Basins. — Each basin is 200 ft. long, 30 ft. wide and 25 ft. deep at 
the middle and 23 ft. deep at the ends, constructed of reinforced concrete. 
The basins have a combined storage capacity of 3,000,000 gals, and an esti- 
mated operating capacity of 12,000,000 gals, per twenty-four hours. They 
were designed to operate in series but may also be operated in parallel or 
separately if condition of raw water makes such operation desirable. 

Filters. — The filters are of reinforced-concrete construction throughout, 
consisting of five tanks 32 ft. long, 12 ft. deep and 20 ft. 3 in. wide out to out 
measurements, each tank containing a sand area of 480 sq. ft. and possessing 
a moderate daily filtering capacity of 1,250,000 gals, or 6,250,000 gals, in the 
aggregate. 

The cast-iron filter connections have been provided of such a size that addi- 
tional units can be added to an ultimate capacity of 20,000,000 gals, per day. 

No air is used, but the wash water is applied at the rate of 30 in. vertical 
rise per minute for an average of about 5 minutes until the water begins to 
run clear over the weir edges. With the Missouri River water and a high rate 
wash, the end point is very sharply defined. 

Immediately under the filters is a clear-water basin 13 ft. in depth with a 
heavily reinforced-concrete 15-in. roof supported by reinforced-concrete 
columns which in turn rest upon an 18-in. floor slab extending entirely under 
the clear- water basin and pipe gallery. It is heavily reinforced with steel 
rods to distribute the pressures uniformly over the ground. The filters 
rest directly upon the roof of the clear-water basin and its supporting columns 
and beams. In addition to the 240,000-gal. storage under the filters there is 
about 70,000-gal. storage under the settling basin head house. 

An elevated steel wash-water tank, holding 60,000 gals., built by the Chicago 



454 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Bridge & Iron Company, is supplied by an 8-in. motor-driven centrifugal pump. 
Running at 1700 r.p.m., this pump has a rated discharge of 1500 gal. per min- 
ute. The pump discharge pipe is connected into one end of the wash-water 
line in the pipe gallery. The other end discharges into the wash- water tank. 
The high water line is 43 ft. above the gutter weirs in the filters. 

Cost of the settling basins per 1,000,000 gals, of storage capacity is about 
$24,000 or about $6,000 per 1,000,000 gal. of estimated operating capacity. 
In the item " Valves and sluice gates" are included many valves for the " Out- 
side pipe lines" and other improvements, but "Outside pipe lines " include 
material for the settling basins so the two items tend to offset each other. On 
the basis of a 6,000,000-gal. plant, the filters, filter house, electrical equip- 
ment and drain well cost $14,620 per 1,000,000 gals. 

Settling Basin 

Concrete work $51 , 500. 00 

Valves and sluice gates 10 , 000 , 00 

Head house 5 , 760. 00 

Booster pumps and pipe connections 3, 376. 28 

Miscellaneous work 1 , 21 1 . 52 



$71,847.80 
Mechanical Filtjers and Drain Well 

Material for filters ; $21 ,981. 51 

Labor on filters 30 , 521 . 80 

Filter house and drain well house 5 , 570. 00 

Floats and gages 222 . 45 

Strainers and screens 2 , 588. 00 

Lead for pipe laying 459. 58 

Pipe and specials 9 , 080. 30 

Controllers 2 , 000. 00 

Wash-water tank 3 , 400. 00 

Valves 4 , 298. 00 

Labor on drain well and wash- water tank foundations 1 , 706. 60 

Booster pumps 2 , 784. 25 

Electric wiring, filter house and settling basin 3, 115. 00 

$87,727.49 

Work was commenced in the fall of 1910 and the filter constructed complete 
in the latter part of July, 1911. The concrete work was continued throughout 
the winter months, provision having been made for the heating of all sand and 
water. 

Cost of Water Purification Plant of Great Falls, Mont. — The plant, de- 
scribed, at length, in Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 9, 1918, from which the 
following is taken, consists of a mixing chamber, settling basins and mechan- 
ical filters. The capacity of the plant is 12,000,000 gals, per day and the cost 
was approximately $225,000, or $18,750 per million gals, per day of capacity, 
including the entire water purification and softening plant, the low service 
pumping station, real estate, engineering and supervision. 

Operating at rate of 12,000,000 gals, per day the time of treatment is as 
follows : 

Mixing chamber 1,660 ft. travel 36 minutes 

Settling basins 465 ft. travel 8 hours 

The thorough mixing and long period for settling result in an exceptionally 
clear water before it reaches the filters and allows of a saving in chemicals 
which within a short time will pay for the increased cost. Other savings due 
to the use of the large mixing chamber are, no lime is required for precipitation 
of the sediment in the water and since the water is exceptionally clean when 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 



455 



it passes onto the sand beds less frequent washings are required to keep the 
filters in condition. 

The filters are arranged in eight units of 1,500,000 gals, capacity each. The 
entire plant is housed in a reinforced concrete structure with brick walls 
above floor level. All of the chemicals are fed by dry feed machines which 
are regulated to feed the chemicals in proportion to the water pumped. 




Fig. 5. — General plan of water purification works at Columbus, Ohio. 

Some Costs of the Water Purification Works at Columbus, Ohio. — The 
following data are given in Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 9, 1910, and 
are from a paper by John H. Gregory in Proc. Am. Soc. of C. E., Vol. XXXVI, 
1910. 

The pumping station and purification works are designed for extension to 
sm ultimate net normal capacity of 40,000,000 gals, per 24 hours. At present 
the pumping station has a net normal capacity of 20,000,000 gals, per 24 
hours, but the building is of sufficient size for equipment having the ultimate 
net normal capacity. The purification works at present have a net normal 
capacity of 30,000,000 gals, per 24 hours, but have been arranged so that 
extensions may readily be made. 



456 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Fig. 5 is a general plan of the works. All building walls are of brick covered 
with red pressed brick; floors, stairways, etc., are of reinforced concrete. Roof 
trusses are steel, the covering being of slate laid on 3-in. hollow terra cotta 
block. 

In the construction of the work, concrete, both plain and reinforced, was 
used extensively, the total quantity in the pumping station, purification works 
and adjacent structures amounting to 39,560 cu. yds. The average price paid 
for the above amount was $7.27 per cu. yd. The relative volumes of cement, 
sand and ballast in each mixture of concrete, and the corresponding character 
of work in which the mixture was used, were as follows: 

1:2:4. — Water-tables, belt-courses, window-sills, lintels, etc.; filter, solution 
dissolving, and wash- water tanks; reinforced floors, roofs, stairways, and 
steps. 

1: 2}4' 5>^. — Columns in buildings and piers of wash- water tank; filtered-water 
reservoirs, lime saturators, mixing tanks, and substructure of head-house; 
settling basins, except lateral dividing and baffle walls; walls in general, 
conduits, and miscellaneous small structures. 

1:3: 7. — Lateral dividing and baffle walls of settling basins; footings, and founda- 
tions for machinery and chimney. 

The filter gallery is in the wing of the main building east of the head-house, 
with the filter tanks ranged on either side of the gallery and supported on the 
roof of the filtered-water reservoirs. Between the filters there is a reinforced 
concrete operating floor, below which, and between the walls of the filtered- 
water reservoirs, is the pipe gallery. 

The present installation includes ten filters, each having a normal capacity 
of 3,000,000 gals, per 24 hours. The filter tanks are of concrete heavily 
reinforced, each being constructed as a monolith. Their inside dimensions are 
26 ft. 2 ins. wide, 46 ft. 8 ins. long, 8 ft. 10>^ ins. deep at the center. Each has 
a net filtering area of 1,088.9 sq. ft., or 0.025 acre. The filters are designed on 
the basis of a normal rate of filtration of 2 gals, per sq. ft. per min., but can be 
operated at a rate 50 per cent greater than the normal, if desired. The filter- 
ing material consists of 2 ft. 6 ins. of selected sand upon 10-ins. of gravel graded 
from Ke to 1-in. the finer material being at the top. 

The purification works were placed under contract in June, 1905, the ma- 
chinery and equipment for the pumping station in September, 1905, the 
pumping station and connection in July, 1906, and the force mains connecting 
with the city in October, 1907. Raw water was first pumped to the purifica- 
tion works on July 2, 1908, and on Aug. 17, 1908, a partial supply of filtered 
water was begun. 

The cost of the entire works is summarized in Table V and unit costs are 
given in Table VI. 

Table V.— Summary of Cost 

Land $ 48,410 

Work, exclusive of pumping station and water purification works. . 76 , 490 

Pumping station 399 , 240 

Water purification works 532 , 480 

Total cost of works, exclusive of connections to city and exclusive 

of engineering $1 , 056 , 620 

Connections to city '* 181 , 000 

Total cost exclusive of engineering $1 , 237 , 620 

Engineering * 95 , 950 

Total cost $1,333,570 

* The cost of engineering worlc, was $95,950, divided as follows: Payroll, 
$84,340; supplies, $6,120; expenses, $5,490, amounting to 7.75 per cent of the cost. 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 



457 



Table VI. — Unit Cost op Main Features of Work 



Work Capacity 
* Pumping station building, per cu. 

ft 1,273,300 cu. ft. 

t Main buildings, water purification 

works, per cu. ft 534 , 000 cu. ft. 

Settling basins, per 1,000,000 gals ... 15 , 000 , 000 gals. 
Lime saturators, per 1,000,000 gals. 

per 24 hrs 6,750,000 gals. 

per 24 hrs. 

Mixing tanks, per 1,000,000 gals .... 1 , 270 , 000 gals. 
Filtered-water reservoirs, per 

1,000,000 gals 10 , 000 , 000 gals. 

Water Purification Works 



Settling basins 

Head-house 

Air- wash equipment 

Lime-saturator house 

Mixing tanks 

Storage house 1 30,000,000 gals. 

Office and laboratory per 24 hrs. 

Filter gallery 

Filtered-water reservoirs _ 

Wash-water tank, pipe, and sHelter. 
Supplies for preliminary operation . . 
Expenses unclassified J 

Total $532 , 480 $17 , 750 

* Includes superstructure and substructure of building, 
t Includes superstructure of head-house, saturator house, storage house, office 
and laboratory and ffiter gallery. 

Comparative Costs of Constructing Cincinnati and Columbus Purification 
Plants. — In the discussion of the paper presented by John H. Gregory (data 
from which are given in the preceding article) J. W. EUms, Supt. Cincinnati 
Filtration Plant presents the following statement in Proc. A. S. C. E., Vol. 
XXXVI (1910) and reprinted in Engineering and Contracting, Mar. 30, 1910. 

Table VII shows the costs of construction of the Cincinnati filtration 
plant. 

Table VII. — Total and Unit Costs of Main Features of Work Done in 
Construction of Water Purification Works at Cincinnati, Ohio 
(Capacity of Plant: 112,000,000 Gals, in 24 Hours) 

Cost per million 
gallons of 
capacity for 

24 hours 
$ 297.85 



Total 


Unit 


cost 


cost 


$128,490 


$ 0. 101 


49,070 


0.092 


168,770 


11,250 


24,410 


3,620 


44,230 


34,800 


98,300 


9,830 




Unit cost 




per 




million 




gals, per 




24 hrs. 


$168,770 


$ 5,630 


39,660 


1,320 


3,470 


120 


32,550 


1,080 


44 , 230 


1,470 


12,880 


430 


15,280 


510 


102,710 


3,420 


98,300 


3,280 


13,150 


440 


460 


20 


1,020 


30 



Work Total cost 

Preparation of grounds $ 33 , 359. 67 

Pipe lines between settling reservoirs and 

head-house 55,354. 77 494. 24 

Head and chemical house 144 , 989 ,85 1 , 267. 77 

Coagulation basins, gate houses and pipe 

lines 304,913.05 2,722.44 

Filters, filter house, piping, sand and gravel. . . 592, 112, 30 5,286. 71 
Piping, valves and gate-house between filters 

and clear-water reservoir 29,701. 91 265. 20 

Clear-water reservoir 121 ,362. 39 1 ,083. 59 

$11,417.80 



Total $1,278,793.94 



458 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

At Columbus, the unit costs per million gallons of capacity in 24 hours appear 
to be considerably greater for the settling basins and mixing tanks combined, 
than for the coagulation basins at Cincinnati. The figures for the Columbus 
tanks and basins are $7,100 per million gallons of capacity, as compared with 
$2,722 at Cincinnati. In a general way, these parts of the two plants corre- 
spond; but at Columbus more elaborate baffling of tanks and basins, more 
divisions of the flow of the raw and treated waters, and more places for the 
primary and secondary applications of chemical solutions were needed and 
provided for, than were required at Cincinnati. The greater combined 
unit costs of the headhouse, lime-saturator house, storage-house, wash-water 
tank, offices and laboratories at Columbus, than for the corresponding 
head-house, chemical-house, wash-water tank, offices, and laboratories at 
Cincinnati, are similarly explained by the necessity for designing a plant for 
softening, ^s well as for clarifying and purifying the water. The combined 
unit costs for the items noted above for the Columbus plant amount to 
$3,784, as compared with $1,268 for the Cincinnati plant. 

The filters and piping in the Cincinnati plant cost more per million gallons 
of capacity than did those at Columbus. The figures for Columbus, which 
include the air-washing equipment, are $3,540, as compared with $5,287 for 
Cincinnati. However, the filtered-water reservoir at Columbus cost more 
than that at Cincinnati. The figures for the Columbus plant are $3,280 per 
million gallons, and for the Cincinnati plant, $1,084. At the latter plant, the 
clear-water reservoir is a separate uncovered reservoir, while at Columbus, it 
is directly under the filter tanks, which latter form a protecting roof. Vir- 
tually, no great difference in costs exists, if the cost of the filters, piping, and 
clear-water reservoir of each plant be combined and then compared. 

The cost per million gallons of capacity for the whole purification plant at 
Columbus is stated to be $17,750, which amount does not include engineering; 
the corresponding figure for the Cincinnati plant, as shown above, is $11,418, 
and this also excludes the cost of engineering. The difference of more than 
$6,000 per million gallons capacity is doubtless due to the additional require- 
ment demanded by the local conditions at Columbus, that is, for the softening 
of a very hard water, and one which is at times subject to rapid fluctuations 
in its physical characteristics. 

Costs of Slow Sand Water Filtration Plant at Toronto, Ont. — The following 
data are taken from an abstract published in Engineering and Contracting, 
Nov. 19, 1913, of a paper by Francis F. Longley before the Canadian Society 
of Civil Engineers. 

The filtration plant with a daily capacity of 40,000,000 Imp. gals., consists 
of the pumping station and equipment, 12 filters, each 117 ft. by 312 ft. 
arranged symmetrically on either side of the regulating equipment, sand 
bins, etc., and a pure water reservoir 312 ft. square with a capacity of 7,575,000 
Imp. gals. 

The filters are built of concrete with inverted groined arch floor and groined 
arch roof. The rate of filtration assumed in the design of the plant was 
6,000,000 U. S. gals, per acre per day which with the relatively clear water of 
Lake Ontario is justified by experience as being fair, although much higher 
than that ordinarily used. 

Most of the filter and reservoir excavation was made by means of slip 
scrapers and wheel scrapers and moved direct to the spoil banks. A con- 
siderable part, however, was dumped from the scrapers through a trap into 
cars, and these cars were hauled across the site and dumped for fill on top of the 



WA TER-TREA TMENT PLANTS . 459 

finished filter masonry. The fill on top of 'the filters was finished with 6 ins. 
of clay, the slopes sodded, and the tops and other unsodded portions grass 
seeded. 

Sand and gravel were obtained in large part on or near the site, the work 
being on an island only a few hundred feet from Lake Ontario. 

The equipment for cleaning the filters and recovering and replacing the 
sand consists in general of the following parts: A piping system to carry 
water under pressure into the filters and to the sand washers, and to carry 
the slush of sand and water in the ejecting and washing processes from the 
filters to the washers and from the washers to the sand bins; centrifugal 
pumps in duplicate in the pumping station for supplying water for this pur- 
pose; movable ejectors of suitable design for ejecting the dirty sand from the 
filters; the sand washers in the court; the sand bins for the storage of clean 
sand, and the appliances for replacing sand in the filters. 

The sand storage bins are four circular tanks of reinforced concrete, the 
bottom of each being in the shape of an inverted Cone. Each of these tanks 
lias a diameter of 34 ft., a depth of 16>^ ft. above the base of the cone and a 
capacity of about 600 cu. yds. The conical bottoms of the bins were placed 
first and included complete arrangements of piping and perforated brass plates 
and screens for the prompt draining of the water from the sand. 

Cost of the Works. — Soon after July 1, 1912, an analysis of all expenditures 
on this work was made from the figures given in the accountant's books. For 
all work still to be done at that date, as accurate an estimate as possible was 
made of the cost, and the approximate total cost of the work made up on that 
basis. 

Analysis op Cost of Toronto Filtration Plant 

Filters and Appurtenances — 

Drainage during construction $ 18, 628. 00 

Excavation, 90,367 cu. yds. at 21 cts 18,977. 07 

Excavation, 2,897 cu. yds. at 63 cts 1 , 825. 11 

General fill, 75,517 cu. yds. at 22 cts 16,613. 74 

Clay fill, 10,185 cu. yds. at $1.50 15,277. 50 

Sodding, 4,920 sq. yds. a.t 25 cts 1 , 230. 00 

Concrete — 

Floors and walls, 17,641.4 cu. yds. at $6.35 $112,030. 75 

Piers, vaulting, 13,209. 4 cu. yds. at $8.80 116,247. 12 

C. I. manholes and covers in place 9 , 865. 00 

Steel reinforcing 2 , 722. 24 

Filter roof drainage 836. 00 

Filter masonry complete 241 , 701 . 1 1 

Concrete pipe system 21 , 942. 28 

72-in. Venturi meter, main supply 2 , 133. 84 

Filter gravel, 11,436 cu. yds. at $1.50 17, 154. 00 

Filter sand, 56,707 cu. yds. at $1.10 62,377. 70 

4 sand storage bins 9,363. 36 

7 sand washers .• 2 , 268. 05 

Sand washer pipe system ' 16 , 609. 41 

Sand ejectors, hose, etc -. 566. 41 

Cast iron pipe lines 19 , 600. 18 

Filter meters, gages, etc 6 , 750 . 63 

Exterior drainage system, vitrified pipe. . ; 2, 555. 29 

Surface drainage system 500. 00 

Electric duct system in court 1 , 398. 96 

Electric lighting, outside 300. 00 

Electric lighting, in filters 700. 00 

Tile underdrains in filters 6 , 090. 00 

Concrete sidewalks 1 , 250. 00 

2 regulator houses, complete 8, 564. 82 

7 entrance houses, complete 7 , 670. 39 



460 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Office and laboratory building 12,420. 66 

Office and laboratory equipment 3,063. 85 

Castings for additional 72-in. Venturi meter 385. 00 

Manhole extensions on 6 ft. steel pipe 563. 25 

Items properly chargeable to maintenance prior to Jan. 1, 1912 .... 10,251. 31 

Miscellaneous 17, 175, 58 

Total cost of 12 filters $545,907. 50 

Pure Water Reservoir — 

Drainage during construction., 4,000. 00 

Excavation, 21,500 cu. yds. at 21 cts 4 , 515. 00 

Fill, 17,000 cu. yds. at 22 cts 3 , 740. 00 

Fill, 8,323 cu. yds. at 30 cts 2 , 496. 90 

Clay fill, 2,346 cu. yds. at $1.50 3 , 519. 00 

Sodding, 1,062 cu. yds. at 25 cts 265. 50 

Entrance houses 1 , 261 . 90 

Concrete — 

Floors and walls, 4,040.8 cu. yds. at $6.23 $ 25,650. 00 

Piers and vaulting, 2,832.5 cu. yds. at $8.80 24,920. 00 

Cast iron manholes, in place 617. 60 

Steel reinforcing \ 46. 36 

Outlet to 72-in. steel pipe 815. 63 

Reservoir masonry complete 52,049. 59 

Miscellaneous 774. 11 

Total cost of pure water reservoir $ 72 . 622 . 00 

Pumping Station — 
Building, including structure $ 24 , 625. 12 

Machinery — 

3 screw pumps (8 ft. lift) $ 9 , 946. 90 

48-in. steam pump (tandem compound Corliss) 9,290. 32 

2 sand washer pumps (8-in. centrifugal) 5,234. 00 

1 drainage pump (12-in. centrifugal) 1,675. 00 

2 boilers (100 hp fire tube) 2,911. 69 

Priming pump, complete 595. 00 

Crane 1,110.00 

2 Venturi meter registers 894 . 00 

Total machinery 31 , 656. 91 

Coal bin (52 X 39 X 10 ft. deep) 3,402. 93 

Chimney 1 , 687. 28 

Gate valves and sluice gates 4,932. 11 

Cast iron pipes and specials 2 , 729. 96 

Steam piping, electric conduit work, Island supply and miscella- 
neous 17, 148. 57 

Checker plates, in place r- 500. 00 

Coal during construction 4 , 237. 82 

$ 90,920.70 
Engineering and Inspection — 

General plans, specifications and supervision $ 29, 650. 00 

Construction, office force 26, 810. 00 

Inspection * 15 , 609. 00 

$ 72,069.00 
Summary — 

12 filters, complete $545,907. 50 

Pure water reservoir, complete 72 , 622. 00 

Pumping station and equipment 90,920. 70 

Engineering and inspection 72,069. 00 

Total cost of work $781 , 519. 20 

Approximately $14,500 of the above amount is fairly chargeable to improve- 
ments in the Island Supply, for which no special funds were provided. 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 461 

Approximately $10,250 is fairly chargeable to maintenance, prior to Jan. 1, 
1912, during which time there was no special fund for that purpose. 

Percentage for engineering and inspection 10. 2 

Cost per acre for filters $58,000 

Cost per 1,000,000 gals, for reservoir 9,700 

The total expenditures and outstanding accounts, as shown by the ac- 
countant's books about Dec. 1, 1912, amounted to approximately $783,400. 
Practically all construction work was at that time completed, and it is appar- 
ent, therefore, that the analysis given above was reasonably complete and 
accurate, and show satisfactorily the relative costs of the different parts of 
the work. 

Construction and Operating Costs of Filters of the Pressure Type at New 
Canaan, Conn. — The following matter taken from an abstract, of a paper by 
Kenneth W. Leighton before the 1914 annual meeting of the Connecticut 
Society of Civil Engineers, was published in Engineering and Contracting, 
Aug. 5, 1914. 

Excavation for the foundation of the building was started May 13, 1913, 
and water was turned through the filters on July 1, 1913. The filter plant was 
located so that the line of the old 12-in. supply main came about 2 ft. inside 
of the east wall of the building. About 80 ft. of this old supply main had to 
be taken up in order to insert the Venturi meter and branches for the filters. 
As this 12-in. main forms the only supply for the town, a temporary 6-in. pipe 
was tapped in below the filter plant and run to a notch cut in the concrete 
spillway of the dam. 

The filter plant proper consists of four filters, each capable of filtering 
250,000 gals, in 24 hours. This amount is based on 2 gals, per minute per 
square foot of horizontal filtering area. This arrangement provides sufficient 
filtered water for washing one filter while the other three are in use, and also 
allows for f ut are growth in consumption. The consumption for short periods 
has run as high as 600,000 gals, per 24 hours. 

The filters are of the Continental Jewell type and consist of steel tanks 
10 ft. in diameter and about 7 ft. high with convex tops and bottoms. Just 
above the convex portion of the bottom are placed a series of bronze strainers, 
about 200 in number. The slits in these strainers are so small that the sand 
or gravel cannot get through them. The bottom of the tank is concreted 
in up to the strainers. Above the strainers is a 9-in. layer of gravel H to ^ 
in. in size. Above the gravel is a 30-in. layer of sand. From the top of the 
sand to the top of the tank there is just room for a man to get in and move 
around uncomfortably. A section of one unit is shown in Fig. 6. 

Before the water reaches the filters some of it is forced by a back pressure 
valve through either one of two tanks, each containing about 100 lbs. of alum. 
A certain amount of the alum is dissolved and carried back into the supply 
main. The alum unites with a portion of the alkali in the water, forming a 
flaky precipitate of aluminum hydroxide which serves to entangle small 
particles and coloring matter and to make a coating on top of the sand. 
One grain of alum per gallon will use up about eight parts of alkalinity per 
million, so that if the water is deficient in alkalinity some alkali, such as 
sodium carbonate, would have to be added. 

In seven months there has been used 4>^ tons of alum, and 47,596,000 gals, 
of water have been filtered, making l^f o grains of alum per gallon of water. 
It is very likely that this can be reduced somewhat before long. 



462 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



The water, on entering at the top of the filter unit, is deflected by a baffle 
plate, thus spreading it evenly over the top of the bed. In going through the 
filters, there is a loss in pressure of from 2 to 4 lbs. When it reaches the latter 
figure it is time to wash. The filters are washed at least once a day, even if 
the loss in pressure does not reach 4 lbs. The filters are of the sectional wash 
type and only one-third of a unit is washed at a time. This gives greater 
pressure and tends to keep the water from burrowing through the filtering 
material. The washing is done by reversing the flow of water. The washing 
of a unit takes about 15 minutes, unless the bed is exceptionally dirty. 

When the reservoir is low the filters are washed by using the 10,000-gal. 
clear water tank and the pump. The pump is a 5-in. suction, 5-in. discharge, 
Kingsford centrifugal pump coupled to a 10-h.p Westinghouse induction 
motor. The clear water tank holds enough to wash approximately two filter 
units. The water used for washing is about 5 per cent of the total water 
consumed during 24 hours. After passing through the filters, the water is 
measured by a Venturi meter, which records the rate of flow every 10 minutes 
and the total amount in gallons. 




bt*-Saff/e Plate 
-r.Li'JlQP.Qf£LLterB£_d 

b Sand 

'?- 10^0 - 

• Course Grq\/el Line-'-\^ 
Fine Gravel Line-'^JC'v^^froFners^;^ 
»^ ^ylTX ^TV .~:^' 




Fig. 6. — Section of filter unit, pressure filters, New Canaan, Conn. 



The building is heated by an ordinary round station stove with about a 
20-in. fire pot, and will burn about 5 tons of coal during the winter. 

The efficiency of the plant is indicated by the comparative analyses of the 
raw water in past years and of the filtered water at the present. An examina- 
tion of the raw water analyses made at monthly intervals from December, 
1911, to June, 1913, shows that the color ranged from 28 to 96 parts per 
miUion, the turbidity from 1 p. p. m. to 60 p. p. m. and the alkalinity from 
7 p. p. m. to 25 p. p. m. During the same period the odor has been char- 
acterized as grassy, faint, faint peaty, or distinct peaty, and the color of the 
sediment has been termed slight brown, slight gray or dark brown. The last 
analysis of the filtered water by the State Board of Health is as follows: 
Color, 0; turbidity, 0; nitrates, 0; free ammonia, 0; odor, 0; sediment, 0; 
chlorine, only 0.1 above normal; hardness, 32.68 (less than 60 is considered 
soft water); bacteria; 175 per c.c, no suspicious ones. 

Construction and Operation Cost Data. — The following tabulation gives the 
approximate cost of the filter plant, the estimated cost of operating for a 
month, and the cost per 1,000,000 gals, of water: 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 463 

Cost of filter plant: 

Building $ 6,000.00 

Filters 12 , 500. 00 

Venturi-meter 600. 00 

Miscellaneous 1 ,900. 00 

$21,000.00 
Cost of operating per month: 

Attendants' salary $ 65. 00 

Power (minimum charge) 10. 00 

Light .50 

Telephone 4. 50 

Compensation insurance . 1 . 00 

Coal 3. 30 

Alum 27. 00 

Miscellaneous 2. 00 

Depreciation: 

Machinery, 10 per cent 125. 00 

Building, 2 per cent 10. 00 

Interest on investment at 6 per cent 105. 00 

$ 353.30 
Amount of water filtered per month equals 7,000,000 gals. 
Cost per 1,000,000 gals, of water filtered, $50.43. 

It should be noted that more water could be filtered, if the occasion de- 
manded, without increasing the present cost materially. 

Labor Costs of Constructing Filtration Plant at Minneapolis, Minn. — In 
Engineering and Contracting, June 11, 1913, June 25, 1913 and Nov. 5, 1913, 
W. N. Jones gives in great detail the design and methods and costs of con- 
structing the 39,000,000 gal. mechanical water filtration plant at Minneapolis, 
from which the following matter is abstracted. 

Hering and Fuller were commissioned to draw up the plans and specifica- 
tions for the work in March, 1910 and after careful study of the old works, 
which consisted of a first-class pumping station, three miles of 50-in. steel 
force mains, and two settling or service reservoirs of a capacity of 47,000,000 
gals, each, it was decided to use the old re- ervoirs as a part of the new plant. 

The new plant contemplated the covering of one of the old reservoirs with 
a groined arch roof to be used as a clear water basin, the raising of the embank- 
ments of the other reservoir 10 ft., in order to maintain the elevation of the 
water in the clear water basin at the old level and provide a working head 
for the operation of the filters, also a mixing chamber, two coagulation basins, 
a headhouse, 12 mechanical filter units, with an auxiliary clear water basin 
underneath, and wash water tank of 135,000 gals, capacity. 

The old reservoirs, which were built in 1896, were rectangular in shape, each 
877 ft. 6 ins. long by 413 ft. 6 ins. wide, c. to c. of curbing, with a 1 on 2 
slope inside. 

Fig. 7 gives the general layout of the plant and shows the principal dimen- 
sions of the units. 

The building of the filter plant was the largest single piece of work ever 
attempted by the City of Minneapolis under the "day labor system" and 
employed the greatest variety of labor, both skilled and unskilled of any job 
under the jurisdiction of the Engineering Department. All the labor had to 
be trained in filter work, as none had ever worked on a like job before. The 
conditions under which the work was done were far from being the best. 
More or less patronage was attempted by some of the aldermen, causing some 
friction between them and the constructing department. This patronage 
became less as the work progressed, as it was soon recognized that unless a 



464 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



man did his work well there was no place at the filter plant for him, no matter 
who his friends might be. 

Rainy weather and the extreme cold of the winters delayed the work 
materially, as it was almost impossible to work to advantage in either. A 
large amount of work, however, was done at times when it would have meant 
a saving in the cost had one waited for more favorable weather. Especially 
was this true of the earth and concrete work, some of which was done under 
very trying conditions. . 

The amount of constructing machinery used on the job was very meager, 
amounting to almost a famine in this line. It caused many things to be 



Settling 



^ dl'-O"- -*|* 92-1- -— 1 Reservoir 

.. f Ca ;5 ting coping to be relayed above 



"'eO'PipeC.I. NewCopi 



fromAr^qs-'^-l^ ^— ^■ 






dZ-Cipipej \ 
tOCity Mains" \\ 



ru'/YDro/h>\>'-M_g ^Q°d House 



}¥ 



115-0. 
5' a Pipey _^,^'^ 




Manhole 
Venturi Meter 



d^'Cl Pipe^- to Main -^ 



Mixing 
.-Center 



Passage-. 



|: C oagi 
'fio'CIPiiJe. 



latinq 



Basi IS 



IS'CI PiQQ- 



m^ 



\CngAConfg. 




\yo5h Wat&-TonkK^y.Q.. 



FiG. 7. — General layout plan of Minneapolis water filtration plant. 



handled by hand that really required machinery for its economical handling, 
thus increasing the cost unnecessarily. 

The quality of the work turned out by the force account system has been 
very good. Every man was warned not to place, knowingly, a defective piece 
of material of any kind in his work, and whenever he discovered anything that 
did not appear first class to report it to his superiors. Quality was always 
placed first, and quantity turned out next. It is safe to say that the quality 
of the work is much better than it would have been had the job been done by 
contract, and there is no reason to believe that the cost or the time of com- 
pletion would have been any less. 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 4G5 

Wages Paid on Construction Work at the Minneapolis Filter Plant 

1911, 1912. 

Occupation Per mo. Per mo. 

Assistant suptTintendeiU $125. 00 $125. 00 

Chauffeur (35. 00 65. 00 

Per day Per day 

Foreman S 5. 00 $ 4. 50 

Assistant foreman 3. 50 3. 75 

Sub-foreman 3. 00 3. 00 

Timekeeper 4. 50 4. 50 

Clerk 3.00 3.00 

Rodman 2. 75 

Brick foreman 7. 00 

Bricklayers 5. 20 5. 20 

Structural steel foreman 5. 50 

Structural steel workers 4. 50 

Steamfitters' foreman 5. 00 5. 00 

Steamfitters 4. 50 4-. 50 

Plumbers 4. 50 

Roofers 4. 00 

Plasterers 5. 60 

Mortar mixers 3-3. 25 

Stonemason 4. 40 4. 40 

Machinist. . 4. 00 

Blacksmith 3. 00 3. 00 

Electrician 4. 00 

Steam engineer 4. 00 4. 00 

Gasoline engineer 3. 60 

Concrete finishers 2. 60 

Sheet metal workers 4. 80 

Painters 3. 60 

Carpenters 4. 00 4. 00 

Non-union carpenters 3. 00 3. 00 

Erecting engineer, vacuum system 5. 00 

Bricklayer apprentice, 3rd year 3. 60 

Steamfitter helper 2. 40 

Water boy 1 . 25 1 . 40 

Handyman 2.40 2.55 

Calkers 3.15 

Single horse ; 3. 00 

Teams 4.72 5.00 

Laborers 2. 25 2. 40 

The following are labor costs for work done on this filtration for 1911 and 
1912. 

LABOR COST DATA ON SETTLING BASIN IN 1912 

Earthwork. — Excavation: 321 cu. yds. of earth were excavated from 
trenches by hand at an average cost of 78.4 cts. per cu. yd. This cost includes 
the sheeting and staging. Of the 321 cu. yds. excavated 236 cu. yds. was dry 
work, shoveled three times, 40 cu. yds. was wet clay handled four times, and 
45 cu. yds. was wet clay handled twice, at average costs of 80 cts., $1, and 
40 cts. per cu. yd., respectively. Backfill: 747 cu. yds. were backfilled by hand 
and scraper at an average cost of 34.7 cts. per cu. yd. The ground was wet 
and partly frozen. This figure includes the hauling of 93 cu. yds. 900 ft. 
Fill: The fill of 10,773 cu. yds. was well sprinkled and rolled in layers of 6 ins. 
with a 14-ton roller. Average cost, 49.8 cts. per cu. yd. 

Puddle Wall.-— The 1,529 cu. yds. of puddle were tamped by hand in IH 
to 2-in. layers at an average cost of 75.7 cts. per cu. yd. The water needed 
was pumped by hand. 

Recovery of Crushed Stone and Screening Gravel. — All crushed stone was 
screened by hand to remove dirt. In all 77 cu. yds. of stone and gravel were 
screened at an average cost of .SI. 67 per cu. yd. 
30 



466 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Hauling Crushed Stone and Gravel. — The crushed stone was handled by- 
hand and hauled in common dump wagons. 172 cu. yds. were hauled an 
average of 330 ft. at an average cost of 39.9 cts. 

Concrete. — Concrete was laid in slabs 13.5 ft. by 10 ft. by 6 ins. on 2 to 1 
slope. 142 (CU. yds. were laid at an average cost of $2.12 per cu. yd., including 
the 1:2 cement finish and the setting and removing of screeds. 

Laying Crushed Stone. — Crushed stone shoveled down slopes and spread 
by hand. 1,134 cu. yds. were placed at an average cost of 35.2 cts. per cu. yd. 

Laying Tracks. — 745 ft. of 24-in. gage track in 16-ft. lengths at an average 
cost of 3.3 cts. per ft. 

Laying Sandstone. — The sandstone blocks were 12 by 14 ins. in section and 
from 2 to 6 ft. long. They were laid on edge. In all 11,690 sq. ft. were laid 
at an average cost of 4.9 cts. per sq. ft. 

Hauling Sandstone. — 11,795 sq. ft. of sandstone was loaded by hand and 
hauled on a stone jigger at an average cost of 4.4 cts. per sq. ft. 

Pouring Asphalt Joints. — 805 lin. ft. of asphalt joints were heated and 
poured at an average cost of 7.1 cts. per ft. 

Coping Stone. — Hoisting: The coping stone were hoisted 12 ft. by an old 
pipe laying derrick operated by hand power. 10,548 sq. ft. of this stone was 
hoisted at an average cost of 2.8 cts. per sq. ft. The coping stones are 4 X 12 
ins. in section and from 4 to 8 ft. long. Hauling: The stone was loaded by 
hand and hauled a distance of 750 ft. on a stone jigger. The average cost 
for 2,750 sq. ft. so hauled was 4 cts. per sq. ft. Setting: the average cost for 
setting 11,792 ft. of coping stone was 5 cts. persq. ft. 

Fencing. — Hauling: 2,207 lin. ft. of fencing was hauled 650 ft. on common 
dump wagons, which were not suitable for the purpose, at an average cost of 3 
cts. per lin. ft. Placing: 2,534 lin. ft. of fencing was placed at an average 
cost of 16.3 cts. per lin. ft. This includes drilling five ^^-in. X 3-in. holes 
in the sandstone coping for every 12 ft. length of fence, placing all bolts, etc. 
Painting: 2,324 ft. of fencing was painted at an average cost of 5.5 cts. per lin. 
ft. This is for one coat and includes cleaning off all rust. Fence consists of 
3-in. pipe rail and 4-in. by 4-in. ornamental posts 12 feet apart. Bolted 
lug midway of each section. 

Crossover Pipe. — Setting: 14.85 tons of 42-in. cast iron water pipe was set 
at an average cost of $4.49 per ton. This includes some sheeting and the use 
of a pipe derrick. Cutting: The 42-in. cast iron pipe was cut in two at three 
sections outside the trench, by two men using cold chisels at an average cost of 
$1.50 per cut. The pipe was cut at two sections after the main was in place, 
in soft ground, at an average cost of $11.50 per cut. Calking: 12 joints in the 
42-in, cast iron water pipe were calked by the calkers of the water department 
at an average cost, including yarning, melting lead, pouring, etc., of $2.41 per 
joint. This pipe inclines 22>^ degrees from the vertical. 

Making Bolts. — 136 bolts H X 4H ins. were made at an average cost of 
5 cts. each. 660 bolts )-^ X 5 ins. were made at an average cost of 4.3 cts. 
each. These figures include welding on heads or upsetting, and threading 
bolts and nuts. 

LABOR COST DATA ON CLEAR WATER BASIN IN 1911 

Ground and Segmental Arch Forms. — Building: 25,964 sq. ft. of these 
forms were built at an average cost of 5.2 cts. per sq. ft., including oiling. 
Transporting: 367,832 sq. ft. of these forms were transported a distance 
averaging between 200 and 300 ft. at an average cost of 0.6 cts. per sq. ft. 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 467 

This cost includes hoisting 289,100 sq. ft. of the forms through a height of 
22 ft. Setting: 346,731 sq. ft. of these forms were set at an average cost of 1.9 
cts. per sq. ft. This includes all bracing, repairs and reoiling. Wrecking: 
334,214 sq. ft. of these forms were wrecked an average cost of 1.7 cts. per sq. 
ft. This includes the wrecking of all braces. In all the foregoing square feet 
of formwork refers only to the portion exposed to concrete. 

Supporting Posts. — Building: 108 supporting posts for the arch forms were 
built at an average cost of 18 cts. each. This includes the cost of transporting 
the posts. Setting: 3,524 posts were set at an average cost of 46.7 cts. each. 
This includes wrecking the posts and hauling them. The cost of wrecking 
only on 174 posts averaged 2.9 cts. each. 

Column Forms. — Building: 3,330 sq. ft. of forms were built at an average 
cost of 1.3 cts. per sq. ft. Transporting: 17,200 ft. B. M. of these forms was 
transported about 800 ft. at an average cost of 95 cts. per 1,000 ft. B. M. 
Setting: 123,243 sq. ft. of these forms were set at an average cost of 3 cts. 
per sq. ft., including transporting to place and reoiling. Placing Clamps: 
16,029 clamps were placed at an average cost of 5.7 cts. each. Wrecking: 
112,478 ft. B. M. of these forms were wrecked at an average cost of $10.24 
per 1,000 ft. B. M. This includes removal of clamps. 

Making Clamps. — 4,807 clamps were made at an average cost of 1.2 cts. 
each. 

Tearing Up Forms. — 101,930 ft. B. M. of forms were torn up at an average 
cost of $1.87 per 1,000 ft. B. M. 

Sawing Wedges. — 1,880 wedges were sawed at an average cost of 1 ct. each. 

Recovery of Lumber. — 128,200 ft. B. M. of lumber was recovered from the 
torn downforms at an average cost of $4.10 per 1,000 ft. B. M. This work was 
the pulling of old nails, removing concrete from the boards, etc. 

42-in. Conduit Forms. — Making: 111 sq. ft. of collapsible forms .were built 
at a cost of 17.8 cts. per sq. ft. Setting: 7,779 sq. ft. of 42-in. conduit forms 
were set at an average price of 2>^ cts. per sq. ft. This included oiling and 
bracing. 

Setting Forms for Pedestals. — 726 pedestal forms were set at an average 
cost of 68 ^^ cts. These forms were dropped onto the pedestals and squared 
up for holding up the column forms. 

Concreting. — Conduit: 158 cu. yds. of concrete were placed in the 42-in. 
conduit at an average cost of $1.58 per cu. yd. This included placing the rein- 
forcing bars. Columns and Groined Arches: 10,933 cu. yds. of concrete were 
placed at an average cost of 94 cts. per cu. yd. The average haul was 650 ft. 

Holes for Pedestals. — Backfilling: 269 cu. yds. were backfilled at an average 
cost of 59 cts. per cu. yd. Sealing Up: 64 cu. yds. of concrete were used in 
sealing up holes for pedestals at an average cost of $3.22 per cu. yd. This 
concrete floor was 6 ins. thick and the cost given covers the 1 :2 cement mortar 
finishing coat. 

Tearing Up Old Revetment. — 1,589 cu. yds. of the old revetment wall were 
torn up and hauled away at an average cost of 51 cts. per cu. yd. 

Filling on Top of Basin. — 36,949 cu. yds. were filled at an average cost of 
48.5 cts. per cu. yd. The average haul was 1,200 ft. Common dump wagons 
were used. All earth was shoveled by hand. 

Transporting Lumber. — 170,590 ft. B. M. of old form lumber was 
transported 1,000 ft. at an average cost of $4 per 1,000 ft. B. M. 

The total classified costs of this work on the clear water basin are given in 
Chap. VI. Dams, Reservoirs and Standpipes. 



408 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



COST DATA ON FILTERS IN 1911 

Excavation.— 1,454 cu. yds. were excavated and hauled between 300 and 
350 ft. with scrapers at an average cost of 26 cts. per cu. yd. 600 cu. yds. were 
shoveled into dump wagons and hauled 450 ft. at an average cost of 38.7 cts. 
per cu. yd. 265 cu. yds. were excavated by pick and shovel for the 36-in. 
drain at an average cost of 69 cts. per cu. yd. 

Mixing and Placing Concrete. — This includes all track, trestle and runway 
building, moving, and wrecking same. Track 24-in. gage, 16-ft. sections. 
Runways 10 ft. X 16 ft. of 2-in. material. Inverted Arches: 855 cu. yds. of 
concrete mixed and placed at average cost of $1.21 per cu. yd. Foundation 
Walls: 445 cu. yds. concrete, average cost of $1.42 per cu. yd. Columns and 
Groined Arches: 1,423 cu. yds. of concrete, average cost of 47 cts. per cu. yd. 
Filter Boxes: 1,312 cu. yds. of concrete, average cost of $1.47 per cu. yd. 
Sewer and Lateral Gutters: 30 cu. yds. of concrete in the sewer cost on an 
average $1.39 per cu. yd. 55 cu. yds. of concrete in the lateral gutters cost an 
average of $2.39 per cu. yd. 

Making and Setting Forms. — Areas given below are for contact with con- 
crete. Costs given include all necessary supports, braces, scaffolds, etc. In- 
verted Groined Arches: 6,110 sq. ft. of forms at average cost of 3.7 cts. per 
sq. ft. Foundation Walls: 26,793 sq. ft. of forms at average cost of 4.2 cts. per 
sq. ft. Column Forms : 4,628 sq. ft. of column forms at average cost of 3 ^^ cts. 
per sq. ft. 30 clamps were made and placed at an average cost of $1.19 each, 
and 458 column collars were made and set at an average cost of 12 cts. each, 
Groined and Barrel Arches: 40,355 sq. ft. of forms at an average cost of 3.6 
cts. per sq. ft. Groined Arch Supports: The total cost of the groined arch 
supports was $151.94. Among other items 94 posts were set at 22 cts. each, 360 
struts at 2 cts. each, and 118 intermediate posts at 13 cts. each. Filter Boxes: 
75,174 sq. ft. of forms were set at an average cost of 5.9 cts. per sq. ft. Lateral 
Gutters: 3,328 sq. ft. of forms were oiled at 0.3 cts. per sq. ft. 2,113 sq. ft. of 
forms were built and set for 7.4 cts. per sq. ft., average. Sewer: 2,449 sq.ft. 
of sewer forms were built and set at an average cost of 8.8 cts. per sq. ft. 

Backfill. — 495 cu. yds. of backfill was hand-tamped at an average cosj; of 
81 cts. per cu. yd. This was clay placed under all cast iron pipes. 

Bending Steel. — 7,063 lbs. of reinforcing steel were bent at an average cost of 
-0.63 cts. per lb. 

Setting Steel. — 129,295 lbs. of reinforcing steel was set at an average cost of 
0.72 ct. per lb. This steel was tied at all intersections with No. 16 wire. The 
cost given includes transporting the steel 350 ft. at approximately 0.1 ct. per 
lb. 

Transporting Pipe and Specials. — 216.7 tons of cast iron pipe and specials 
were rolled about 200 ft. by hand at an average cost of 90.4 cts. per ton. 

Setting Pipe and Specials. — 130 tons of pipe and specials were set at an 
average cost of $8.25 per ton. This includes the erection of derricks, scaffolds, 
etc., necessary for setting the material. 

Setting Pipe Hangers. — 144 short pipe hangers were set at average cost of 
8>^ cts. each. 46 long pipe hangers were set at 98>^ cts. each. 

Wrecking Groined Arches and Conduit Forms. — 21,586 sq. ft. of these 
forms were wrecked at an average cost of 1.4 cts. per sq. ft. This includes 
wrecking of scaffolds, braces, supports, etc., also hoisting out the groined arch 
form sections. 

Wrecking Wall Forms. — 63,905 sq. ft. of wall forms were wrecked at an 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 469 

average cost of 1^ cts. per sq. ft. This includes wrecking braces, supports, 
scaffolds, etc. 

Transporting Form Lumber. — 73,290 ft. B. M. were transported in common 
dump wagons, unsuited to purpose, at a cost of $4.14 per 1,000 ft. B. M. 

Cutting Pipes. — Two men cut the pipe with cold chisels. 16 pieces of 18-in. 
pipe were cut at an average cost of 50 cts. per cut. 3 pieces of 20-in. pipe were 
cut at average cost of 60 cts. each. 3 pieces of 24-in. pipe were cut at average 
cost of 75 cts. each. 

Setting I-Beams. — 12.35 tons of I-beams were set at an average cost of 
$7 per ton. This includes the use of derricks, etc. 48 plates were set under 
the I-beams at an average cost of 82 cts. each. 

Calking Joints. — This includes yarning, heating lead, pouring, etc.: 

27 18-in. joints were calked at average cost of $1. 01 

35 18-in. joints were calked at average cost of 90 cts. 

90 20-in. joints were calked at average cost of : 1. 12 

15 20-in. joints were calked at average cost of 1. 00 

10 24-in. joints were calked at average cost of 1. 46 

21 24-in. joints were calked at average cost of 1. 19 

Making Pipe Hangers. — 120 1-in. X 18-in. pipe hangers were made at an 
average cost of 27 cts. each. One end of each hanger was upset to 1}4. i^i- 

LABOR COST DATA ON FILTERS AND FILTER HOUSE IN 1912 

Earthwork. — Excavation: 2,409 cu. yds. of clay was excavated with pick 
and shovel at average cost of 65.2 cts. per cu. yd. Some of this clay was 
handled three times. The cost includes a small amount of sheeting. Fill: 
6,494 cu. yds. of fill was made at an average cost of 44>^ cts. per cu. yd. Sandy 
soil was used and was tamped by hand under pipes. The average haul of 
material was 800 ft. 

Making and Setting Forms. — Ridge Blocks and Lateral Gutters: 60,110 sq. 
ft. of these forms were made and set at average cost of 1.7 cts. per sq. ft. 
These were collapsible forms bolted together. Cost includes oiling and clean- 
ing after collapsing. Beams and Columns: 23,893 sq. ft. of these forms were 
built and set at average cost of 9.7 cts. per sq. ft. This includes clamping 
column and beveling all beams. Cost includes all supports, etc. Roof and 
Floor Slabs: 24,539 sq. ft. of these forms were set at an average cost of 7.1 cts. 
per sq. ft. These areas indicate only surface of form in contact with concrete. 
This cost includes all bracing, supports and wiring. 

Wrecking Forms. — 102, 747 sq. ft. of forms were wrecked at an average cost 
of 1.2 cts. per sq. ft. This includes wrecking bracing and supports. 

Reinforcing Steel. — Transporting: 86,481 lbs. of reinforcing steel was 
transported an average distance of 350 ft. at 0.2 ct. per lb. Bending: 23,481 
lbs. of steel were bent at an average cost of 0.4 ct. per lb. Setting: 12,992 lbs. 
of reinforcing steel were set at an average cost of 0.4 ct. per lb. This includes 
wiring with No. 16 annealed wire at all intersections. 

Electrical Work. — 3,369 lin. ft. of H to 1-in. conduit was placed at a cost of 
5.9 cts. per ft. 13,110 ft. of insuUated wire was placed at 0.7 ct. per ft. 11 
switch boxes were set at 25 cts. each. 10 arc lights were set at $1.50 each, 
and 8 arc lights were set at $1.00 each. 

Concreting. — Lateral Gutters: 86 cu. yds. of concrete were placed at 
average cost of $6.10 per cu. yd. This includes firing of salamanders in each 
filter box for 72 hours continuously. Floors, Roof, etc.: 608 cu. yds. of con- 
crete were placed at average cost of $1.50 per cu. yd. Ridge Blocks: 325 cu. 



470 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

yds. of concrete were placed at average cost of $2.86 per cu. yd. This includes 
placing screen bolts and all reinforcing steel in each block. 

Placing Lateral Gutter Weirs. — 5,800 lin. ft. of concrete were placed at an 
average cost of 7.3 cts. per ft. 

Ridge Blocks. — Transporting: 314.52 cu. yds. of ridge blocks were trans- 
ported an average distance of 300 ft. and were hoisted from 20 to 23 ft. at an 
average cost of $1.39 per cu. yd. Setting: 305 cu. yds. of ridge biocks were 
set at an average cost of $6.97 per cu. yd. This includes all drilling for anchor 
rods, cutting and placing rods, grouting in rods, and chipping concrete. 

Setting Strainer Plates. — 3,736 strainer plates were set at an average cost of 
32.8 cts. each. This includes cementing up, bolting, chipping concrete where 
necessary, etc., complete. 

Laying Screen. — 15,292 sq. ft. of screen was placed at an average cost of 
6.2 cts. per sq. ft. This includes sewing with No. 20 wire, placing washers and 
bolting down. 

Gravel. — Screening: 368.85 cu. yds. of gravel was screened at an average 
cost of $4.02 per cu. yd. Hauling: 265 cu. yds. of gravel was hauled at an 
average cost of $1.04 per cu. yd. Placing: 242 cu. yds. of gravel were placed 
at an average cost of $3.62 per cu. yd. This includes placing in wheelbarrows, 
hoisting 20 to 23 ft. and wheeling to place. 

Filter Sand. — Hauling: 948 cu. yds. of filter sand was hauled 1^ miles at an 
average cost of 67 cts. per cu. yd. This includes loading from cars and wagons. 
Placing: 563 cu. yds. of sand was placed at an average cost of 54>^ cts. per 
cu. yd. 

Laying Brick. — 221,700 brick were laid at an average cost of $12.50 per 
1,000. This includes cost of mixing and coloring mortar, and all scaffold 
work. 

Setting Terra Cotta. — 14 terra- cotta sills were set at an average cost of 
$2.14 each. Five were set at $1.20 each. 377 lin. ft. of terra cotta was set at 
an average cost of 14 cts. per ft. 

Roofing. — S2^i squares of roofing were placed at an average cost of $3.54 
per 100 ft. square. This includes placing tarred felt and shingles. 

Setting Window Sashes and Frames. — 171 frames and sashes were set at an 
average cost of 73 cts. each. This includes setting the necessary hardware. 

Transporting Pipe, Valves, Specials and Machinery. — 418 tons were trans- 
ported through distances ranging from 150 ft. to 350 ft. at an average cost 
of $1 .56 per ton. This includes loading, hauling, unloading, picking loose from 
frozen ground, etc. 

Setting Pipe and Specials. — 476 tons were set at an average cost of $2.00 per 
ton. This includes scaffolds, derricks, belting, etc. 

Pipe Hangers and Supports — 



Making: 

Av. cost 
No. of hangers Size of hangers per hanger 

31 ^ in. X 7 ft $1. 24 

7 J.^ in. X 29 ft 2.26 

12 K in. X 23 ft. 3 ins 2. 15 

31 J-^ in. X 18 ft. 6 ins 1.38 

17 H in. X 6 ft. 4 ins 1 . 26 

12 ^i in. X 6 ft 0.37 

18 Ui ins. X 18 ins 0.81 

11 IM ins. X 7 ft. 9 ins 0.85 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 



471 



Placing: 



No. 



of hangers 
24 
31 
14 
3 
24 
18 
11 



Size of hangers 

^ in. X 7 ft 

J4 in. X 18 ft. 6 ins 

^i in. X 21 ft. 6 ins 

K in. X 6 ft. 4 ins 

^^ in. X 6 ft 

IH ins. X 18 ins 

134 ins. X 7 ft. 9 ins 



Setting HydrauHc Gates: 
Size, 
ins. 

12 

20 

30 
24 



No. 

gates 

14* 

12 

1 

12 



These costs include scaffolds, derricks, gaskets, etc. 
Making Bolts: 
Diam., 
ins. 



Av. cost 
per hanger 
$0.59 
0.75 
1.17 
0.75 
1.20 
0.50 
0.14 



Av. cost 
setting 

$1.56 
5.30 
8.25 
1.56 



1 



No. 

bolts 
147 
553 
688 
106 
50 



Cost per 

bolt 
1.7 cts. 
8. 3 cts. 
9.6 cts. 
8.4 cts. 
3.4 cts. 



Ladder Rungs. — 42 ^^-in. ladder rungs were made at an average cost of 
33 cts. each. Sixty-four rungs were set at an a^^erage cost, including groutii 
of 18 cts. each. 

Transporting Lumber. — 141,676 ft. B. M. of lumber was carried about 25 ) 
ft. at an average cost of $2.32 per 1,000 ft. B. M. 

Cleaning Walls. — 20,070 sq. ft. of brick wall was scraped free of cement 
and mortar and washed with a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid at an 
average cost of 2.1 cts. per sq. ft. 

Drilling Holes in Concrete. — The following data shows the cost of drilling 
holes in concrete by hand : 



Size of 
holes, ins. 
1^X9 
1HX6 
1>^X8 
1^X9 
1^X9 
1 X4 
HX2H 



No. of 

holes 

3 

25 

8 

10 

18 

30 

761 



, Av, 
per 
$1.48 
0.14 
0.63 
0.24 
0.15 
0.09 
0.07 



cost 
hole 



Painting. — 27,500 sq. ft. of painting was done, one coat, at an average cost 
of 1 ct. per sq. ft. 

Setting Small Pipe. — The following data relates to steam and vacuum pipe: 
850 ft. of l^'^-in. and 2-in. pipe was set at an average cost of 19 cts. per ft. 

Setting Gate Stands. — Two stands for 36-in. X 48-in. sluice gates were set 
at an average cost of $2.87 each. 

Placing Window Operating Device. — 391 ft. of window operating rods were 
placed at an average cost of 28 cts. per ft. This includes setting all gears, 
brackets, chains, etc., complete. 

Finish Coat on Roof. — A 1:2 cement coat from H to ^i-in. thick was placed 
on the cinder concrete roof. 9,736 sq. ft. were placed at average cost of 3.7 
cts. per sq. ft. 



472 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

LABOR COST DATA ON HEAD HOUSE IN 1911 

Excavation. — 2,304 cu. yds. of material were excavated at an average unit 
cost of 503^^ cts. Of this amount, 350 cu. yds. were hauled 750 ft. in dump 
wagons and 900 cu. yds. were of soft and sticky material excavated by hand 
tools. 

Backfill. — 125 cu. yds. of material were backfilled, at an average unit cost of 
63 cts. per cu. yd. This material was tamped by hand. 

Building Forms. — The following cost data on form building are stated in 
cents per sq. ft. The area considered is that portion which is exposed to the 
concrete only. The cost includes .all bracing, supports, scaffolds, etc., 
complete. 

Wall Forms. — 41,620 sq. ft. of wall forms were built at an average unit cost 
of 6.9 cts. per sq. ft. 

Beam and Column Forms. — 29,039 sq. ft. of beam and column forms were 
built at an average cost of 3.9 cts. per sq. ft. 

Stair Forms. — 1,687 sq. ft. of stair forms were built at an average cost of 
13.9 cts. per sq. ft. 

Floor Forms. — 7,629 sq. ft. of floor forms were built at an average cost of 
5.9 cts. per sq. ft. 

Wrecking Forms. — The area of forms wrecked is stated in terms of square 
feet, exposed to concrete only. The cost includes the removal of all bracing, 
supports, etc. 

Wrecking Wall Forms. — 34, 972 sq. ft. of wall forms were wrecked at an- 
average unit cost of 0.86 ct. per sq. ft. 

Wrecking Beam Column and Stringer Forms. — 24,450 sq. ft. of these forms 
were wrecked at an average unit cost of 0.45 ct. per sq. ft. 

Wrecking Floor Forms. — 8,150 sq. ft. of floor forms were wrecked at an 
average unit cost of 0.81 ct. per sq. ft. 

Transporting Lumber. — 10,400 ft. B. M. of lumber was transported at an 
average unit cost of- $3.72 per 1,000 ft. B. M. For this purpose ordinary 
dump wagons were used, and were not well suited to the purpose. The haul 
ranged from 300 to 500 ft. 

Cleaning Lumber. — 33,086 ft. B. M. of lumber was cleaned at an average 
unit cost of $6.38 per 1,000 ft. This includes cleaning off concrete and pulling 
out old nails. 

Building Beam Supports. — 663 sq. ft. of beam supports were built at an 
average unit cost of 14.6 cts. per sq. ft. 

Bending Steel and Making Steel Column Reinforcement. — 56,753 lbs. of 
steel were handled for this purpose at an average unit cost of $6.08 per 1,000 
lbs. This includes the wiring together of the column reinforcement with No. 
16 gage wire. 

Setting Steel. — 120,412 lbs. of steel were set at an average unit cost of 
$7.44 per 1,000 lbs. This includes wiring with No. 16 gage wire at all inter- 
sections of reinforcing material. 

Concreting Floors, Columns and Bins. — 1,575 cu. yds. of concrete were 
placed at an avesage unit cost of $1.43 per cu. yd. This includes the cost of 
raising elevator, etc. 

Concreting Walls. — 531 cu. yds. of concrete were placed at an average cost 
of $1.29 per cu. yd. This inlcudes raising the elevator, etc. 

Finishing Floors. — 5,734 sq. ft. of floor were finished at an average unit cost 
of 1.45 cts. per sq. ft. 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 473 

Preparatory Work for Concreting. — 425 lin. ft. of track and trestle were 
erected at an average unit cost of 13.5 cts. per ft. 

Setting Sluice Gates. — Four 36 X 48-in. sluice gates were set at an average 
cost of $21.45 per gate. One 42-in. sluice gate was set at a cost of $13.15. 

Placing Cast Iron Pipe and Specials. — 6.2 tons of 42-in. cast iron pipe and 
specials were placed at an average unit cost of $6.91 per ton. This includes a 
haul of 200 ft. 

3.15 tons of 12 and 42-in. cast iron pipe and specials were placed at an 
average unit cost of $9.54 per ton. One ton of 12-in. pipe was placed at a cost 
of $2. The foregoing figures include the erection of derricks, scaffolds, etc. 

Calking Joints. — Two joints in the 42-in. pipe lines were calked at an average 
cost of $2 per joint. This includes yarning, heating lead, etc. 

Electrical Conduit. — 500 ft. of 1-in. electrical conduit were placed at an 
average cost of 3.1 cts. per ft.; 100 ft. of l>4-in. electrical conduit were placed 
at an average cost of 2}^ cts. per ft. ; 450 ft. of 1 to 2-in. electric conduit were 
placed at an average cost of 5 cts. per ft. These figures include transporting 
the conduit materials. 

Manholes. — Three 24-in. manholes were placed on the hypo tanks at an 
average cost of $1.69 each. 

Making Column Clamps, Blocks and Wedges. — 75 column clamps were 
made at an average cost of 30 cts. each. 

150 blocks and wedges were made at 1.6 cts. each. 

Pipe Supports and Hangers, etc. — 20 1-in. by 5-in. by 15-in. pipe supports 
and hangers were placed at an average cost of 42 cts. each. 

60 trolley hangers were placed at an average cost of 20 cts. each. These 
figures include grouting in. 

LABOR COST DATA ON HEAD HOUSE IN 1912 

Making Fill. — 2,020 cu. yds. of fill were made at an average unit cost of 
48.7 cts. per cu. yd. This includes an average haul of 1,500 ft. 

Building Forms. — Wall and Foundation Forms. — 24, 965 sq. ft. of wall and 
foundation forms were built at an average unit cost of 5}i cts. per sq. ft. 
This includes only the surface in contact with concrete. Cost of erecting 
scaffolding and bracing is included. 

Floor and Roof Forms. — 20, 433 sq. ft. of floor and roof forms were built 
at an average unit cost of 8.7 cts. per sq. ft. 

Building Tank Forms. — 1,335 sq. ft. of tank forms were built at an average 
unit cost of 8.4 cts. per sq. ft. 

Wrecking Forms. — 46,294 sq. ft. of forms were wrecked at an average cost 
of 2.1 cts. per sq. ft. This includes wrecking scaffolds and bracing. 

Transporting Lumber. — 21,996 ft. B. M. of lumber was transported an 
average distance of 300 ft. at an average unit cost of $5.60 per 1,000 ft. B, M. 

Cleaning Lumber^ — 6,000 ft. B. M. lumber was cleaned at an average unit 
cost of $8.80 per 1,000 ft. B. M. This included pulling out old nails and 
scraping off concrete which adhered to boards. 

Reinforcing Steel — Bending. — 5,369 lbs. of reinforcing steel were bent at an 
average cost of $3.26 per 1,000 lbs.; 34,540 were transported at $1.84 per 1,000 
lbs.; 35,868 lbs. weie set at $6.07 per 1,000 lbs. This includes the cost of 
wiring with No. 16 gauge wire at every intersection of reinforcing rods. 

Structural Steel — Transporting. — 21.09 tons of structural steel were 
transported a distance of 1,600 ft. at an average unit cost of $9.35 per ton. 



474 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Setting. — 21.86 tons of "Structural steel were set at an average unit cost of 
$12 per ton. This includes all wall plates, bolts and rivets. 

Concrete — Roof and Thin Walls. — 431 cu. yds. of concrete were placed in 
the roof and thin walls at an average unit cost of $2.08 per cu. yd. 

Foundation and Heavy Walls. — 148.35 cu. yds. of concrete were placed in 
foundation and heavy walls at an average unit cost of $1.27 per cu. yd. The 
foregoing costs on concreting include the erection of runways, scaffolds, etc. 

Finishing Floors, Roofs, etc. — 17,158 sq. ft. were finished at an average 
unit cost of 4 cts. per sq. ft. This is for placing a 1 :2 cement plaster from >^ 
in. to IK ins. thick. 

Placing Expanded Metal Lath and Rib-Truss for Ceiling and Partitions. — 
7.568 sq. ft. of this material were placed at an average unit cost of 8.3 cts. per 
sq. ft. This includes all iron studs and part of the ceiling supports, etc. 

Plastering. — 31,711 sq. ft. of plastering were figured as a single coat and the 
average unit cost was 3.13 cts. per sq. ft. 

Laying Brick. — 158,800 brick were laid at an average unit cost of $14 60 per 
M. This includes all scafi'olding. The brick was laid in Flemish bond. 
Three kinds of mortar were used. 

Washing Walls. — 8,800 sq. ft. of walls were washed at an average unit cost 
of 2.3 cts. per sq. ft. A dilute solution of hydrochloric acid was used for this 
purpose. The cost given includes the cost of erecting and removing the neces- 
sary scaffolding. 

Windows and Doors. — 18 window sills were set in the brick work after it 
was finished at an average unit cost of $3.26 each. 

Copper Work. — Valley, Deck and Flashing. — 4,044 sq. ft. of valley and deck 
copper work were placed at an average unit cost of 2.7 cts. per sq. ft. ; 1,323 lin. 
ft. of flashing were laid at an average unit cost of 7.2 cts. per ft., 1,152 ft. of 
flashing were soldered only at a cost of 3.3 cts. per ft. 

Ridge Roll, etc. — 1,483 lin. ft. were placed at an average unit cost of 7 cts. 
per ft. In the copper work all the copper was cut and formed on the job. 

Roofing. — 80.75 squares of roofing were placed at an average cost of $4.24 
per square. This roofing consisted of asbestos shingles each 16 X 16 ins., 
placed on a 1:2:4 cinder concrete roof with a layer of tarred felt between. 

Electric Work — Conduit, ^'^-in. to 2-in. — 2,435 lin. ft. of conduit were 
placed at an average unit cost of 5 cts. per ft. This includes the placing of all 
fittings. 

Wiring. — 13,190 lin. ft. of electric wiring were placed at an average unit cost 
of 1.1 cts. per ft. All the wires were well covered. 

Cast Iron Pipe and Specials — Transporting. — 102.57 tons of cast iron pipe 
and specials were transported at an average unit cost of $2.87 per ton. 

Setting — 61.94 tons of cast iron pipe and specials were set at an average 
unit cost of $3.50 per ton. The foregoing costs include the transporting and 
setting of scaffolds, derricks and all other necessary equipment. 

Calking Joints. — Seven 42-in. joints were calked at an average cost of 
$1.91 each. 

24 6-in. joints were calked at an average cost of 49 cts. each. 

31 4-in. joints were calked at an average cost of 56 cts. each. Figures for 
calking include yarning, pouring, melting lead, erection of scaffolds, etc. 

Setting Radiators. — 6,942 sq. ft. of radiators were set at an average unit 
cost of 3.1 cts per sq. ft. 

2-in. Lead Pipe. — 233 wiped joints were made at an average cost of 60 cts. 
each. This includes heating, soldering, etc. 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 475 

Setting. — 1»019 lin. ft. of 2-in. lead pipe were set at an average unit cost of 
0.5 ct. per ft. All this pipe weighed 7y2 lbs. per ft. The cost given includes 
straightening pipe and placing all valves and fittings. 

Small Pipe and Fittings. — The following costs relate to the small pipe and 
fittings which were installed in the heating, plumbing and vacuum cleaner 
systems. All valves and fittings, etc., were figured as straight pipe. The 
costs include all cutting, threading, transporting, etc. The cost of the neces- 
sary scaffolding is also included. All the work was done by hand, and some 
^ of it was very difficult. 

Size of Amount Aver, cost 

pipe, ins. placed, ft. per ft., cts. 

3^ to ^^ 127 9.2 

^ 1,147 6.7 

^i 1,804 12.4 

1 1,351 13.1 

IH ' 509 16. 5 

IH • 1,657 24.4 

2 1,251 25.7 

2H 552 35.9 

3 587 43.4 

SJ4 209 37.7 

4 422 50.4 

4H 132 59.4 

5 58 40.0 

6 39 49.0 

Soil Pipe. — The soil pipe was all placed by plumbers, working most of the. 
time upon scaffolds. Everything connected with the installation of the soil 
pipe is included in the following costs: 122 ft. of 2-in. soil pipe were placed 
at an average unit cost of 16.9 cts. per ft.; 87 ft. of 3-in. pipe at 22.5 cts. 
per ft. and 307 ft. of 4-in. soil pipe at 53.0 cts. per ft. 

Making Pipe Hangers. — A total of 532 pipe hangers were made at an 
average cost of 29 cts. each. These hangers were made of round iron, and the 
cost includes upsetting, threading, etc. The H X 16-in. hangers were most 
expensive at 65 cts. each, and the Vs X 50-in. hangers cost for labor only 8 cts. 
each. 

Setting Hangers.— 445 hangers were set at an average cost of 44y2 cts. 
each. This includes drilling, etc. 

Transporting Castings, Machinery, etc. — 52 tons of these materials were 
transported a distance ranging from 50 to 500 ft. at an average unit cost of 
$2.12 per ton. This includes all necessary loading and unloading. 

Placing Miscellaneous Castings. — 5,600 lbs. of miscellaneous castings were 
placed at an average cost of 1 ct. per pound. This includes necessary derricks, 
scaffolds, etc. 

Painting. — 42,176 sq. ft. of painting was done, figured as a single coat at 1.2 
cts. per sq. ft. 

Hand Rails. — 360 lin. ft. of hand rails were placed at 29.1 cts. per ft. in- 
cluding all fittings. 

Steel Ladders. — These ladders are about 6 ft. long and are of Vs X 3-in. 
iron and ^4-in. round rungs. Four of these were made at $3.71 each, and 
they were set at 44 cts. each. 

Setting Laboratory Tables. — 16 laboratory tables, each of oak 38 ins. high 
and 36 ins. wide; with tops 3 ins. thick, were set at an average cost of $3.65 
each. 

Excavation. — 126 cu. yds of red clay were excavated at an average cost of 
53 cts. per cu. yd. 



476 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Calked Soil Pipe Joints. — Following are costs of calking joints in 2, 3 and 
4-in. soil pipe, as made by plumbers: 

Size, Av. cost per 

ins. joint, cts. 

2 42 

3 48 

4 48 

Plumbing Fixtures. — A sum of $60 was spent for setting 23 plumbing 
fixtures, such as wash basins, urinals, showers, sinks, water closets and towel 
racks. 

Setting Small Gates. — 66 small gate valves, ranging in diameter from 3 ins. 
to 10 ins. were set at an average cost of 64 cts. per gate. This includes 
all gaskets, bolting up and fitting. 

Making Bolts. — 605 bolts were made at an average cost of 7 cts. each. 
These bolts were from }^i to U^ ins. in diameter. The greatest length, was 
15 ins. The cost given includes cutting steel; welding on heads, threading of 
bolts and nuts, complete. 

LABOR COST DATA ON COAGULATION BASIN IN 1911 

Excavation. — 605 cu. yds. of material were excavated in trench by pick and 
shovel at an average unit cost of 60.3 cts. per cu. yd. 

Backfill. — 350 cu. yds. were backfilled and hard tamped under 60-in. pipe 
at an average unit cost of 70 cts. per cu. yd. 

375 cu. yds. were backfilled at 55 cts. 

Setting Forms. — 2,025 sq. ft. of forms were set at an average unit cost of 
5.8 cts. per sq. ft. The area given is that exposed to concrete only. The cost 
given includes all bracing. 

Setting Screeds. — 7,433 lin. ft. of screeds were set at an average unit cost of 
1.5 cts. per ft. 

Making Forms. — 610 sq. ft. of forms were made at an average unit cost of 
5.8 cts. per sq. ft. The area given is that exposed to concrete only. All 
bracing is included. These forms were used about seven times. 

Setting Steel. — 38,333 lbs. of steel were set at an average unit cost of $4.25 
per 1,000 lbs. This figure includes the hauling of the steel. 

Placing Concrete. — 1,087 cu. yds. of concrete were placed at an average unit 
cost of $1.16 per cu. yd. This includes the setting of expansion plates, and 
giving to the concrete a float finish. 

Laying Cast Iron Pipe and Specials. — 25.72 tons of cast iron pipe and 
specials were laid at an average cost of $9.65 per ton. Of this amount, 10.6 
tons was 12-in. pipe and the balance 60-in. pipe. The cost of making one cut 
on 60-in. pipe is included. 

Setting 60-in. Gate Valve. — A 60-in. gate valve weighing 6 tons was set at a 
lump sum of $188.50 

Building Manholes. — 2.6 M. of brick were placed in manholes at an average 
cost of $7.10 per M. The manholes were round, and the cost given includes 
the placing of 9 ladder rungs. 

Driving Sheeting. — 300 sq. ft. of vsheeting were driven at an average unit cost 
of 2.7 cts. per sq. ft. This sheeting was 2 X 10-in. stuff. 

LABOR COST DATA ON COAGULATION BASIN IN 1912 

Excavation. — SSSVz cu. yds. of red clay were excavated by pick and shovel 
in trench at an average unit cost of 84 cts. per cu. yd.; this includes all neces- 
sary sheeting. 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 477 

Fill. — 14,580 cu. yds. of fill were made at an average unit cost of 48.8 cts. 
The fill was not rolled. A 24-in. puddle wall was hand-tamped in layers 
ranging in thickness from ^ to 2 ins., and the cost is averaged in the fore- 
going. The cost of puddling was 54 cts. per cu. yd. 

Building Forms — Heavy Walls. — 50,578 sq. ft. of forms were built at 
an average cost of 7.1 cts. per sq. ft. The area exposed to concrete only 
is figured on all form work. The cost includes all scaffolds, braces, supports, 
etc. 

Thin Wall Forms. — 28,566 sq. ft. of forms were built at an average cost of 
12.8 cts. per sq. ft. 

Floor Column and Beam Forms. — 45,240 sq. ft. of beam forms were built at 
an average unit cost of 9.7 cts. per sq. ft. 

Wrecking Forms. — 121,702 sq. ft. of forms were wrecked at an average 
unit cost of iy2 cts. per sq. ft. 

Transporting Lumber. — 164,563 ft. B. M. of lumber was transported at an 
average unit cost of $3.52 per 1,000 ft. B. M. The average haul was 1,000 
ft. A common dump wagon was used and was not well suited to the purpose. 

Reinforcing Steel — Transporting. — 192,029 lbs. of steel were tr§.nsported 
an average distance of 1,500 ft. at an average unit cost of 80 cts. per 1,000 lbs. 

Bending. — 106,787 lbs. of steel were bent at an average unit cost of $1.15 
per 1,000 lbs. 

Setting. — 234,295 lbs. of reinforcing steel were set at an average unit cost 
of $4.25 per 1,000 lbs. This includes wiring together of all steel at intersec- 
tions with No. 16 gage wire. 

Structural Steel — Transporting. — 9.61 tons were transported an average 
distance of 1,500 ft. in common dump wagons at an average cost unit cost of 
98 cts. per ton. 

Setting. — 9.61 tons were set at an average unit cost $12.13 per ton. This 
includes all hoisting, bolting up, riveting wall plates, etc. 

Concreting — Heavy Walls. — 1,198 cu. yds. of concrete were placed at an 
average unit cost of $1.11 per cu. yd. This does not include the necessary 
track trestle and runways. 

Concrete Floors, Roof and Thin Walls. — 1,413.5 cu. yds. of concrete were 
placed at an average unit cost of 97 cts. per cu. yd. 

Track and Trestle. — 1,711 lin. ft. of track and trestle were placed at an 
average unit cost of 7.6 cts. per ft. All this work was 24-in. gage in 16-ft. 
sections. The runways were 5 X 16 ft., of 7-in. material. 

Finishing Roof and Floors. — 5,818 sq. ft. of 1:2 cement finishing coat rang- 
ing in thickness from ^ to IH ins. were placed at an average cost of 6.1 cts. 
per sq. ft. 

Transporting — Castings, etc. — 141 tons of castings were transported a 
distance averaging 500 ft. at an average unit cost of $2.22 per ton. This 
includes loading and unloading by hand. 

Setting Pipe and Specials. — 103 tons of pipe and specials were set at an 
average cost of $3.54 per ton. This includes the erection of a derrick and all 
necessary scaffolds. 

Setting Gate Stands. — 21 gate stands were set at an average cost of $3.85 
each. This includes bolting down on a bed of 1 :2 cement mortar. 

Setting Stems. — Stems for 48-in. gates were set at an average cost of $2.50 
each. 

Setting Sluice Gates. — 25 sluice gates were set at an average cost of $6.80 
each. These gates are from 42 X 42 ins. to 48 X 60 ins. The cost given 



478 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

includes cutting all necessary gaskets, bolting up, hoisting, derrick, scaffolds, 
etc. 

Small Piping. — 1,030 ft. of small piping ranging from y2 to 3 ins. in diameter 
were placed at an average cost of 71^^ cts. per lin. ft. This includes all cutting, 
threading, fittings, valves, etc., complete. 

2-in. Lead Pipe.— 1,091 ft. of lead pipe were placed at an average cost of 
18 cts. per ft. This includes straightening pipe, putting in fittings and valves, 
etc. The pipe weighs 7.5 lbs. per ft. 96 wiped joints were made at average 
cost of 60 cts. per joint. 

Electric Wire. — 900 ft. of No. 14 insulated electric wire were placed at an 
average cost of 0.9 ct. per ft. 

Laying Brick. — 84.5 M of brick were laid at an average cost of $17.90 per M. 
This includes the work done on electric conduit, window sills, all necessary 
scaffolds, etc. The brick was laid Flemish bond. 

Setting Window Frames. — 92 window frames were set at an average cost of 
$1.17 each. 

Washing Walls. — 5,030 sq. ft. of walls were washed at an average cost of 
2. 6 cts. per sq. ft. A dilute solution of hydrochloric acid was used. The 
cost given includes all necessary scaffolding. 

Painting. — 22,925 sq. ft. was painted at an average cost of 1 ct. per sq. ft. 
The painting was figured as a single coat only, and the cost includes all neces- 
sary scaffolds. 

Roofing. — 85.5 squares of roofing were placed at an average cost of $3.30 
per 100 sq. ft. The roofing consisted of asbestos shingles laid on 1:2:4 cinder 
concrete with a layer of tarred felt between the concrete and shingles. The 
cost includes all necessary staging. 

Copper Work. — 235 sq. ft. of copper work was placed at 10 cts. per sq. ft. 
266 lin. ft. of copper was placed at 12 cts. per lin. ft. 

Baffles. — 19,852 ft. B. M. of baffles were placed at an average unit cost of 
$4.98 per 1,000 ft. The baffles were made of 1 X 6-in. D. & M. fencing. 

Wooden Gates. — 27 wooden gates were set at an average cost of $2.30 
each. These gates were all of 1 X 6-in.M. & D. lumber. Each 24 X 36-in. 
with a 2 X 4-in. stem. The gates slide in guides. 53 wooden guides were 
made at an average unit cost of 0.33 cts. each. 

Ladder Rungs — Making. — 156 ladder rungs were made of ^^-in. round steel 
at an average unit cost of 11 cts. each. 

Placing. — 131 ladder rungs were placed at an average unit cost of 18.4 cts. 
each, which includes grouting in. 

Placing Pipe Hangers. — 124 pipe hangers were placed at an average unit 
cost of 27 cts. each. This includes grouting in when necessary. 

220 pipe hangers of various sizes were made at an average cost of 23.5 cts. 

Making Bolts. — 1,173 bolts ranging in diameter from y2 in. to V/i ins. 
and in length from 3>^ ins. to 35 ins. were made at an average cost of 24 cts. 
each. This includes welding on heads, cutting steel and threading nuts and 
bolts. About one-third of the bolts were upset for 6 ins. of their length to 
50 per cent excess diameter. 

Drilling Concrete. — 1,569 holes were drilled in 1:2:4 concrete from 30 to 90 
days old at an average cost of 1 1 cts. per hole. These holes ranged in diameter 
from % ins. to 1 in. and in depth from 3 ins. to 8^^ ins. 

Wood Conduits. — 840 lin. ft. of 6 X .6-in. wood conduit were placed at an 
average cost of 38 cts. per ft. This was . a conduit of 2-in. lumber around out- 
side of 2-in. lead pipe, It was filled with sawdust. 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 479 

L^iBOR COST DATA ON WASH WATER TANK IN 1912 

Earth Work — Excavation. — 694 cu. yds. of very hard clay were excavated 
with pick and shovel and wheeled in barrows at an average unit cost of 63.4 
cts. per cu. yd. 

Backfill. — 187 cu. yds. of clay were backfilled at an average unit cost of 21.9 
cts. per cu. yd. This clay was sprinkled and tamped by hand in 2-in. layers. 

Fill. — 6,399 cu. yds. of fill were made at an average cost of 443-^ cts. per 
cu. yd. This includes a haul of 1,000 ft. 

Puddle. — 82 cu. yds. of puddle were placed at an average cost of $2.79 per 
cu. yd. This material was sprinkled and tamped by hand in layers ranging 
in thickness from iy2 to 2 ins. 

Form Work — Transporting Lumber. — 11,819 ft. B. M. w^ transported 
an average distance of 300 ft. at a cost of $3.54 per 1,000 ft. B. M. 

Walls and Foundation. — 14,271 sq. ft. of forms were placed at an average 
cost of 6.6 cts. per sq. ft. These forms were made of 2-in. lumber. The cost 
given includes all bracing. Only the area exposed to concrete is given. 

Column, Beam and Floor Beams. — 10,602 sq. ft. of these forms were built 
at an average cost of 9 cts. per sq. ft.; 2-in. lumber was used, and the cost 
Includes braces and clamps. 

Wrecking. — 23,991 sq. ft. of forms were wrecked at an average cost of 1.7 
cts. per sq. ft. This is for the area exposed to concrete, and includes the 
removal of all clamps, braces, etc. 

Reinforcing Steel — Hauling. — 57,093 lbs. were hauled an average distance 
of 500 ft. at an average cost of 85 cts. per 1,000 lbs. 

Bending. — 34,332 lbs. of reinforcing steel were bent at an average unit cost 
of SI. 40 per 1,000 lbs. 

Setting. — 57,093 lbs of steel were set at an average cost of $4.55 per 1,000 
lbs. This includes the wiring of all interesections of reinforcing rods with 
No. 16 gage wire. 

Structural Steel — Hauling. — 4.74 tons of structural steel were hauled a 
distance of 800 ft. at an average cost of 50 cts. per ton. 

Setting. — 4.74 tons of structural steel were set at an average cost of $9.32 
per ton. This includes hoisting, riveting and bolting up. 

Concreting. — 636 cu. yds. of concrete were placed at an average unit cost of 
95 cts. per cu. yd. This includes placing runways, hoisting, etc. 

Finishing. — 4,043 sq. ft. of 1 : 2 cement finish coat were placed at an average 
cost of 3y2 cts. per sq. ft. 

Brick. — 71.2 M of brick were placed at an average cost of $19.40 per M. 
This includes the erection of scaffolds, hoisting, etc. Round tower bricks 
were used and were laid in Flemish bond. 

Washing Walls. — 21 sq. ft. of walls were washed at an average cost of 1.2 
cts. per sq. ft. This includes the necessary scaffolding. 

Roofing. — 19 squares of roofing were placed at an average cost of $6.50 per 
square. This includes all scaffolding, Since this was a conical roof, the 
shingles at the last were very small. They were placed on a 1:2:4 cinder 
concrete. 

Painting. — 1,250 sq. ft. of painting figured as a single coat was done at an 
average cost of IH cts. per sq. ft. 

Cast Iron Pipe and Specials — Cutting. — Cast iron pipe was cut with cold 
chisels, two men working on a cut. Three cuts were made of 12-in. pipe at . 
28 cts, each. Two cuts of 12-in. pipe were made under water at 93 cts. each. 
One 24-in. pipe was cut at 70 cts. 



480 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Calking. — 15 joints in 12-in. pipe were calked at 57 cts. each. One 24-in. 
joint was calked at $1.90. These figures include yarning, pouring, heating 
lead, etc. 

Laying. — 8.81 tons of cast-iron pipe and specials were laid at an average 
cost of $2.92 per ton. This includes erection of necessary derricks and 
scaffolds, etc. 

Ladder Rungs. — 10 ladder rungs of ^4-in. round steel were made at 10 cts. 
each and set, including drilling holes, grouting, etc., at 26 cts. each. 

Cutting Shingles. — 3,140 shingles were cut to fit conical roof at $28.80 per 
1,000. 

COST DATA OF HAULING MISCELLANEOUS, ETC., IN 1914 

Hauling — Cement. — 24,590 barrels of cement were hauled a distance of 
1^ miles at an average unit cost of lOH cts. per barrel. 70 bags to a load 
were hauled over roads which were very bad at times. 

Sand. — 7,538 cu. yds. of sand were hauled a distance ranging from 300 to 
3,000 ft. at an average unit cost of 46y2 cts. per cu. yd. VA cu. yds. made a 
load. The cost given includes all snatch team work. 

Steel. — 438 tons of steel were hauled a distance of iy2 miles at an average 
unit cost of $1.35 per mile. This cost includes loading and handhng by hand. 
Some of the steel was in very long sections, and all of it was badly mixed in the 
cars. 

Cast Iron Pipe and Specials. — 1,195 tons of cast iron pipe and specials were 
hauled a distance of 1^ miles at an average unit cost of $1.34 per ton. All 
pipe was unloaded by hand, no derrick being used. 

Miscellaneous Castings and Machinery. — 191 tons of miscellaneous castings 
and machinery were hauled a distance ranging from 1 3.^ to 5 miles, the greater 
portion of it being V/i miles, at an average unit cost of $1.67 per ton. All of 
this material was handled by hand. 

Lumber for Forms. — 239,500 ft. B. M. of lumber was hauled a distance 
ranging from 1,500 to 3,000 ft. at an average cost of $1.61 per 1,000 ft. B. M. 
This material was handled by hand and was hauled in wagons not well suited 
to the purpose. 

Edgings and Waste Material. — 93 loads of this class were hauled a distance 
ranging from 900 to 1,500 ft. at an average unit cost of 86^^ cts. per load. 
All work was done by hand, and the material was all in small pieces. 

Recovery of Lumber. — 30,500 ft. B. M. of lumber was recovered at an 
average unit cost of $1 per 1,000 ft. B. M. This includes the pulling out of 
old nails. 

LABOR COST OF HAULING AND MISCELLANEOUS WORK IN 1912 

Hauling. — All hauling includes loading, unloading, handling, etc. Common 
dump board wagons were used in all cases. 

Cement. — 8,776 bbls. of cement were hauled a distance ranging from IJ^io to 
2\i miles at an average cost of 11.6 cts per barrel. 

Sand. — 3,137 cu. yds. of sand were hauled a distance of 1,200 ft. at an 
average unit cost of 31 cts. per cu. yd.; 49 cu. yds. of sand were hauled a 
distance of 20,000 ft. at an average unit cost of $2.15 per cu. yd. The latter 
sand was frozen to the ground and had to be picked loose. 

Cast Iron Pipe and Specials. — 552 tons of cast iron pipe and specials were 
hauled a distance of S\i miles at an average cost of $1.16 per ton. 

Miscellaneous Castings and Machinery. — 142 tons of miscellaneous castings 
and machinery were hauled a distance ranging from VA to 4 miles at an 
average unit cost of $1.65 per ton. 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 481 

Lumber. — 82,000 ft. B. M. of lumber was hauled a distance ranging from 
300 to 600 ft. at an average unit cost of 80 cts. per 1,000 ft. B. M. 

Waste Material. — 2,104 loads of waste material were hauled a distance of 
1,200 ft. at an average cost of 60 cts. per load. 

Recovery of Lumber. — 158,900 ft. B. M. of lumber was recovered at an 
average unit cost of $3.73 per 1,000 ft. B. M. This included the pulling out 
of nails and the cleaning off of concrete. 

Costs of Concrete Construction in the Water Filtration Plant at Niles, 
Ohio. — The following data ard given by R. A. Boothe in an article published 
in Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 23, 1912. 

Concrete Mixing. — The concrete plant consisted of a half-yard Ransome 
mixer with a batch hopper. The sand and gravel were shoveled off 
the cars onto stock piles at a cost of 8 cts. per ton and hauled from there to 
the mixer in barrows, the average haul being 50 ft. The cement was unloaded 
directly from the cars into the cement house at a cost of 2 cts. per bbl. and 
wheeled from there to the mixer. 

The usual force employed on the mixer was 2 men wheeling sand, 4 wheeling 
gravel, 1 wheeling cement, 1 man on the mixer, and an engineer. The engineer 
and the man on the mixer received 25 cts. per hour and all others 20 cts. This 
made a total cost per hour of $1.20 and the usual capacity was 9 cu. yds. per 
hour, making a cost of 13}^ cts. per cubic yard for mixing. The capacity has 
been as high as 12 cu. yds per hour, being controlled by the rate at which the 
concrete was taken away from the mixer, so the above costs cannot be taken 
as the capacity of the plant or the cheapest possible costs. 

Concrete Floors. — All of the floors were in two layers, the bottom one being 
8 ins. thick and the upper one 4 ins. thick, the upper one being laid after the 
walls were up. 

The bottom floor was laid in alternate strips 8 ft. wide and 16 ft. and 30 ft. 
long, all joints being broken. The lower floor for the entire plant was laid 
before any of the walls were started, 2 X 6-in. keys being placed for all walls. 
This floor was made of a l:2i^:5 mix, using river sand and gravel. The 
pedestals for all of the columns were built with the floor. 

For the floors the concrete was dropped from the mixer down a chute into 
barrows and wheeled into place. 

Cost of labor on forms for screen boards and runs on lower layer of floor : 



-Cost- 



Per Per 

Item sq. yd. cu. yd. 

3 carpenters, 67 hrs. at 25 cts .* $50. 25 $0. 038 $0. 172 

1 foreman, 53 hrs. at 50 cts 26. 50 02 .09 

Totals $76.75 $0,058 $0,262 

Cost of labor on concreting lower layer of floors: 



-Cost- 



Per 

Item cu. yd. 

14 men, 47 hrs. at 20 cts $105. 60 \ 

4 men, 41 hrs. at 25 cts 41. 00 / $0. 591 

1 superintendent, 41 hrs. at 50 cts 20. 50 .07 

Water boy, 41 hrs. at 10 cts 4. 10 . 014 

2 finishers, 50 hrs. at 20 cts 20. 00 \ 

1 finisher, 38 hrs. at 25 cts .' 9. 50 / .101 

Totals $226. 70 $0. 776 

Or $0. 173 per square yard. 
31 



482 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Labor Cost of Forms, Placing Reinforcement §nd Concrete Coagulating Basins. 
— As soon as the floors were laid the walls of the basins were started. In 
building these one end and half of each side were built together, then the other 
end and the balance of the sides, and last the dividing wall and baffles. All 
were built in 5-ft. lifts. The outside walls are 16 ins. thick at the top and 
20 ins. thick at the bottom, the latter being on the inside. On top they 
have an overhang of 26 ins., which with the wall gives a 42-in. walk, 6 ins. thick. 
The dividing wall is of the same construction while the baffles are 6 ins. thick 
with an 18-in. walk on top. The walls are all tied together by five 18 X 12-in. 
beams which extend across both basins. 

. For reinforcing, the outside walls have %-in. rods 5 ins. on centers for out- 
side verticals, and 3'^-in. rods 8 ins. on centers for the inside verticals, with 
y2-ui. rods 9 ins. on centers for the horizontals on both sides. The dividing 
wall has ^^-in. rods 5 ins. on centers for verticals on both sides and i-^-in. 
rods 9 ins. on centers for the horizontals. The baffle walls are reinforced 
with expanded metal weighing 0.6 lb. per foot. The ^i-in. rods in the walls 
are made long enough to be bent over to reinforce the walks. In addition the 
walks have three ^^-in. rods along their edges. All rods are corrugated. 

The average inside dimensions of each basin are 97 ft. X 34 ft. 8 ins. and 
20 ft. 3 ins. deep with a high water mark 18 ins. below the top. 

For the wall forms sheets 10 ft. wide and the full height of the wall were 
built of %-in. tongue and grooved stuff on 2 X 6-in. studding spaced 18 ins. 
centers. These were used for the outside forms and were placed and braced 
in position, then the steel was placed. For this spikes were driven in the 
forms for every fifth vertical rod and the head allowed to extend out 2 ins. 
These rods were wired to the spikes, then a horizontal rod at the top and 
another at the bottom were wired to these, then the rest of the vertical rods 
were placed and wired to the horizontals, and then the rest of the horizontals 
were placed. For the inside reinforcing wooden spacers were used instead .of 
spikes. These were fastened to the outside forms and were removed before 
the concrete was placed. On the inside the horizontal rods were carried up 
with each lift as they would have interfered with the dumping of the concrete 
if they had been placed any higher. 

After the steel was placed the inside sheets were placed. These were 4 ft. 
high and 16 ft. long. Wooden spacers were used between the forms and two 
strings of 4 X 4-in. waling were placed on each side. No. 10 wire was carried 
through the forms around the waling and twisted on the inside. On top of the 
4-ft. sheet a false sheet 1 ft. high was used. It was used so that the 4-ft. 
sheet could be removed and placed on fop for the next lift, the wiring in the 
false sheet holding it solidly in place. 

The runways were built with 4 X 4-in. uprights placed about 6 ft. from 
the forms. These were the full height of the wall and were X-braced to- 
gether. Ledgers were spiked across from the forms to the uprights and the 
runway plank placed on these. These were raised for ever^ new lift. The 
runway ran around the inside of the basins and back to the mixer; this gave 
a continuous circuit for the wheelers. The concrete was dropped from the 
mixer down a chute into the barrows until the height of the mixer was reached 
and then it was wheeled direct. In building the outside walls key ways and 
2-ft. stubs of steel were placed for the dividing and baffle walls,. As each lift 
was built it was stepped back 2 ft. from the end of the preceding one so that 
there would not be a continuous vertical joint the height of the wall. When 
the concrete reached the height of the outlet box a section was left out and this 
was built with the boxes. 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 483 

Cost of labor on forms for coagulating basins 

Building sheets: 

Item. • Cost 

11 men, 6 hrs. at 20 cts $13. 20 

5 men, 30 hrs. at 25 cts 37. 50 

2 men, 18 hrs. at 35 cts 12. 60 

Superintendent 27 hrs. at 50 cts 13 50 

Water boy 20 hrs. at 10 cts 2. 00 



Total cost $78. 80 

Or $0. 014 per sq. ft. of form surface; or $p, 195 per cu. yd. of concrete. 

Cost of labor on erecting forms and runs and wrecking same: 

Item. Cost 

5 men, 168 hrs. at 20 cts $168. 00 

7 men, 190 hrs. at 25 cts 332. 50 

2 men, 190 hrs. at 35 cts 133. 50 

Foreman, 160 hrs. at 50 cts 80. 00 

Water boy, 100 hrs. at 10 cts 10. 00 



Total cost $726. 50 

Cost, $1 . 802 per cu. yd. 

Cost, $0. 052 per sq. ft. of concrete surface. 

Cost of placing 58,100 lbs. of steel for basins: 

Item. Cost 

4 men, 54 hrs. at 20 cts , $ 43. 20 

7 men, 50 hrs. at 25 cts 87. 50 

2 men, 42 hrs. at 35 cts 28. 40 

Superintendent, 33 hrs. at 50 cts . . 16. 50 

Water boy, 33 hrs. at 10 cts 3. 30 



Total cost $178. 

Cost, $0. 0031 per lb., or $6.20 per ton. 

Cost of labor on concreting walls of basins: 

Cost 



Per 
Item. cu. yd. 

19 men, 44 hrs. at 20 cts $167. 20 \ 

4 men, 44 hrs. at 25 cts 44.00/ $0,490 

Superintendent, 44 hrs. at 50 cts \ 22. 00 055 

Water boy, 44 hrs. at 10 cts , 4. 40 .011 



Totals $237. 60 $0. 546 

Cost of labor on forms for outlet boxes : 

Item. Cost 

2 carpenters, 70 hrs. at 35 cts $ 49. 00 

2 carpenters, 70 hrs. at 30 cts 42. 00 

4 carpenters, 70 hrS. at 25 cts 70. 00 

1 foreman, 70 hrs. at 50 cts 35. 00 

$196.00 
Less cost of walls included 34 . 00 

Total $162. 00 

Cost per cu. yd., $10. 80. 

Labor Cost of Forms and Concreting Clear Well. — The inside dimensions of the 
clear well are 26 ft. 4 ins. X 72 ft- 3 iiig, and it is 11 ft. deep. The method of 



484 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

construction here was almost the same as that used on the basins except that 
the walls were built the full height instead of in 5-ft. lifts. For the forms the 
large sheets that had been used on the basins were cut down and used for 
both sides, all of the walls being poured at one operation. 
Cost of labor on clear well forms: 

Item. Cost 

3 men 22 hrs. at 20 cts $13.20 

8 men, 47. hrs. at 25 cts 94. 00 

2 men, 48 hrs. at 35 cts 33. 60 

Foreman, 46 hrs. at 50 cts 23. 00 

Water boy, 20 hrs. at 10 cts 2. 00 

Total $165. 80 

Cost per cu. yd., $1. 842. 

Cost per sq. ft. of concrete surface, $0. 05. 

Cost of labor for concreting clear well: 

Item. Cost 

20 men, 12 hrs. at 20 cts $ 48. 00 

4 men, 12 hrs. at 25 cts 12. 00 

Superintendent, 12 hrs. at 50 cts 6. 00 

Water boy, 12 hrs. at 10 cts 1 . 20 

Total $ 67. 20 

Cost per cu. yd., $0,747. 

Labor Cost of Column Forms. — Fourteen columns, 14 X 14-ins. and 11-ft. 
long support the roof of the clear well. The column side forms were built 
in one piece and were held together with 2 X 4-in. clamps and wedges. 

Cost of labor on forms for 14 columns: 

Item. Cost 

2 men, 22 hrs. at 25 cts $1 1 . 00 

2 men, 25 hrs. at 35 cts 17. 50 

Total $28. 50 

Cost per column, $2.04. 
Cost per cu. yd., $4.07. 

Labor Cost of Forms and Concreting Filters. — Each filter was built complete 
including floors and walls and walks, and all poured at one pouring. The 
filter blocks and troughs were placed after the forms were removed. In 
building the forms all of the sides were built in sheets, the old sheets used on . 
the pump room and clear well walls being used and cut down. The outside 
and sheets inside the channels were placed first. These rested on the concrete. 
Then the steel was placed and next the inside sheets were placed. The latter 
were set on 4-in. concrete blocks so as to form the floor. The walks were 
built on 2 X 4-in. brackets built out from the sheets and covered with J^-in. 
tongue and groove flooring. Rebate boxes were placed for the cross troughs. 
When the concrete was placed the floors were placed first with a mixture that 
was dry enough to tamp and show water on the surface. Then the walls were 
poured and as the inside forms were 4 ins. off of the bottom the concrete ran 
through and bonded with the floor. The walls were poured very wet and were 
well worked. It was found that in places the concrete would boil out under 
the inside forms but this was left until the next day and then chipped off 
before it was too hard ; at this time the floors were also trimmed up to a level 
grade as they were always rough and uneven. The forms were braced across 
the filters and also had walings and wires in them. 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 485 

Building 12 forms for filter blocks cost $42.50, or $3.54 each. 
Labor cost of forms for four filters : 

Item Cost 

Superintendent, 170 hrs. at 50 cts $ 85. 00 

2 carpenters, 170 hrs. at 35 cts 119. 00 

3 carpenters, 170 hrs. at 30 cts 153. 00 

3 carpenters, 190 hrs. at 25 cts 143. 50 

2 men, 100 hrs. at 20 cts 40. 00 

Total $540. 50 

Cost per filter, $135.12. 
Cost per cu. yd., $5.00. 

Cost of labor on concreting filters: 

Item Cost 

Superintendent, 4^ hrs. at 50 cts $ 2. 25 

3 men, 43'^ hrs. at 25 cts 3. 38 

18 men, 4>^ hrs. at 20 cts 16. 20 

Finisher, 5 hrs. at 30 cts 1 . 50 

Water boy, 4:}^ hrs. at 10 cts .45 

Total cost $ 23. 78 

Cost per cu. yd., $0.88. 

The costs of forms given in this article include runways and wrecking. The 
work was done by contract started May 17, 1911 and the plant started oper- 
ating Jan. 5, 1912. 

Cost of Rebuilding Filter Beds at Cincinnati Filtration Plant. — The filter 
plant of the city of Cincinnati, O., as placed in operation in 1907, had a strainer 
system consisting of perforated plates covering concrete channels located at 
the bottom of trough-like depressions running lengthwise of the filter. The 
depressions were filled with gravel and to prevent its displacement during 
washing, wire cloth screens were bolted to the tops of the troughs. These 
retained the gravel effectively and prevented the passage of sand into the 
filters. It was found, however, that the screens corroded in the water at 
Cincinnati, and consequently they were removed, and the necessity for their 
use avoided by increasing the depth of gravel above the strainers to 14 in. 
The methods employed in reconstructing these filter beds are described by 
J. W. Ellms, Superintendent of Filtration, in the 1916 annual report of the 
Cincinnati Water Works Department, from which the matter following was 
abstracted by Engineering and Contracting in the issue of Oct. 10, 1917. 

Following the experimental work that was undertaken to determine the 
best plan to pursue in rebuilding the beds after removing the brass wire cloth, 
one filter. No. 19, was rebuilt and put in service on Dec. 25, 1913. This filter 
was operated continuously in order to observe its action with the increased 
depth of the gravel bed (14 in.) that had been substituted for the 73'^-in. gravel 
bed used with the wire cloth screen. The satisfactory results obtained 
with this filter after operating it for neaily a year, confirmed the conclusions 
derived from the experiments, and plans were made to rebuild the remaining 
beds of the plant. 

As the handling of the sand by throwing it up to a platform made of plank 
laid over the top of an adjoining filter, had proven expensive, a centrifugal 
pump was installed in the middle gallery of the filter house on the motor 
gallery floor. The pump was capable of throwing 180 gal. of water a minute 
and would produce a pressure at the pump of 100 lb. per square inch. A 



486 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

sand ejector was purchased and was used to transfer the sand from one bed 
to another during the reconstruction work. This outfit proved satisfactory, 
and saved a great deal of the expense of manual labor that "would have other- 
wise been necessary in handling the sand. 

Late in the fall of 1914, Filter No. 2 was reconstructed before the sand 
handling apparatus was installed. The cost of rebuilding this filter, the same 
as in the case of Filter No. 19, which was rebuilt during the previous year, 
was much in excess of the cost of reconstructing the remaining 26 filters of the 
plant. 

On Dec. 16, 1914, active work was commenced on the remaining 26 filters 
and they were completed on March 9, 1916. The laborers doing this work 
were the men from the reservoir force, and t'hey carried on all the other work 
of the plant in conjunction with this work of rebuilding the filter beds. In 
consequence, they were not employed continuously on the reconstruction 
work, but gave it as much attention as they were able, in order to complete it 
as soon as possible. 

Substantial screens were built to be used in grading the gravel. These 
screens were necessary, not only to separate the various sizes of new gravel 
needed for increasing the depth of the bed, but also to regrade the original 
gravel removed from the filter tanks. The grading and regrading of the 
gravel proved, if anything, more expensive than any other part of the work, 
since handling and rehandling the gravel was unavoidable. 

The gravel layers placed in the bed were graded as follows: 

Depth of 
Size of separation layer, in. 

Passed a 2-in. and retained on a 1-in. screen 2 

Passed a 1-in. and retained on a ^-in. screen. ../... 2 

Passed a ^1-in. and retained on a 3^-in. screen 3 

Passed a ^'^-in. and retained on a 34 -in. screen 4 

Passed a yi-\n. screen 3 

Thirty inches of sand were placed directly on top of the finest gravel layer. 
No new sand was used, except about 6 or 7 cu. yd, in the last filter rebuilt. 
The sand now has an effective size of 0.38 m.m. and a uniformity coefficient 
of 1.35. 

The sand received no cleaning other than what it may have obtained in 
being transferred from one bed to another. The handling of the sand was so 
arranged, that the removal of sand from one bed was the operation that 
transferred it to a reconstructed bed. Two handlings of the sand were thus 
avoided. 

In order not to disturb the gravel, the sand shoveled into the ejector was 
discharged into a galvanized iron pocket swung between the wash troughs and 
above the newly laid gravel bed. The velocity of the escaping water was 
thus reduced, and no disturbance of the gravel resulted. A systematic method 
for cleaning the filtered water channels under the brass strainer plates was 
followed. Plates over the riser pipes were removed, and at the ends of the 
tank. Caps on the manifold headers under the filters were removed. Any 
sand that may have gotten down into the effluent piping was flushed back with 
the wash water out of the open ends of the manifolds. Hose streams were 
used to wash out the channels under the plates, and any sand in them was 
washed down the riser pipes and out of the ends of the headers. 

Every hole in the strainer plates of each filter was opened up by pushing a 
sharp piece of steel into it. Any incrustation or lodged sand particles were 
thus removed. Many hook bolts were replaced that had been broken, either 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 487 

in the course of operation of the filter, or from having been originally strained 
too hard in placing them in the first place. Any plate that was improperly 
grouted was repaired, and the plates that had to be removed were carefully 
cemented back in place. 

As the increased depth of the gravel has brought the sand surface nearer 
the edge of the wash troughs, the wash water valve has had to be reset, so as 
to give a velocity of wash water of less than 2 ft. per minute. The velocity of 
wash water is now about 18 in. per minute. 

The estimated cost of reconstructing the filter beds was $8,500. Obviously 
there was not very much exact information on which to base an estimate. The 
handling of the gravel proved to be the most expensive part of the work. 
Gravel also cost an average of $1.62 per ton instead of the $1.39 per ton used in 
the estimate. The actual cost, as nearly as it is possible to get at it, appears 
to have been $9,502,76. This gives a total cost per filter of $339.38. which is 
equivalent to a cost of 24.2 ct. per square foot of filter area. There is a credit 
against the above cost for 150 tons of gravel left over and having a value of 
$1.62 per ton, or a total of $243. From the sale of old brass wire cloth, there 
was a saving of the scrap value of 38,125.5 lb., having an estimated value of 
$3,304.60. Adding these two items together makes a total credit of $3,547.60, 
which if deducted from $9,502.76, leaves a net cost to the city of $5,955.16 
for this reconstruction work. This is equivalent to $205.54 per filter, or 15.2 
ct. per square foot of filter area. 
. The cost of the various items was as follows: 

Quan- 

Operation tity Hours Costs 

Removing old gravel 3 , 936 $ 996. 75 

Screening old gravel 3 , 890 985. 25 

Removing strainer plates over risers 645 163. 12 

Cleaning out holes in strainer plates 1 , 631 458. 32 

Flushing out filtered water channels 571 144. 62 

Replacing strainer plates. 1 , 778 450. 15 

Replacing gravel 3,910 990. 25 

Transferring sand with ejector 1 , 218 308. 22 

Pump and sand ejector operated 304. 3 48. 77 

Screening new gravel 2 , 885 724 . 85 

Unloading new gravel from cars 192 48. 77 

Loading and unloading gravel from team ; 1,416 355. 80 

Hauling with team 307 153. 50 

Labor of machinst on header caps 69 34. 50 

Labor of machinst's helper 82 21 . 57 

Common labor on header caps 665 169. 30 

Foreman's time (65 per cent) . 650. 00 

Bags used up in hauling gravel 2 , 000 100. 08 

Reconstruction of Filters Nos. 2 and 19 819. 37 

Gravel purchased (tons) 1 , 159 .' 1 , 879. 57 

Total cost of reconstructing 28 filters $9 , 502. 76 

Common labor cost $2 per 8-hour day until Feb. 1, 1916, after which it was 
$2.25 per day. The machinist was paid 50 ct. per hour and the machinist's 
helper $2.25 per day. The team cost 50 ct. per hour. The water used was 
valued at $7 per 1,000,000 gal. The cost of power was placed at $0,086 per 
hour; or using 180 gal. per minute for sand ejecting, the cost for power and 
water was 16c per hour. 

Cost of Treating Filter Water With Copper Sulphate. — The following 
matter is taken from an abstract, published in Engineering Record, July 26, 
1913, of a paper presented before the American Waterworks Association at 



488 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Minneapolis by Frederick H Stover, Bacteriologist and Chemist, Lousville 
Water Company. 

The chief functions of water filters being the removal of bacteria and 
suspended matter the natural inference would be that the operation of the 
plant would be easiest at the times when these substances are present in least 
amount. Many filter superintendents, however, find that such is not always 
the case and that warm weather and clear water bring troubles peculiarly their 
own. The usual symptoms of these troubles are marked shortening in the 
length of the filter runs and the prevalence about the filter beds of a pro- 
nounced odor, varying from "grassy" to "fishy" in nature. Microscopical 
examination of the water at such times usually reveals the presence of numer- 
ous minute forms of the type generally classified by waterworks men as " micro- 
organisms," which, in the waters of the Ohio River, are principally diatoms, 
with a few algae and miscellaneous forms present. 

The water of the Ohio River, when of a turbidity below 30 parts per million, 
almost invariably causes decreases in the length of the filter runs. If such 
turbidities are accompanied by micro-organism and much amorphous matter, 
still greater decreases follow. Filter runs may be greatly increased by the 
judicious use of copper sulphate, although after-growths of bacteria sometimes 
follow its application and must be guarded against. 

With the copper sulphate (CUSO4) applications markedly favorable results 
have been secured in all but one instance, and even in this case the results 
cannot be said to have been negative, as the runs were kept at 6 hours and 
above under conditions when much lower ones might have been expected, and 
probably would have occurred had not the copper been used. The minimum 
length of runs reached at this time was 5 hours, which occurred 9 days after 
this dosing. 

Within 24 hours after the application of the copper there was in each in- 
stance a noticeable increase in the length of the filter runs and that these 
lengthened runs continued for periods varying from 8 to 19 days in length. 

The copper was applied in the second sedimentation basin and in the coagu- 
lant basin by dragging bags of it from a boat. 

The decreases in the length of the filter runs of course cause correspondingly 
large increases in the amounts of wash water used. During the year 1912 
the average amount of wash water used at Louisville was 2.05 per cent — the 
lowest average for any one month being 1.44 per cent. During the periods of 
shortened filter runs, however, the amounts will vary from 6 to 10.7 per cent. 

Small doses of hypochlorite of lime do not affect these micro-organisms in 
such a way as to increase the length of the filter runs. The determination of 
the time of filtration of samples of water through small laboratory filters will 
in some instances enable the operator to select the water from that point of 
his system which will give the longest filter runs. 



Amount and Cost of Coppek Sulphate Treatment 



Date 
Aug. 20, 1910. 
May 27, 1911. 
June 15, 1911. 
June 10, 1912. 



— CUSO4 
Pounds 

650 

735 

1000 

625 



used — 
P.p.m. 
1.3 
1.3 
1.7 
1.2 



Effects 

lasted 

(days) 

19 

10 

9 

9 



Total 
cost 
$31.20 
36.00 
49.00 
30.60 



Cost per mil. gal. 
Dosed Treated 



$0.50 
0.52 
0.70 
0.49 



$0. 065 
0.104 
0.217 
0.132 



♦Value 
wash 
water 
saved 

$149.' 76 
228. 50 



*At $30 per million gallons. 



■H^ WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 489 

■ Operating Costs of Filtration Plants. — The following data are taken from 

» Stem's "Water Purification Plants" (1915). 

Perhaps the largest single factor affecting the cost of operation of filtration 
j)lants is the amount of coagulant used. This varies with the quality of the 
raw water, and increases greatly when the water is softened. The labor cost 
increases with the size of plant from the smallest to plants of perhaps 10,000,- 
000 gallons capacity, after which the cost per million gallons decreases. 
Against the cost of filtering should be charged the cost of pumping the water 
against the head lost in filtration, which is generally from 10 to 15 feet. 
The following are typical examples of the cost of filtration in plants of 
various sizes: 

Example No. 1. Cost of Coagulation and Sedimentation at St. Louis, Mo. — 
The treatment consists of coagulation with lime and iron sulphate, followed 
by sedimentation in large basins. The source of supply is the Mississippi 
River below the mouth of the Missouri, consequently a very high turbidity 
prevails much of the time. The average amounts of chemicals used in 1911 
were 5.77 grains per gallon of lime and 2.70 grains per gallon of iron sulphate. 

Cost of Purification per Million Gallons (1910-1911) 

Lime . $1 . 967 

Sulphate of iron 1 . 969 

Unloading 0. 094 

Operating and maintenance (labor) 0. 378 

Repairs 0. 030 

Water, coal, oil, etc 0. 047 

Light and power 0. 098 

Water analyses (chemist's) 0. 172 

Total $4. 755 

The average daily pumpage was about 86,000,000 gallons. 
Example No. 2. Cost of Filtration at Harrisburg, Penna. — This is a standard 
type mechanical filtration plant. The pumpage for 1911 averaged 8,205,684 
gallons per day. The average amount of coagulant used was 0.7 grain per 
gallon. 
\ Cost of Purification per Million Gallons (1910-1911) 

Coagulant $1 . 22 

Fuel (low service) . 0. 86 

Supphes 0. 28 

Materials and repairs 36 

Oil and waste 07 

Laboratory T . 43 

Labor 2.77 

Total $5.99 

Example No. 3. Cost of Filtration at a Typical Small Plant. — Daily pump- 
age, 2,000,000 gallons. Water slightly acid at times, requiring the use of 
soda ash. Average amounts of coagulant used 0.7 grain per gallon of alum, 
0.5 grain per gallon of soda ash; 

>CosT OF Purification per Million Gallons 
Alum $1 . 25 

Soda ash . .86 

Fuel (low service) * . . . : 73 

Supplies, oil, and waste 42 

Repairs 07 

Labor 2. 00 

Total . $5.33 

• Cost of pumping the additional head lost in the filtration plant. 



490 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Example No. 4. Cost of Purification in a Large Softening Plant. ~T>2L\\y 
pumpage, 50,000,000 gallons; lime used, 8 grains per gallon; iron sulphate, 
1 grain per gallon. Plant is equipped with conveyors, automatic scales, and 
other labor-saving devices.. 

Cost of Purification per Million Gallons 

Lime $2.71 

Iron sulphate 0. 72 

Labor 0. 69 

Material, supplies, and repairs 0. 56 

Laboratory 0.12 

Low-service pumpage* 0. 40 

$5.20 
*Cost of pumping the additional head lost in the filtration plant. 

Cost of Water Purification at Cincinnati, O. — (Engineering and Contracting 
Jan. 14, 1920). The average cost of operating and maintaining the filter 
plant of Cincinnati, O., for the 10-year period 1908-17 has been $3.96 per 
1,000,000 gal. of filtered water delivered for consumption. This total consists 
of $1.66 for coagulating chemicals, 36 ct. for maintenance and $1.94 for other 
operating costs, principally labor charges. The following table, from the 
1917-18 report of the Water Department summarizes the cost since the plant 
was started : 

Operating Costs per Million Gallons 



Year 

1908 

1909 

1910 •. . 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

The increase in maintenance in 1915 was largely due to cost of reconstruct- 
ing the filter beds which item amounted to $0.34 per 1,000,000 gals. Another 
unusual item in that year was the cost of repairing roofs which amounted to 
$0.07 per 1,000,000 gals. 

The average period of service has been between 22 to 23 hours. The time 
required for washing a filter has been from 3.75 to 4.50 minutes. The amount 
of wash water amounts to from 1 to 2.75 per cent and averages about 1.75 per 
cent of the total water filtered. 

Cost of Operation and Comparative Cost of Chemicals for Columbus, O., 
Purification Works. — The total expense for operating and maintenance of the 
water softening and purification works of the city of Columbus, O., for 1916 
was $199,299, of which $24,902 was for labor and supervision, $168,346 for 
chemicals and $6,051 for general supplies. The cost of purification per 
1,000,000 gal. delivered to consumers was $27.75. The quantities and costs of 



Operation 






Coagu- 


All other 






lating 


operating 


Mainte- 




chemicals 


costs 


nance 


Total 


$1.72 


$2.47 


$0.05 


$4.24 


1.89 


2.28 


.09 


4.26 


1.93 


1.98 


.28 


4.19 


1.86 


1.91 


.35 


4.12 


1.78 


1.68 


.38 


3.84 


1.67 


1.77 


.48 


3.92 


1.21 


1.78 


.39 


3.38 


1.43 


1.86 


.76 


4.05 


1.27 


1.80 


.38 


3.45 


1.86 


1.85 


.40 


4.11 


2.12 


2.37 


.67 


5.16 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 491 

"^ chemicals used at the works during the 9 years, 190.9 to 1917, inclusive, as 
: given in Engineering and Contracting, June 12, 1918, have been as follows: 

Lime Soda ash Alum Bleach 

Cost per Cost per Cost per Cost per 

Year Tons ton Tons ton Tons ton Tons ton 

1909 2,467 $5.75 1,402 $17.50 624 $19.00 

1910 3,081 5.80 2,164 17.50 423 18.00 

1911 3,860 5.42 1,776 17.50 590 17.50 

1912 3,296 5.27 1,583 15.20 895 17.15 22 $27.80 

1913 3,629 5.17 2,895 12.88 711 17.10 17 27.80 

1914 4,650 5.27 3,540 13.30 880 16.75 14 29.20 

1915 3,970 5.17 2,383 15.14 69 *16. 60 22 34.80 

805 t7. 27 

1916 :.... 4,550 5.17. 1,975 62.00 823 t20. 18 19 85.00 

1917 4,206 7.03 1,833 60.00 943 tlO. 69 24 70.00 

* Crystal alum purchased in open market, f Cost of materials. 

Cost of Operation of Filter Plant of Erie, Pa. — The following data are 
taken from Engineering and Contracting, July 11, 1917. The rapid sand 
filtration plant of Erie, Pa., filtered 6,881,170,000 gal. of water in 1916. Com- 
pared with 1915 this is an increase of 1,066,600,000 gal. or 18.34 per cent. 
At times, especially during the months of July and August, the plant was 
operated as high as 35 per cent above its normal capacity. While operating 
above normal capacity no decrease was noted in the high efficiency obtained 
while operating at normal rates. It required 304, 631 lb. of aluminum sulphate 
to treat all the water filtered; expressed in grains per gallon is equal to .31. 
This is an increase of 50 per cent over the amount required per gallon in 1915. 
.The increased turbidity of the water treated made the increase in coagulant 
necessary. Total hypochlorite of calcium used 27,138 lb. or 3.9 lb. per 
1,000,000 gal. treated. In washing the filters, 129,100,000 gal. of filtered 
water were used. This is 1.88 per centof the total filtered. The cost of 
operation and maintenance for 1916 was $13,868; cost per 1,000,000 gal. 
filtered $2.02. Cost of operation and maintenance is divided as follows: 

Labor and supervision $ 6 , 539. 20 

Aluiri 4,658.89 

Hypo 1,045.71 

Wash water 1 , 050. 40 

Maintenance of plant and laboratories 573. 77 



^er cent 


47 


1 


33 


6 


7 


6 


7 


6 


4 


1 



$13,867.97* 100.0 
* Does not include low duty pumping, light, heat or pressure water. 

Cost of Filtering Water at Grand Rapids. — (Engineering and Contracting, 
Aug. 14, 1918). 

The cost of filtering water at Grand Rapids, Mich., increased from $14.87 
per 1,000,000 gal. for the year 1916-17 to $18.84 in 1917-18, according to the 
annual report of Walter A. Sperry, chief chemist of the filter plant. Com- 
parative figures on the operating costs for the last four years are given in the 
report, as follows: 

1917-18 

Wages $ 4. 86 

Chemicals 10. 06 

Power 2.23 

House water .20 

Supplies and repairs 1 . 49 .98 1.11 .86 



yib- 

$ 4 


-1/ 
26 


$ 4 


-lb 

48 


iyi4- 

$ 3 


-It) 

57 


7 


37 


5. 


10 


4 


76 


2 


26 


2. 


17 


2 


14 



Total $18.84 $14.87 $12.86 $11.33 



492 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The Grand Rapids plant was put in operation November, 1912. The 
method of- treatment is lime softening followed by mechanical filtration. 

According to Engineering News-Record, Aug. 30, 1917, the amount of 
wash water for this plant has averaged about 2% of the total amount of 
water treated. 

Eleven Years' Operating Results of Filter Plant. — The filtration plant of 
Harrisburg, Pa., has been in continuous operation since its completion in 
October, 1905. The following table, published in Engineering and Contract- 
ing, Sept. 12, 1917, shows the average turbidity, coagulants, length of runs and 
percentage of wash water during this period : 



Sulphate Calcium 



Year 

1906 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1914.. 

1915 

1916 

Average 56 .81 .057 16-11 2.6 



The method of operating was as follows : The water is pumped to the settling 
basin, capacity 4,000,000 gal., flows by gravity to the secondary or coagulation 
basins, capacity 334,000 gal. and then flows by gravity to the 12 filters which 
are of the American gravity type. The filtered water is pumped to the storage 
reservoir, which has a capacity of 26,000,000 gal. 

Cost of Water Purification at St. Louis, Mo. — (Engineering and Contract- 
ing, Sept. 8, 1920). 

During the fiscal year ending April 1, 1920, 39,642 million gallons of water 
were pumped into the basins. To this amount of water were added 1,387 
tons of sulphate of iron and 14,753 tons of lime, or an average of 0.49 grains 
per gallon of the former chemical and 5 21 grains per gallon of the latter. To 
the 39,092 milhons of gallons filtered were added 2,388 tons of sulphate .of 
alumina and 120,187 lb. of chlorine, or an average of 0.86 grains per gallon of 
the sulphate ajid 3.07 lb. per million gallons of the chlorine. The sulphate of 
alumina was added before, and the chlorine after, filtration. The average 
cost per million for lime was $3.89; for sulphate of iron, $0.67; for sulphate of 
alumina, $1.92 and for chlorine, $0.29. These costs are for chemicals alone 
and do not include the cost of handling or application. A comparison of the 
costs of the various parts of the purification work done during the past five 
years, based on the quantity of water delivered to consumers, is shown in the 
following table: 





of hypo- 






Turbidity 


alumina chlorite 


Length 


Wash 


parts per 


grs. 


grs. 


of runs 


water 


million 


per gal. per gal. 


hrs. min. 


pet. 


101 


.95 




18-20 


2.0 


76 


1.05 




12-20 


2.6 


52 


1.09 




13-29 


2.6 


42 


.84 


025 


14-22 


2.4 


19 


.61 


063 


18-40 


2.2 


32 


.95 


070 


23-07 


2.3 


59 


.77 


067 


21-54 


2.3 


56 


.79 


069 


17-26 


2.9 


33 


.53 


056 


20-17 


2.9 


85 


.69 


064 


17-41 


3.2 


60 


.66 


045 


16-39 


3.6 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 



493 



Table VIII. — Cost per Million Gallons, Based on Consumption 

Nov., 1915 
to 





1915- 


April, 


1916- 


1917- 


1918- 


1919- 


Old Plant 


1916 


1916 


1917 


1918 


1919 


1920 


Lime -. 


$ 1.70 


$1.61 


$ 1.89 


$ 2.94 


$ 3.72 


$ 3.89 


Iron 


1.42 


.64 


.61 


.57 


.82 


.67 


Unloading 


.08 


.07 


.08 


.09 


.12 


.12 


Operating, mainte- 














nance and repairs. 


.47 


.51 


.38 


.41 


.60 


.59 


Water, coal, oil. 














etc 


.03 


.04 


.03 


.05 


.08 


.05 


Light and power . ^, 


.07 


.07 


.04 


.10 


.12 


.11 


Chemical work 


.43 


.49 


.38 


.34 


.30 


.31 


Basin cleaning .... 


.14 


.08 


.121 


.17 


.22 


.26 


Basin repairs 


.03 


.03 


.01 


.02 


.02 


.02 


3 Switching and de- 














murrage 




$3.54 








.22 












Total old plant . . 


$ 4.37 


$ 3.54 


$ 4.69 


$ 6.00 


$ 6.24 


Filters 














Aluminum sul- 














phate 


$ 0.76 


$1.00 


$ 0.79 


$ 1.13 


$ 1.37 


$ 1.92 


Chlorine 


.18 


.15 


.14 


.27 


.31 


.29 


Operating, mainte- 














nance and repairs. 


.83 


.98 


.80 


.77 


.89 


.94 


Coal, miscellaneous 












supplies and ex- 














penses 


.14 


.26 


.20^ 


.36 


.39 


.39 


Light and power . . . 


.14 


.15 


.11 


.21 


.24 


.31 


3 Switching and de- 














murrage 












. 02 










Total 


$ 6.42 


$6.08 


$ 5.58 


$ 7.43 


$ 9.10 


$10.11 


Total consumption 














for year in milHon 














gals 


32,583 


13,138 


35,633 


38 , 090 


36,840 


38 , 004 


Cost of Chemicals 














Lime, per ton, av- 














erage 2 contracts. 


$ 3.65 




$ 4.49 


$ 6.86 


$ 8.75 


$10.03 


Sulphate of iron, 














per ton, average . . 


10.00 




12.50 


12.84 


16.84 


18.48 


Sulphate of alum- 














ina, per ton, aver- 














age 






21.00 


22.25 


27.60 


30.49 


Chlorine, per 














pound 


.08 




.13% 


.13% 


.12% 


.093^ 



1 Water used in basin cleaning — Omitted prior to 1916. 

2 Water used in filter plant operation — Omitted prior to 1916. 

3 Switching and demurrage in years 1915 to 1918, inclusive, are included in 
operating, maintenance, repairs, etc. 

The complete purification system was not in use until October, 1915. The 
heading, November, 1915-April, 1916, is included to show the costs of purifica- 
tion after the system was completed. The figures are included for the year of 
1915-1916. Under the head of lime, iron, sulphate of alumina and chlorine 
are included all charges connected with the switching of these materials from 
the interchange tracks at Bissell's Point and Humboldt avenue to the Chain of 
Rocks. The sulphate of iron, in the form of sugar sulphate, was furnished at 
$14.16 per ton after Aug. 1, 1919. The price of $23.50 was in effect prior to 
that date, but none was brought under that contract after April 1, 1919. 
Liquid chlorine cost 10.75 ct. per pound until Aug. 1 and at 5 ct. per pound 
after that date. The prices given aref . o. b. Niagara Falls, the prices delivered 
being 11.78 ct. and 6.40 ct. per pound. Sulphate of alumina was purchased 



494 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

under the same specifications as last year. Basic sulphate of alumina con- 
taining not less than 17 per cent of available water soluble alumina, AI2O3, 
was required. The sulphate was supplied from April 1st to Sept. 15th at a 
price of $34.50 per ton, from Dec. 15th to Jan. 1st at $30 per ton and after 
that date at $28.50 per ton. A few cars furnished during September cost $23 
per ton. From Oct. 1st to Dec. 15th the sulphate of alumina was supplied at 
$30.90 a ton. Lime was purchased under a specification requiring a lime 
containing 85 per cent CaO with a bonus or penalty of 1}^ per cent of the 
contract price for each per cent of CaO above or below the required 85 per 
cent. All lime was sampled as it came from the'crusher after unloading and 
these samples, together with the samples obtained from the daily supply 
hopper, were analyzed in the laboratory. Lime was supplied at a price of 
$9.30 a ton from April 1st to Sept. 1st at $10.30 a ton, from Sept. 1st to Feb. 1st 
and at $11.30 a ton after that date. The above notes are taken from the 
report of August V. Graf, Chief Chemist, Filter Plant, as embodied in the 
1920 annual report of Edward E. Wall, "Water Commissioner, St. Louis. 

Cost of Filtering Water at Providence, R. I. — The unit costs of filtering and 
pumping water at the Pettaconsett slow sand filters of Providence, R. I., are 
given by Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 10, 1917, as follows: 

Total cost 

per mil. Pumping 

Pumping gals, to water to 

on to fil- For clean- filter Sockanosset 

Year ter beds ing beds water reservoir 

1907 $3.28 $4.20 $7.48 $5.63 

1908 3.48 2.03 5.51 5.03 

1909 3.23 2.05 5.28 5.14 

1910 3.20 1.78 4.98 4.74 

1911 2.98 1.59 4.57 4.95 

1912 2.72 1.56 4.28 5.05 

1913 3.00 1.59 4.59 4.98 

1914 3.15 1.71 4.86 4.78 

1915 3.07 1.66 4.73 5.67 

1916 2.79 2.13 4.92 5.40 

With the exception of 1907, when open filter beds were used, the figures are 
for operating covered beds. In 1916 the plant consisted of 10 filters each of 
which was in service for from 7,969.5 to *8,216.0 hours; 8,101.9 being the 
average number of hours in service. 

The beds required from 15 to 19 scrapings during year, the average being 
17.3. The lengths of run in days varied from 2.3 minimum to 59.3 maximum, 
the average being 19.5. The average quantity of water filtered between 
scrapings varied from 35,890,000 to 47,080,000 gals., the average being 40,- 
020,000 gals. The average quantity of water filtered per day varied from 
2,010,000 to 2,070,000 gals., the average being 2,045,000. 

Cost of Operatirig the Purification Plant of Wilmington, Del. — Engineering 
and Contracting, Oct. 11, 1916, gives the following: 

The purification plant of Wilmington, Del., consists of preliminary filters, 
sedimentation basins and final filter. The water flows by gravity to the pre- 
liminary filters, of which there are 10, each 143^ X 100 ft., the medium being 
gravel, coke and sponge, through which the water passes upward. After the 
water has passed these filters, it is possible to treat it with hquid chlorine. 
The water then fiows by gravity to the pumps, from whence it is delivered 
to the settling reservoir. The settling reservoir has a capacity of 35,000,000 
gal., 91 H per cent of which is available. From the settling reservoir the water 




WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 495 

'"flows by gravity to the final filters. The final filters are regular English 
slow sand units. There are six of thfese units, each 364 X 40 ft. The water 
after passing these filters is treated with liquid chlorine before entering the 
mains. The water flows by gravity to the consumers. 

The following figures on the operation of the plant are taken from the 
annual report of Edgar M. Hoopes, Jr., Chief Engineer of the Water Depart- 
ment, for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1915. 

The total quantity of water delivered to the slow sand filters was 3,518,- 
990,000 gal. (36-in. Venturi meter registration) of which 8,400,000 gal. or 
0.24 per cent was consumed in washing the sand beds. The remainder of 
3,510,590,000 gal. is the net amount delivered to consumers. The total 
quantity of water delivered from the preliminary filters was 3,551,373,390 
gal., or about 40,000,000 gal. more than was actually distributed. This 
amount represents the difference in water stored at Porter Reservoir at the 
beginning and end of the year as well as leakage in the forcing main between 
the pumping station and reservoir. 

At the slow sand, or final filters, the average rate of filtration was 4,900,000 
gal. per acre per day, and the time of beds out of service for washing or raking 
13.78 per cent. The average time out of service for each bed was 2.3 per cent. 

The total number of gallons of water treated with liquid chlorine was 
2,859,410,000 or about 84.2 per cent of the amount actually distributed to 
consumers. The actual time during which this treatment was applied was 
308 days or 84.2 per cent of the year. For this purpose 3,842.5 lb. of chlorine 
were consumed — equivalent to 1.343 lb. of gas per million gallons of water 
treated. The total quantity of water used for absorbing this gas prior to 
treatment was 347,089 gal., or 1 lb. of chlorine to 750 lb. of water. A subdi- 
vision of operating expenses is given in the following table — interest on plant 
investment or depreciation not being included. 

Slow Sand Filtration (3,510,590,000 Gal.) 

Per 
Total 1,000,000 gaL 

Salaries $1 , 578 $0. 449 

Labor 349 . 099 

Supplies 582 . 163 

Light and power , 620 . 176 

Repairs and renewals to equipment. 297 . 084 

Miscellaneous 535 . 152 

Total $3,961 $1. 123 

Preliminary Filtration (3,551,373,390 gal.) 

Salaries $1 , 293 $0. 364 

Labor 11 .003 

Supplies 101 . 028 

Repairs and renewals to equipment 31 . 008 

Light and power 166 . 046 

Miscellaneous ; 60 .016 

Total $1,661 $0,465 

Laboratory (3,551,373,390 gal.) 

Salaries $1,516 $0,426 

Labor 299 . 084 

Supplies 143 . 040 

Repairs and renewals to equipment 6 . 002 

Miscellaneous 313 . 088 

Total $2,277 $0,640 



496 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Cost of Philadelphia Water-Filter Operations.- 
taken from Engineering News, March 26, 1915. 



-The following data are 



Table IX. — Operating Data of Slow Sand Filters at Philadelphia, 1914 

Name of plant 

Upper Lower 

Torres- Qiieen Rox- Rox- 

Item dale Lane Belmont borough borough 

Cost per mil. gals $2.23 $ 2.65 $3.62 $3.02 $5.10 

Rate per acre per day: 

Av. entire area 3. 668 3. 054 2. 977 2. 287 3. 478 

Max. area in service 4. 761 4. 224 4. 159 3. 615 5. 531 

Av. no. of cleanings per ^ 

filter 4.60 1.86 7.12 6.00 10.6 

Av. days in service between 

cleanings 73.04 201.33 48.43 58.36 33.44 

Av. no. rakings between 

cleanings 2.00 1.68 0.37 0.19 0.09 



Operating Costs of Water Softening and Purification Plant at McKeesport, 
Pa. — The following data are taken from an abstract published in Engineering 
and Contracting, May 11, 1910, of a paper by Alexander Potter read at the 
annual convention of the American Water Works Association, April, 1910. 

The water treated is of a variable character which condition requires the 
greatest care and watchfulness on the part of the employees of the 
plant. 

The variable character of the water is indicated by the fact that the water 
has jumped from a hardness of 1 10 at 4 o'clock in the morning to a hardness of 
510 four or five hours later, and from an acidity of 30 up to an acidity of 210 
during the same period. 

The McKeesport plant was fully described by the author in a paper read 
before the Engineer's Society of Pennsylvania, and appears fully illustrated 
in their Journal for April, 1909. Novel features of the plant which might be 
mentioned, and which a year and a half of operation have given a sufficient 
test, are as follows: 

The method of cleaning the settling tanks without emptying them or inter- 
fering in any way with the continuous operation of the plant. Carriers are 
built under the floor of the settling tanks. The carriers in each of the four 
tanks are divided into four zones. Small circular holes J^-in. in diameter, 
spaced 4 ft. apart, connect the bottom of the tanks with the carriers. The out- 
let end of each set of carriers is controlled by a valve. In cleaning the basins, 
the valve controlling each zone is kept open until the precipitated solids are 
removed, and the water runs free from sludge. The amount of water used In 
cleaning the settling tanks and baffling tank is approximately 1,700 gals, per 
day for each degree of hardness in the water. 

Another novel feature in the plant is the economic use of wash water. The 
entire machinery is operated by a water motor on the top floor of the softening 
building. The waste water from the motor enters the wash water basin for the 
filters. This water, charged against the plant as power, should not be charged 
as wash water, thus effecting a substantial saving. The amount of wash 
water shown in the annexed table is, however, the actual amount of water used 
In washing the filters, and amounts to 0.72 per cent of the total amount 
pumped. 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 497 

The character of the McKeesport water is so unusual that tables of cost of 
f operation are apt to be misleading to other municipalities, because the persons 
seeking data of cost and practicabihty of water softening are apt to be swayed 
adversely in their opinions by applying to their own cases the costs of producing 
a softened water at other places, as for instance at McKeesport, without 
taking into consideration the possible differences in conditions between the 
water to be dealt with at different places. 

The only fair way to analyze the cost of any particular plant is to weight 
cost thereof against the benefits to be derived therefrom. Bearing this in 
mind, we have on the one hand to consider, (a) first cost of plant ; (6) cost 
of operation. As against this we must also consider, (c) the improvement in 
the water; id) the decrease in operating expenses of the plant; (e) decrease in 
wear and tear upon the plant; (/) decrease in plumbing bills paid directly by 
private citizens; (g) the decrease in the cost of soap; (h) lengthening the 
wear of linens, flannels, and other fabrics; and (i) increase in the length of 
life or boilers. 

Taking the case of McKeesport, the annual interest on the cost of construc- 
tion is approximately $10,000. 

The cost of operation for one year is $30,700. 

The total cost of producing 4,000,000 gallons of softened filtered water a day 
is $40,700 per annum. 

Against this we have the following saving. 

Sinc3 the softening plant has been installed, the Water Department has 
dispensed with a number of its employes engaged on repaving curb connections 
whose wages, according to the president of the board of water commissioners, 
amounted to $15,000. 

The private consumers expended annually in maintaining their plumbing 
fixtures over $35,000. . ' 

Since the softening plant has been installed, only 72 per cent of the water 
previously required is now pumped, thus making a reduction in the coal con- 
sumption of $6,090 per annum. 

The reduction in repairs of plant amounts to $3,000 a year. 

From the best evidence obtainable, the saving in soap and soap compounds 
alone amounts to over $10,000 a year, and the saving in the wear and tear in 
washing of fabrics of all kinds can be set down at $20,000 a year. 

Summarizing these, we have, on the one hand, an added cost of treating the 
water of $40,700; and, on the other a saving, as enumerated above, of 
$89,090. 

This balance sheet shows that the introduction of the water softening plant 
for the city of McKeesport, instead of being an added burden to the people, 
has proved to be a saving of $48,390 per annum. 

As a side light upon the saving effected in the McKeesport plant, it may be 
stated that, before the water softening plant was put into commission, about 
156 plumbers were at work in the city. Out of this number, only 46 were 
left, four months after the plant was put in operation. 

The average amount of chemicals used and cost of treating the water from 
Feb., 1909 to March, 1910 was as follows: 
32 



498 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Average time between washings of filters 152 hours 

Per cent of total amount of water pumped, used as wash water. 0. 72 

Amount of chemicals per million gals. * 

Lime 750 lbs. 

Soda ash 1 , 046 lbs. 

Coagulant 76 lbs. f 

Hypochlorite of lime 4 lbs. 

Cost of treatment per million gals. 

Chemicals $13. 36 

Labor 8. 05 

Average amount of filtered water pumped per day 3,928,000 gals. 

*The average cost of chemicals (during the period) at the McKeesport plant 
was: 

Per ton of 
2,000 lbs. 

Lime $ 8. 30 

Soda ash 18. 00 

Sulphate of iron 11 . 00 

Alum 12. 50 

Hypochlorite of lime . . 42. 00 

tNo coagulant has been used since the application of the hypochlorite of 
lime. A remarkable condition exists with the water at McKeesport, where 
with 450,000 bacteria and 1,500 turbidity in the raw water, no coagulant was 
used, and yet a clear water was secured from the filters. 



Cleaning Sand in Filters of Wilmington, Delaware. — The cleanings required 
by the filters at Wilmington Delaware, are accomplished by a Blaisdell Washing 
Machine. A description of the machine and method of operation was given 
by Edgar M. Hoopes, Jr. and James M. Ciard in a paper before the 1914 
annual meeting of the American Water Works Association. 

The machine is operated by electric motors and covers a strip 20 ft. wide. 
It is mounted on a traveling crane which runs the length of the beds on rails 
supported on the party walls between the beds. The beds, being but 40 ft. 
wide, are cleaned in two runs. 

It has been found that the time lost by beds being out of service on account 
of cleanings ranges from 7.5 to 10 per cent, while with the old method of hand 
scraping, ejecting and restoring from 15 to 25 per cent of time is lost. 

Costs of Washing Filter Sand, Using a Nichols Separator. — The follow- 
ing costs, of washing all the sand in four of the slow sand filter beds of the 
Albany, N. Y., water purification plant, are published in Engineering and 
Contracting, Oct. 12," 1910, as given in the report for 1909 of H. J. Deutschbein, 
Supt. Bureau of Water. The beds had been in operation continuously for 
ten years, and the sand had become more or less segregated and had secured a 
gradual accumulation of pure clay and other particles which were not retained 
on the surface. More or less compacting of the sand had also occurred. The 
work of washing was begun with a box washer, but this, for various reasons, 
proved so slow and expensive that two Nichols separators were purchased for 
$1,550 and substituted for the earlier method. The filters cleaned were Nos. 
1, 3, 6 and 7, and the Nichols washers were used for all but a portion of the 
washing on No. 7. 

Filter No. 7. — Commenced cleaning June 1, 1909. Finished cleaning July 
31, 1909. Cleaned and replaced by box sand washer, 2,808 cu. yds. Cost of 
labor, $1,147.28. Cost per cubic yard, 40.9 cts. 

Cleaned and replaced by Nichols sand separators, 1,558 cubic yds. Cost of 
labor, $352.30. Cost per cubic yard, 22.6 cts. 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 499 

' Filter No. 3. — Commenced cleaning Aug. 5, 1909. Finished cleaning Aug, 
19, 1909. Cleaned entirely by Nichols separators. 

Worked 24 hours a day in three 8-hour shifts. Cleaned and replaced 3,213 
cu. yds. Labor cost, $723.10. Cost per cubic yard, 22.5 cts. 

Filter No. 6. — Commenced cleaning Aug. 14, 1909. Finished cleaning 
Sept. 8, 1909. Cleaned entirely by Nichols separators. Worked 24 hours a 
day in three 8-hour shifts. Cleaned and replaced 3,230 cu. yds. Labor cost, 
$696.74. Cost per cubic yard, 21.57 cts. 

Filter No. 1. — Commenced cleanings Sept. 10, 1909. Finished cleaning 
Sept. 25, 1909, Cleaned entirely by Nichols separators. Worked 24 hours 
a day in three 8-hour shifts. Cleaned and replaced 3,325 cu. yds. Labor 
cost, $711.40. Cost per cubic yard, 21.39 cts. 

The following is a record of 24 hours' work in Filter No. 3 ; water pressure 
65 lbs. per sq. in. ; water used, 47,080 cu. ft., or 1,744 cu. yds., which for a total 
of 225 cu. yds. of sand washed was a rate of say 7H cu. yds. of water per cubic 
yard of sand. The amount of sand lost was 3 cu. yds., or 1.33 per cent. The 
cost was as follows : 

24 hrs. foreman at 313^ cts $ 7 .50 

192 hrs. labor at 22K cts 43 .20 



Total $50 .70 

This gives for 225 cu. yds. a cost of 22.53 cts. per cu. yd. 

Time Studies in Connection With the Cleaning of Filter Sand at Phila- 
delphia. — The following matter is taken from an abstract in Engineering and 
Contracting, Dec. 23, 1914, of a paper before the American Society of Mechan- 
ical Engineers by Sanford E. Thompson. 

Philadelphia has five large filtration plants consisting of covered reservoirs 
operated by slow sand filtration. The water pumped into the reservoir from 
the Schuylkill and the Delaware Rivers, after passing through the pre-filters, 
percolates through about 4 ft. of sand and gravel and is thus purified. The 
impurities are caught largely in the upper few inches of sand, so that if this 
upper portion is washed the filtration area is practically renewed. Several 
methods of cleaning filter sands are in use, all of them involving considerable 
manual labor. Further details of the methods followed in the case under 
observation are referred to below. ^ 

Results. — The object of the plan has been to lay out the work of each gang 
of men so as to increase the effectiveness of the plant and provide a definite 
task to be accomplished in a day. The results of the plan which is being put 
into operation are as follows: 

Rotation of cleaning the filters is planned in advance by well-defined rule. 

A definite area of sand to clean is assigned to each gang, this area depending 
upon the depth of cleaning necessary. 

This setting of tasks has increased output of each gang 15 per cent and this 
should be further increased to at least 25 per cent. * 

Accurate records are kept, showing the time consumed by each gang. 

Cost accounts, as well as pay-roll, are made up from the time tickets fur- 
nished to the men. 

Gang leaders are required to pay closer attention to their duties. 

Improved apparatus and machinery are under consideration. 

Methods of determining depths of sand to clean are being standardized. 



500 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Obstacles. — The greatest obstacle encountered has been the city ordinance 
fixing the rate of pay of unskilled laborers on a level wage per day regardless of 
the quality of the workman or the amount of work he is able to accompUsh. 
While in city government strict regulation is necessary, a plan such as Is 
followed in Chicago, where the employes in each department are definitely 
graded, with different wages for each grade, provides a means for rewarding a 
man according to his ability and giving a city good value for money expended. 
The Philadelphia ordinances prevent the payment of a bonus and thus make 
it difficult to encourage the men to accomplish the tasks assigned them. 

Method of Cleaning. — In the filtration plant first handled by the new method 
there are 65 filters, employing about 128 men for cleaning. Each filter is 
about 140 ft. wide by 250 ft. long, and is built with groined arch bottom and 
roof, having columns about 16 ft. on centers. 

The Nichols method of washing is used in this plant. In this method the 
dirty sand from the surface of the bed to a depth specified is shoveled to an 
ejector, furnishing water under about 85 to 100 lbs. pressure, which forces it 
through a large hose into the separator, which is a cylindrical iron tank pro- 
vided with a concentric baffle about 6 or 8 ins. from the outside shell. The 
water and sand swirl around this, the clean sand settling in the conical bottom 
and passing out through a 2-in. 'hose below. The dirty water passes under the 
baffle and out of the top of the tank, whence it passes out of the bed through a 
hose and pipe to sewer. 

From the separator the sand is returned by the hose to the bed, where it is 
properly distributed and leveled. Sometimes, according to conditions, the 
dirty sand is shoveled direct to the hopper of the ejector, and in other cases is 
scraped and piled from the first and one-half the third bay into the second 
line of bays ; from the other half of the third and one-half the fifth line of bays 
into the fourth line of bays ; and so on, to include the ninth bay. This scrap- 
ing and piling is done usually as an independent operation by old men unfit for 
harder work. 

Four washing gangs are required for each filter bed, the outside gangs having 
23^ bays each and the inside gangs having 2 bays.to clean. In each gang there 
are 3 shovelers to a hopper, 2 men shoveling at a time while one rests. Each 
man shovels 40 minutes and then rests 20 minutes. The fourth man takes 
care of the hose from the separator distributing the clean sand to the bed. 
A fifth man, recently introduced, working with 2 gangs, 

Unit Tim^s. — Time studies were made by the aid of the stop watch on the 
labor operations in the beds, such as shoveling dirty sand to hopper, cleaning 
up around hopper, moving hopper, moving separator, and moving track. 
These times for individual operations were then converted for direct use into 
the time per cubic yard for 1 in. of depth. 

Studies were also made on the rate of delivery of sand from separator and the 
effect of opening and closing the separator on the rate of shoveling. Different 
methods of handling the ejectors were also included in the investigation. 

The object of the time studies was to find the time of each individual opera- 
tion, so that unnecessary operations could be eliminated and the unit times 
of the necessary operations could be combined to apply to all conditions. 
Over-all time records are of no use whatever, because, for example, with each 
change in depth of shoveling, the number of moves of the hopper and of the 
separator vary. 

The unit times for the individual operations were determined by the taking 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 501 

of a large number of time studies in such a way as to eliminate all unnecessary- 
delays, but with a sufficient allowance for resting and delays which were 
unavoidable. The unit times obtained are given in Table X. 

Table X. — Unit Times for Various OperationSi in Cleaning Filter Sand 

Unit time per Time per cu. yd. 

operation, per 1-in. depth, 
Operation min. min. 

Moving hopper 0. 20 0. 34 

Moving separator 0. 50 0. 45 

Moving hopper hose 0. 25 0.11 

Moving track 0. 83 0. 44 

Waiting for hopper to empty 0. 42 . 38 

Moving pressure hose 1 . 80 0. 36 

Additional necessary rest ... 0. 12 

Shoveling to hopper . . 6. 32 

The time given in each case is that for the gang, since it was necessary on 
this work to set a task for the entire gang instead of starting the individual 
men, as it is always best to do when possible. The time of shoveling into the 
hopper is in each case based on the rate of output that the ejectors will take 
care of. It was found that one man, instead of two, could very nearly produce 
the required output, but this would have lengthened the time of cleaning so as 
to be inadvisable. For example, with one man shoveling, the shoveling time 
per cubic yard is 8.8 minutes with a 1-in. depth, and 6 75 minutes per cubic 
yard when the depth is 18 ins. These studies indicate therefore that further 
change is necessary in the method of operation so as to increase the output of 
the ejector and separator in order to obtain the full value of the labor of the 
gang. 

In addition to the time studies on the work of the laborers in the filters, time 
studies were also made on the clerical work, such as making out tickets, 
operating bulletin board, extending time on tickets, entering time on various 
records, and checking up the payroll in order to distribute the work equally 
among the force employed to carry it on. 

Setting Tasks. — Having determined the unit times and established the 
system of routing and giving out of tickets, the area of surface that should 
be shoveled by each gang was figured and the point to which they were sup- 
posed to go in a days' work was marked with a flag. In order to fix this, it is 
necessary to determine in advance by test holes the depth which should be 
cleaned, figuring the area from the volume at the required depth. Curves 
have been plotted, giving areas or rather distances to clean for the outside and 
inside gangs for various depths. These distances are converted into pier 
locations, so many feet in front or back of pier number so and so. The actual 
point reached each day is reported at the office and the mark for the following 
day calculated therefrom. 

On the first two days, after everything was ready, no instructions were 
given the gang leader or the men as to how much they were expected to do. 
The total area shoveled by each gang, however, was noted, and compared with 
the area they should have accomplished. Every gang shoveled less than the 
figured area, the amount running from 103^ per cent less to 313^^ per cent less. 
After this second day's work we concentrated on E-1 gang, since it is always 
necessary in order to avoid friction to work with a single man or a single gang, 
and laid out in advance the amount this gang should accomplish in a day by 
setting a flag at the point which marked the end of the day's work. As a 



502 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

result, they readily accomplished the task and reached the mark. The task 
setting was then extended to other gangs. 

One rather interesting point came up in connection with the handling of the 
work at first. The men in the outside bays had to shovel about 7 per cent 
more sand than those in the inside bays because the areas were wider; never- 
the less, all gangs had been accustomed to keep abreast, the men who had 
the narrower width to handle slowing up to accommodate their speed to the 
outside men. When the men began working by the task, the operation 
was somewhat similar, except in the other direction, until thie men realized 
the difference. The inside men, because of the narrower width, were given 
the longer area to cover and gaged their speed to accomplish their task. The 
outside men, although shoveling a greater width kept abreast with them with- 
out special trouble, thus exceeding their task. 

Accomplishments. — The rates were set on the basis of a fair day's work 
which should be accomplished with a first-class foreman and with no incen- 
tive to the laborers. Because of this absence of incentive the work actually 
done averages considerably less than the actual tasks. 

To compare the amount of work accomplished before and after setting 
tasks the records were averaged of 27 cleanings taken at random from a period 
of IH years previous to the introduction of the new methods. These showed 
an average rate of 6.3 cu, yds. shoveled per day per gang. An average of 55 
cleanings after task work was started gave 7.2 cu. yds. per day, an increase of 
nearly 15 per cent. This increase, however, was less than half of what it 
should have been, the figured rate being 8.4 cu. yds. per day. Although the 
15 per cent increase was well worth accomplishing, our tests showed positively 
that the larger increase of over 30 per cent should readily be accomplished with 
first-class supervision. One plan considered as a partial incentive is a record 
card for each man showing his output and thus indicating his relative rank as 
a workman. The rank of a man would influence the laying off if work is slack 
or, on the other hand, if a man is required for a higher position, this ranking 
would be taken into account. If it had been possible to pay an actual money 
bonus, the task would have been set still higher and the output would have 
been increased about 50 per cent. 

As the work on the filter management was getting under way, circumstances 
called the men in charge to other locations in the city temporarily. Going 
back to the job and making further studies, it was found that time had been 
lost: (a) by not throttling down the separator so as to make it run contin- 
uously and thus deliver its full output; (6) by unnecessary throttUng of the 
hopper and cleaning up ahead before moving hopper to next portion of pile; 
(c) by not keeping spray open to fullest capacity. It was noticed whenever 
the gang was watched closely that they accomplished their task without any 
difficulty. 

Apparatus. — The studies, as is always the case where thorough investiga- 
tions are made, indicated a number of changes advisable in the apparatus and 
methods of handling it. It was found that the line of piping for the water 
used under pressure were poorly arranged, so as to require in certain cases 
long lengths of hose and a consequent deduction in pressure which largely 
increased labor costs. In other cases certain pipe lines had to be moved 
from bed to bed during the operation of cleaning. The studies have shown 
that a mechanical washing device probably can be devised which will greatly 
reduce the cost of cleaning. 

Even with the present apparatus the method of handUng the separators, 



I 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 



503 



and ejectors can be considerably improved and the cost of this quickly made up 
by labor save'd. 

The design of the hoppers and separators, as already stated, could be 
improved so that they would handle just the right amount of material that a 
gang can readily shovel. The present output is limited by the design of the 
hopper and ejector. 

Cost of Cleaning Settling Tanks by Perforated Underdrains. — The following 
matter is taken from an abstract of a paper by Alexander Potter presented at 
the 23rd Annual Convention of the American Society of Municipal Improve- 
ments and published in Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 11, 1916. 

Muskogee Settling Basin. — The Muskogee settling basin is constructed of 
reinforced concrete. It is 212 ft. square and 19.5 ft. deep. When filled to a 



GradeEI5!8t 



CollecHng Trough 

X 



-m-i' 



^^^:.,59L,f^^ ^^^,^^^ 



Disfribuhng Trough 
-51- lin^rz^^A / 



yalve Chamber 
Grade El. 5 20 




5'i(Z4' Slab with i' Openings--'' j-c.~ 

ToGateVahe' 
Longii-udinal Section Through Muskogee SeHling Basin 



i2' CI. Sludge Pipe- 
loG 



YKl'Onficey 




Oetail of Underdrain 



■^A 



yTileUnderdraii jj 
With^M'Opening ' 



S)car3c2i:5!cr:fcac f, < 



jfc:o(j:3a: 



: iCncCr t :C: : czfl 



. J: :<I:i»-Cr 1 1- : r.C 



:t2i<J 



P/ar7 



Fig. 8. — ^Longitudiiial section through Muskogee settling basin. Detail of 
drain and plan. 



depth of 18 ft. its capacity is 6,000,000 gal. A reinforced concrete curtain 
wall, 6 in. thick, supported by buttresses at intervals ofa2 ft., divides the 
basin into two compartments. The first and smaller of these compartments, 
52.5 ft. wide and 212 ft. long (about one-quarter of the basin), has its bottom 
perforated and underdrained for sludge removal. To underdrain the larger 
compartment was not considered advisable, first, because of the expense and, 
second, based upon the experience in other plants where the writer adopted 
this method, it was not considered necessary because of the relatively small 
quantity of suspended matter which experience indicated would settle out in 
this compartment. Three and a half years' continuous operation shows it to 



504 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

average about 1.3 per cent as opposed to 98.7 per cent removed over the 
area with the perforated bottom. 

Fig. 8 is a section of the Muskogee setthng basin taken parallel to the direc- 
tion of flow. The raw water, treated with sulphate of iron and hydrated lime 
at the average rate of 1 and 2>^ grains per gal., respectively, enters the settling 
basin at the left through the distributing trough. From the distributing 
trough the water is admitted to the first compartment of the basin through 32 
8-in. circular openings. A vertical concrete baffle wall, 4 in. thick, constructed 
directly in front of these openings, tends to arrest all eddy and vortex motion 
and at the same time deflects the incoming water downward. 

The partially settled water passes from the first to the second compartment 
over a submerged weir formed by the curtain wall. The crest of this sub- 
merged weir is about 6 in. below the average water level maintained in the tank. 
To assist in arresting vortex motion set up in the water as it passes over the 
submerged weir, a 4-in. stilling wall has been placed in front of it. The 
settled water is drawn off into the collecting channel over a series of weirs. 
The water level in the basin operated varies between elevation 527.5 and 
528.0. 

To remove the sludge from the first compartment, 3-in. bell-and-spigot 
vitrified-stpneware drain-pipes have been laid in the concrete floor, which is 
9 in. thick. These drain-pipes are arranged in parallel rows 27.5-in. centers 
in five distinct zones. These zones are laid out with the view of having the 
sludge deposited uniformly over the area of any one zone. Each zone con- 
sists of a main collecting channel 8 in. wide and 4 in. deep into which the 3-in. 
under-drains discharge. The 3-in. under-drains are made up in 2-ft. lengths 
and each length is perforated with one circular hole ^e in. in diameter. The 
cover plates of the main collecting channel are perforated with >^-in. circular 
holes spaced 13^^ in. centers. Twelve-inch cast iron pipes convey the sludge 
from the various zones to the sludge well. Tributary to each zone are 315 
holes or perforations Ke in. in diameter, and 180 perforations ^i in. in 
diameter, giving a total area of 113.4 sq. in. — practically the same as the 
area of a 12-in. outlet pipe. 

Operating Results. — The plant treats an average of 3,000,000 gal. per day. 
The total solids in the raw water, which is taken from the Grand River, average 
451 parts per million. This is increased by 64 parts per million by the 
hydrated lime and sulphate of iron applied to the water before it enters the 
settling basin. Of the total solids in the water after being treated with the 
chemicals, 44 parts per million settle out in the mixing chambers and dis- 
tributing troughs, 307 parts per million in the first compartment, i. e., the 
first quarter of the settling basin, and only about 4 parts per million in the 
second compartment. 

The following table gives the most important facts relative to the operation 
of the sludge removal system at Muskogee. 

Average total weight of dry solids removed daily by underdrains in the 

form of sludge, lbs 7 , 690 

Average water content of sludge as discharged through blow-off valves, 

per cent 98. 7 

Total quantity of sludge water discharged at one operation, gal 70 , 000 

Ratio of blow-off water to total water treated, per cent 2. 33 

Effective hydrostatic head for sludge removal, feet • 20. 5 

Average velocity through underdrain perforations, feet per sec 20. 4 

Loss of hydrostatic head through perforations, 26.3% of total head, feet 5.4 

Hydrostatic losses in underdrain system, 21 % of total head, feet 4. 3 

Velocity head lost at discharge, 52. 7 % of total head, feet 10. 8 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 505 

Cost of Sludge Removal. — The total cost of constructing the sludge removal 
system for the Muskogee settling basin over and above the cost of constructing 
a plain tank of similar shape and size, and including all piping, valves, sludge 
chamber, etc., was $3,570. This is at the rate of 32.5 ct. per square foot of 
bottom underdrained. The average annual cost of operating and maintaining 
the sludge removal system, including all fixed charges, amounts to $523, and 
is made up as follows : 

Interest and depreciation, 8 % on $3,570 $286 

Value of the blow-ofif water lost, 25,500,000 gallons raised 70 feet at $6 per 

million (including fixed charges) 153 

4,260 lb. ferrous sulphate lost with blow-off water at 1.15 ct. per lb 53 

9,370 lb. hydrated lime lost with blow-off water at 0.005 ct. per lb 47 

Attendance and supplies 34 

Total annual cost $573 

Total quantity of water treated, 1,970,000,000 gal. 
Cost of sludge removal per 1,000,000 gal. of treated water, $0.29. 
Weight of dry solid matter removed in one year, 1,404 tons. 
Cost per ton of dry solid matter removed, $0.41. 

The above costs of sludge removal compare most favorably with the cost of 
sludge removal as practiced on a large scale at St. Louis, Nashville and Kansas 
City. The costs of removing sludge given in the following table are taken 
from the municipal records, which, unfortunately, are not complete in that 
they only give the cost of labor, making no charge whatever for water lost and 
used in flushing out the basin. A fair allowance has been made in these costs 
for water wasted and used for flushing purposes, and as corrected, the data 
are sufficiently accurate for purposes of comparison. 

Table XI. — Cost of Removing Sludge feom Settling Basins. — (Exclusive 
OF Fixed Charges.) 



City Year 

♦Muskogee, Okla. 1913-1916 

♦McKeesport, Pa 1908-1913 

Main basin 1907 

St. Louis, Mo.: 

Main basin 1908 

Main basin 1909 

Main basin 1910 

Bissels Point basin 1908 

Baden storage reservoir 1908 

Nashville, Tenn 1908 

♦Settling basins have underdrainage systems. 

fLabor costs only. 

At St. Louis it appeared to have been the practice of lengthening the period 
during which a settling basin may be kept in service by opening the mud 
gate 5 or 6 in. daily for a period of about an hour, or until the effluent is com- 
paratively clear. None of this flushing water has been charged up against 
the cost of sludge removal. It is estimated that during the year 1910 approxi- 
mately 193,000,000 gal. of water were used for this purpose in 175 days. 
Including the cost of pumping and treating this flushing water with chem- 
icals, the cost of sludge removal becomes 29.3 ct., which is about the same 
aa the cost of removing the sludge in Muskogee. 







Cost 


Water 


Sludge 


per cu. yd. 


treated 


removed 


of sludge 


(mil. gal.) 


(cu. yd.) 


removed 


3,210 


21,903 


$0.0469 


8,890 


96,000 


0. 0325 


28,048 


114,256 


0.043 


29,156 


135,108 


0.048 


34,201 


129,035 


0.051 


33,910 


182,500 


0.045 




4,000 


to. 133 




700 


to. 213 




4,500 


to. 359 



506 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

At Muskogee the percentage of sludge waiter to total water treated is 2.33 
per cent, which, in the writer's opinion, can be considerably reduced by careful 
management. This ratio of sludge water to total water treated compares 
quite favorably with that of St. Louis, where in 1910, the only year for which 
accurate data are available, 523,000,000 gal. of water were chargeable against 
sludge removal. Of this amount, 300,000,000 gal. were lost in emptying the 
basin, 130,000,000 gal. were used for flushing purposes, and 193,000,000 gal. 
were wasted through the sludge gate, thus giving a ratio of 1.54 per cent. 

The conditions at McKeesport are at times especially trying on the sludge 
removal apparatus, for there are periods, of short duration, when the preci- 
pitation reaches almost 10 per cent by volume of the water treated, and in 
the treatment 1,000,000 lb. of lime and 1,500,000 lb. of soda ash have been 
used annually. The cost of removing the precipitated material at the 
McKeesport plant has averaged about 35 cts.per 1,000,000 gal. of water treated. 

The ratio of blow-off water to water treated ranges from 1.4 to 8.9 per cent 
when the water is bad, and averaged 2.3 per cent for the period that the plant 
has been in operation. 

Costs of Cleaning Settling Basins by Sluicing. — The following data on 
cleaning one of the settling basins at Louisville, Ky., are taken from an article 
by G. D. Cain, Jr. in Engineering and Contracting, Dec. 3, 1913. 

The two basins at the reservoir measure about 500 ft. square, and actual 
measurements showed that the amount of mud deposited in the basin which 
was cleaned was in the neighborhood of 18,000 cu. yds. The cost of removing 
this mass of material by the company's own forces was $2,700, or 15 cts. a cu. 
yd., which compares very favorably with the cost of the previous cleaning of 
the basins. 

Of course the mud had not hardened sufficiently in the period of 20 months 
since the previous cleaning, to make literal excavation necessary, and this 
rendered it possible for the company to use the sluicing method. Lines of 
firehose were attached to the company's mains, and streams were directed 
upon the mud under a pumping pressure of 70 to 80 lbs. per sq. in. 

The surface mud readily yielded to this treatment, but as the work went 
deeper the aid of a force of men armed with scrapers was necessary to expedite 
the removal of the mud. These scrapers were simple affairs made of 1 in. 
boards, and were constructed for use by three men at once, a fairly large sur- 
face thus being covered by each scraper. 

The heavy mixture of mud and water was sluiced in this way into the central 
surface drain of the basin, which discharges into the sewer outlet provided 
for drainage purposes, and the entire 18,000 cu. yds. of silt were thus removed 
in about three weeks of actual working time. It was not possible to rush the 
work at a much greater speed on account of the danger of clogging the 
sewer. As it was, no trouble of this sort was experienced. 

The following data computed from figures given in the report of Geo. H. 
Benzenberg, Chief Eng. water works, Cincinnati, O. are published in Engineer- 
ing and Contracting, April 6, 1910. 

The reservoir, known as Reservoir No. 1 of the Cincinnati, O., water works, 
had been in constant service for over two years. It was taken out of service 
on March 20, 1909, and allowed to stand for 4 days in order to allow complete 
sedimentation before drawing the water. The original turbidity of the water 
was 75 parts per million; after 4 days it was found to be 47 parts for a depth 
of 30 ft. and 50 parts at a depth of 40 ft. On March 30 the water was drawn 
off for a depth of 3 ft. during the night and allowed to stand during the day, 



WATER-TREATMENT PLANTS 507 

Fwhen the mud was washed ofif the exposed slopes by hose streams under 
f pressure of flushing pumps in the wier house. The following night the water 
level was again lowered to stand during the day, when the slopes were washed 
down. This procedure was repeated every 24 hours until April 9, when the 
water had become very turbid. The 3.0-in. drain was then opened, drawing 
off all the water and such mud as it carried. The deposit of mud remaining on 
the slopes and bottom was then disintegrated and slid to the drain opening by 
means of 1^^-in. hose streams under heavy pressure. The depth of accumu- 
lated mud was found to be from 12 ins. to 36 ins. and the total amount removed 
was estimated as 30,000 cu. yds. Some 35,494,600 gals, of water were wasted 
in draining the reservoir and 16,902,600 gals, were used for removing the mud, 
or about 565 gals, per cubic yard of mud removed The cost of cleaning was 
as follows : 

16,902,600 gals, water, at $3.28 per mil. gals $ 55. 44 

22,032 kw. electric power, at 1.1 ct 242. 36 

Labor operating pumps 57. 94 

" Labor cleaning reservoir 427 . 27 

Total $783.01 

The cost per cubic yard of mud removed was, for cleaning proper, 2.61 cts. 
Charging in the 35,494,600 gals, of water lost in draining the reservoir at 
$3.28 per million gallons we have an additional item of $116.42, or 0.39 ct. per 
cu. yd., making a total cost of 3 cts. per cu. yd. The cleaning was completed 
May 1, 1909, and water was turned back into the reservoir on May 8. 

The cost of cleaning Reservoir No. 2 of the Cincinnati, O, water works Is 
given in Engineering Record, June 21, 1913, as follows: 

♦ The time required to wash out the mud from this reservoir was twenty-eight 
working days. As nearly as could be estimated, 41,100 cu. yd. of mud were 
removed. This refers only to the sediment containing less than 50 per cent of 
water, which was left after draining off the liquid sludge. This volume of 
mud, together with the semi-liquid sludge, represents the deposit from over 
34.5 billions of gallons of water. Besides 61,000,000 gal. of water being 
wasted in draining, about 21,000,000 gals, were used in cleaning out the 
reservoir. 

The following table shows the costs for cleaning: •. 

Cost of Cleaning Reservoie at Cincinnati, Ohio 

Cost per cu. yd. of 

Total cost sediment removed 

Labor $1 , 100. 45 $0. 0267 

Supplies 440. 23 . 0107 

Power 154. 44 . 0037 

Value of water used in cleaning ; 62. 82 . 0015 

Value of water wasted in draining 183. 13 .0044 

Total $1,941.07 $0.0470 

Cost of cleaning per 1,000,000 gal. of water settled $0. 056 -f 

The methods employed were similar to those used in cleaning reservoir No. 1. 
The increased cost noted is largely due to an increase of some 30 per cent in 
the rate paid for labor and the difficulty of opening the closed sump openings 
in this reservoir. 



CHAPTER IX 
IRRIGATION 

In this chapter are included both general and specific cost data and articles 
dealing with many of the economic problems met with in irrigation. 

For further data relating to this subject and included in the volume, see 
chapter on the following subjects: Excavation; Concrete; Dams, Reservoirs 
and Standpipes; Water Works; Small Tunnels and Land Drainage. Also 
refer to the index for other special information. 

For costs of Pumping see "Handbook of Mechanical and Electrical Cost 
Data" by Gillette and Dana. For Methods and costs of excavation see 
"Earthwork and Its Cost" by Gillette also "Rock Excavation" by Gillette. 

Cost of Irrigation Works Per Acre of Land Supplied with Water. — The cost 
of irrigation works per acre of land irrigated has been tabulated by the U. S. 
Reclamation Service for some 140 projects of which 87 are Carey act projects, 
39 are private projects and 14 are projects of the Service. The data given in 
Tables I, II and III, are published in Engineering and Contracting, June 4, 
1913. 

Table I. — Cost of Priv^ate Irrigation Projects 

Cost 

Acre- or water 

age in right 

proj- charge 

Name of project or company ect per acre 
Colorado : 

Amity Canal 80,000 $1002 

Beaver Land and Irrigation Co 20,000 1752 

Catlin CaDal 25,000 100 

Colorado Co-operative Co 5 , 200 60 

Denver Reservoir and Irrigation Co 200,000 45 

East Palisade Irrigation District 645 63 

Montana : 

Fort Lyon Canal. 70,000 1003 

Grand Valley Canal 40,000 60* 

Greeley Poudre Irrigation Co 125,000 45 

Mesa County Irrigation Project 2 , 568 73 

Orchard Mesa Irrigation District 9, 122 119 

Otero Irrigation District 20,000 40 

Palisade Irrigation District 6, 000 41 

Paradox Valley Irrigation Co 30, 000 45 

Pueblo-Rocky Ford Irrigation Co 100 , 000 150^ 

Redlands Irrigation and Power Co 5 , 000 100« 

Routt County Development Co 39 , 000 45 

South Pahsade Heights Irrigation District 700 127 

Conrad Land and Water Co '. 40 

Great Falls Land and Irrigation. Co 36 , 000 50 

1 Engineers' estimates where project is proposed or incomplete. 

2 Estimated at from $75 to $150 per acre. Includes land. 

3 Estimated at $75 to $150 per acre. 

* Per miner's inch. ^ 

6 Includes land. 

8 Estimated at from $65 to $150 per acre. 

508 



IRRIGATION 



509 



Table I. — {Continued) 

Acre- 
age in 
proj- 

tName of project or company ect 
Nebraska : 

Belmont Canal and Irrigation District 20 , 000 

Tri-state Canal 60 , 000 

New Mexico: 

French Land and I. Co 40 , 000 

Oregon : 

Bonanza Project 20 , 000 

Eagle Valley 21 , 700 

Turnish 6,000 

Paradise 100 , 000 

Willamette Valley 20,000 

South Dakota : 

Red Water Irrigation Association 4 , 000 

Utah: 

Provo Reservoir 12 , 000 

Utah Lake Pumping 8 , 000 

Washington : 

Cascade Canal Co , 10 , 000 

Congdon Canal Co . 4 , 200 

Kennewick Canal 14 , 000 

Lower Yakima I. Co 12 , 500 

Selah Moxie 7,000 

Selah Valley Development Co 10,000 

Union Gap Irrigation Co 5 , 000 

Washington Irrigation Co 50 , 000 

' For river rights only. Purchase of Pathfinder Reservoir water 

this to $35. 

8 Estimated at from $50 to $70 per acre. 
» Estimated at from $40 to $50 per acre. 

Table II. — Cost of Carey Act Projects 

Acreage 

Colorado Land and Water Supply Co 16, 278 

Two-Butte Irrigation and Reservoir Co 22 , 000 

Valley Investment Co 24 , 000 

Colorado : 

Great Northern Irrigation & Power Co 2 , 121 

Colorado Realty and Security Co 45 , 875 

Toltec Canal Co 14,853 

Idaho : 

American Falls Canal & Power Co 57 , 242 

Big Lost River Irrigation Co 78 , 242 

Birch Creek Irrigation Co 20 , 000 

Blackf oot North Side Irrigation Co 22 , 280 

Black Canyon Irrigation District 98 , 492 

Blaine County Irrigation Co 14 , 720 

Boise City Carey Act Project 151 , 000 

Bruenau Irrigation Co 40 , 000 

Emmett Irrigation District . 5 , 800 

Grand view Extension Irrigation Co 1 , 000 

Grassmere Irrigation Co 47 , 500 

Hansen, C. V., Mackay Project 3,456 

Hegsted Victor, Project 3 , 410 

High Line Pumping Co., Ltd 3 , 860 

Houston Ditch Co., Ltd 1 , 884 

Idagon Irrigation Co., Ltd 9 , 000 

Idaho Irrigation Co., Ltd 130,000 

Keating Carey Land Co 15 , 597 

Kings Hill Extension Irrigation Co 9 , 655 

Kings Hill Irrigation and Power Co 13 , 359 

Lemhi Irrigation Co 3 , 500 

Little Lost River Land & Irrigation Co 20 , 000 



Cost 

or water 

right 

charge 
per acre 

257 
42 

50 

39 
80 
608 
60 
50 

40 

80 
409 

50 
121 
163 
129 

86 
150 
135 

46 
will increase 



Cost 
per acre 

$45 
35 
60 

55 
45 
40 

40 
40 
50 

72 
40 

60 
50 
65 
65 
40 
40 
45 
35 
60 
50 
30 
65 
65 
50 
30 



510 • HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Table II. — (Continued) 

Cost 

... -, , „ » Acreage per acre 

MarysviUe Canal & Improvement Co., Ltd 6, 134 20 

Owsley Carey Land and Irrigation Co 8 , 600 35 

Owyhee Land and Irrigation Co 29 , 535 55 

Owyhee Irrigation Co., Ltd 3 , 296 45 

Pahsimeral Project 6 , 000 30 

Portneuf-Marsh Valley Irrigation Co 11 ,914 35 

Pratt Irrigation Co., Ltd 4 , 674 40 

Snake River Irrigation Co., Ltd 6 , 500 50 

Thousands Springs Land and Irrigation Co 6 , 300 30 

Twin Falls Land and Water Co 244 , 000 25 

Twin Falls North Side Land and Water Co 207 , 144 45 

Twin Falls Oakley Land and Water Co 45 , 000 65 

Twin Falls Raft River Irrigation Co 99 , 668 50 

Twin Falls Salmon River Land & Water Co 127 , 707 40 

West End Twin Falls Irrigation Co 46 , 000 50 

Montana : 

BilUngs Land & Irrigation Co 27 , 000 401° 

Big Timber Project 17 , 194 60 

Valier Project 115,100 40 

Oregon : 

Central Oregon Irrigation Co 139 , 204 40 

Central Oregon Irrigation Co 74 , 198 60 

Columbia Southern Co 27 , 000 50" 

Deschutes Land Co 31 , 082 36 

Deschutes Reclamation & Irrigation Co 1 , 280 40 

Desert Land Board 27 , 000 

Portland Irrigation Co 12 , 000 46 

Powder Land & Irrigation Co. 65,000 IOO12 

Utah : 

Mosida Pumping Plant 8 , 000 150^3 

Wyoming : 

Big Horn County Irrigation Co 20,411 50 

Boulder Canal 6, 120 30 

Burch Canal 35 , 887 50 

Carbon County Land & Irrigation Co 7 , 793 30 

Cody and Salsbury Canal 77 , 199 

Cody Canal 26,429 50 

East Fork Irrigation Co 4 , 901 30 

Eden Land & Irrigation Co 95 , 658 30 

Elk Canal 2,724 30 

Fisher Ditch 320 10 

Green River Land and Irrigation Co '.....-. 75,257 35 

Hammitt Canal 6 , 295 60 

Hanover Canal 10, 682 50 

Hawk Springs Project 12 , 238 50 

Hubbard Canal 38 , 604 40 

James Lake Irrigation Co 14 , 554 35 

La Prele Ditch and Reservoir Co . ; 18, 558 50 

Lovell Irrigation Co 11 , 320 25 

McDonald Canal 15,159 50 

Medicine Wheel Canal Co 22 , 385 30 

North Laramie Canal Co 4 , 133 50 

North Platte Canal & Colonization Co 14 , 424 30 

Big Horn Basin Development Co 204 , 650 50 

Paint Rock Canal 53, 162 50 

Platte Valley Canal 18, 171 30 

Rock Creek Irrigation Co 11 , 696 45 

Sahara Ditch Co -. 7 , 920 50 

Sidon Canal & extensions 20 , 559 30 

Tinsleep-Bonanza Canal 16,486 40 

Uinta County Irrigation Co 26 , 000 35 

Wheatland Industrial Co 33, 115 45 

Wyoming Land & Irrigation Co 4 , 526 50 

10 Estimated at from $20 to $60 per acre. 

11 Estimated at from $50 to $60 per acre. 
'2 Estimated at from $75 to $200 per acre. 

13 Estimated at from $100 to $250 per acre. 



» 



IRRIGATION 511 

The figures in Tables I and II obtained from printed reports of state 
engineers and public data, show that on over 90 modern irrigation systems 
being built by private or corporate capital, the cost per acre averages nearly 
$53. This cost does not include the annual cost for operation and 
maintenance. 

Table III. — Reclamation Service Projects 

State and project Approx. Cost per acre 

acreage from to 

Arizona-California 

Yuma 131 , 000 $55 $66 

Idaho 

Minidoka 118,700 22 30 

Montana 

Sun River 216,346 30 36 

Montana-North Dakota 

Lower Yellowstone 60, 116 45 

North Platte 129 , 270 45 55 

Nevada 

Truckee-Carson 206,000 22 30 

New Mexico 

Carlsbad : . 20,277 32 45 

Oregon 

Umatilla 25 , 000 60 70 

Klamath 72,000 30 

South Dakota 

Belle Fourche 100,000 30 35 

Washington 

Okanogan 9 , 900 65 

Sunnyside 102 , 824 52 

Tieton 34,613 93 

Wyoming 

Shoshone 164 , 122 45 50 

Average T $41 + 



Cost of Reporting on an Irrigation Project. — The following is given by 
Charles Kirby Fox in "Western Engineering," reprinted in Engineering any 
Contracting, Nov. 5, 1913. 

During 1911-12 I was employed to make the surveys and estimates for an 
irrigation project. Careful records were kept of the time and cost of each 
item pertaining to the work. All told, the project covers 70,000 acres, of 
which a part is already irrigated and some of it does not require irrigation. 
We prepared preliminary plans for irrigating 80 per cent of the unirrigated 
arable land, or 40,000 acres. As a rule, the land was fairly smooth and for the 
greater part covered with sagebrush about waist high. 

On account of the distances from trade centers, it was necessary in making 
the designs and estimates to provide for using as much local material as 
possible and minimize the quantity of materials shipped in from the outside. 
The approximate estimates follow: Excavation, 8,000,000 cu. yds.; tunneling, 
5,800 lin. ft. lumber, 830,000 ft. B. M.; iron and steel, 500 tons; main and 
diversion canals, total 61 miles; laterals, 144 miles. There will be approxi- 
mately 2% miles of flume and a little over y2 mile of siphons in the system. 

Outside of the engineering crew, local men were used. It was necessary 
with the greater part of the work to establish camps. These were, as a rule, 
10 to 20 miles from the adjacent towns. Chainmen and rodmen weie paid 
$40 to $50; cooks, $60 to $70; level-men, $75 to $85; instrument men, $90 
to $110; draftsmen, $75 to $150, and assistant engineers, $100 to $150. All 



512 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

rates given are by the menth and include board and expenses. About 10,000 
meals were served in camp at a cost of 28 cts. each, segregated as follows: 

Cents 

Food 21 

Cook 6 

Incidentals 1 

Total 28 

It was necessary to use canned goods almost exclusively. The cost of 
provisions was very high. The meals were excellent. Horses were hired at 
a cost usually of about $1 per day, including feed. 

Water Shed and Irrigation Survey. — Eighteen stations were set by an 
assistant engineer and rodman with two horses. To place the stations, 
triangulate them and plot the work cost $35 per station. Eight and one-half 
days' time was put in on each station. 

Sounding Lake and Contouring Reservoir Site. — In sounding a 3,000-acre 
lake it was necessary to cut over 1,000 holes through 13 ins. of ice. A party 
consisting of a transit man, two chainmen, two axmen and two horses were 
used. In contouring 4,000 acres around the lake the same party was used, 
except that a recorder and three stadia men were substituted for the chain and 
axmen. The sounding and contouring cost 6.4 cts. per acre. 

The high-water line of the reservoir was run before I arrived. I understand 
that it cost about $50 per mile for 16 miles of exterior Une. This includes 
ties to the section corners. 

Section Lines. — Approximately 200 miles of section lines were re-run. 
Great difficulty was experienced in finding some of the corners. It is thought 
that between one-fourth and one-fifth of the time was spent in looking for 
old corners, and the work was greatly delayed by storms. The party con- 
sisted of an instrument man, two chainmen, two flagmen, a teamster, four 
horses and a cook. The work cost $10 per mile. It might be worth noting 
that on lines which were re-run, only one corner has been found that the origi- 
nal party did not locate. Some 60 corners were replaced at odd times at a 
cost of $2.50 per post. 

Leveling. — (The section line party was followed by a level party (levelman 
and rodman), which set bench marks every half mile or mile. They ran 150 
miles at a cost of $2.50 per mile. 

Contouring. — The entire area under the ditch-line was contoured at a cost 
of 5 cts. per acre. Five-foot contour intervals were used on the flattest 
sections and 10 ft. on the steeper parts. It was platted on a scale of 1,000 ft. to 
the inch. The party consisted of an instrument man, recorder and two to 
four stadia men. Usually two parties were in the field under my supervision, 
with a draftsman, cook, one or two teamsters and six horses. After the field 
work was completed it took almost as much time to reduce and plat the 
transit stadia notes as it did to do the field work. 

Cruising. — First the real estate department had a man cruise the land and 
plat it on a scale of 6 ins, to the mile. This cost 2 ctS. per acre. It was later 
thought advisable to make a rough cultural and property map of the valley 
now under cultivation, so as to have an idea of the amount of hay and grain 
available. Two men on foot could cover about 10,000 acres per day. Office 
work took about the same time. 

Canal Line. — With a view to determining the most economical location of 



IRRIGATION 513 

the canal line, we ran a low line 39 miles long and a high Une 20 miles long, 
andmade a careful reconnaissance of the remainder. From these studies we 
determined that the high line would be cheapest. The lines were run by. the 
following party : Chief, draftsman, transit man, stadia man, flagman, axman, 
level man, rodman, teamster, four horses and a cook. It cost $16 per mile 
to do this work. 

We then started out with practically the same outfit except that two chain- 
men were added. The distance per shot on the prehminary line was about 
400 ft. All the work was on the side hill. When contouring was commenced 
the party was divided. 

On the transit line we set stakes every 100 ft. and took the elevation at each 
station. We then took, very careful topographic data, usually covering 30 to 
40 ft. in vertical elevation by 5 ft. contours, which were platted in the field 
to a scale of 200 ft. to the inch. We were very careful to note all rock out- 
crops or other characteristics which would influence the final location of the 
line. We ran 61 miles of these lines at a cost of $30 per mile for the transit 
and level line, and $20 per mile for the topography. The cost of the ties to the 
section corners is included in the cost of the transit and level line. 

Paper Location and Estimate. — The office work was done in the winter with 
a small force, consisting of myself, an assistant engineer, a draftsman or two 
and a blueprint boy. I had the assistant engineer and a draftsman spend a 
month to work up a special set of excavation tables especially adapted to side 
hill canal lines. They gave the balanced cut and fill, the yardage and the 
center cut for each different side slope. I estimate that by the use of these 
tables were saved several hundred dollars per mile on the excavation at a cost 
of less than 1 per cent of the amount saved. The estimate cost $16 per 
mile, or approximately % of 1 per cent of the cost of the excavation. 

Field Notes and Maps for Filing. — The tracings included six sets (34 sq. ft.) 
of three maps each, and the field notes required 146 pages of legal size paper. 
All courses were balanced in connection with the section line survey. The 
office work cost $500, or about $6.50 per mile of canal and reservoir. 

Designs and Estimates for Structures. — It is estimated that the structures, 
flumes, siphons, outlets, etc., will cost about $100,000. The designs and esti- 
mates cost 2 per cent of the estimated cost. Usually several types of struc- 
tures were sketched out and estimates made for each type These detailed 
drawings were made according to what appeared to be the best type, and 
included a complete estimate of the cost, including quantities, weights, etc. 
The difference in the cost of several types of structures, all of which appear 
suitable, is surprising. 

It cost a little less than 1 per cent to make the surveys, designs and esti- 
mates of the rock fill dam and tunnels Enough money will be saved on 
changing the dam site from the location selected by the promoters to pay the 
entire cost of the work. The laterals were laid out on the contour map and 
only a few of the larger ones were run out. The designs and estimates for the 
laterals cost about $2 per mile. The entire report with the specifications, etc., 
contained about 250 pages and 100 blueprints. 

General Expenses. — The stenographic and clerical expenses amounted to 
approximately $400, the general expenses about $800 and approximately 
$1,000 was spent on hydrographic work. All told, this survey cost approxi- 
mately $20,000, or 50 cts. per acre, or 3 to 4 per cent of the estimated cost of 
the work. About 4,000 man-days were worked at an approximate cost of $5 
per man-day. 
33 



514 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cost of Constructing Irrigation Works. — The following matter is taken 
from Newell and Murphy's "Principles of Irrigation" (1913), 

It has come to be an axiom that the cost of irrigation works is generally 
greater than the original estimate. This is due not so much to lack of care 
and thoroughness in preparing estimates as to the fact that the work is pioneer 
in its character, and improvements are suggested or new needs arise so rapidly 
that works which were planned in one year as adequate for the purpose in 
mind are found to be unsuited or undesirable by the time construction is well 
advanced. Many changes must be made, or additional details provided which 
were not known or not considered necessary in the original scheme. It is, 
of course, possible that an engineer may plan works and build them exactly as 
planned and within the original estimates, but this condition is one which with 
existing irrigation systems does not take place under ordinary circumstances. 

The engineer may plan for certain works to meet the then pcevailing con- 
ceptions, but the owners or financiers usually conclude that it is necessary to 
add certain extensions or modify details such, for example, as increasing the 
size of the reservoir, or of the main canal, or adding a pumping plant. Thus, 
as a result, the works cost more than anticipated, and, comparing the original 
statements of cost with the actual expenditures made, it is seen that the latter 
are far in excess of the estimates, but the reasons for this are rarely given. 

Men's ideas with reference to limits of practicability or cost of the works 
have rapidly expanded. The small canals built before 1900 were cheaply 
executed, the structures were of wood and of temporary character. The loca- 
tion was made with reference to keeping the construction cost to the minimum 
and much of the work was done by the farmers themselves, no account being 
taken of what is generally termed the overhead cost including that of planning 
and organization of the work. 

At the same time, the estimates of the area watered were very liberally made. 
If some water was provided for a farm, it was habitually stated that the entire 
area say of 160 acres was under irrigation, even though water had only been 
as a matter of fact applied to a portion of it. The capacity of the canal might 
not be enough to supply all of the lands which were claimed to be irrigated. 
For these reasons the cost per acre of irrigation was stated at an extremely low 
price, less than $15 per acre. Beginning about the year 1900, a cost of $20 
per acre for irrigation was considered high, but when it began to be appreciated 
that the land with a sure water supply would yield a large return on a value of 
$50 or even $100 per acre, it was recognized that larger investments in con- 
struction would be justified. Year by year the limits of assumed feasibility 
have been increased, so that by 1905, it was assumed that $30 per acre was 
large, then $40 per acre, and finally by 1910, a cost of reclamation of $60 per 
acre was not considered prohibitory, for lands especially in the southern part 
of the country. In fact, when consideration is had of the great value of 
orchard lands an expenditure of $100 or more per acre to provide water is 
feasible. In semitropical lands, for example, in the Hawaiian Island, where 
pumping plants have been erected for raising water for irrigation to a height 
of 550 ft., an outlay of several hundred dollars per acre is not considered out of 
the ordinary. 

In the northern temperate regions, for example, in Colorado and Montana, 
for the ordinary field crops an investment of $40 to $60 per acre may be now 
considered as large but not prohibitory. This may be increased notably for 
warmer regions with longer crop season, such as those of southern Idaho, and 
portions of Oregon and Washington. Going south from here to points as in 



L IRRIGATION 515 

Arizona and California, where crops grow throughout the greater part of the 
year, an increase of 50 per cent, in the amount above named may be considered 
as moderate. 

If estimates are based on the crop production of thoroughly irrigated lands 
it can readily be seen that these give a good income on an investment of from 
$200 to $500 per acre, so that theoretically, the figures above given could be 
increased several fold, but as a matter of fact, under existing conditions, it is 
hardly safe to figure on this basis, although it is possible to look forward to a 
time when far larger investments than now considered wise will be the rule 
rather than the exception. 

Other Costs. — It must not be assumed that the cost of an irrigation system 
is simply that of the engineering or construction. There are-other costs which 
may equal or exceed these and neglect of which in the preliminary estimates 
frequently leads to financial ruin. These are the somewhat vague and intan- 
gible expenses of the organization, the so-called overhead charges, especially 
of commission and interest upon bonds, or upon other securities issued for 
construction purposes. It is not infrequently the case that after the engineer 
has carefully estimated all of the construction cost and has allowed 15 per cent, 
or 20 per cent, for contingencies, the business man must double this to cover 
the items above noted. 

Taking the ordinary conditions of private irrigation systems it may be said 
that assuming the engineer's estimate of construction at 100 per cent., the 
other items to be added will be about as follows: 

Preliminary examinations, organization and promotion, 10 per cent. 

General administrative, 10 per cent. This is after the funds have been 
raised, the general plans determined upon and construction carried to 
completion. 

Interest on bond issue, 20 to 30 per cent. This is assumed to cover most 
of the construction cost, and is estimated at 6 per cent, per annum on the 
period required in the construction of large systems. 

We thus have from 40 to 50 per cent, of the construction cost to be added at 
the time when the works are completed. 

Beginning with the time of completion of the works and the beginning of 
active irrigation from then on is the period of greatest difficulty and stress. 
Settlement of the lands is usually slow, the farmers must experiment, the 
markets are to be established, and five, ten or more years may elapse before 
the land is completely irrigated and the farmers are able to make notable pay- 
ments. During this time the cost of operation and maintenance has been 
large and this with the interest on bonds or other securities may amount to 
75 per cent, or even 100 per cent of the actual construction cost. 

Size and Cost of Organization for Operating Irrigation Systems. — The 
following data are given in Harding's "Operation and Maintenance of Irri- 
gation Systems." 

At the 1911 Operation and Maintenance Conference at Boise, a paper was 
presented by R. K. Tiffany, then manager of the Sunnyside project, in which a 
series of organizations for different sized systems were given as shown in 
Table IV. As stated by Mr. Tiffany the number of employees given would 
represent about the maximum which would be required. Under favorable 
conditions the number may be materially reduced and many systems are 
operated with smaller organizations. 

As an instance of effect on the organization of the main canal system of the 
delivery of water to laterals only or to individuals, a case on the Boise project 



516 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



OiOiOOOOOOOOOOig 

CO ,-1 rH r-H T-l tH tH -.t ' i-( lO S 



o 



i oo»oo.o 

iOiO(N05iO 

; (M,-l,-l rH 



o 
o»oo 

OirHOS 



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o»oo 

0I>0 



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i-H> 


^ I 










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o 






fe^&§'fe£og:s«p 



o 



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I S-ti^ o 2 ^^ oj S^ aS-2 '7 



was cited. On 32,000 acres, of which 
21,000 were irrigated, water was deliv- 
ered to laterals only on about half of the 
area; one water master, one field clerk, 2 
gate tenders and 8 ditch riders handled 
this area at a cost of 5 cents per acre 
per month. On another division con- 
taining about 33,000 acres of which 
15,000 were irrigated, water was de- 
livered to each individual farm at a 
cost of 12^ cents per month. 

The average size of the clerical force 
for government projects was given as 
follows at the same conference: up to 
15,000 acres, one clerk; 15,000 to 40,000 
acres, two clerks; 40,000 to 75,000 acres, 
three clerks; 75,000 to 120,000 acres, four 
clerks; 120,000 to 175,000 acres, five 
clerks; 175,000 to 240,000 acres, six 
clerks. These do not include the keep- 
ing of the strictly operation or water- 
delivery records It was considered that 
one man should handle about 2,000 in- 
dividual accounts in the books. For 
other forms of organization the clerical 
force is usually somewhat smaller. 

Economic Water Conduit Location. — 
The following is given in Engineering 
and Contracting, Jan. 14, 1914. 

Every conduit must change at certain 
points along its length from one type of 
construction to another, as from pipe 
line to lined canal, unless it traverses a 
country of uniform topography. Such 
changes arise from considerations of 
economy or safety. A conduit of any 
considerable length seldom consists 
wholly of canal section but changes from 
that type of construction to flumes, 
siphons, pipe lines, bridge flumes or tun- 
nels, as the location conditions dictate. 
The points at which such changes are 
made are determined by economic con- 
siderations as well as by ground slope, 
by the nature of the material en- 
countered in the excavation processes 
and by the other local conditions. 
Just as the comparative costs of deep 
cutting and tunneling are used to indi- 
cate when to pass from cut to tunnel 
in railroad location, so the transition 



IRRIGATION 



517 



from one type of conduit construction to another is based upon comparative 
costs. 

In making various conduit locations C. E. Hickok, has evolved a diagram 
which gives the equivalent lengths, from an economic standpoint, of various 
types of conduits. The diagram and Mr. Hickok's discussion of it are here 
given as described by him in his paper entitled: A Study of Economic Con- 
duit Location, as published in Vol. XXXIX Proc. Am. Soc. of C. E., pp. 
, 2185-2190. When the locator comes to a point where he must decide whether 



h 




L_j '^''i'S.iV'vi.^V'./'''L' '' L-J Draiaage ditch-' 



METAL FLUME 




CONCRETE FLUME . TUNNEL 

Fig. 1. — Cross-sections of four types of conduits. 

to tunnel through a ridge or follow the grade around with a canal, he measures 
the length of the two possible routes, and, by an inspection of the diagram 
given herewith, reaches a decision as to the more economical of the two types 
of conduits. This not only saves time but, with a properly constructed 
diagram, assures a proper and complete comparison between the two alterna- 
tives as to first cost, depreciation, head-loss values, evaporation and seepage 
loss values, interest, taxes, inspection and repairs. 

For purposes of illustration assume a case where the project under considera- 
tion is to be used for irrigation and hydro-electric purposes, and where the 



518 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

conduit has a capacity of 44.6 cu. ft. per second and a slope of one-tenth of'l 
per cent. Four types of conduit are shown in Fig. 1. 

It is obvious that for each foot saved in length of conduit there is a saving 
in head loss, as well as in evaporation and seepage losses. The value of this 
saving is ascertained in the following way, taking 1,000 ft. of conduit, for 
convenience in calculating: 

Head Loss. — 1,000 ft. of conduit dissipates 1 ft. head. With a discharge of 

44.6 cu. ft. per second, and 77 per cent efficiency, the horsepower is: 

1 X 44.6 X 62.5 X 0.77 

= 3.9 HP. =2.8 KW., less 10 per cent for transmis- 

550 

sion and transformer losses = 2.61 KW., at $55 = $143 .50. 

Evaporation Loss^Power Value. — Assuming an evaporation of 5 ft. per 

annum: 

8 X 1,000 X 5 .0 

= .915 acre-ft. per year = .0025 acre-ft. per 24 hours 

43,560 

= .00125 cu. ft. per second., with a head of 1,500 ft. 

0.00125 X 1,500 X 62.5 X 0.77 

^— -^ = 0.162 HP. = 0.121 KW., less 10 per 

550 

cent for transmission and transformer losses = .109 KW., at $55, = $6. 

Seepage Loss — Power Value. — From tests made by Elwood Mead and B. A. 

Etcheverry, at the University of California, the writer concludes that the rate 

of percolation through a 3-in. canal lining under a head of 3.5 ft. is about 

.0043 cu. ft. per hour, or 0.103 cu. ft. per 24 hours. 

8 X 1,000 X 0.103 

= .0188 acre-ft. per 24 hours = .0094 cu. ft. per 

43,560 

second. 

• .0094 X 1,500 X 62 .5 X .77 

^^— ^ = 1.23 HP. = 0.92 KW., less 10 per 

550 

cent = .828 KW.; .828 KW. at $55 = $45 .54. 

Total annual power loss, $195.04. 

Capitalized at 10 per cent, $1,950.40. 

Or per foot, $1.95. 

Evaporation Loss — Irrigation Value. — 0.0025 acre-ft. in 24 hours (from the 
foregoing) = 0.00125 cu. ft. per second = 0.0625 miner's inch. Assume 25 
per cent loss before delivery to consumer: 

0.047 miner's inch at 40 cts. per miner's inch per day = per annum, $6.86. 

Seepage Loss — Irrigation Value. — 0.0188 acre-ft. per 24 hours (from the 
foregoing) = 0.0094 cu. ft. per second = 0.47 miner's inch, less 25 per cent 
loss = 0.353 miner's inch at 40 cts. per miner's inch per day = per annum, 
$51.64. 

Total annual irrigation loss, $58.50. 

Capitalized at 10 per cent, $585.00. 

Or per foot, $0,585. 

Summary. — Power loss per foot, $1.95; irrigation loss per foot, 0.585; total 
loss per foot, $2,535. 

The first cost and the annual charges of each type of conduit are next com- 
puted. The annual charges are taken as consisting of the following items: 
Interest, depreciation, taxes, inspection, and repairs. The annual charges 
of each conduit are capitalized at 10 per cent and added to its first cost, which 
gives a figure having a real comparative value. For instance, we obtain the 
comparison between a lined canal and a concrete-lined tunnel as follows: 



IRRIGATION 519 

CONCRETE-LINED CANAL 

First Cost — Per Foot. — Excavation, 2 cu. yds. at 36 cts. = $0.72; concrete, 
4.25 cu. ft. at $10.20 per cu. yd. = $1.57. Total = $2.29. 

Annual Charge. — Interest at 10 per cent, $0.23; depreciation, at 2 per cent, 
$0,046; taxes, $0,019; inspection, $.01; repairs, $0.02; total, $0,325; at 10 per 

fent, $3.25; total, $5.54. 
CONCRETE-LINED TUNNEL 

Excavation, 2.25 cu. yds. at $5.50 = $12.40; concrete and forms, $4.10; 
total, $16.50; 

Annual Charge. — Interest at 10 per cent, $1.65; depreciation, at 1 per cent, 
$0,165; taxes, $0,137; inspection, $0.01; repairs, $0.02; total, $1,982; at 10 per 
cent, $19.82; total, $36.32. 

It is evident, if we shorten the conduit by building the tunnel, that the 
first cost and the capitalized annual cost of the tunnel can exceed the first 
cost and the capitalized annual cost of the canal by an amount equal to the 
length of conduit saved multiphed by the loss value per foot of conduit. This 
is shown by the equation: 

Y (Cy + Ay) = Z (Cx + A.) + iX - Y) V 
where 

X = linear feet of canal, 

Y = linear feet of tunnel, 

Cx = estimated cost per foot of canal, 

Ax = estimated annual charges per foot of canal capitalized at 10 per cent, 

Cy = Estimated cost per foot of tunnel. 

Ay = estimated annual charges per foot of tunnel capitalized at 10 per 
cent, and 
V = value of losses per foot of conduit. 

In the case of a tunnel, the evaporation will be considerably lessened, there- 
by effecting an additional saving. If entirely eliminated, this saving would 
amount to 12.8 cts. per foot, as shown above. This was reduced to 10 cts. 
and the first cost of tunnel credited with that amount. Inserting the proper 
values in the equation: 

Y (16 .40 + 19 .82) = X (2 .29 + 3 .25) + (x - y) 2 .53 
F = .208 X, the equation of a straight line. 

In the same way, two types of conduit can be compared and the resulting 
straight-line equation obtained. The diagram, Fig. 2, which is self-explana- 
tory, shows the results. • The following formula and assumptions were used 
In constructing Fig. 2: 

GENERAL FORMULA 

y(Cy) = xCx-i- (x - y) V + X (A) Y- X (Ay) 

Cy = Estimated cost per foot of conduit above line. 

Ay = Estimated annual expense per foot of conduit above line capitalized 
at 10 per cent. 

Cx = Estimated cost per foot of conduit below line. 

Ax = Estimated annual expense per foot of conduit below line capitalized 
at 10 per cent. 

V = Estimated value of one foot of canal for power and irrigation pur- 
poses = $2.53. 
Tunnel is credited with 10 cts. per foot for saving in evaporation. 



520 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Hh ^ » ^ 



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c^ooSL 



IRRIGATION 521 

Values Used 

Original Annual 

cost expenses 

per ft. per ft. 

Tunnel $16. 50 $1. 98 

Concrete-lined canal . 2. 30 0. 325 

Concrete flume 4. 28 0. 579 

48-in. steel siphon, 100-ft. head 5. 88 0. 961 

48-in. steel siphon, 200-ft. head ' 7. 46 1.211 

48-in. steel siphon, 300-ft. head 10. 64 1. 714 

Steel flume 5. 58 0. 887 

Steel siphons are credited with $1.10 per ft. for saving in evaporation and 
seepage. 

In the case where a siphon crossing a gulch is compared with a canal or 
flume passing around the head of the gulch, the cost of the siphon is credited 
with the saving in evaporation and seepage throughout its length, which in 
this case amounts to $1.10 per foot. 

The writer realizes that such a diagram cannot be relied on entirely in the 
location of a conduit, for there are local conditions on every piece of work 
which must be taken into account. 

Cost Curves Used for Location of Catskill Aqueduct. — The following notes 
are abstracted from matter given in White's " Catskill Water Supply of N. Y. 
City" by J. P. Hogan. 

Types of Gravity Aqueducts. — The types of aqueduct construction in order 
of their relative cost, provided that in embankment or viaduct the elevation of 
invert above original surface is relatively small, are as follows: 

Aqueducts on ^^^olXo^ir.^ r.^ur.Uuri.o. ( i' 8??."^^™ 

draulio grade Above natural surface {t: vSK""^"* 

[ Below natural surface 5. Grade tunnel 

(6. Wooden pipe 

7. Reinforced concrete pipe 
(pressure aqueduct) 

hydraulic grade ] [8. Steel pipe 

[ Below natural surface 9. Pressure tunnel 

On the Catskill Aqueduct, to avoid contamination, open channel is not used. 
Embankment is used as sparingly as possible, as it is deemed rather unsafe for 
an aqueduct of this size. Viaduct is not used to any extent, but in a few 
places the aqueduct was placed on arches and the whole covered with embank- 
ment. Wooden pipe is not to be considered for an aqueduct of this size. 
Reinforced concrete pipe is used to some extent under heads considerably 
less than 100 ft. 

Comparison between Croton and Catskill Aqueducts. — The new Croton 
Aqueduct was placed entirely in tunnel for the following reasons: greater 
permanency, decreased likelihood of accident, smaller cost of maintenance, 
smaller leakage, remote advantage of being less vulnerable in time of war, and 
decreased cost of real estate. These advantages are very real, but unless 
there is some special condition which increases the importance of one or more 
of them, they are outweighed by the smaller linear foot cost of cut-and-cover 
aqueduct. 

The Catskill aqueduct, with twice the capacity of the New Croton aqueduct, 
cost less than 10 per cent more per linear foot due in great measure to sub- 
stitution of cut-and-cover for grade tunnel. 

Cost Curves. — In deciding upon the type of section to use, and the location 



522 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



for the Catskill Aqueduct, cost curves were prepared for the different sections 
and estimates of cost were made for alternate lines wherever possible. The 
combination of section and location that gave the lowest cost was used in 
determining the final location, depending upon field conditions and the 
advantages of the shorter line and of eliminating curves. 

Fig. 3 shows cost curves used for location of cut-and-cover aqueduct. 
In preparing these curves unit costs were assumed for different classes of 
work and applied to quantities determined by planimetering typical sections. 
Costs were thus computed for every 2-ft. difference in center line elevation; 
for three different natural conditions, i.e., ground level, slope four on one, and 
slope three on one; and for five different subsurface conditions, i.e., all earth, 
all rock and with earth overlying rock, 4, 8 and 12 feet respectively. 



























































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50 55 60 65 

Cost in Dollars per foot for Completed Aqueduct 

Fig. 3. — Cost curves used for location of cut-and-cover aqueduct. 



Similar curves for grade tunnels, for three conditions, i.e. (1) in sound rock, 
(2) timbered tunnel in rock, and (3) in earth, were used in comparing alternate 
lines of cut-and-cover and grade tunnel and to indicate approximately the 
depth of cut at which it would be economical to start tunnehng. 

In the case of pressure tunnels, a tentative linear foot cost was estimated for 
each tunnel for comparison with alternate cut-and-cover, grade tunnel and 
steel-pipe locations. 

In preparing curves of this kind the absolute unit prices are not of as much 
importance as the relative prices. If, for instance the relative price of 
excavation as compared to concrete is unduly low, the tendency would be to 
favor the shorter lines. Indeed, the curves in Fig. 3 show too low a cost for 
the type of aqueduct partly in rock, in some cases the cost being lower than 
aqueduct in all earth, due to the assumption that narrower cuts would be 



IRRIGATION 523 

used through rock, the resulting saving of expensive concrete more than 
balancing the extra cost of rock excavation. However this assumption did 
not lead to any notable errors in location, as it was rarely possible to choose 
the kind of material the cut-and-cover aqueduct was to be constructed in. 
The estimated costs for cut-and-cover aqueduct used in preparing the above 
curves were as follows: 

Earth excavation Cubic yard $0. 30 

Rock excavaiion Cubic yard 1 . 50 

Refill direct from excavation Cubic yard 0. 30 

Refill from borrow Cubic yard 0. 50 

Concrete including forms and cement. . . Cubic yard 7. 00 

Surface stripping 1 foot deep Cubic yard 0. 60 

• Surfacing, smoothing, sodding, and 

seeding Cubic yard Cost of refill plus 0.30 

Rubble retaining wall Cubic yard 2. 00 

Fencing one foot along aqueduct Cubic yard 1 . 00 

* Assumed for surface material 1 foot deep. 

Unit and Linear Foot Costs of Aqueduct. — It is interesting to compare the 
original assumption of unit prices and linear costs with the prices for which the 
contracts were afterwards let. The original assumptions used on location of 
the Northern Aqueduct Department were as follows: 

Unit Costs 
Cut-and-cover 

Excavation Refill Concrete 

per cu. yd. * per cu. yd. per cu. yd. 

Assumed price $0. 50 $0. 30 $7. 00 

Contract price 0. 58 0. 30 7. 30 

Grade Tunnel 

Assumed price . . $5. 50 $10. 00 

Contract price 5. 17 9. 15 

* For earth. A price of $1.50 per cubic yard was assumed for rock. Under 
the contract there was no classification. 

Linear Foot Costs 
Cut-and-cover 
Excav. Refill. Concrete Culverts Misc. Total 

Assumed price $10.32 $5.00 $34.48 $1.00 $50.80 

Contract price 12.10 5.45 35.19 $1.70 2.90 57.34 

All types 

Cut-and-cover Grade tunnel Press, tunnel 

Assumed price $50. 80 $90. 00 $120. 00 

Contract price 57.34 98.25 141.10 

Fig. 4 shows the typical cross-section of cut-and-cover aqueduct in rock 
trench, showing construction of cover embankment. Rock was usually 
excavated to a 6 on 1 slope, minimum thickness of concrete along sides 20 ins., 
but usually thicker owing to disintegrated condition of surface rocks. 

Fig. 5 shows the typical cross-section of cut-and-cover aqueduct in loose 
earth and on foundation embankment and hydraulic elements of aqueduct, 
side slopes usually 1 on 1, in firm earth 6 on 1, and 20 ins. minimum thickness 
of side concrete, above concrete slope of 3 on 1 used. 



524 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Scarifier Used to Loosen Dirt for Irrigation Ditches. — ^According to Engi- 
neering and Contracting, April 5, 1918, a scarifier has been used successfully 
in breaking the earth for irrigation ditches^ on the 70,000-acre properties of the 
Crocker-Hoffman Land & Water Co. in Colorado. The scarifier pulled by a 




Ora/y? of reifulred size where needed ^Hard packed rock debris. 

Fig. 4. 



small size Caterpillar tractor loosened the earth and left it in shape to be 
scooped out by scrapers. Forty 4-mule teams were used to scoop out the dirt 
loosened by the tractor and scarifier. Prior to the use of this outfit, the 
dirt had been loosened by plows pulled by mule teams, five 10-mule teams 



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HALF SECTION ON EMBANKMENT 

Fig. 5. 



being used. Each plow required three men to hold it, in addition to the driver 
of the teams. The co^t of loosening the dirt by the plow method was $125 
per day, with wages' at $2.25 and mules at $1 per day. Under the new plan 
the cost was $18 per day — the cost for the tractor and operation. 



IRRIGATION 525 

Cost of Enlargement of the Main Canal Sunnyside Unit — Yakima Project, 
Washington. — E. A. Moritz and H. W. Elder, in Engineering and Con- 
tracting, Sept. 11, 1912, give the following data. 

At the time the Reclamation Service purchased the system in 1906 the 
capacity at the intake of the main canal was about 650 c.f .s. and its designed 
cross-section was: Bottom width 30 ft., depth of water 6 ft. and side slopes 2:1. 
For the full supply flow at the intake the section had to be enlarged to a 46-ft. 
bottom width, 8 ft. depth and iy2\l side slopes, giving a capacity of 1,076 c.f.s. 
A corresponding increase in section was required over the full length of 
56 miles of the canal. 

Methods and Costs of Enlarging the Main Canal. — The excavation of the 
canal demanded that certain requirements be met which controlled to a large 
extent the methods to be adopted. The principal controlling factors were 
the following: (1) A large portion of the work had to be done during the 
irrigation season which made necessary the use of a floating dredge or some 
type of excavator which could excavate under water from the banks. (2) The 
work on the upper half required a reach of about 70 ft. from the center of mass 
of excavation to the center of mass of waste bank. (3) The quantity to be 
excavated varied from about 1,200 cu. yds. per station at the upper end to 200 
cu. yds. per station at the lower end, requiring, for economical work, that 
different methods be used for different reaches. (4) It was desirable to 
deposit most of the material on the lower bank, especially in the upper reaches, 
and furthermore it was generally impracticable to deposit on the upper side on 
account of the deep cuts. 

After a careful study of available methods a combination was selected which 
involved the use of a floating dredge for' the flrst 30 miles, a drag line excavator 
for mile 30 to 48 and team excavation for the remaining 8 miles. The final 
outcome of this program was that the floating dredge was run to mile 20.69 
only as it was found that the drag line machine could do the work from mile 
20.69 to 30 more economically. It was also discovered that, on account of the 
small quantities to be moved, team work was cheaper than drag line works 
below mile 43.4. Therefore, instead of the program as outlined the following 
resulted: Floating dredge mile to mile 20.69; drag line excavator mile 20.69 
to 43.4; and team work mile 43.4 to mile 56. 

The concrete drop structures of which there are about 18 in the flrst 30 miles 
of canal had a clearance of only 32 ft. between the abutments, and as the 
dredge had to pass through these the hull could be only about 30 ft. wide out to 
out. The machine would nave been much easier to handle if it had had a 
wider hull. The machine used is a sy2 cu. ft. steam driven, continuous 
bucket elevator type with an 82 ft. X 30 ft. X 6 ft. 6 in. huU, drawing 5 ft. of 
water. Steam is furnished by two 80-hp. locomotive type boilers 44 ins. X 
18 ft. Main drive and ladder hoist are driven by a 70-hp. 8 X 12-in. double 
horizontal engine. Winch machinery for spuds and for swinging the dredge 
are driven by a two cylinder, 20-hp. 6 X 6-in. double horizontal engine. Con- 
veyors are driven by two 18-hp. 7 X 10-in. single cylinder horizontal engines. 
A No. 1 Hendy hydraulic giant supplied by a two-stage, 6-in. centrifugal 
pump, belted to an 80-hp. 10 X 12-in. single cylinder, upright engine, is 
mounted on the bow to remove banks above the water level and beyond the 
reach of the buckets. Conveyors are 72 ft. long and have seven-ply 32-in. 
rubber conveyor belting. The machine was furnished by the Bucyrus Co. 
of Milwaukee, Wis. It was operated from Dec. 1, 1909, to Oct. 1, 1911, and 
moved 921,000 cu. yds, of material. 



526 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The drag line excavator is a Lidgerwood-Crawford 1}4 cu. yd. bucket 
machine with a 60-ft. boom. It is steam driven with a 48 in. X 114 in. 
vertical boiler and a 9 X 10-in, double cylinder engine. A 6 X 6-in. double 
cylinder engine is used to turn the machine. The machine was furnished 
by the Lidgerwood Manufacturing Co. of New York City. It was operated 
from April 20, 1909, to Sept. 27, 1911, and moved 804,200 cu. yds. of material. 
About three months of this time was consumed in moving the machine from 
mile 42.7 to mile 35.5. 

Operations of Elevator Dredge. — The elevator dredge was built during the 
spring and summer of 1909 and began work in November of the same year, but 
owing to the fact that the machine was largely experimental and the material 
excavated was very hard, very little progress was made. A great deal of 
adjusting was necessary and many minor breaks occurred. No fair trial was 
made befpre the weather became so cold that little could be accomplished 
because of heavy ice. No water could be run in the canal because of team 
excavation which was under way at several points below. Water was held 
in bays by means of temporary dams built at several points above the team 
work. Attempts were made to break up the ice by blasting but it would form 
again so rapidly that almost no permanent good was accomplished. The 
machine closed down for two weeks during January, and by the time the 
ice had begun to break up the water had become very low in the bays and 
after a few days became so full of silt from constant agitation by the machine 
that it was almost useless as a steam supply. 

Much excavation had to be done that, with running water of sufficient 
depth, would have been unnecessary, for the machine excavated in some cases 
4 ft. below grade to keep clear of the bottom. No great amount of fresh 
water could be run in and the grade was such that sufficient depth to float the 
machine could not be maintained after the temporary dam at mile 1.30 was 
removed. 

A great deal of difficulty was encount^ed in disposing of excavated mate- 
rial. So much water was carried over with the earth and gravel that a mud 
was formed which ran out into the adjoining fields and orchards, covering 
the original ground to a depth of several feet. Bulkheads were built along the 
right of way and an attempt made to hold the material. As the slope upon 
which the material was deposited was very steep, the material would fill to the 
top of the bulkhead in a short time and then run over into orchards. Higher 
and stronger bulkheads were built, but this was found to be very expensive. 
As the extremely wet material could not be held, the water jet which was 
played into the water buckets to aid in cleaning them, was removed. Then 
six %-in. holes were bored in each bucket to allow the water which picked up 
with the dirt to escape. This accomplished a great deal toward retaining the 
material on the right of way, but many bucketsful which in a saturated 
condition would have been dumped onto the conveyor, stuck in the buckets 
until they were loosened by the vibrations and released. This usually 
occurred after the hopper had been passed and the material was then dropped 
into the canal behind the digging line and had to be left to be excavated by 
other means later. 

With the opening of the irrigation season the machine at once began doing 
better work. The material up to this time had been chiefly cement gravel, 
very compact chalky material, or compact wash gravel. Softer material was 
now encountered, and the weekly output increased from 2,000 to 14,300 cu. 
yds. 



IRRIGATION 527 

It was found desirable at this time to make some improvement in various 
parts of the machine. , A larger pocket was put in the spud drive to insure 
greater power in sinking the spud foot. The position of the belt conveyor 
drive had been a great source of trouble as the drive sprocket was almost 
under the end of the conveyor drum and caught all the mud and water running 
off on that side. The* sprocket was placed on the end of the shaft outside of 
the bearing, about 1 ft. from conveyor belt, thus affording a better oppor- 
tunity for housing. 

A great deal of trouble was caused when passing through deep cuts, by lack 
of dumping space. As built, the conveyor was fixed rigidly parallel to the 
spud arm. This necessitated depositing all the material excavated from one 
position into one heap. It was found necessary to have the conveyor swing 
over a greater arc. This was accomplished by removing the connection be- 
tween the spud arm and the conveyor ladder and by fixing the conveyor 
rigidly to the deck forcing it to swing with the boat independently of the spud 
arm. Thus as the buckets made their swing across the canal, the conveyor 
covers an arc sufficient to distribute the spoil as desired. 

As constructed, the spud sleeve was attached by rivets to the mast, but as 
this would not permit the raising of the spud arm a pinion hinge was put in 
with bolts replacing the rivets in the lower part of the plate allowing the 
spud to be loosened and raised readily. 

After about nine months of operation the lower tumbler had become badly 
worn, and to reinforce it the hollow interior was filled wih cast iron. This 
added about 4,600 lbs. of weight to the exreme end of the bucket ladder and 
was probably to a considerable degree the cause of the breaking of the 12-in. 
I beams of the bucket ladder. After this accident 15-in. I-beams and a lighter 
tumbler reinforced with manganese steel wearing plates were substituted. 
The wearing plates had to be removed after six months use. It was found 
necessary to put similar plates on the upper tumbler but as the wear was 
not as great these plates did not have to be renewed. 

About a week after the ladder was rebuilt with 15-in. I-beams these also 
broke. The cause of this was not definitely determined but it was probably 
due principally to a torsional moment. The great bulk of the material exca- 
vated was in the left bank and the buckets cut chiefly with the left side causing 
a twisting motion downward and to the left. This is undoubtedly a condition 
which should be provided for in the design of a machine for work of this kind. 

The hull of the dredge was constructed only 30 ft. wide to permit it to pass 
numerous drops which had been built before the enlargement of the canal. 
This hull was too narrow for stability as practically all of the 200 tons of 
machinery was above the deck. The spuds, of course, served to maintain 
equilibrium except when raised as was the case when moving. On one occa- 
sion when the spuds were raised a man started out upon one of the conveyor 
ladders, causing the boat to tip. The crew lost control of the boat, which 
listed so far that water entered the hatches on the deck and caused it to sink. 
It took 12 days to get the dredge afloat and in working order. On another 
occasion the dredge was sunk, due to a hole being worn through the side of the 
bucket well by the returning buckets. This time ten days were lost in raising 
and repairing the dredge. 

The typical sections shown in Fig. 6 show the relative positions of the masses 
moved by various methods. Much of the material was moved by teams dur- 
ing the last year of operation because it had been found that with the short 
haul the material not needed on the lower side could be disposed of more 



528 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



economically by team work on the upper side. The original plan had been to 
wash this material down with the giant and pick it u^ from the bottom with 
the buckets and deposit it on the lower side, but it was pulverized by this 
operation and spread out into the orchards as mud when carried across, which 
necessitated the abandonment of this process. The fills had to be built by 
teams ahead of the machine as otherwise much land would have been inun- 
dated when the old levee was cut out by the machine. 

The statement of costs of the excavation done by the elevator dredge 
requires some explanation. The labor cost is low. The high cost charged to 
the item "spoil banks" is due to the fact that much of the material was de- 
posited in the form of mud and ran over valuable farm lands and had to be 
hauled back when dry unless it had been retained by the expensive bulkheads 
built along the right of way. Another reason for the high cost of this item is 
that much of the material was deposited in high mounds which had to be 
graded down to permit ditch riders to travel over the levee. 




Bulkhead Line 
r 

Legend 
-- Old Ground Line 

— Required Section 
- Dredge Excavation Line 

— Team Excavation Line 
B ream Work nil 

Team Work 5poil 
Team Excavation 
tm Dredge Excavation 



Bulkhead Lins 

\ tiG. 6. — Typical sections excavated by elevator dredge. 

The high cost of maintenance is due to the fact that much adjusting and 
many changes had to be made to adapt the machine to local conditions. 



Table V. — Cost Data — Elevator Dredge Work, 920,723 Cubic Yards 

Unit 

Item: Cost cost 

Excavation: 

Labor, dredge $ 26 , 960. 63 0. 029 

Labor, spoil banks 31 , 159. 06 0. 034 

Fuel 33,043.07 0.036 

Plant maintenance 52 , 327. 40 0. 057 

Plant depreciation 41 ,432. 53 0. 045 

Total ; $184,922. 69 0. 201 

Miscellaneous — Maximum excavation per 8-hour shift, 1,429 cu. yds.; 
maximum excavation for one week, 17,644 cu. yds. (three shifts); average 
excavation per 8 hour shift, 557.9 cu. yds. ; average excavation actual working 
hour, 128.7 cu. yds.; per cent of lost time, 49; made up as follows: moving, 
10 per cent; repairs and miscellaneous, 39 per cent. 

Force and wages — An operating force consisted of 8 men and 4 horses. 
Wages paid were — Operator, $5.00; engineer, $4.67; spudman, $3.83; fireman, 
$3.33; oiler, $3.00; deckman, $2.50; man and team, $4.50. 



IRRIGATION 



529 



The depreciation item includes the entire cost of the machine charged 
against the total yardage. Everything except the hull should have consider- 
able salvage value which will go toward reducing the cost. 

Fuel had to be hauled about three miles across open country or over roads 
that were very rough. 

One of the most gratifying results of this work is the solid lower bank pro- 
duced by the saturated material discharged by the dredge and the substantial 
roadway over it. The trouble from breaks over this reach should be very 
small and maintenance charges Will bfe correspondingly reduced. 

Performance of the Drag Line Excavator. — The reach of the main canal 
between Miles 20.69 and 43.40 was excavated with a Lidgerwood-Crawford 
drag line machine. This machine was erected during January and February, 
1909, and began operating at Mile 42.67 and worked down-stream to Mile 
43.40. An attempt was; made at first to excavate from the lower side but was 



Typical Sections Excavated by Drag Line 





i^ Section to be removed 
^^ Team Excavation 
CZ2 Team Fill 
EZD Mac/line Spoil 

Fig. 7. — Typical sections excavated by drag line excavator. 



unsuccessful because of the short boom and inability to sink the bucket into 
the narrow strip to be taken from the upper side. The machine was then 
dismantled and hauled to Mile 35.5 where operations were commenced from 
the upper side of the canal. A road had to be leveled ahead of the machine 
and all material not needed on the lower side was dumped on the upper side 
of the canal. The extra amount of road grading, not anticipated in the origi- 
nal schedule, and the additional work that had to be done to strengthen the 
levee caused the price per cubic yard to run higher than was anticipated. 

A complete section, Fig. 7 was excavated from Mile 35.5 to Mile 38.3, but 
by the time the machine reached this point the demand for water over the 
lower parts of the project had become so great that it was decided to take out 
only about two-thirds of the material so as to allow the machine to move faster 
and increase the capacity over a greater reach of canal. It was found, how- 
ever, that the machine moved very Uttle faster when removing a two-thirds 
section, and that the cost per cubic yard was higher, so this plan was aban- 
doned and a complete section was excavated throughout the remainder of the 
work. A great deal of team work had to be done in connection with the 
machine excavation. The profile of the upper bank was very irregular and 
34 



530 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

in ravines the old levee had been almost, if not entirely destroyed. A road- 
way 18 ft. wide had to be built, and, as the grade could not exceed 5 per cent, 
the hills had to be cut down and the ravines filled up. Where the necessary 
cut on hills exceeded 5.0 ft., -which is the distance from the base of track to 
bottom of engine car, the cut had to be 23 ft. wide to permit the car to swing 
and dump. In very deep cuts this placed the machine so far below the level 
of the natural ground that it was very difficult to dispose of the material because 
of the lack of dumping space. In some cases the road grading was 30 per cent 
of the entire excavation in cuts; and as the material was often hauled 200 ft. 
or more into the fill ahead the cost was high. The team cost was charged 
against the machine and the total cost distributed into the total yardage. 

Much work was done on the spoil banks and in strengthening the levees and 
was all charged to the machine excavation. All repairs and maintenance 
costs are included in the item "Plant Maintenance." The item "Plant 
Depreciation" includes the entire cost of the machine. 

An attempt was made to show the amount of material moved per hour with 
the machine operating at various heights above the G. G. of mass excavated. 
The results were about as follows : 

Height above Cu. yds. Height above Cu. yds. 

C. G. of mass per hour C. G. of mass per. hour 
excavated 

5 80 9 77 

6 85 10 72 

7 102 11 65 

8 80 12 60 

Table VI. — Cost Data — Drag Line Excavation, 204,183 Cubic Yards 

Unit 

Item: Cost cost 
Excavation: 

Labor, excavator. $21,411.26 0.027 

Labor, spoil banks 24,932.27 0.031 

Fuel 12,019.78 0.015 

Plant maintenance 27,969. 81 0. 035 

Plant depreciation 6 , 786. 97 0. 008 

Total $93,120.09 0.116 

Force and wages — One crew consisted of 6 men and 2 horses. 
Wages paid — Engineer, $4.00; fireman, $2.85; groundman, $2,00; man and 
team, $4.50. 

Miscellaneous — Maximum excavation per 8-hr. shift, 1,170 cu. yds.; maximum 
excavation for week, 16,000 cu. yds.; average excavation per 8-hour shift, 
545.5 cu. yds.; average excavation per actual working hour, 93.7 cu. yds. 

The excavation was done under water during seven months of the year 
and during the winter months when there was no water in the canal frost 
interfered with the work to a considerable extent. Due to the shape of the 
section the time consumed in lifting and swinging the bucket was probably 
considerably greater than on most excavation with an equal quantity of 
material to move. 

Team Excavation. — From Mile 43.4 to the end of the canal and at other 
points where the material was too hard for the excavators to move the excava- 
tion was done by hand and teams. The total quantity moved of all classes 
was 583,400 cu. yds. at an average cost of 37.5 cts. per cubic yard. Most of 
this work was done by force account and under widely varying conditions. 



IRRIGATION 531 

Much of the material was of such a nature as to make its segregation into the 
different classes very difficult but approximate classification is as follows: 
Class 1 — earth, 445,000 cu. yds.; Class 3 — rock, 41,000 cu. yds.; Class 2 — all 
other material, 97,400 cu. yds. All the work- was done during the winter 
months and much frozen material which otherwise could readily have been 
plowed had to be blasted. 

Cost of Concrete Lining for Irrigation Canals. — In a report by Samuel 
Fortier, U. S. Dep't of Agriculture, abstracted in Engineering and Contracting, 
Feb. 10, 1915, the following facts are given. 

North Side Twin Falls Land & Water Co,, Milner, Idaho. — This company 
lined 8,400 ft. of its main canal to increase its capacity. The canal is carried 
for several hundred feet along a rough lava rock cliff and is 60 ft. above low 
water in the river. The outer bank through this section is a concrete retain- 
ing wall. The remainder of the lined section is excavated almost wholly in 
solid lava. The grade varies from 0.001 in narrow places to 0.0002 and 
0.00025 in the wider sections. The canal was emptied Oct. 10, 1909, and the 
work of preparing it for the concrete was commenced as soon as the channel 
had dried sufficiently. In places for several hundred feet from the head-gates 
the canal bed was considerably below grade. The rock projecting into the 
canal section in the sides and bottom was blasted and smoothed, the low 
places being filled to subgrade, with broken stone and puddled earth. An 8-in. 
thickness of concrete was applied to the sides of the rock, sections and a 6-in. 
thickness to the bottom. The sides of the rougher rock sections were rip- 
rapped to secure a better alignment and to save concrete. Cavities and large 
irregularities were back-filled with stones and puddled earth. It seems to the 
writer that the 6-in. thickness laid on the bottom of rock sections might hav6 
been reduced to 3 or 4 ins. if the bed had been better prepared by replacing 
of finely crushed stone, compressing this material by rolling to secure an even 
surface and uniform grade, as is done in macadamized road construction. 

The concrete was composed of a 1:3:6 cement, sand, and crushed stone 
mixture, but whenever a well-graded crushed stone could be secured sand was 
omitted and the concrete was made of 1 part cement to 6 parts crushed stone 
from which all particles over l}i ins. in diameter had geen excluded. 

In earth sections the lining of the sides and bottom was 4 ins. thick and had 
side slopes of l^i to 1. Expansion joints of corrugated iron were inserted 
every 16 to 20 ft. along the sides and bottom except in the bottom of the rock 
sections. These joints consisted of pieces of corrugated iron cut into strips 
4 ins. wide containing l}^i corrugation?, these being designed to lock the edges 
of adjacent sections and to prevent slipping. 

The side walls in the rock sections were supposed to have a slope of 1 to 4; 
but in many places where this would have necessitated the blasting of large 
amounts of rock, walls were made almost vertical. Heavy, collapsible forms 
of 2-in. lumber were used in placing concrete for the walls which approached 
the vertical. The concrete was wheeled directly from the mixers and spread 
in uniform layers 4 ins. thick over the bottom and on the sides of the easier 
slopes in earth sections. Concrete placed within forms made of 4 X 4-in. 
lumber was compacted by tamping and finished by working 24-ft. floats made 
of 2 X 6-in. timbers back and forth over the upper surface of the forms. 
Sixty cubic yards of concrete per day were sometimes laid in this way by one 
gang working under favorable conditions. The sides and slopes were finished 
with a coat of cement mortar whenever the surface was rough enough to war- 
rant it. 



532 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The unusually high cost of this work was largely due to the difSculty of 
preparing the rock cut for the lining and to the absence of sand ^g-nd gravel, 
which made it necessary to crush rock for {he concrete. However, a greater 
factor than either of these was the added expense due to the necessity of prose- 
cuting the work during severe winter weather. To do this the canal was 
roofed over for a distance of 2,000 ft. and the inclosed space warmed by speci- 
ally constructed heaters, using sagebrush for fuel. The cost of labor and 
material was as follows: 

Laborers, per day of 10 brs $ 2. 50 

Drillers, per day of 10 hrs 2. 75-3. 00 

Engineers (steam), per day 3. 00-4. 00 

Man and team, per day 5. 00 

Coal per ton, f . o. b. Milner 6. 50 

Cement per barrel, f . o. b. Milner 2. 59-2. 89 

Cost of crushing rock, per cu. yd 1.10 

Cost of labor for placing concrete, per cu. yd 2. 75 

Complete cost of material, mixing and placing concrete for form 

work only, per cu. yd 8. 50 

Same without forms 7. 50 

Cost of rock excavation (light cuts from 0.4 to 2 feet), per cu. yd.. 5. 00 

Cost of placing riprap 1 foot thick, per cu. yd 2. 00 

Total cost of preparing 8,400 lin. ft. of canal for concrete 75 ,000. 00 

Gross cost of lining 8,400 Hn. ft. of canal 200 ,000. 00 

Average cost of concrete, per cu. yd 8. 00 

Main South Side, or New York Canal, United States Reclamation Service, 
Boise, Idaho. — This canal is designed essentially to carry flood water from a 
point on the Boise River, nine miles above Boise, to the Deer Flat reservoir, 
a distance of 36 miles. Seventy thousand acres of land is also watered from 
the canal before the reservoir is reached. About 63^ miles of the canal was 
lined to prevent seepage, increase the carrying capacity, and for the safety 
of sidehill sections where breaks frequently occurred. The canal is an old one, 
originally built with side slopes of IK to 1, but the change and filling up of the 
section common to old canals necessitated considerable preliminary work in 
the removal of very gravelly earth and in shaping the sides before the concrete 
could be laid. The lined section has a grade of 0.00025 to 00032 and slopes 
of IK to 1. Forms of 4 X 4-in. lumber were placed upon the slopes and 
aligned, after which the surface between the forms was smoothed and thor- 
oughly hand compacted. A uniform layer of concrete 4 ins. thick was then 
applied. 

After heavy stripping, a good natural mixture of sand and gravel was secured 
adjacent to the canal. This was hauled by slip scrapers up a runway and 
dumped into the mixers, which were placed high enough to permit discharging 
the concrete directly into one-horse carts. The concrete was a 1:3:6 mixture 
of Portland cement, sand, and gravel. It was laid in sections measuring 8 X 
16 ft. on the slopes and 8 X 16 or 16 X 16 ft. on the bottom. The lining was 
laid in alternate sections to make room for the workmen, and the upper sec- 
tions were usually the first completed. As soon as the concrete of the first 
sections had set, the forms were removed and the intermediate sections filled 
in. Expansion joints of one thickness of tar paper were used between sections 
in part of the work. 

After being dumped from the cars, the concrete was worked down and later 
smoothed by drawing long floats made of 2 X 6-in. timbers back and forth 
across the forms. In order to get a smooth face, the surface was painted with 
a 1 to 2 finishing coat of cement mortar as soon as the concrete was placed and 



IRRIGATION ' 533 

set. The lining was kept wet by sprinkling for a period of seven days after 
being laid. It was protected from nightly freezes during the early part of the 
work by covering with a layer of straw, and during some freezing weather in 
the latter part of the work some concrete was laid under large tents heated by 
stoves . Some of the cost items are as follows: 

Preparing canal section for lining, per lin. ft., approximately $2. 80 

Hauling gravel to mixers, per cu. yd 1. 14 

Mixing and placing concrete, per cu. yd 2. 20 

Total cost of concrete, including cement, per cu. yd 7. 70 

Total cost of concrete in place, per lin. ft 9. 64 

Cement per barrel, f . o. b. Boise 2. 27-2. 50 

Common labor, per day 2. 50 

Man and team, per day 5. GO 

Northern Pacific Irrigation Co., Kennewick, Wash. — During the winter of 
1910-11 this company lined 22,500 ft. of ditches on the "Highlands" at 
Kennewick to eliminate heavy seepage losses. The soil through which these 
ditches are built is principally a fine sandy loam overlying gravel at a depth 
of 18 ins. to 2 ft. One ditch 10,800 ft. long, 3 ft. wide on the bottom, with 
side slopes of H to 1 and a vertical depth of 26 ins., is designed to carry 18 
sec.-ft. Another ditch having in part a bottom width of 3>^ ft., side slopes of 
1.^ to 1, and a vertical depth of 19M ins. is designed to carry 14 sec.-ft. This 
ditch is reduced to a bottom width of 2H ft., but with the same side slopes 
and depth as the upper part. The concrete used was a 1:3:4 mixture of ce- 
ment, sand, and crushed rock. 

In preparation for lining, center grade stakes were set and the bottom of the 
ditch brought to grade. Scantlings 2 X 4 ins. were then placed across the 
bottom of the ditch at 12-ft. intervals at right angles to the center line and 
flush with the subgrade. Three forms 12 ft. long were then set in the ditch 
on the cross strips and centered. Earth was shoveled and tamped behind the 
forms to secure the desired section. There were 14 men in a crew on this work. 

After the earth sections were prepared in this way, 2 X 2-in. screeds were 
placed at intervals of 5 ft. 8 ins. and upon them forms 6 ft. long were set on 
every other space. The concrete was mixed with a one-third yard mixer, 
wheeled to place and dumped on planks laid on top of the forms. It was then 
shoveled behind the forms and lightly tamped. Strips of sheet iron were 
inserted behind the forms to protect the slope while the concrete was being put 
in and also to prevent a too rapid loss of water from the mixture by its contact 
with the drier earth. These strips were raised as the filling progressed. Two 
crews of 5 men each placed the concrete behind the forms, 2 men wheeled to 
each crew, and about 5 men were employed to move forms, etc. About 6 men 
were in the mixing crew and 2 others plastered rough places in the lining. 
Water kept in the finished ditch a few hundred feet in the rear of the work was 
pumped ahead to the mixer with a small gasoline engine. 

The engineer stated that in one hour a crew could place about six sections, 
or 34 lin. ft., of the lining in the ditch having a 3-foot bottom. 

Lower Yakima Irrigation Co., Richland, Wash. — The canal of this company 
parallels the Yakima River for several miles, where the earth sections run 
mainly through coarse gravel, boulders, or shattered basaltic rock. The 
remainder of the system is very largely built through sand. In the unliiied 
channel the seepage losses were excessive, and through the sand it was also 
difficult to maintain the ditch owing to its tendency to fill up both by drifting 
and on account of the flat side slopes which the sand naturally assumed under 



534 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

the action of water. The hning was intended, therefore, not only to reduce 
the loss of water, but to increase the carrying capacity of the ditch and render 
it more stable and easy to maintain. About five miles of the ditch was lined 
in 1910. The company furnished all materials used and prepared the channel 
for lining, but the other work was done by contract. 

In preparing the ditch, center stakes were set about 13^^ ins. above grade, to 
which the excavating was roughly done with teams and scrapers. At intervals 
of about 25 ft. along the bottom of the side slopes stakes were set to grade, and 
from these the top slope stakes were set by the use of a slope triangle. Nails 
were driven into the grade stakes and chalk lines were stretched on them par- 
allel to the ditch. Trimming to these lines was done then with square-pointed 
shovels and the slopes and bottom scraped to smooth surfaces with straight 
edges. The sides and bottom were tamped lightly with wooden tampers and 
sprinkled before the lining was applied. The section lined has a bottom width 
of 11>^ ft., side slopes of 13^ to 1, and a wetted perimeter of 263^^ ft. 

The three mixers used were operated on planks in the bottom of the ditch in 
advance of the work. With each mixer there was a crew of about 25 men and 
in addition a finishing crew of 5 or 6 men to dress the earth surfaces immedi- 
ately ahead of the mixer. One rock crusher was also operated, the crushed 
rock being hauled an average of 2 miles. Most of the sand was procured from 
pits along the line of the canal and was used without screening. The lining 
was laid in 8-ft. sections l^i ins. thick, with strips of building paper in the 
joints between the sections. Four hundred feet of lining was considered a 
good day's work for a crew. A 1 :3 :4 mixture of concrete was used for most 
of the lining, but on one section a 1 :4 mortar applied 1 in. thick was considered 
just as good as the thicker lining of concrete, besides being much easier to 
apply. 

The lining in gravel sections leaked considerably the first season, presum- 
ably because allowed to dry too rapidly on account of lack of water for keeping 
it moist after laying. In work that was done the following year this difficulty 
was obviated by allowing a small amount of water to flow in the ditch soon 
after lining, using check dams to prevent its interference with construction. 
Men wearing rubber boots then waded along and with shovels or buckets 
threw water upon the side slopes at frequent intervals to keep the concrete 
wet while setting. Where lining had been placed on moistened sand, the 
results were better than in the sections through gravel, there being no percepti- 
ble leakage. Conditions in the gravel portion improved with the first year's 
use of the lined sections, after which the seepage was considerably lessened. 
The various items of cost secured are as follows : 

Laborers per day of 10 hours, without board $ 2. 50 

Man and team per day, without board 4. 50 

Contract price per sq. ft. for mixing and laying concrete . 025 

Cement per barrel* 3.10 

Sand per cu. yd., approximately .50 

Total cost of lining, per sq. ft . 065 

Total cost of lining 9 , 064. 49 

*This does not include an 8-mile haul over heavy roads. 

During February and March, 1911, the company placed additional lining, 
using practically the same methods above described, except that all work was 
done by force account. The prices for labor and material indicate that the 
work was done considerably cheaper than in the previous year. Laborers 



IRRIGATION 535 

were procured for $2 per day without board and men with teams for $4 per 
day each. Cement cost $2.95 per barrel delivered at the work. 

Belgo- Canadian Fruit Lands, Kelowna, British Columbia. — About 3,000 
ft. of this company's main canal, 11 miles long, and about 4 miles of its lateral 
ditches have been lined with concrete to prevent seepage losses in a porous 
soil. On the main canal a 3-in. thickness of lining has been used for a finished 
section having a bottom width of 3.5 ft., depth 3.75 ft., and side slopes of >^ 
to 1. Lateral linings are 2>^ to 3 ins. thick on slopes, with a 3-in. thickness 
on bottoms which vary in width from 9 ins. to 2 ft. 

After excavating the channel to be lined, a drain filled with loose rock or 
gravel was made beneath the bed. Cross drains from this through the lower 
bank were placed at 500-ft. intervals. The forms were then set and bolted 
together. Galvanized-iron plates placed outside the forms were spaced with 
pieces of lumber, and after the earth was back-filled and tamped behind the 
plates concrete was poured between them and the forms. The galvanized 
plates and spacing pieces were withdrawn as the space was filled with concrete. 
The bottom of the ditch was then floated in and the edges smoothed, using 
for this purpose the excess concrete which had passed over the forms. The 
forms were left in place 48 hours. 

Curves were made by using special short forms having the outer edge 
superelevated ^^ to 1 in. according to the degree of curvature. In placing 
the concrete around sharp curves, special galvanized plates were used to close 
the gap at the outer edge of the forms. 

No cost data could be secured on the lining of the main canal. The cost of 
lining laterals per square foot and exclusive of excavation varied from $0.il8 
in the larger to $0,142 in the smaller ones. These costs include excavation, 
back-filling, rock drains and supervision. The work was done late in the fall 
when protection against frost increased the cost. Cement cost $3.75 per 
barrel delivered, common labor $2.75 per day, and skilled labor $4 per day. 
Tucson Farms Co., Tucson, Ariz. — The water for this project is obtained by 
pumping from numerous wells. During the winter and spring of 1912-13 
a reinforced concrete lining was placed in about 2}4 miles of the new main 
canal for the prevention of seepage losses through a sandy and gravelly soil. 
The canal has a trapezodial cross section entirely in excavation and as lined 
is capable of carrying a 2.9-ft. depth of water. The bottom width ranges from 
2 to 4^ ft. and the side slopes are 1 to 1. The greater part of the concrete 
used in this construction is a 1:4:4 mixture and the lining is 3 ins. thick 
throughout. 

In grading the channel for lining, a framed template was used to get a true 
section. The reinforcement is made of round steel bars intersecting at right 
angles and wired together. Four longitudinal bars, ^{q in. diameter, were 
placed one on each side of the bottom for the lining floor and one on each side 
near the top of the side walls. Then at right angles to these, as stated, 3^ -in. 
crossbars were spaced 12 ins. apart. Each crossbar was continuous and ex- 
tended from the top of the lining on one side through the lining to the top of 
it on the opposite side of the canal. When it is not possible to obtain the 
34 -in. bars, ^e-in. bars were substituted and spaced 18 ins. apart. 

Wooden-framed forms built in 12-ft. sections were then set in position over 
the steel reinforcement, blocked to place, and the adjoining ends bolted to- 
gether. Then >^-in. steel backing plates, 2 ft. wide and long enough to reach 
to the bottom of the earth section, were slipped behind the forms and under 
the reinforcement. Before placing the concrete, wooden spreader-strips, 



536 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

2 X 3 ins. were set between the wooden forms and the backing plates. Each 
spreader contained a staple driven almost full length into its side near the 
bottom, and in setting the spreader the staple loop was slipped over the end of 
the crossbar and the spreader was then slid into position. In this way the 
bar was carefully held in position while the concrete was being placed in the 
forms. A spreader was set beside each crossbar, and as the concrete for the 
side lining was tamped and puddled into place the spreaders were gradually 
removed, leaving the crossbars firmly embedded in the concrete. The steel 
plates likewise were withdrawn as the walls were built up. When the side 
forms were filled with concrete to within 3 ins. of the top, the longitudinal 
bars were placed and wired to the crossbars. The remaining concrete was then 
placed and smoothed with an edging trowel. 

Expansion joints were provided by setting 1 X 3-in. wooden strips in the 
middle of each form in the same manner as the spreaders, except that no 
staples were used and the joint strips were not removed afterwards. To keep 
them in position while concrete was being deposited, each one was lightly 
nailed to the side of the form, aud before the latter was removed the nails 
were withdrawn. The forms were left intact for a period of 8 hours at least, 
and they usually remained undisturbed over night during a period of 14 to 20 
hours. After their removal any defects in the wall surface were "picked" 
out and the cavities smoothly plastered with a 1:13^ or 2 cement mortar. 

The canal bottom was then carefully cleared of litter, its surface smoothed, 
and solidly tamped. All reinforcement bars that may have become bent 
were straightened. The bottom piece of the expansion joint was fitted to the 
two side pieces and its top carefully laid to grade. The concrete for the floor 
lining was then tamped and puddled into place, and when it had reached the 
required thickness the surface was easily brought to grade and smoothed by 
the use of a straightedge resting on the bottom joint strips as guides. The 
entire lining was kept wet by continual sprinkling during a period of three to 
five days. After this was discontinued a wash coat of neat cement mortar 
was applied to the surface with a brush. 

A 1:4:4 mixture of concrete was used on all the work except for about 
1,000 ft. of bottom where there was excessive external water pressure. In 
this portion of the canal a 1 : 3.2 : 3.2 mixture was used. As a further protec- 
tion in one very wet and miry place, additional reinforcement was used in the 
bottom. Extending over a length of about 5,000 ft. of the largest canal section 
near the Santa Cruz River bed, "weep holes" were formed in the bottom to 
relieve external water pressure. Two-inch tapering plugs extending entirely 
through the lining floor were set in the freshly laid concrete and these plugs 
were later removed as soon as the concrete had set sufficiently to retain its 
shape. Two rows of these holes were made 2}^ ft. apart and spaced 4 ft. 
longitudinally. During construction a considerable portion of the canal was 
drained. A line of 8-in. tiling was laid in the bottom and pumps attached 
thereto were installed at intervals of about 1,000 ft. to withdraw the accumu- 
lated water. 

The contractor received $12.50 per cubic yard for the finished concrete 
lining, using slab measurement. This included all costs except the original 
purchase price of the steel reinforcement. However, no excavation was 
included and the company paid extra for the wash coat. The contractor 
rented a rock crusher and delivered the rock. Sand was obtained from the 
river bed. 

All concrete was mixed by hand and transported in wheelbarrows. 



IRRIGATION 537 

The work was performed with gangs of about 30 men, paid for a 9-hour day, 
as follows : 

1 foreman $4. 00 

Mixing boss and 2 plasterers 2. 50 

2 water boys 1 . 00 

25 men 2.00 

The gang was used in the following manner: Eight men on mixing board, 2 
tampers, 2 men pulling plates and spreaders, 2 men setting forms and putting 
in expansion joints, 2 men laying steel reinforcement, 14 men transporting and 
depositing materials and concrete, finishing, screening sand, etc. The forms 
were usually all moved at one time and the whole force engaged on that work. 
It required this gang 21 days to place lining in 3,000 ft. of canal in dry exca- 
vation having a bottom width of 3 ft. The cost to the contractor was dis- 
tributed as follows: 

Labor, including the building of forms $1 , 297. 83 

1,712 sacks ofment, at $0.81 each , 1,386.72 

232 cu. yds. of rock, at $1.75 per cu. yd 406. 00 

232 cu. yds. of sand, at $0.75 per cu. yd . 174. 00 

Lumber in 15 sections of 12-ft. forms, 3,900 ft. B. M., at $30 per M. . 117.00 

Lumber for expansion joints, 750 ft. B. M., at $30 per M 22. 50 

Lumber for spreaders, runways, etc., 750 ft. B. M., at $30 per M. . 22. 50 

Water purchased from the city of Tucson, 21 days at $2 42. 00 

Hauling steel reinforcement 10. 00 

Depreciation of plant, breakage of tools, etc 20. 00 

Office expenses and expenses of contractor and superintendent, 

amounting to about $2 per day for this gang, 21 days . 42. 00 

Total $3,540.55 

Computations made on the above basis for 298.9 cu. yds., the cost was 
$11,845 per cubic yard. However, there were in addition the following costs 
to the Tucson Farms Co. : 

9,300 lbs. of steel, at $0.04 $372. 00 

One coat of cement wash, 34,500 sq. ft., at $0.0025 86. 25 

Engineering, about 5 per cent 195. 00 

Total $653. 50 

On this basis the actual cost of the completed lining was $14.03 per cubic 
yard. 

Cost of Lining an Irrigation Canal With Concrete. — In a paper by E. M. 
Chandler, before the Washington Irrigation Inst., and abstracted in Engineer- 
ing and Contracting, June 2, 1915, the following data are given. 

The canal lined was a used canal of the Burbank Power & Water Co., Bur- 
bank, Wash. Construction methods were carefully planned in advance and 
followed without variation. The canal bed was settled with water for two 
weeks, the canal being divided into short compartments, and water permitted 
to run from the upper compartments to the lower for filling. 

After canal settlement, line and grade stakes were set every five feet, each 
stake being a hub with center marked and its top set to the final concrete 
grade. The pre-determined width of the strips was 5 ft. The pre-determined 
thickness of concrete of lining was 0.2 ft., the base 6 ft., depth of canal 3 ft. and 
side slopes V^. to 1 — the carrying capacity being 60 sec. ft. 

With the line and grade set once and for all, templates were constructed 
having the exact thickness of the proposed lining and the exact shape of the 



538 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

finished canals. With the line and grade stakes and a carpenter's level, it was 
possible for the workmen to trim the sub-grade precisely as it should be. 
This work was carried on a few hundred feet in advance of the canal lining. 
Accurate work at this point was very essential to secure uniform thickness of 
lining. 

Sand and gravel, after being run through a i^-in. rotary screen, was found 
in natural proportions about one mile from the center of the work. This was 
hauled by contract at $1.75 per cubic yard measured in the finished lining and 
placed in piles above the canal 150 ft. apart and 15 ft. back from the slope of 
the canal, the slope of the ground above the canal not being very great. Ex- 
perience subsequently proved that the piles of gravel might better have been 
200 ft. apart. 

Two steam driven concrete batch mixers mounted on trucks and equipped 
with side loaders were started at the center of the canal to be lined (8,250 ft.) 
each working away from the other and endeavoring to obtain its end of the 
lining first. The mixers were moved from pile to pile on plank runways and 
pushed by the men — the mixers being on the upper side of the canal at all 
times and passing between the canal and the line of piles of gravel. For each 
mixer outfit, a movable trough or chute was provided for taking the discharge 
of the mixer and depositing it in the concrete carts in the bottomof the canal. 
The lining was laid at two points for each mixer, starting 75 ft. on each side and 
working toward the mixer. Plank runways in the canal bed were provided 
and one concrete cart for each laying gang was employed. 

The mixture was made on the basis of 1 bbl. of cement to 1 cu. yd. of fin- 
ished concrete, or about 1 to 7, and made as wet as the side slopes would per- 
mit. Two men in each laying gang placed the concrete roughly with square 
pointed shovels, one man helped dump the concrete carts in the bottom of the 
five-foot-strip being lined, and between times made ready the next strip and 
dampened the subgrade, while a fourth man in each laying gang trowelled the 
rough concrete into the finished shape. ^ 

Three men were. required for each mixer to supply the raw materials to the 
machine, one man for fireman and engineer, one man to dump the mixer, and 
one man to hoe the concrete down the chute. An additional man covered the 
finished lining with wet burlap strips and kept moving them forward. 

The water was hauled iy2 miles on the average by three four-horse teams 
hauling 400-gaL tanks on wagon trucks. The exact amount of coal required 
at each setting was pre-determined and left there in advance in sacks. The 
laying of this 8,250 ft. of concrete lining was completed in 14 working days. 
As much as 900 ft. in one day were accomplished. The men became very 
skillful in moving the machines and were able to lose not over 15 minutes time 
at each moving. The cost of the actual concrete was as follows : 

Per 
cu. yd. 

Sand and gravel $1 . 75 

Cement delivered 2. 65 

Water 25 

Coal .10 

Labor mixing concrete 65 

Labor laying concrete 88 

Superintendence 31 

Total per cubic yard $6. 59 

In addition to the above, the cost of equipment less its salvage value, was 
32 cts. per cubic yard, the cost of trimming the canal bed was 72 cts. per cubic 



IRRIGATION 539 

yard and the engineering was 32 cts. per cubic yard. This made a grand 
total of $7.95 per cubic yard or $1.10 per linear foot of canal. 

The cost of cement was $2.25 per barrel f . o. b. Burbank, common labor was 
paid 25 cts. per hour with a bonus of 2\^ cts. for staying until the job was 
finished, and the finishers and firemen were paid 27^^ cts. per hour with a 
bonus of 2\^ cts. under the same conditions. With but few exceptions, we 
were required to pay the bonus, and it was a good investment, as it overcame 
the great demoralizer of day labor work of this kind — constant changing of 
personnel. The incentive to do fast work was created by the two mixer 
gangs racing for the finish. 

Cost of Concrete Lining Irrigation Laterals, Orland Project, U. S. Reclama- 
tion Service. — The following is an extract, published in Engineering and 
Contracting, April 12, 1916, of an article by A. N. Burch, in the " Reclamation 
Record" for April, 1916. 

To February, 1916, there had been lined about 22 miles of laterals on the 
Orland project, in sections ranging from a few feet in length and requiring less 
than a cubic yard of concrete to a maximum section of 8,800 ft. The cross 
sections of the laterals lined have ranged from a bottom width of 2 ft. and 
vertical depth of Mt. to a bottom width of 8 ft. and vertical depth of 4^^ ft. 

Laterals originally designed for lining were built with 1:1 bank slopes; 
other laterals with 1^.^ : 1 and 2 : 1 slopes. On the distribution system covering 
the 6,000 acres recently taken into the project all laterals were designed for 
lining, where a reduction of cross sections and the elimination of drops would 
justify this course, as compared with building a larger earth section and install- 
ing the necessary drops to reduce the grade. 

On the project generally, lining has been placed in all fills; in the small 
laterals acquired from the old Stony Creek company and located within high- 
way boundaries, for the purpose of increasing their carrying capacity and 
reducing maintenance; in sections where seepage was excessive; as a protection 
over storm culverts and on curves; also at forks of laterals where, because of 
the number of structures, it was difficult to clean with teams. 

For the longer stretches of the work a 4-cu. ft. mixer, driven by a 3-hp. 
gas engine, all mounted on trucks, is used; for the short stretches small hand- 
mixing crews are employed. The aggregates used are run of bank material 
obtained from creeks in the vicinity of Orland. The proportions of mix are 
approximately 1:3:5, giving 1 cu. yd. of concrete in place of 1 . 1 bbl. of cement. 

The mixer crew is made up of a foreman, with about 30 men and 2 teams. 
Nine men are employed at the mixer in wheeling and in placing and finishing, 
and from 18 to 20 men in trimming the slopes and preparing the bottom for 
receiving the lining. One team is employed in hauling cement and one In 
hauling water and miscellaneous work. When it is possible to do so, water is 
run in the laterals and kept close behind the lining crew, thus reducing the 
distance of haul to the mixer and simplifying the process of wetting the com- 
pleted work. No special tools are used in preparing the slopes and bottom for 
lining, the work being done with mattocks, picks, and square-ended shovels. 

The mixer is usually set up at the side of the lateral in the center of a 500-f t. 
section, making the maximum wheel for concrete 250 ft., which was found to 
be about the greatest economical distance to which the material could be 
wheeled. As most of the lining is placed in fills, trenches are cut through the 
ditch banks to admit of a wheeling plank, which, when placed, lands on a small 
turning platform, from which an incline leads to the bottom of the lateral, 
and to additional boards on which the material is wheeled to the placers. 



540 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

End-dump barrows are used, and the material is dumped into a mud box, 
from which it is shoveled to the slopes. 

The mixing crew is made up of one mixer operator, two shovelers for charg- 
ing the mixer, three wheelers, and three placers and finishers. Of the latter. 
No. 1 places the concrete to the required thickness (being guided by a 
templet), No. 2 compacts the material and finishes it roughly with a square- 
ended shovel, and No. 3 gives the final finish with a 5 by 18-in. long-handled 
Arrowsmith trowel, finally cutting the expansion joints with a straight-edge 
and pointing trowel and smoothing them up with a grooving tool: Before 
placing the lining the slopes are thoroughly wet by means of a force pump 
attached to a water wagon, and the finished lining is kept wet from 3 to 5 days, 
depending on weather conditions. The average daily output of the mixer 
force is 25 cu. yd., -and the maxftnum 30.3 cu. yd. 

For short stretches of lining hand-mixing forces of about 12 men each are 
employed. From 5 to 7 men are employed in mixing and placing, and about 
an equal number in preparing the slopes and bottom for receiving the lining. 
The same equipment and about the same arrangement are used in the opera- 
tion of these crews as is the case with the mixer, except that the mixing board 
is placed on timbers which span the lateral, the aggregates are wheeled on 
to the board, and the concrete shoveled into barrows in the bottom of the 
ditch, there being no incline over which to wheel the material. These gangs 
average about 12 cu. yd. per day, and when there has been a full day's run 
without any long moves have made 15 cu. yd. 

There is little difference in the cost of lining whether the material be hand or 
machine mixed, although the machine turns out a better and more uniform 
grade of concrete. 

From October to June climatic conditions on the Orland project are very 
favorable for this kind of work, as there are no temperatures low enough to 
affect the concrete adversely, and moisture conditions are usually' such that 
the lining can be cured properly with little expense for wetting. During the 
summer months moisture conditions are reversed, and because of the thinness 
of the lining it is necessary to wet it from two to four times per day until it Is 
properly set. Following are unit costs and related data: 



Cost fer Square Yard 

Cement delivered on work $0. 0957 

Gravel delivered on work 0408 

Mixing concrete 0314 

Placing concrete 0294 

Sprinkling and protecting 0046 

Preparing section for lining 0697 

Field superintendence and engineering 0010 

Maintenance of equipment 0022 

Plant arbitrary' 0043 

Total labor and material $0. 2791 

General expense 0639 

Total cost to United States $0. 3430 

Thickness of lining, 13^^ inches. Total placed in square yards, 191,400. 
Total in cubic yards, 7,900. Cost per cubic yard, $8.26. Average haul (round 
trip), gravel, 5 miles. Average haul (round trip), cement, 6 miles. Foreman, 
$3.20 per day to $95 per month. Finishers, $3 to $3,20 per day. Laborers, 
$2.40 to $2.60 per day. Teamsters, with teams, $4.50 to $5 per day. Cement, 
$2 per barrel. Gravel, $1 per cubic yard. Lumber, $14 to $22 per M. B. M. 



IRRIGATION 541 

Cost of Concrete Lining of Canals and Tunnels of the Natches-Selah 
Irrigation Works. — Public Works, April 3, 1920, gives the following: 

The Natches-Selah Irrigation System in Yakima Valley, Wash., serves 
about 10,500 acres of orchard land by a conduit carried through a mountainous 
region in tunnels, flumes and canals. The work includes the reconstruction 
of about 3 miles of the original water-way and the building of nearly 4 miles of 
new structures and was executed on the cost-plus-fixed-sum basis. 

The flumes and the canal linings were made with concrete mixed with 
aggregate from a bar in the stream, crushed when necessary, and delivered to 
the mixers at various plants located at convenient places for the different 
sections of the work. 

Canal Lining. — The canal, some of which is a revision of the old canal, has 
a regular cross-section so as to conform as nearly as possible with average 
conditions and made with sloping sides and bottom covered with 3 inches of 
concrete reinforced by 12 X 12 inch Clinton wire mesh made with No. 12 
wire embedded iy2 inches from the surface. Transverse construction joints 
5 feet apart longitudinally were scored ^/i inch deep to fix contraction cracks. 



Fig. 8. — Standard cross-section of canal. 

In general the canals are in adobe or other soil that retains the moisture and 
on previous work has caused much trouble with frost. In order to prevent as 
much as possible temperature cracks the 1:2:4 concrete was placed in cold 
weather so that any cracks will close by expansion in summer time. 

The wire mesh in rolls a little more than 6 feet wide was laid in longitudinal 
strips, two on the bottom and one on each side, and tied together on the 
edges with wire projections from the sides of the strips. The concrete was 
placed in two courses, plastered on the bottom and sides of the canal like 
mortar with the reinforcement placed on top of the first course and covered 
by the second course. 

Aggregate and cement bags delivered alongside the canal by motor trucks 
were stored in heaps adjacent to the portable mixers with elevating charging 
hoppers that were moved at frequent intervals as the work progressed. The 
mixers discharged through open chutes supported at the lower end on light 
wooden towers where the discharge was controlled and the concrete delivered 
to two-wheel earts, pushed by hand over plank runways, dumped as required 
and shoveled and raked to position. 

The cost of preparing the subgrade and building the lining averaged $2.66 
per linear foot, equivalent to $0.66 per square yard of surface. The cost 
of the concrete lining in place including the reinforcement was $5.79 per linear 
foot, allowing $23.16 per cubic yard for concrete. Laborers received from 
$4.50 to $6.00 per day and were of inferior quality. 



542 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Tunnels. — The tunnels have a horizontal floor, vertical side walls and seg- 
mental roofs with 2-foot rise. The uniform width of 7 feet was the most 
practicable minimum for construction operations and the height of the side 
walls varied from 4],^ to 5 feet, according to grade. Except in timbered 
sections the concrete lining was generally 6 inches thick with a 4-inch floor 
over rock bottom. 

With one exception, of a tunnel only 1,082 feet long which was through 
cemented gravel and large boulders, all of the eight tunnels aggregating 
8,718 feet in length, were driven through soft dry sand-stone or shale in which 
the holes for blasting were made with coal augers. The tunnels were driven 
in full size headings. At one time the double shifts on the double headings of 
five tunnels required twenty gangs that made an aggregate advance of 140 
feet per day. The muck was hauled by mules and the tunnel was hned as soon 
as possible, because, although the rock stood well when first blasted, a long 
exposure made it very treacherous. 

Concrete Plant. — Concrete was made with sand, gravel and crushed stone 
all dredged frorn the river bed with a lj.i-yard dragline bucket operated from 
a 60-foot derrick boom. The sand was washed through the screens by a 
2-inch centrifugal pump providing enough water to facilitate the loading into 
trucks by which it was delivered to the concrete mixers. Large stones were 
broken in an electric jaw crusher and the three storage bins were mounted on 
rollers and advanced by anchored tackles operated by the hoisting engine of 
the derrick whenever the extension of the pit required a movement to be made, 
usually every other day. 

The derricks were similarly shifted on greased skids and hauled forward by 
the same tackles, these movements requiring about two hours. The plant 
was operated twelve hours a day by a five-man gang. 

One of several mixing plants was installed on the top of a good sized hill 
that enabled the trucks to dump aggregate directly into the storage bins 
which delivered by gravity to the two-bag machine that was operated by one 
man and discharged through an open chute 150 feet long terminating with a 
spout to the portal one hundred feet vertically below it. 

Tunnel Lining. — Two 6 X 2-inch longitudinal strips of concrete were laid 
on the sides of the tunnel floor to support the wall forms and after the invert 
between the strips was concreted, the sectional wooden forms that were 
removed before the wooden arch forms were set, were wedged to position. 
The 4-foot sections of arch were concreted and rammed in about one-half 
hour by a four-man gang. The total cost of lining exclusive of engineering, 
including cost and contractors' compensation, was $103,834 averaging $23 
per cubic yard. The total cost of the finished tunnels was $175,307, averaging 
$20.10 per hnear foot. The inefficient labor received $4.50 per day. 

Cost of Concrete Lining Irrigation Canal. — An article in Engineering and 
Contracting, Jan. 1, 1913, by A. T. Petheram, gives the following: 

The general dimensions of the canal section are shown in Fig. 9. 

The volumes of concrete in Hning were 13,502 sq. yds., and 766 cu. yds., 
the mixture being a 1: 6 cement and sand. All mixing was done by hand on 
43.^ X 10 ft. mixing boards set on the ditch bottom and moved by hand. 
Sand, water and cement were delivered on the upper side of the canal; the 
sand was measured in boxes containing 1 cu. ft. and dumped in trough to 
mixing board. Water was hauled in 650-gal. tanks an average distance of 
2H miles, and was delivered in barrels to each mixing gang. Each batch was 
turned over twice dry, water was added and the wetted mixture was turned 



IRRIGATION 543 

twice. A mixing gang consisted of 7 men as follows: 4 mixers, 1 top man to 
deliver sand and water, 1 assistant trowel man, and 1 trowel man, who also 

acted as foreman. The wages paid for labor were as follows, the rates per 
hour being for a ten-hour day : 

Inspector, per day $ 5. 00 

Foreman, per month 125. 00 

Timekeeper, per month 75. 00 

Cook, per month 98. 00 

Carpenter, per hour 35 cts. 

Sub-foreman, per hour , 27>^ cts. 

Trowel man, per hour 30 cts. 

Team and driver, per hour 50 cts. 

Common labor, per hour 22>2 cts. 




!> 



Fig. 9. — Section of cement lined canal, Hanford Irrigation & Power Co., Wash. 

The number of men employed was 75 and they lined on an average 80 ft. 
of canal per ten-hour day. 

The concrete materials required were 1,054 bbls. of cement, 771 cu. yds. of 
sand and 82,850 gals, of water. The costs of these materials distributed on 
the work were as follows: 

Cement. — Two brands of cement were used. Golden Gate, 654 bbls., and 
Red Devil, 400 bbls., and the costs distributed on the work were as follows: 

Golden Red 

Item Gate Devil 

Cost, f . o. b. Kennewick $2. 75 $2. 60 

Drayage at 40 cts. per ton 0. 076 0. 076 

Boat to Hanford at $3 per ton 0. 57 0. 570 

Hauhng to job, $1.50 per ton 0. 285 0. 285 

Distribution 0. 037 0. 037 

Total $3. 718 $3. 568 

Credit, 4 sacks at 10 cts 0. 40 0. 40 



Net cost per barrel $3,318 $3. 168 

The total cost for cement distributed on the job was therefore: 

654 bbls. at $3.318 $2 , 170. 20 

400 bbls. at $3.168 1,267.44 

Total $3,437.64 

Water. — The cost of water was the cost of handling 82,850 gals., which was 
$693.04, or slightly less than 0.85 cts. per gallon. 

Sand. — Sand was secured on the company's property and its only cost was 
for hauling an average distance of 0.85 miles in loads of 1 cu. yd. This cost 
was $1,079.62. A total of 771 cu. yds. were hauled and 766 cu. yds. were 
actually used ; the corresponding cubic yard costs were $ 1 .40 and $1.41. 



544 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Lining. — The cost of lining, including materials as listed above and labor of 
all kinds, was as follows: 

Per 

Excavation Total lin. ft. 

2,230 cu. yds. earth at 33 cts $ 735. 34 $0. 104 

400 cu. yds. gravel and loose rock at $1.39 556. 71 0. 079 

660 cu. yds. solid rock at $1.62 1 ,070. 72 0. 152 



Total $ 2 , 362. 78 $0. 335 

Concrete 

1,054 bbls. cement at $3.262 $ 3 , 437. 64 $0. 488 

771 cu. yds. sand at $1.40 \ 1 , 079. 62 0. 153 

62,850 gals, water 693. 04 0. 098 

Mixing and placing 766 cu. yds. at $3.33 2,547. 46 0. 361 



Total $ 7,757. 76 $1. 100 

7,050 ft. forming and tamping 1 , 595. 40 0. 226 

14,192 ft. fence at 4 >^ cts 633. 13 0. 080 



Totals $12,349. 07 $1. 75 

Fencing. — The itemized cost of the 14,192 lin. ft. of four-strand barbed wire 
fencing with posts 20 ft. apart was as follows: 

Barbed wire, 3,168 lbs. at $2.85, f. o. b. Portland $ 90. 29 

Freight, Portland to Hanford 21. 72 

Posts, 705 at 8 cts., f. o. b. Coyote (720 ft. B. M. at $22).. .. 15. 84 

Timber for braces, 4X4 ins. (1,295 ft. B. M. at $23) 29. 80 

Staples, 210 lbs. at 10 cts 21. 00 

Miscellaneous material 3. 58 

Handhng and hauling 85. 67 

Labor (common) 140. 29 

Surveying and proportionate camp charge 190. 26 



Total $633. 13 

Cost per hn ft. of fence $00. 045 

Cost per lin. ft. of canal . 089 

Concrete in Place. — The cost per cubic yard and per square yard of con- 
crete lining in place was from the above costs as follows : 

Total cost 

Cement $3,437.64 

Sand 1 , 079 . 62 

Water 693. 04 

Mixing and placing $2 , 547. 46 



Cost 


per 


Cost 


per 


cu. 


yd. 


sq. 


yd. 


$ 4 


49 


$0. 249 


1 


41 


0. 


078 





90 





050 


3 


33 


0. 


185 



Total cost $7 , 757. 76 $10. 13 $0. 562 

Cost of Concrete Lined Ditch. — The following notes by C. D. Conway are 
taken from Engineering Record, Dec. 30, 1916. 

The irrigation system of the Los Molinos Land Company, in Tehama 
County, California, comprises 120 miles of ditches with capacities ranging 
from 5 to 100 sec.-ft. In the main canals and primary laterals, where the 
water is running constantly during the irrigation season, the seepage losses 
average less than 1 per cent per mile. In the secondary laterals, in which the 
water is running only at intervals, the losses are as high as 50 per cent per 
mile. This excessive loss is owing to the character of the soil through which 
these laterals pass — a Sacramento silt loam underlain with gravel in which 
vegetation grows very rapidly and gophers thrive. As the cost of main- 
tenance and the loss of water are very high the company is lining these ditches 
with concrete. During. the spring of 1916, 4,000 ft. was lined. 



IRRIGATION 545 

Instead of reducing the size of the earth ditch, the writer decided to exca- 
vate a new ditch within the bank of the existing one, as shown in Fig. 10. 
Stakes were set at the outside edge of the base. That section was taken out 
vertically, after which two men with templates trimmed the bottom and sloped 
the sides. Grade stakes were set every 16 ft. Movable wooden forms in 
16-ft. lengths were used. 

The concrete was mixed by hand on a board large enough for 1-yd. batches. 
The platform was built on runners and moved along the ditch for each batch, 
the gravel being distributed far enough from the ditch to leave room for the 
board to pass. Water was hauled in a wagon, and the same team moved the 
mixing board. Six men were employed in mixing and placing the concrete 
with buckets. 

The aggregate used was a natural mixture of river sand and gravel screened 
through l^'^-in. mesh. Five sacks of Portland cement to a yard of this 
aggregate were used. The concrete was mixed very wet and was well worked 
with a small specially made spade. 




^;»V.?^•::■.^:v::^•.•.•••. •/.•.-..■ ••. Y ..^jS y i- ■ ^~^/ ) 

FiQ. 10. — Section of new ditch excavated in bank of old one. 

Expansion and contraction were provided for by placing ^-in. pine boards 
between forms. These were afterward broken off flush with the concrete. 
Though the temperature reached 110 deg. Fahr. in the shade at a time when 
the ditch was dry, no cracks have been noted. 

Costs. — The cost per linear foot, including the cost of intake, outlet and a 
check and takeout every 660 ft., is given in Table VII. While the schedule 
of wages was low, the laborers w^re all inexperienced. The average progress 
was 170 ft. a day with a crew of six laborers and one carpenter, who acted as 
foreman. Toward the latter part of the job as much as 230 ft. per day was 
lined. 

The itemized cost of concrete, exclusive of excavation, is given in Table 
VIII. * 

Table VII. — Total Cost per Foot of 3050-Foot Ditch 

- Excavation ; $0. 066 

Forms (labor) 021 

Lumber : 014 

Mixing and placing 087 

Cement 171 

Sand and gravel . . r. 066 

Engineering 004 

Superintendence . 010 

Miscellaneous 015 

Total $0. 454 

Table VIII. — Cost of Concrete per Yard, Excluding Excavation 

Sand and gravel $1.45 

Cement 3. 75 

Carpenters 44 

Lumber 33 

Labor 1.90 

Equipment and team .42 

Total $8, 29 

36 



546 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

This ditch has been satisfactory in every respect. In the opinion of the 
writer this method is much cheaper, where the banks are of sufficient size, 
than reducing the cross-section of the original ditch. The capacity of the 
earth section was 10 sec.-ft.; that of the concrete is 9.6 sec. -ft., using 0.15 for 
the value of n in Kutter's formula and a depth of water of 1.5 ft. The grade 
of the ditches is 0.08 per cent. Laborers on excavation were paid $2 for a 
nine-hour day, those handling concrete, $2.25, and carpenters received $3 a 
day. Lumber cost $20 per thousand and cement $3 per barrel delivered at 
the job. 

The Comparative Cost of Cleaning Irrigation Ditches with a V-machine and 
by Hand. — C. F. Harvey in the May, 1917 Reclamation Record, abstracted 
in Engineering and Contracting, May 9, 1917, gives the following: 

A V-machine was at first rented for a short time for experimental purposes, 
and afterwards a similar machine was built on the project at a cost of about 
$700. The operation of such a machine has continued since May, 1916. At 
first one caterpillar tractor furnished the power, but now two tractors are 
used. The tractors have 75 H.P. gas engines and cost $4,650 each, These 
tractors have proved very efficient in getting onto and over ditch banks and 
traveling on the banks. This equipment is used on canals carrying from 12 to 
50 second-feet, and dredgers have been used for larger canals. The use of a 
single tractor of the above size for this work resulted in overloading the 
machine, and, while a heavier machine could doubtless be run without over- 
loading, the experience on the Yuma project has been that two machines of 
about this horsepower are probably more efficient than one larger machine 
would be, as the two machines can work to great advantage in getting the 
V in and out of the ditches and around structures. It is to be noted, by the 
way, that the number of structures in a ditch greatly affects the mileage 
cleaned. The life of the V-machines and of tractors on this work will be about 
five or six years. 

The following figures are taken for the month of July, 1916, when the rented 
V-machine was in use: 

Operating 1143'^ hours. 
Repairs, 1173^ hours. 
^ Distance cleaned, 11.62 miles. 

Distillate used, 715 gal. (one tractor). 

Costs (July) 

Labor $552. 25 • 

Distillate 75. 07 

Hauhng fuel. 10. 33 

Shop orders 5. 06 

Oil and waste 8. 35 

SuppHes 18. 86 

Rent of V machine 175. 00 

Depreciation 50. 00 

Total $894. 92 

Cost per mile cleaned 77. 01 

By deducting the $175 rent for the machine the cost of cleaning would be 
reduced proportionately. The above is for one tractor. By putting on an 
extra tractor the cost of fuel would be doubled, but it is thought that the 
mileage of canals cleaned would also be nearly doubled, while the labor cost 
of repairs would remain about the same. With the benefit of experience and a 
perfected organization it is expected that the cost can be reduced to $40 per 



IRRIGATION 547 

mile. "With the old organization for cleaning by shovel and teams the costs 
would run from $200 to $300 per mile. This was with a foreman at $3 a day 
and labor at $2 a day, worked in such gangs as could be retained. The 
organization worked with the machine equipment at present is as follows: 

1 foreman at $4.50 per day. Crew of caterpillar: 

BCrew of V-machine: 

1 man at $3 per day. 1 operator at $5 per day. 

1 man at $2.50 per day. 1 oiler at $2.50 per day. 

There are on the Yuma project more than 200 miles of ditches to be cleaned 
of a size suitable for the economical use of the V-machine. This makes it 
possible to keep the equipment in operation for 12 months a year. The 
amount of work to be done is, of course, an important consideration in making 
the expenditure for the tractors. 

Cost of Removing Vegetation from Irrigation Canals. — Excellent results in 
removing moss from the irrigation canals of the Salt River Project of the 
U. S. Reclamation Service have been obtained with an Acme harrow, accord- 
ing to an article by A. J. Haltom, in the April, 1917 Reclamation Record, 
and abstracted in Engineering and Contracting, April 11, 1917 as follows: 
On this project it was necessary to devise some method whereby the moss 
could be eliminated without turning water from the canals. 

The Acme harrow, or, as called by some, the orchard cultivator, is a machine 
consisting of long parallel blades attached to an iron frame, with the blades 
turned to enter the ground and cut the roots horizontally an inch or two 
beneath the surface. It slices off the top surface of the silt, and after the moss 
roots are thus cut the moss floats to the top and is then caught by men sta- 
tioned below on bridges or checks. This machine is drawn by means of a 
chain to a team on each bank of the canal, and by adjusting the length of the 
chains the harrow can be run on either slope or in the bottom of the canal. 
In this manner the moss can be removed without interrupting the flow of 
water. On part of the canals it was necessary to keep men and teams at work 
until the end of the season, and on others an occasional cleaning every two or 
three weeks answered all requirements. The Acme is also useful in stirring 
up the silt in the bottom of the canal, causing it to be again picked up in 
suspension, with the result that the silt deposits are considerably decreased. 
The stirring of the silt with the resultant muddy water tends to retard the 
growth of the moss farther down the canal, and it also helps to puddle leaky 
portions of the canal. 

The methods employed on the Minidoka Project for the control of moss, 
weeds and willows in irrigation canals also were described in the above-men- 
tioned issue of the Reclamation Record, from which we quote as follows: 

It became necessary to begin the work of removing the moss as early as 
June 20. At this time the only method which was found successful in clearing 
the moss from the larger canals was by cutting with the Ziemsen submarine 
saw. This saw consists of a flexible band of steel with hooked teeth on both 
edges. It can be obtained in any length, and the weights to hold it to the 
bottom are adjusted to fit the canal. It is operated at an angle of about 30° 
with the cross-section of the canal, the crew always working upstream. The 
rate of progress is from 6 to 12 in. at each double stroke and from >i to 1 mile 
per day can be cut with each saw. The long streamers of moss when cut rise 
to the surface and float down to the next bridge or check, where they are 



548 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

thrown out by men with pitchforks. At times it has been necessary to have 
as many as three men to pitch out the moss cut by one crew. 

Last season it was necessary to go over many of the canals three times. 
During the middle of the season the moss grew very rapidly. In one canal a 
length of 2^4 ft. was measured 3 days after cutting. In another place a 
length of 8 ft. was observed 14 days after cutting. After the 20th of August 
the trouble began to decrease, partly due, no doubt, to the shorter days and 
less sunlight, partly to cooler weather, and partly to a slackening demand for 
water. 

Removing the moss by dragging a 3^ or ^ in. chain by teams on each bank 
was not successful until after about the middle of August, when the moss had 
ripened enough to break away at the first joint. Prior to that time the chain 
would drag over the moss without breaking it. A V made out of railroad iron 
and weighing in all about 600 lb. was dragged up the canal but this method 
was not successful, as the rails slipped over the moss. 

In laterals of about 1 ft. depth it was found that a spring-tooth harrow could 
be used quite well, but it had to be taken out and cleaned about every 50 ft. 
The harrow was not successful in the larger canals. In laterals the water was 
lowered at times so that there was only enough to support the moss and men 
were put in with brush scythes. This method was found very useful where 
the farmers on some lateral were having serious trouble in getting water and 
would get together to co-operate in cleaning it. 

Where it can be done, the cheapest and most effective method of cleaning the 
canal is to shut the water out entirely and let the ditch dry in the sun. Five to 
seven days' exposure is necessary ordinarily to kill the moss. This method 
kills the growth, but does not destroy the bulb. On the Minidoka project 
it has not seemed practical to adopt this method, as it is felt that continuous 
water service was more important to the farmers than the money saving which 
would have resulted from a method such as this. 

During the 1916 season, 260 miles of cleaning were done. The total cost 
of this work was $4,200, making the cost per mile a fraction over $16. The 
average cost per mile of the different methods is about as follows: Sawing, $22; 
chaining late in the season, $8; cutting with scythes in laterals, $11; spring- 
tooth harrow in laterals, $9. 

Weeds and grass growing along the inner slopes of the canal and laterals 
decrease the discharge to a considerable extent by retarding the velocity. 
These are removed by men with brush scythes at a cost of about $12 per mile. 

Willows are cut by men with grubbing hoes and brush scythes. Men 
equipped with grubbing hoes go ahead for cutting out larger willows, and men 
with scythes follow and cut the remainder. In the past little attention has 
been given to willows on the Minidoka project, but it is now believed to be 
advisable to cut them annually. The clearing during the last season was done 
with the idea of keeping stumps down so that a mowing machine can be 
used to cut the new growth. The cost on the removing of willows has been 
about $27 per mile. About 23 miles of banks were cut over. 

Costs of Keeping Down Vegetation on Irrigation Canal Banks by Grazing. — 
The following data, abstracted in Engineering and Contracting, April 14, 1915. 
are given in a report in Reclamation Record, April, 1915, by A. J. Halton, 

A considerable item of expense in irrigation canal maintenance is the cut- 
ting of Johnson grass and other vegetation which springs up on the banks. 
On the Salt River Project of the U. S. Reclamation Service, beginning in 1913, 
experiments have been conducted in sheep grazing aa s-n aid to ordinary 



IRRIGATION 549 

cutting for keeping down the bank vegetation. There follows a comparative 
statement showing decrease in cost of maintaining canals and laterals before 
and after introduction of sheep : 



Clearing: 

Before 

After 

Repairing breaks: 

Before 

' After 


Main 
canals 

$1,356.88 

908.05 

166.43 

50. 48 

39.42 


Laterals 

$3,275.14 
1,174.69 

211.64 


Header 
ditches 

$2,226.53 
659. 70 

121.87 
94.00 

96.93 
10.00 


Total 
cost 

$6,858.55 
2,742.44 

499. 94 
144.48 


Gopher poisoning: 
Before 




136.35 


After 




10.00 



Total: 

Before $1,562.73 $3,486.78 $2,445.33 $7,494.84 

After.. 958.53 1,174.69 763.70 2,896.92 



Decrease, 1914 over 1912.... $ 604.20 $2,312.09 $1,681.63 $4,597.92 

Mileage 8 22 10 40 

Average decrease per mile 
(after introduction of sheep) $ 75.525$ 105.095$ 168.16 $ 114.95 
Note. — Cost of repairing breaks and gopher poisoning are included because 
this expense has been greatly reduced by the grazing of sheep. The cost of 
cleaning in 1912 is based on a unit cost per mile. 

Cost of Maintaining Ditches in the Imperial Valley, Cal. with a Traveling 
Clam-Shell Excavator. — ^J. C. Allison, in Engineering Record, Nov. 16, 1912, 
gives the following: 

The irrigation season in Imperial Valley includes the full 12 months, so the 
canals are always carrying water. This prevents scraping out the deposits of 
silt with teams. 

Up to 1911, about the only method of keeping the section of the canals 
large enough to carry the necessary water has been by continuously- raising the 
banks to keep pace with the rising of the bottom, due to the deposition of silt. 
In the small ditches a V-shaped tool operated by a caterpillar engine has been 
used to drag the canal, thus crowding part of the silt out on the banks. 

Experiment^ have been made with floating dredges of small capacity but 
these have been unsuccessful, since they are too cumbersome to transport from 
one point to another, and the time consumed in pulling the pontoons out 
around the checks is more than the time actually used in digging the silt 
between checks. 

Design of a Special Dredge. — The time came finally when the limit of 
raising the canal banks was reached, most of the grade of the canals having 
been overcome, and it became necessary to obtain a new type of tool. A care- 
ful study was made of every available tool, but owing to the peculiar condi- 
tions of the work, each one was rejected. It was certain that if an appliance 
capable of operating a clamshell bucket could be so arranged as to permit 
moving from one point to another in a quick and easy manner, the silt problem 
in the main distributing canals could be solved. 

With this idea in view, W. H. Holabird, receiver of the California Develop- 
ment Comxrany, arranged with the Stockton Iron Works, of Stockton, Cal., to 
send an erecting engineer to the valley. With his aid, Mr. Holabird and the 
writer planned the assembling of an all-steel portable clamshell dredge, 
which would operate a 3^ -yd. bucket, and at the same time be light enough 



550 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

and narrow enough to transport over the average Imperial Valley road and 
over the county bridges spanning the canals. 

The machine has a 14 X 22-ft. steel underframe, mounted on wide-tread 
wheels and carrying an A-frame and 40-ft. steel boom, operating machinery 
and operator's cabin. The wheels at the working end are 6 ft. in diameter, 
24 in. wide and are 10 ft. apart between inside edges. The other wheels are 
only 3 ft. in diameter and are set close together under the frame, their axle 
being pivoted to provide for steering from that end. Traction is obtained on 
the large wheels by chain-drives and gears from the engine. Power for digging 
and traction is furnished by a 15-hp. Atlas two-cylinder vertical gas engine 
controlled from the operator's cabin, which is on a platform set in the A-frame. 
The end of the main boom has a normal elevation of 20 ft. above the wheel 
base, and has a swinging range of 180 deg. A 3^-cu. yd. clamshell bucket is 
employed. 

Owing to the small size of the bucket,'the yardage per hour is not very great, 
and it becomes necessary to operate several machines to keep pace with the 
work. The unit price per yard, however, is satisfactory. Against this price, 
that paid in the past presents a marked contrast. In a great many cases the 
canals were entirely abandoned and a side ditch built to carry the water. The 
scraper work alone amounted to 15 to 20 cents per cubic yard, exclusive of 
right of way. Wherever the canals were cleaned with shovels the cost per 
yard ran as high as 50 and 60 cents. 

The only other applicances which are satisfactory for use on the canals 
in Imperial Valley are the V-shaped drag and an endless-chain machine known 
as the Ruth dredge. Several of these are now operating. The scope of their 
work is limited to a very narrow, shallow ditch, since neither will cut more 
than 1 ft. in depth. The material is deposited only a few feet away from the 
channel, and in the future it will be necessary to remove this accumulation by 
some other means, since the banks will become too high for further operation 
of this nature. The new dredge is capable of discharging the material 35 ft. 
from the canal, if necessary, where the embankment may be leveled and used 
as a road. 

Cost of Clearing Canals. — Table IX shows the cost of operation of the dredge 
in the Ash canal for the period between Sept. 18 and Dec. 1. 

Table IX. — Cost op Opebation op Dredge in Clearing Canals 

Maintenance and 
Item Operation betterment 

Material: 

Tools $ 6.20 

Oil 31.51 

Fuel 132.56 

Commissary 2. 25* $ 1. 14 

Misc. supplies 280. 49 107. 26 

Store expense 8. 89 3. 74 

$ 457.40 $ 109.86 

Labor 1 ,949. 08 75. 81 



Totals $2,406.48 $185.67 

Per hour 2.26 0.17 

• Note. — Commissary items a credit to cost. 

Perpormance op Dredge Clearing Canals 

Total digging time, hours 1066 

Cost of digging per hour $2. 43 

Total yardage removed, approximate 21 , 321 

Yardage removed per digging hour, approximate 20 

Cost per cubic yard, approximate $0. 12 



IRRIGATION 551 

The plant consists of the dredge, a cook wagon, camp and commissary team, 
and the necessary stock and tools for leveling the road ahead of the machine 
along the ditch. The whole plant represents a cost of about $7,100 on the 
ground in this case. 

No percentage for depreciation is included in the costs shown, but the actual 
maintenance work and the material necessary are given, the amount being 
added to the cost per yard. The maintenance and betterment for this run is 
considerably above normal, since several small weaknesses were discovered 
and remedied. Improvements were also made, such as building a pilot house, 
building moving planks, installing a Bristol lighting plant and providing in 
general for the comfort of the men in the way of heating applicances for the 
night shifts. 

Two 10-hour shifts were run per day. The digging time shown in the table 
is the summary of the actual digging hours, and does not include the time 
spent in repairs, moving, etc. No commissary costs are shown, since each 
meal is deducted from the man's wages at 25 cents per meal. This amount 
provides for the cook's wages and the provisions, and accounts for the small 
credit shown. Of the running supplies necessary, the fuel represents the great- 
est expense. The engine consumed 0.9 gal. of distillate per hour. This fuel 
was subject to high customs duty in Mexico. 

The labor necessary for operating the machine for the two shifts consists of 
two levermen at $125 per month each; two enginemen at $85 per month each, 
and two deck hands at $70 per month each. There was necessary at times an 
extra deck hand for each shift to aid in placing the moving planks while the 
machine was in soft material. Several four-horse fresno teams, at $6.50 
per day, were sometimes required to level the road along the ditch ahead of the 
machine. All of this expense is shown under the item of labor. 

Cost of Pipes for Farm Irrigation. — The following notes are given in Fortier's 
"Use of Water in Irrigation" (1915). 

The materials composing the pipes most commonly used by irrigators are 
concrete, clay, wood, and metal. A brief description of each of these kinds 
follows: 

Concrete Pipe. — This kind of pipe is used quite generally in southern Cali- 
fornia for conveying irrigation water underground without pressure or under 
low heads not exceeding 10 to 15 feet. C. E. Tait, Irrigation Engineer of the 
Department of Agriculture, states that " a good pipe for the smaller sizes is 
made from a 1 to 3 mixture consisting of 5 parts cement, 6 parts sand and 9 
parts gravel. A larger proportion of gravel may be used in the larger sizes. 
A good pipe may also be made of cement, sand and crushed rock, no particle 
being larger than one-half the thickness of the pipe." 

Failures in concrete pipe have been largely due to lean mixtures, the use of 
sand mixed with earth and improper moulding. A weak unreliable pipe is 
likely to result when the voids in the sand are not filled with cement, when 
earthy material is incorporated in the mixture or when the mixture is too dry 
when moulded. The porosity of concrete pipe is reduced and the carrying 
capacity is increased by the appUcation to the inner surface of a cement brush 
coating. 

The prices for materials in 1914 in southern California were for cement 
delivered $3 per barrel, sand and gravel $1 per cubic yard, tampers $3 and 
mixers $2.25 per day of 9 hours. The quantities of materials used, their 
respective costs and the cost of the various processes in making pipe, exclusive 
of overhead charges and profits are given in Table X. 



652 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 







Table X.- 


-Concrete Pipe 










Lineal feet 
per barrel 


Lineal feet 
per cu. yd. 


p i J_x_ 


1* 1 r A 




Size of 




■/yjoii kaoiIjOi 


per line" '^■^ — 
Mould- 


Coat- 




pipe 


of cement 


of gravel 


Cement 


Gravel 


ing 


ing 


Total 


4 in. 


126-130 


174 


$0. 023 


$0,006 $0,020 


$0. 003 


$0,052 


6 in. 


82-100 


112 


0.036 


0.009 


0.020 


0.003 


0.068 


8 in. 


64-76 


87 


0.047 


0.011 


0.022 


0.003 


0.083 


10 in. 


48-56 


64 


0.062 


0.015 


0.025 


0.003 


0.105 


12 in. 


36- 44 


50 


0.083 


0.020 


0.028 


0.004 


0.135 


14 in. 


28- 30 


40 


0.108 


0.025 


0.032 


0.005 


0.170 


16 in. 


26- 28 


34 


0.115 


0.029 


0.038 


0.006 


0.188 


18 in. 


22- 26 


28 


0.136 


0.036 


0.042 


0.007 


0.266 


20 in. 


18- 20 


23 


0.166 


0.043 


0.100 


0.008 


0.317 


24 in. 


12- 14 


18 


0.250 


0.055 


0.110 


0.009 


0.424 


30 in. 


8-10 


11 


0.375 


0.090 


0.150 


0.011 


0.626 


36 in. 


6-8 


8 


0.500 


0. 125 


0.200 


0.012 


0.837 



Moulding the Pipe. — Concrete pipe as made in southern California for 
the farmer's use is moulded in 2-foot lengths with beveled lap joints. 
Since the price of moulds for pipe between 6 and 12 inches in diameter varies 
from $50 to $100 per set the tendency is to use the smallest possible number. 
This effort to economize frequently results in a brittle pipe caused by the use of 
too dry a mixture, such a mixture requiring less time in the moulds. To 
obviate this difficulty and increase the output from each set of moulds thin 
metal cylinders are sometimes introduced in the moulds and allowed to remain 
for some time around the freshly moulded pipe after its removal from the 
moulds. In this way a wetter mixture resulting In a stronger pipe can be 
made. 

Vitrified Clay Pipe. — Pipe made of moulded clay, kiln-burned and glazed 
is extensively used to conduct sewage in the sewer systems of towns and cities. 
The requirements for this service are quite rigid and the pipe which is rejected 
by the sewer inspector can frequently be purchased at a low figure. In this 
way the irrigator who resides within hauling distance of a town or city can usu- 
ally obtain from the municipality or the clay pipe company a serviceable 
water pipe for low heads at reasonable prices. 

In southern California the rejected sewer pipe is classified into three grades 
known as Nos. 1, 2, and 3 water pipe. The defects in No. 1 grade are not 
serious and can be depended on to stand a head of 20 to 30 feet in the smaller 
sizes and 15 to 20 feet in the larger sizes. The No. 2 grade consists of pipe 
which is cracked in the main part of the joint or length and withstands less 
pressure than No. 1. No. 3 grade is used only for drainage, being usually 
cheaper than the tile. The prices of grades 1 and 2 in 3-foot lengths, f.o.b. 
cars Los Angeles, are at this writing (1914) as in Table XI. 

Table XI. — Vitrified Pipe 

Size No. 1 grade. Cents per ft. No. 2 grade. Cents per ft. 

3 in. 4 K 4 3^ 

4 in. 6M 5H 

5 in. 8H QVs 

6 in. 9H .8 H 
8 in. 12 ys 10 H 

. 10 in. 16 1^ 13 3^ 

12 in. 20 ^ 16 H 

14 in. 27 3^ 22 H 

16 in. 34 ^ 28 3^ 

18 in. 41 H 33 ^ 

20 in. 56 % 48 H 

22 in. 71 3^ 60 3^ 

24 in. 81 H 68 ^ 



IRRIGATION 



553 



Wood Pipe. — The various kinds of wood pipe used to convey water for irri- 
gation purposes belong to one of two general types. One of these is the con- 
tinuous stave pipe and the other the machine banded pipe. Since the former 
is only built in medium and large sizes in which the diameters run from 1 to 12 
feet it is not well adapted to the farmer's needs and for that reason will not 
be considered here. 

The factory for making machine-banded pipe in San Francisco, California, 
uses redwood; those located in Portland, Oregon, Tacoma and Seattle, Wash- 
inton, and Vancouver, B. C, use fir. In the States of New York and Pennsyl- 
vania the pipes are made of white pine and tamarack while in Louisiana cy- 
press is considered the most suitable wood. 

A quarter of a century and less ago, machine-banded pipe consisted wholly 
of logs turned in a lathe, machine-bored and wrapped with flat steel bands. 
Staves 8 to 12 feet in length in the eastern factories and up to 20 feet in length 
in the western factories have since been substituted for bored logs. The 
staves which vary in thickness from 1 to 1^^ inches are held together by gal- 
vanized steel wire spaced far apart or close according as the internal pressure 
of the water is low or high. In some factories flat bands of steel 14 to 16 gauge 
are used instead of the round wire. After the pipe is banded and the ends 
are milled for couplings each section is dipped in a bath of hot asphalt and 
when withdrawn is rolled in sawdust or shavings. 

The joints are made in various ways. A common form for low pressures is 
that of the mortise and tenon joint. The joint is reinforced when the pressure 
requires it. Sometimes tenons are made on both ends of each section and the 
coupling is made by means of collars. In common with other kinds of pipes 
the joints in wood pipe are the chief source of trouble and expense. 

Table XII. — Wooden Pipe 





Head, 




Weight, 


Diam- 






Weight, 


Diameter 


feet 


Price 


pounds 


eter 


Head 


' Price 


pounds 


2 in. 


50 


0.087 


3.1 


10 


in. 


50 


0.268 


13.1 




100 


0.09 


3.2 






100 


0.347 


14.7 




150 


0.092 


3.2 






150 


0.392 


15.7 




200 


0.10 


3.4 






200 


0.455 


17.3 




250 


0.105 


3.5 






250 


0.479 


18.4 




300 


0.116 


3.6 






300 


0.503 


19.4 


4 in. 


50 


0.129 


5.8 


12 


in. 


50 


0.322 


16.8 




100 


0.131 


5.9 






100 


0.413 


18.9 




150 


0.134 


6.0 






150 


0.450 


19.8 




200 


0.166 


6.3 






200 


0.532 


21.7 




250 


0.176 


7.0 






250 


0.618 


23.8 




300 


0.189 


7.3 






300 


0.660 


25.3 


6 in. 


50 


0.163 


8.3 


14 


in. 


50 


0.445 


21.3 




100 


0.168 


8.9 






100 


0.550 


23.0 




150 


0.184 


9.1 






150 


0.629 


25.3 




200 


0. 226 


9.6 






200 


0.745 


28.2 




250 


0.242 


10.0 






250 


0.834 


29.9 




300 


0.258 


10.4 






300 


0.916 


32.3 


8 in. 


50 


0.203 


10.3 


16 


in. 


50 


0.547 


24.7 




100 


0.224 


10.5 






100 


0.639 


26.9 


- 


150 


0.292 


12.8 






150 


0.734 


29.3 




200 


0.332 


13.7 






200 


0.871 


33.4 




250 


0.366 


15.6 






250 


0.987 


36.2 




300 


0.387 


16.2 






300 


1.132 


40.2 



According to S. O. Jayne, Irrigation Engineer, U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture, the cost of laying wood pipe exclusive of earthwork, backfilling and 



554 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

haulage varies from 2 cents per lineal foot for pipes 4 to 6 inches in diameter up 
to 6 cents for pipes 24 inches in diameter. 

The prices and weights per lineal foot of machine-banded pipe f.o.b. cars„ 
Seattle, Washington, are given in Table XII. 

Metal Pipes. — Space will not permit even a brief description of each kind of 
metal pipe used by irrigators. Notwithstanding the large variety in the 
market by far the most common is the steel-riveted pipe. This pipe may be 
purchased in a large number of sizes ranging from 4 to 30 inches and over in 
diameter and capable of withstanding heads of 50 to 300 feet. Each joint of 
pipe is made of a single sheet of steel which is sized, punched, rolled and riveted. 
A number of these joints are then riveted together making a shipping length 
about 30 feet. Each length is immersed in a bath of hot asphalt before being 
stacked up in the shipping yards. For all sizes up to 12 inches designed for 
ordinary pressures the lengths are simply driven together, the smaller joint 
of one end telescoping the larger joint of the adjacent length. For high pres- 
sures and large sizes the circular seams are single riveted and the seams may 
be split-calked. For low heads, lighter and less expensive pipe of galvanized 
iron from 20 to 24 gauge, both coated and uncoated, has during the past few 
years come into somewhat extensive use throughout certain sections of the 
Northwest. 

The following table gives the list prices of steel-riveted pipe in Los Angeles, 
California, in 1914, these prices being subject to a discount of about 15 per 
cent. 

Table XIII. — Steel Riveted Pipe 



Size 


16-Gauge 


14-Gauge 


12-Gau| 


4 in. 


$0. 19 


$0.22 




5 in. 


0.23 


0.27 




6 in. 


0.28 


0.32 


$0.41 


7 in. 


0.31 


0.37 


0.48 


Sin. 


0.34 


0.40 


0.52 


9 in. 


0.38 


0.42 


0.57 


10 in. 


0.41 


0,47 


0.62 


11 in. 


0.43 


0.49 


0.65 


12 in. 


0.46 


0. 55 


0.69 



Cost of Plain Concrete Pipe for Irrigation Works. — Prof. B. A. Etcheverry 
gives the following in a report to the Dept. of Agriculture, Province of British 
Columbia, abstracted in Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 18, 1912. 

Table XIV. — Cement Pipe Data 

Number of feet of pipe No. of 

Inside diameter Thickness made with 1 barrel of Men com- feet 

of pipe of pipe Cement posing one made 

in inches in inches 1 : 4 mixture 1 : 3 mixture crew per day 

6 IHe 95 75 1 mixer, 1 or 400-500 

8 13^ 63 50 2 moulders, 350-400 

10 IH 47 37 1 finisher and 300-400 

12 1}4 36 28 helper 250-350 

14 1^ 28 22 1 or 2 mixers 225-325 

16 1^ 23 18 2 moulders 200-275 

18 Vyi 19 15 1 finisher 150-225 

20 1J4 17 14 and 125-175 

22 2 15 11% helper 100-150 

24 2H 12J4 loyi 3 or 4 mixers 100-150 

26 2K 11>^ 9 2 moulders 90-120 

30 2>^ 9 7 1 finisher and 90-110 

36 3 6K 5 helper 80 



IRRIGATION 555 

Dimensions of Cement Pipes and Rate of Manufacturing. — Tables XIV give 
the thickness of the pipe, the number of feet made per barrel of cement, the 
number of men in one crew of pipe makers, and the number of feet of pipe 
made per day. The number of men stated is the number required lor a large 
production. The number of feet per day is not the maximum which may be 
obtained but is an average rate for good experienced men. The 1 to 3 mixture 
requires about 2J4 bbls. of cement per cubic yard of concrete. For the 1 to 4 
mixture 1^ bbls. of cement per cubic yard are required. 

Table XV. — Cost of Making Cement Pipes (in Cents), Per Lineal Foot 

Diameter Cost for 1 : 2 Cost for 1:3 Cost for 1 : 4 

of pipe mixture, mixture, mixture, 

in inches cents cents cents 

6 13 10 7 

8 15 12 9 

10 20 15 11 

12 25 20 15 

14 30 25 20 

16 36 30 25 

18 42 35 30 

20 50 43 35 

24 68 60 50 

26 87 75 63 

30 95 85 70 

36 130 115 95 

Cost of Making Pipe. — The cost given in Table XV is obtained from the 
above data and for the following prices of labor and material: Portland 
cement, $3.50 delivered on the ground. Gravel, $1.00 a cubic yard. Labor: 
Tampers $3.00 a day; mixers and sprinklers, $2.50 a day. 

The figures given include all materials and labor and an allowance of about 
10 per cent for interest and depreciation on plant, administration and super- 
vision, and should not be exceeded with efiBcient workers. 

construction and laying of pipe lines 

Excavation of Trench. — The pipe should be laid sufficiently deep below the 
surface to have an earth covering of at least 12 ins. and preferably 18 ins. or 
even more. The bottom of the trench should be graded on an even grade to 
avoid short siphons which may produce air chambers in the pipe. The width 
of the trench should be larger than the outside diameter of the pipe by about 
12 ins. to allow the pipe layers sufficient space to work in. The trench width 
and depth with the cost of excavation are given in Table XVI, based on an 18 
in. depth of earth covering. The cost of excavation and backfilling is assumed 
at 20 cts. a cubic yard. 

Laying the Pipe. — The pipes are placed in the trench standing on end with 
the bell end or grooved end up. To lower the large pipes more easily they 
may be slid on a chute or skid made of timber. The pipe sections are joined 
with a mixture of 1 part of cement to 2 of fine sand. The taper end of the pipe 
which has already been laid, and the bell end of the pipe to which it is to be 
joined, are brushed clean and well wetted with a fiber brush. About an inch 
thick of the soil under the bottom of the joint to be made is removed and a 
trowel full of mortar is spread in its place to form a bed of mortar. The bell 
end of the pipe which is standing on end is filled with cement mortar and is 
jammed against the taper end of the previously laid pipe. The mortar which 



556 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Table XVI. — Cost op Excavation for Cement Pipe Lines (in Cents), Per 

Lineal Foot 



Size of pipe 











Cost of ex- 










cavation in 






Excavation 


cents at 


Depth of 


Width of 


in cu. 


yds. per 


20 cts. per 


trench 


trench 


Hneal foot 


cu. yd. 


26 


20 




.13 


2.6 


28 


22 




.16 


3.2 


31 


25 




.20 


4.0 


33 


27 




.23 


4.6 


35 


29 




.27 


5.4 


38 


32 




.32 


6.4 


40 


34 




.35 


7.0 


42 


36 




.38 


7.6 


47 


41 




.50 


10.0 


49 


43 




.55 


11.0 


54 


48 




.66 


13.2 


60 


54 




.83 


16.6 



8. 
10. 
12. 
14. 
16. 
18. 
20. 
24. 
26. 
30. 
36. 



is squeezed out on the inside of the joint is wiped with a wet brush to form 
a smooth joint. To complete the joint a band of mortar from 2 to 3 ins. 
wide and }i to >^ in. thick is formed on the outside of the pipe. 

It is always preferable to lay the pipe uphill to avoid the shrinkage at the 
joints due to the pipe pulling away. It is well to protect the bands from the 
action of the sun for about 30 minutes before backfining by using wet burlap 
or placing a board over them. To raise a pipe and hold it on grade do not use 
clods but shovel in the dirt and compact it by tamping. The bands should be 
wetted before backfilling; this must be done carefully by shoveling the earth, 
free from rocks, around the pipe and tamping it until the pipe is well covered. 
With loose sandy soil which packs easily, very little tamping is necessary. 
The pipe should not be used for at least two to three days, especially if under 
pressure, to give sufficient time for the bands to harden. 

In Table XVII is given information regarding the laying and hauling of 
cement pipe, based on the wages and cost of material given above. Ten per 
cent has been allowed for supervision, organization, breaking of pipe and 
miscellaneous. 

Tabl^ XVII. — Cost of Laying and Hauling Cement Pipe (in Cents) Per 







Lineal Foot 


















Cost of 














laying ex- 














clusive of 


! 






Number 






trenching 


1 




Weight of 


of feet 


Number 


Number 


and haul- 


Cost per 




pipe 


laid per 


of men 


of feet 


ing, in 


ft. of 


Diameter in 


in lbs. 


bbl. of 


in laying 


laid per 


cts. per 


hauHng 2 


inches 


per ft. 


cement 


crew 


day 


ft. 


miles 


6 


20 


500 


3 


600 


2.25 


.9 


8 


32 


400 


3 


600 


2.50 


1.4 


10 


42 


350 


3 


500 


3.00 


1.9 


12 


56 


300 


3 


450 


3.50 


2.5 ! 


14 


69 


225 


3 


400 


4.00 


3.1 j 


16 


85 


200 


3 


300 


5.00 


3.8 1 


18 


100 


175 


4 


300 


6.25 


4.5 


20 


110 


150 


4 


300 


6.60 


5.0 


24 


160 


100 


6 


300 


10.0 


7.2 


26 


175 


85 


6 


250 


12.0 


7.9 


30 


220 


75 


6 


200 


14.0 


9.9 


36 


. 320 


60 


7 


200 


17.0 


14.4 



IRRIGATION 



557 



The cost data given in the preceding tables are assembled and given in 
Table XVIII. 

Table XVIII. — Cost of Making, Laying, Trenching and Hauling Cement 
Pipe (in Cents), Per Lineal Foot 

Cost of making 

Cost of Cost of Total cost 

Diameter of Cost of trench- hauling 

pipe in ins. 1 : 3 pipe 1 : 4 pipe laying ing 2 miles 1 : 3 pipe 1 : 4 pipe 

6 10 7 2.25 2.6 .9 15.75 12.75 

8 12 9 2.50 3.2 1.4 19.10 16.10 

10 15 11 3.00 4.0 1.9 23.90 19.90 

12 20 15 3.50 4.6 2.5 30.60 25.60 

14 25 20 4.00 5.4 3.1 37. 50 32. 50 

16 30 25 5.00 6.4 3.8 45.20 40.20 

18 35 30 6.25 7.0 4.5 52.75 47.75 

20 43 35 6.60 7.6 5.0 62.20 54.20 

24 60 50 10.0 10.0 7.2 87.20 77.20 

26 75 63 12.0 11.0 7.9 105.90 93.90 

30 85 70 14.0 13.2 9.9 122.10 107.10 

36 115 95 17.0 16.6 14.4 163.00 143.00 

These cost values agree quite closely with those given below which are 
those obtained for about 5 miles of pipe on the irrigation system of the Fruit- 
lands Irrigation & Power Company, near Kamloops. The concrete mixture 
used was composed of 1 part of cement to 2>^ sand and 1>^ of stone, which 
corresponds to a 1 to 3 mixture of cement and pit gravel. Cement cost $3 a 
barrel, sand 75 cents a cubic yard, crushed rock $2.50 a cubic yard, common 
labor $2.50 per day, skilled labor $3 to $3.50 per day, and teams $6 per 
day. The cost given includes all materials, labor, supervision, and deprecia- 
tion on plant. 

Table XIX. — Cost of Making and Laying Concrete Pipe on Irrigation 
System op Fruitlands Irrigation & Power Co., Near Kamloops 

Diameter 

of pipe, Cost of making. Cost of laying, Total cost, 

inches cents cents cents 

8 11.1 

10 15.7 

12 20 11 31 

16 29.5 15.5 45 

20 39.5 20.3 59.8 

24 54.7 23.3 78 

Cost of Manufacturing Concrete Pipe. — The following data were published 
in Engineering and Contracting, ^Tan. 14, 1920. 

During the past season the Modesto Irrigation District of Stanislaus 
county, California, constructed several thousand feet of standard concrete 
pipe. The pipe was hand tamped, reinforced, made in 2 ft. lengths with bell 
and spigot ends and walls varying in thickness from 13^ in. for 8 in. to 3 in. 
for 36-in. pipe. The mix was 1 cement to 3>^ sand. 

The cost of the pipe was as follows: 

Size, in. Cost per lin. ft. 

8 $0. 121^ 

12 .21 

16 .36 

20 .51 

24 .68 

30 1.02 

36 1.50 



558 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The above costs include an allowance of $1,000 for depreciation. Several 
thousand feet of each size up to and including 24 in. were made. Several 
hundred feet of the 30-in. and 36-in. pipe also were constructed. 

The force consisted of 10 or 12 men at $4 per day each, and a foreman at 
$5 per day. The cost of materials was: 

Cement $3. 25 per bbl. 

Sand 1 . 50 per ton 

Rock 1 . 50 per ton 

An 8-hour shift was worked, and an average of 350 ft. of 8 in. or 180 ft. of 
24 in. pipe was made per shift. 

Costs of Continuous Wood Stave Pipe Lines. — In Engineering and Con- 
tracting, July 21, 1915, the following extract from Bulletin 155, U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, by S. O. Jayne, is given. 

Eighteen-inch. — At Astoria, Ore., 7}^i miles of 18-in. pipe built in 1895. 
Staves, fir, 1}4 ins. thick, milled from 2 X 6-in. lumber. Bands, J^q in. 
diameter upset to }i in. at threads. Clips No. 12, B. W. G., IH ins. wide, 
treated. Shoes, Allen patent, malleable iron, weight 10 ounces each. Con- 
tract prices of steel in bands, 4.8 cts. per pound. Lumber, gross measure- 
ment, $35.40 per 1,000 ft. b. m. Average spacing of bands, 5^6 ins. Cost of 
pipe to the city, 90.33 cts. per linear foot, including accessories or 76 cts. 
excluding them. These figures are not the actual cost of building the pipe, as 
Mr. Adams says: "It is presumable that the contract prices represent a 
profit of from 12 >^ to 15 per cent." The approximate cost of replacing 
this line with one of the same size and length in 1911 was $75,000, redwood 
staves 13^ ins. thick being used in the new pipe. The cost given includes 
engineering expense. 

Thirty-inch^— At Denver, Colo., in 1889, a 30-in. pipe 16.4 miles long re- 
quired 1,869,000 ft. b. m. of Texas pine, which cost $51,399.28, at $27.50 per 
M., and 271,900 half-inch bands, which cost $54,299.55; erection of pipe by 
contract, at 5.1 cts. per band, $13,866.03; total, $119,564.86, or $1.36^^^ per 
linear foot. Trenching cost 48.3 cts. per foot in addition to foregoing. 

At Jerome, Idaho, 1912, 1,529 ft.; 30 ins. diameter; fir staves, IH ins. thick: 
bands, ^ in. diameter; pressure, to 47 ft.; average haul, 10 miles; built in 
trench and buried 2 ft. deep. Cost, including everything except engineering 
and administration, $2,922, or $1.91 per linear foot. 

At Idaho Falls, Idaho, 1905; 800 ft.; 30 ins. diameter; fir, 3^ in. bands: 
maximum head, 34 ft.; supported on wood cradles. Cost, $1.55 per linear 
foot, including everything. 

At Kennewick, Wash., 1908; 9,490 ft.; 30 ins. diameter; head, to 180 ft.; 
built by contract on prepared foundation for $ 1 .85 per foot. Includes delivery 
of material at railroad point, but no haul or earthwork. 

Thirty-two Inch. — At North Yakima, Wash., 1894; Redwood siphon 940 ft. 
long; 32 ins. diameter; maximum head, 90 ft.; bands, }4 in. diameter; built by 
force account for $2,500, equals $2.66 per linear foot. Duplicated by con- 
tract, 1903, for same figure. 

At Filer, Idaho, 1901; 1,300 ft.; 32 ins. diameter; fir staves, 1^ ins. thick, 
at $40 per thousand feet b. m. on basis of 2 X 6-in. lumber; bands, ^ in. 
diameter, 57 cts. each; malleable iron shoes, 4 cts. each; tongues, H X IH X 
5J46 ins., 3 cts.; pressure head, to 40 ft.; work done by force account; wages, 
$2.50 for 10 hours, and foreman $5; hauling material 8 miles, $75; erecting on 
top of ground, approximately $250. Cost of staves and steel laid down at 



IRRIGATION 559 

Filer, $1.35 per foot of pipe; haul and erecting, 25 cts.; total approximately, 
$1.60 per foot. 

Thirty-six Inch. — ^At Jerome, Idaho, 1912; 650 ft.; 36 ins. diameter; head, 
to 43 ft.; staves, fir, 1% ins. thick; band, }4 in. diameter; built in trench and 
buried 2 ft. deep; average haul, 4 to 5 miles. Cost, including everything 
except engineering and administration, $1,596, or $2.46 per foot. 

Forty Inch. — At Jerome, Idaho, 1912; 3,113 ft.; 40 ins. diameter; head, to 
100 ft.; fir staves, 1% ins. thick; bands, 3^ in. diameter; built in trench and 
buried 2 ft. deep; average haul, 10 miles; cost, $8,933, or $2.87 per foot, 
including everything except engineering and administration. 

Forty-two Inch. — At Jerome, Idaho, 1912; 980 ft.; 42 ins. diameter; head, 
to 51 ft.; staves, fir, 1% ins. thick; bands, }4 in. diameter; built in trench 
and buried 2 ft. deep; average haul, 4 to 5 miles; cost, $2,556, or $2.61 per foot, 
including everything except engineering and administration. 

Forty-four Inch. — At Wenatchee, Wash., 1902-3; 9,000 ft.; 44 ins. diameter; 
maximum head, 235 ft.; bands, H in. diameter; fir staves, 1% ins. thick; 
laid in trench, and on bridge across Wenatchee River; contract price for 
pipe, $2.20 per linear foot. Excavating and backfilling not included. 

At Palisades, Colo., 1909-10; three fir pipes, 44 ins. diameter; 2,850 ft.; 
1,055 and 1,150 ft. in length; cost by contract, $3.15, $3.25, and $2.90 per 
linear foot, respectively. No earthwork included. 

Forty-eight Inch, — At Palisades (orchard mesa), Colo., 1909-10; for six 
pipes 48 ins. in diameter and varying lengths and heads, the unit prices 
ranged from $2.40 per foot up to $4.75 per foot, the average of the six being 
$3.52; material, fir. 

At Deer Park, Wash, (about 1909), 94,000 ft. of fir pipe; head, to 70 ft., 
built in trench; contract price, $2.35 per foot, includes delivery of all material 
at railroad point and erection of pipe, but no haul or earthwork. 

Forty-eight Inch. — At Clarkston, Wash., 1906; fir staves, 1% ins. thick, 
K-in. bands; built in trench by force account, for light head; cost, $2.25 per 
foot, no earthwork included. Foreman received $3.50 per day and other men 
$2.50 for 10 hours. 

Fifty-eight Inch.— At Pueblo, Colo., 1907; 2,277.5 ft.; cost by contract, 
$6.14 per foot, no earthwork included. 

Sixty Inch. — At Pueblo, Colo., 1907; on 17 fir pipes the unit price per foot 
ranged from $4.19 to $6.58, averaging $5.51. The combined length of 
17 pipes equals 19,821.5 feet, making the average price per foot on this basis 
equal $6.27; earthwork not included. 

Sixty Inch.— At Nissa, Ore., 1912; 6,700 ft.; average head about 65 ft.; 
bands, % in. diameter; staves, fir, 2 X 6 ins.; built on wooden cradles; con- 
tract price, $4.25 per foot, included material, erecting, and freight, but no haul 
or earthwork. 

Comparative Annual Cost of Wooden Flumes and Pipes. — Prof. B. A. 
Etcheverry gives the following in a report to the Dept. of Agriculture, Province 
of British Columbia, abstracted in Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 4, 1912. 

For ordinary conditions it is roughly estimated that a wooden fiume system 
will cost one-half as much as a wooden pipe system. For very rough land 
requiring a great deal of fluming on high trestles, the comparison in cost 
would not be so favorable to wooden flume. As far as durability is con- 
cerned, the life of a well constructed wooden flume should be between 8 
and 12 years. The life of a wooden pipe which is full only part of the time is 
problematical; it depends somewhat on the kind of wood and on the soil in 



560 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

which it is placed. In Idaho 4 X 4 in. wooden posts used for lot corners, 
made of the best fir and painted, have been almost completely destroyed in one 
year. There are a number of instances where wooden pipes have gone to 
pieces in 4 or 5 years or even less. However, if the pipe is made of good 
selected material, free from sap wood, the life should be from 10 to 15 years 
for a wooden pipe empty part of the year. The hfe of wooden pipe which is 
kept con3tantly full and buried to such depth as to prevent freezing would be 
considerably greater, probably 20 to 30 years, provided the soil in which it is 
buried does not contain injurious salts. Were it not necessary to prevent 
the water in the pipe from freezing, it is my opinion that the life of a wooden 
pipe kept constantly full and under sufficient head for the wood to be satu- 
rated would be increased if it was laid above ground not in contact with the 
soil. 

As far as the cost of maintenance is concerned, a wooden flume system 
requires frequent repairs, tarring and calking, the cost of which would be 
greater than the maintenance of a pipe system. 

It is impossible to represent numerically the above statements with any 
degree of accuracy because of the varying conditions. Roughly, they may be 
represented as follows: 

Annual Cost of Wooden Flumes and Wooden Pipes Given in Per Cent 

OP FiBST Cost 

Per cent 
For wooden flumes, life 8 to 12 years: 

Annual maintenance and repairs distributed over entire life 5 

Sinking fund for renewals 9 

Interested on capital invested 6 

Total 20 

For wooden pipes empty part of the time, life 10 to 15 years: 

Maintenance and repairs 2 

Sinking fund for renewals 7 

Interest on capital invested 6 

Total 15 

For wooden pipes always full, life 20 to 30 years: 

Maintenance and repairs 1 

Sinking fund for renewal 4 

Interest on capital invested 6 

Total * 11 

These figures show that the annual cost which must be provided for to 
maintain and renew a systein and pay interest on capital invested is 20 per 
cent for a wooden flume system, 15 per cent for a pipe system, in use part of 
the time and 11 per cent for a pipe system always full. These costs are in the 
ratio of 1.8, 1.3 and 1. Therefore a flume system is more economical than a 
wooden pipe system, which can be kept full of water only part of the time, 
when the cost of the wooden pipe system would be in excess of 1.3 times the 
cost of the flume system. Also the flume system is more economical when the 
cost of a wooden pipe system which can be kept full of water all the time is 
1.8 times the cost of the flume system. As stated above, a wooden pipe 
system under average conditions will cost about twice as much as a wooden 
flume system; therefore, if the above cost alone is considered, a wooden flume 
system is more economical. But there are other relative advantages and 
disadvantages which should be considered. 



IRRIGATION 



561 



The third type of system — that is, the wooden pipe system which can be 
kept full all the year around without freezing — has the advantage that it can 
be used for domestic supply. The other two types require a separate domes- 
tic system if domestic water is desired. But it is not always possible to 
combine the two, for often the source of supply from which the irrigation 
water is obtained may be frozen in the winter or it may be so polluted that it 
is not safe drinking water and if it must be filtered or treated to purify it, it 
would be very poor economy to have to purify the irrigation water as well as 
the domestic water which are carried in the same pipe. If these conditions 
exist a separate domestic system is preferable. 

The Cost of a High Flume Trestle in Idaho. — A. M. Korsmo gives the 
following in Engineering Record, April 5, 1913. 

The flume is a part of the Cottonwood Feeder Canal on the Twin Falls- 
Oakley irrigation project at Oakley, Idaho. The trestle forms the substruc- 



t- zj'e" — -r-— -2J'6' 




Fig. 11. — ^Framing details of timber trestle in Idaho. 



ture for a corrugated-steel Lennon flume across a deep gulch. The material 
used in its construction was No. 1 common, rough Oregon fir lumber, which, 
considering its grade, was of good quality and fully dimensioned. In design- 
ing the trestle a batter of 3 in 24 was used on the bent posts, this being con- 
sidered sufiicient on account of the sheltered location of the structure. The 
gulch is a very winding one and high winds never occur. 

Structural Details. — The structure consists of a series of timber bents 23 ft. 
6 in. in centers, every pair of bents forming a tower. All posts rest on con- 
crete piers 1 ft. square on top, 18 in. high and built with a batter of 1 to 2. 
Iron straps, anchored in the pedestals, are fastened to the posts to prevent 
sliding or overturning. 

The trestle is 564 ft. long and has a maximum height of 96 ft. With the 
bents spaced 23 ft. 6 in. on centers it was considered impracticable to erect 
36 



562 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

one deck at a time on account of the great amount of falsework and staging 
that would be required by this method. A cantilever erecting beam was then 
built with the idea of erecting the structure from one end and completing 
each bent as the work advanced. The framing of the trestle is shown in 
Fig. 11. 

Erection Methods, — The north side of the gulch has a fiat slope, the first 
four bents having no cripples ; the erection was begun at that end. All cutting 
and framing was done below, in the bottom of the gulch, and "snaked up" to 
place by mule power, where it was assembled and erected. 

All the falsework required was a platform 4 ft. below the stringers, running 
back two bents from the one last erected. It was used to set the traveler on 
and as a scaffold from which the stringers and kneebraces were placed in 
position. As the traveler advanced the falsework on the finished section was 
torn up, the 4 X 4-in. carriers of the flume were placed in position on the 
stringers and the running planks laid on the carriers. 

When the traveler had been rolled out into position by the aid of a dolly and 
the rear end of the traveler anchored with chains to the bent behind the lower 
cripple a new bent was ready to be erected. One end of the 3 X 6-in. 
running braces was fastened to the bent legs under the cap before the latter 
was erected. This was done with a ^^-in. bolt, and when the bent had been 
hoisted into place these 3 X 6-in. longitudinal braces were swung up into 
position and nailed und-er the corresponding cap of the bent last erected. 
This was done by using tag lines lowered from the traveler platform above. 

This method of erection was followed on all bents, and when the structure 
was completed all 3 X 6-in. running braces between towers were removed. 
When these braces were a part of a tower the end which had been bolted was 
spiked and the bolts removed. Sway bracing was then raised and fastened in 
place by means of ropes and blocks, the latter being swung from the stringers 
above. Before the top section of a bent was raised two 2 X 8-in. strips, 
one on either side of the bent and 4 ft. from the top end, were U-bolted to the 
posts. These carried the traveler platform, the erecting beam holding the 
bent fast until the stringers and staging had been placed in position. 

Erection Costs. — The erection covered a period of fifteen days, with a crew 
of seven laborers, four carpenters and one foreman. Below is a record of 
costs. It should be noted that no experienced loft men were used. This was 
an important consideration, as it retarded the erection considerably, because 
the men were unaccustomed to work high in the air. With an experienced 
crew the erection would have cost at least $1.75 less per 1000 ft. board measure, 
this estimate being based on the subsequent erection of another, somewhat 
smaller, trestle by the same crew that built the high one. 

Summary of Costs 
Total Lumber Used Equals 27.9 M. Ft. B.M. 

Laborers 775 hours at 25 cents $193. 75 

Carpenters 649 hours at 35 cents 227. 15 

Foremen 148 hours at 45 cents 66. 60 

Mule 150 hours at 10 cents 15. 00 



Total $502. 50 

Average, $18.00 per 1000 ft., board measure. 

Cost of Repairing Leaky Wooden Flume with Roofing Paper Lining. — 
Engineering News-Record, Jan. 15, 1920, gives the following: 



IRRIGATION 563 

A wooden flume that has now suppUed a Southern Cahfornia irrigation 
district for over 30 years began to leak badly a few years ago. The leakage 
increased despite remedial measures, until about 50% of the flow was escap- 
ing. The water company was losing revenue and there was danger of crop loss 
through water shortage, so immediate relief was necessary. On account of 
the high cost of permanent flume construction and the improbability of earning 
a return on investment of that sort, effort was made to find some cheap and 
effective means of reducing leakage in the old flume. Various expedients had 
been tried before this time. Sections of the flume box had been caulked and 
battened, or coated with hot asphalt, a layer of burlap applied, and a second 
coat of asphalt put on over the burlap. None of these expedients, however, 
reduced the leakage materially. 

It was finally decided to try lining the flume with prepared roofing paper. 
Three methods were worked out and careful records of each were kept. The 
more effective of these reduced the leakage from 50% to about 3%. After 
five years of service the leakage is still kept down to about 10% by the occa- 
sional renewal of sections here and there. 

Of the three types of lining tried, one was effective but cost too much, 
another was entirely unsatisfactory and after being in use for about two years 
was removed and replaced by a third type which was found to be entirely 
satisfactory and was adopted as standard. An advantage claimed for lining 
of the roofing paper type is the ease with which repairs or renewals are made. 
In addition to maintenance of this sort it has been found desirable to mop the 
entire lining with asphalt at intervals of at least two years. 

Types of Lining. — In the Type I lining the flume was strengthened wher- 
ever necessary, large cracks were plugged, flume box was swept and seams 
were mopped with asphalt. All this was done by company force. Con- 
tractors then flooded flume with hot asphalt, into which a layer of "P & B" 
asphalt saturated felt weighing 11 lb. per square was placed while the asphalt 
was still hot. The felt was lapped 3 in. at seams, and was reinforced in 
corners and at all joints with strips of Irish felt. The felt was then flooded 
with hot asphalt and 1-ply "Cronolite" roofing, weighing 37 lb. per square, 
was applied while asphalt was still hot. The lining was then mopped with hot 
asphalt. A total of 140,940 square feet of flume was lined in this way. 

In the Type II lining the flume was prepared by the company's men as 
above. By mopping on hot asphalt the contractor then attached a strip of 
water proof felt to the flume box where the roofing paper joints would come. 
After mopping this felt strip one edge of the roofing sheet was nailed down to it 
and when the sheet had in turn been mopped the edge of the overlapping 
sheet was placed and nailed every two inches. Finally, the joint was mopped 
over the nail heads. The upper edge of the roofing on the sides of the flume 
was nailed without mopping. Two-ply Trino ready roofing was used in this 
type on 189,560 sq. ft. of fiume. At least 35 lb. of asphalt per square was found 
to be desirable with this type. 

In Type III the flume was prepared for lining by the company's men as 
already described. The contractor coated both flume and lining with hot 
asphalt and applied the lining while the asphalt was still hot, thus forming a 
tight bond between lining and flume box. Laps in the lining at joints were 
nailed with large flat-headed, roofing nails. A total of 1,051,402 sq. ft. of 
flume was lined in this way, using 2-ply Flaxine and Argonaut prepared roofing. 

Costs. — The cost of preparing the flume for lining, hauling materials, super- 
vision, etc., was $7,838.62, or $0.57 per square. This charge was made against 



564 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

all types of lining. California asphalt was used throughout. The costs were 
as follows: 

Type I 

Preparing flume, etc., 1,409.4 squares at $0.57 $ 799. 67 

Lining by contract, 1,409.4 squares at $3.43 4,831. 30 

1,409. 4 squares at $4 $ 5 , 630. 97 

Type II 

Preparing flume, etc., 1,895.6 squares at $0.57 $ 1 ,075. 49 

Lining by contract, 1,895.6 squares at $2.47 4 , 678. 07 

1,895. 6 squares at $3.04 $ 5 , 763. 56 

Type III 

Preparing flume, etc., 10,514 squares at $0.57 $ 5,963. 46 

Lining by contract, 10,514 squares at $2.43 25,541. 44 

10 , 514 squares at $3 $31 , 504. 90 

Total: 13,819 squares at $3.10 $42,889.43 

Comparison of Wood and Concrete for Use in Irrigation Structures. — 

The following discussion is given by S. T. Harding, Assistant Professor of 
Irrigation, University of California, in Engineering and Contracting, April 
12, 1916. 

The relative economy of wood and concrete structures for use on irrigation 
systems is a question subject to much debate among irrigation engineers. 
The following comparisons were made to determine, first, the amount of wood 
in feet board measure which is the equivalent of one cubic yard of concrete in 
different types of structures and, secondly, to compare the relative cost for 
certain assumed conditions. The cost and conditions of use of these two 
materials will vary so widely in different portions of the West that the choice 
in any particular case will have to be based on a consideration of these local 
factors. 

The comparisons which are made refer to the types of structures used on 
distribution systems. The choice of the material to be used in important 
single structures is often fixed by a consideration of other factors than the 
relative cost of the material used. The difficulties of replacement and damage 
from failure generally make the use of the more permanent forms of construc- 
tion desirable for diversion dams and headgates. 

The comparison of wood and concrete for the usual irrigation structures also 
involves more than considerations of first cost and the life of the structure. 
In new projects the location of parts of the distribution system, particularly 
sub-laterals, may need modification or change which involves less loss with 
the cheaper wooden structures. Also, a wooden structure has some salvage 
value; a concrete structure if removed is generally a total loss. Experience 
in operation or general advance in irrigation engineering may enable structures 
to be designed which may be more suitable than those first used. The 
methods of applying water to the lands may be modified. The present tend- 
ency is toward methods which permit of the handling of larger streams of 
water on the individual farm. This may require changes in the sub-lateral 
systems such as larger delivery turnouts and checks. 

The financial conditions of the constructing company may be such that the 
initial expenses must be kept at a mimimum until the project is placed on an 
operation basis. The interest rate at which funds can be secured in the earlier 
stages of a project is often much higher than those obtainable later, so that the 
cheaper wooden structures may be more economical for first construction, to be 



IRRIGATION 565 

replaced by concrete. It may be economical where the period of develop- 
ment expected is longer, than the life of the wood structures to construct the 
canals and structures of only sufficient capacity for this early period and to 
enlarge the canal at the time of replacement. Concrete structures in the 
original construction would need to be built to full capacity and thus increase 
the amount of non-productive investment. This applies to structures in 
main canals and laterals, such as checks and flumes, more than to individual 
division or turnout structures. 

When originally constructed, the canals may be in undeveloped sections 
without adequate transportation facilities. Following settlement, this may 
be overcome so that the relative prices of the two materials may be much dif- 
ferent at the time the original wood structures must be replaced. The prices 
of the two materials has tended to change, wood increasing and cement de- 
creasing, so that concrete may be able to compete with wood in replacements 
where it would not have been able to do so for the original construction. 

These various considerations will fix the choice between these two 
materials for original construction more often than a strict computation of 
ultimate economy. After a project has been in operation sufficiently long to 
establish itself as a going concern, the replacements as needed can be planned 
with greater attention to the relative cost and service of the two types. This 
tendency is evident in practice, as on many systems side hill bench flumes 
have been replaced with retaining wall lined sections, wooden drops with 
concrete, etc. The comparisons here given will have a larger application in 
such betterment work than in original construction. 

, Ratio of Cost of Concrete and Wood in Structures to Total Cost of Structure. — 
The unit of cost for wood structures generally used is the 1,000 ft. board meas- 
ure or M.B.M.; that for concrete the cubic yard. These materials form only 
a part of the total structure, in both cases excavation, backfill, miscellaneous 
parts such as gates, footwalks, and footings, for flumes are required. The 
proportion of the total cost, which consists either of the wood or concrete, was 
determined for many structures for which costs were available from various 
sources. The proportions vary rather widely with different conditions, but 
the following generalizations, Table XX, were made. The percentages given 
are for the cost of concrete and wood in place. 

Table XX. — Cost op Concrete and Wood in Irrigation Structures 
Expressed as a Percentage of the Total Cost of the Structure 

Cone, structures — — Wood structures ■ 

Usual Usual Usual Usual 

Type of structure max. min. Mean max. min. Mean 

Turnouts 75 50 65 65 40 50 

Checks • 85 60 75 75 50 60 

Drops 90 60 80 75 50 65 

Box culverts 95 60 80 70 50 60 

Wood flumes . . . . 95 75 85 

Buried concrete pipe siphons ... 85 65 75 

Number of Cubic Yards of Concrete Which are Equivalent to 1,000 Ft. Board 
Measure. — Comparisons of the amount of concrete or wood required were made 
for individual structures. Drawings of either wood or concrete structures 
were used and the amount of material for an equivalent structure of the other 
type computed. From these comparisons the number of cubic yards of con- 
crete which were equivalent to one M.B.M. of wood were obtained. The 
resulting general figures are given in Table XXI. 



566 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Table XXI. — Number of Cubic Yards of Concrete Which are Equivalent 
TO 1,000 Ft. B.M., of Wood 

Number 

of comp- Usual Usual 

Kind of structure arisons. min. max. Mean 

Turnouts 29 9.0 4.5 6.6 

Checks 12 8.0 5.5 6.4 

Drops 13 7.5 4.5 6.0 

Box culverts 23 10.0 5.0 7.6 

Flumes 13 5.5 3.5 4.2 

Bridge floors up to 20-ft. span 20 7.0 4.0 5.2 

As shown in the table, the ratio varies widely. This is largely due to differ- 
ences in design on different systems. Wood structures are better standardized 
than concrete, the commercial thicknesses of lumber are used, such as 2-in. 
plank for the smaller structures and 3-in. plank for the larger ones or those 
difficult to replace, such as culvert barrels. With concrete, the required thick- 
ness of such parts as headwalls for small structures cannot be definitely com- 
puted and practice varies with the policy of different forms of organization and 
climatic conditions. Examples were found of similar structures having over 
100 per cent variation in the thickness of similar parts ; the inlet floors to turn- 
outs of similar size varied from 4 in. of plain concrete to 8 in. cross reinforced. 
In the comparisons it was attempted to use wood structures of equivalent 
heaviness of design to the concrete structure for which the comparison was 
being made. 

If comparisons are made for straight wall construction, such as would be 
used in small head walls, the ratios in Table XXII will be obtained. 

Table XXII 

Number of cubic yards of concrete which 
are equivalent to 1,000 ft. B.M. of wood 
in straight walls 
Thickness of For 2-in. plank with For 3-in. lumber with 

concrete wall 4 X 4-in. posts 6 X6-in. posts 

inches spaced 4 ft. spaced 3 ft. 

3 4.0 2.3 

4 5.3 3.1 

6 8.0 4.6 

8 10.6 6.2 

10 13.2 7.7 

Three-inch concrete walls have been used in some small structures with 
separately cast slabs. Four-inch walls have been used in favorable climates, 
particularly for those parts where forms were not required. A thickness of 
6 in. represents the usual minimum where forms are used, especially when 
reinforcing is needed. Eight and ten-inch walls are used in lalrger structures 
where more than average strength is required or where generaly heavy types 
of structures are adopted. 

The structures included under turnouts include both lateral headgates and 
farm turnouts. The ratios for these, as well as for checks and drops, are less 
variable than for such structures as culverts. In these structures the thick- 
ness of the concrete is more often fixed by construction conditions than by any 
determinate stresses, and the design is as largely the result of experience as of 
theory. With culverts a wide variation in practice was found; the average 
ratio was higher than for any other type of structure. This is due most largely 
to the use of realtive heavy barrels in concrete culverts. Such barrels require 
forms and the use of thin walls under favorable conditions is prevented where 



IRRIGATION 567 

box culverts are used by construction conditions. Separate comparison of the 
inlets and outlets gave ratios for these similar to those for turnouts, checks and 
drops; for the barrels of box culverts the ratio averaged about 8.5. Pipe 
culverts in which the barrel is made of various types of pipe were not included 
in these comparisons. 

The ratios are smallest in those types of structures where the concrete can 
be designed to withstand definite stresses of compression or as beams. This 
occurs in bridge floors and in flumes. Concrete flumes have been actually 
used to only a small extent as yet, due mainly to the difficulties in constructing 
the trestle members. Standard designs have been prepared for various sizes 
of flumes of both concrete and wood by the U. S. Reclamation Service, and 
equivalent sizes of these were compared for both the flume box and for bents 
10 ft. high. The average ratio for the flume box was about 4.5 and for the 
bents 4.0. The cost per cubic yard of concrete in concrete flumes is greater 
than for other types of structures, and this excess cost may more than balance 
the smaller amount required. 

The standard designs of slab and T-beam highway bridges of the U. S. 
Bureau of Public Roads were compared with standard designs of wood stringer 
bridges for the floors only for spans of from 8 to 20 ft. The average ratio for 
the slab bridges was 6.7, varying from about 5.0 for 8-ft. spans to 7.5 for 16-ft. 
spans. For T-beam forms of concrete bridges, the ratio varied from 4.3 for 10- 
ft. spans, to 3. 7 for 20-ft. spans. 

The more usual comparison between wood and concrete which will be made 
in irrigation practice is for the more numerous turnouts, checks, drops and cul- 
verts. For flumes the comparison is more often between the wooden flume 
and other forms* of construction, such as siphons or steel flumes. With 
bridges the choice is often determined by the fact that in many western States 
the county maintains the bridges after their original construction by the canal 
company. For the more typical irrigation structures, a ratio of about 6.5 
cu. yd. of concrete to 1,000 ft. B. M. can be taken as an average with varia- 
tions of from about 4.5 to 9.0 under different conditions, methods and policies. 

Relative Cost of Wood and Concrete. — The choice between wood and concrete 
construction depends on the relative total cost. The ratio of the amount of 
concrete equivalent to 1,000 ft. board measure has been discussed. The 
relative unit cost also needs to be known, in order to make complete 
comparisons. 

The unit cost of both concrete and wood in irrigation construction varies 
very widely. This applies both to the material cost and the cost of construc- 
tion. The price of cement on the work is usually much higher than in the 
East. Aggregate may be expensive to secure and the haul to scattered struc- 
tures is usually a considerable item. Also, even water for mixing, particularly 
on first construction, may have to be hauled considerable distances. Under 
such conditions the cost per cubic yard of concrete is naturally very variable. 
Under favorable conditions costs of $10 per cubic yard may be secured. This 
represents about the minimum for the usual small scattered structures; for 
larger single structures or linings the cost may be less. Under unfavorable 
conditions of material, or for thin walls requiring forms, the cost may be as 
high as $20 or $25 per cubic yard. About $12 to $16 per cubic yard may be 
taken for such structures, although where the costs vary so widely average 
costs should be used with caution. 

The unit cost of wood in place also varies widely. The material price 
depends on the nearness to the source of supply and the wagon haul required. 



568 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The labor cost of construction varies with the type of structure. For small 
scattered special structures or for high flumes, it may be as high as $20 per 
1,000 ft. B. M.; for standard structures of which large numbers are used, such 
as individual turnouts where the framing can be done at central points, the 
cost may be as low as $6 per M. B. M. For usual conditions for structures 
except high flumes, the labor cost will generally be about $10 or $12 per M. 
B. M. The material cost varies equally widely. In localities near the sources 
of supply suitable lumber may be obtained for as low as $15 per M. B. M.; 
In others it may be as high as $30, averaging perhaps about $20. This gives 
a cost in place of from as low as about $20 to as high as $50 with an average 
of $30 to $40. These averages, as in the case of average costs of concrete, 
have a limited application. They give a ratio of average cost of 1,000 ft. 
B. M. to that of 1 cu. yd. of concrete of about 23^^ to 1, If the average ratio 
of the quantities required is taken as 6.5 to 1 and cost as 1 to 2},i., the ratio of 
the total cost of the lumber or concrete part of the structure will be 2.6 to 1. 
The cost of the other parts of structures as previously given is for concrete 
structures about 25 per cent of the total cost, or one-third of the cost of the 
concrete, and for wood structures 40 per cent of the total cost, or two-thirds 
of the cost of the wood in the structure. On this basis the average total cost 
of concrete structures will be about 100 per cent greater than that of similar 
wood structures. Where the price of lumber is high and the conditions for con- 
crete are favorable, a condition more often found in parts of California the 
cost of concrete structures may not be more than 50 per cent greater, and in 
some particular cases no greater, than equivalent wood structures. In the 
higher altitudes where lumber is often relatively low in price and the cost of 
concrete often relatively high, the concrete structures may cost 200 per cent 
or more in excess of the cost of wood structures. 

Maintenance and Depreciation. — Few definite data on the actual cost of 
manitenance of structures is available. Such costs would be difficult to obtain 
for smaller structures. In some systems operation and maintenance costs 
are not kept separate; in others all maintenance is carried in a single account. 
The life of wood structures has been observed under different conditions. The 
cost of maintenance is small for the first portion of the life of wood structures 
and increases in amount until replacement is warranted. The total cost of 
maintenance during the life of such structures may approach the first cost of 
the structure. With concrete structures the cost of maintenance should be 
small. Such maintenance is more often required for the auxiliary parts of 
structures, such as protection to the adjacent canal and repairs, due to acci- 
dents rather than to gradual depreciation. It should be fairly uniform from 
year to year. 

The total life of structures varies with the type and the conditions of use. 
Concrete has not been in use sufficiently long to give data on its life. There is 
always a certain probability of failure through injury, such as undercutting, 
removal due to enlargement of the systems, or replacement with a different 
type of design. 

The life of wood structures depends on the character of their construction 
and conditions of use. Generally structures set in earth, such as drops and 
checks, have a shorter life than the boxes of flumes set on well built trestles. 
Where the operation season is long, so that structures are kept wet practically 
throughout the year, there may be little difference. Records of wood struc- 
tures under various conditions indicate that ordinary turnouts, drops and 
checks can be expected to have a useful life of 6 to 10 years for pine, 8 to 12 



IRRIGA TION 569 

years for fir, and 10 to 20 years for redwood. Under favorable conditions 
redwood structures have considerably exceeded the figures given. For well 
built trestle flumes, the useful life can be expected to be 8 to 14 years for pine, 
10 to 16 years for fir, and 12 to 20 years for redwood. Wood pipe under 
conditions to which it is suited should have a useful life exceeding these figures. 

The cost of replacing structures is usually greater than their first cost. This 
is due to the fact that the excavation will be more largely hand work and to the 
cost of tearing out the old structure. 

The salvage value of concrete structures is usually negligible; the lumber 
removed from old structures may have some value for use in forms, etc., being 
usually greater for flumes than for structures set in the ground. 

Comparison of Cost of Wood and Concrete Structures on Investment Basis. — 
On the basis of the average figures previously developed, comparisons of the 
cost of wood and concrete structures can be made. This has been limited to 
drops, checks, turnouts and culverts, as these are the structures occurring in 
greatest number on irrigation systems and whose design and construction 
can be most closely organized. A comparison of such structures as high 
flumes will involve so many local and special considerations that a general 
comparison would be of little value. 

The capitalized cost can be taken as the basis of comparison. Table 
XXIII has been worked out to show the ratio of first cost at which the capi- 
talized cost will be equal for different conditions. 

Interest rates of 6 and 8 per cent were used. Irrigation district bonds gen- 
erally bear 6 per cent ; the terms of sale, however, more often make the rate on 
the price received 8 per cent or higher. Western mortgage rates vary from 6 
to 8 or even 10 per cent; this represents the value of money to stockholders 
in mutual companies or on systems where improvements are paid for by stock 
assessments. 

Different lengths of life for the structures were assumed. The annual 
maintenance cost is estimated as a percentage of the first cost, a higher rate 
being used where the life of the wood structure was relatively short. Main- 
tenance on the concrete was taken as zero. Salvage value was neglected; its 
amount would probably be less than the error involved in some of the other 
assumptions. 

Table XXIII. — Ratio of Total Fiest Cost of Concrete and Wood 
Structures at Which the Capitalized Cost of Service Becomes Equal. 













Ratio of total 












first cost of 












concrete struc- 








Assumed an- 


tures to total 




Assumed 


Assumed 


nual cost 


first cost of 




life of 


life of 


maintenance 


wood struc- 


Interest 


concrete 


wood struc- 


in per 


cent of 


tures at whiph 


rate 


structures 


tures in 


first cost 


capitalized cost 


per cent 


in years 


years 


Cone. 


Wood 


becomes equal 


6 


30 . 


10 





5 


2.6 to 1 


6 


45 


15 





4 


2.2 to 1 


6 


20 


10 





5 


2.1 to 1 


6 


40 


20 





3 


1.8 to 1 


6 


15 


15 





4 


1.4 to 1 


8 


30 


10 





5 


2.25 to 1 


8 


45 


15 





4 


1.9 to 1 


8 


20 


10 





5 - 


1.95 to 1 


8 


40 


20 





3 


1.6 to 1 


8 


15 


15 





4 


1.3 to 1 



570 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Table XXIII shows the ratios of first cost at which the capitalized cost of 
service becomes equal for these assumed conditions. For useful lives of 
30 and 10 years for concrete and wood and interest at 6 per cent and annual 
maintenance on the wood structure of 5 per cent, a concrete structure costing 
2.6 times as much as the wooden one would be equal in capitalized cost. The 
ratios are higher for the lower rates of interest. 

Ratio of Cost of Structures to Total Cost of Canal System. — In comparing the 
relative economy of different types of structures, the proportion of the total 
cost of the canal systems which consists of structures must be known, in order 
that the proportion in which the total construction cost will be increased by 
different types of structures may be estimated. In some of the Annual 
Reports of the U. S. Reclamation Service, the total cost of structures and 
excavation is stated separately for some of the projects. From these and 
other records Table XXIV was derived. 

I'able XXIV. — Usual Cost of Structures on Canal Systems Expressed 
AS Per Cent op the Total Cost 

Regular topography: Main canals Laterals Whole project 

Concrete structures 10-20 25-40 20-35 

Wood structures 8-15 15-35 10-25 

Irregular or steep topography: 

Concrete structures 20-35 40-50 35-45 

Wood structures 15-25 25-40 20-35 

The use of concrete structures costing twice as much as wood will increase 
the total cost of the canal system by from 15 to 30 per cent under usual condi- 
tions. This applies to the canal system structures only and not to diversion 
dams or to such conditions as side hill locations requiring bench flumes or 
lined canals. 

Conclusions. — The preceding discussion of the factors involved in a choice 
between concrete and wood for irrigation structures, both for the factors for 
numerical limits have been given and also for those not capable of numerical 
expression but which are of equal or greater importance, makes it evident 
that no general conclusions can be drawn as to the most economical type of 
construction. For any particular project where the construction costs can 
be estimated and the other factors, such as financial conditions of the con- 
structing organization, rate of Interest, certainty as to type of structure 
desired and permanence of its location can be given proper weight, a decision 
can be made. Under usual conditions concrete will be the preferable material 
if the capitalized cost of service alone is considered. The other factors are, 
however, more usually such as to incline the choice toward wood for first con- 
struction, except for the larger and more important structures. That the 
capitalized cost is being given more consideration and that many systems are 
reaching a condition where replacements and betterments can be made on a 
more permanent basis is evidenced by the increasing use of concrete in irriga- 
tion structures. 

Life of Irrigation Structures. — The following notes are taken from Harding's 
"Operation and Maintenance of Irrigation Systems." 

Life of Wood Flumes. — The life of wood flumes depends on the kind of 
material used, conditions of use and character of construction. As these 
conditions vary on different systems, the life of wood flumes as reported by 
different users varies widely. A rigidly built flume having little leakage will 
outlast one less strongly built. Poor footings which settle and cause leakage 



IRRIGA TION 571 

will shorten the life of a flume. The thickness of the flume lining also affects 
length of service. "Various protective coatings or even relining the flume 
box are used to increase the life. 

The period of serviceable life which can be expected from flumes for usual 
conditions will not exceed 20 years for redwood or cedar, 12 to 15 years for 
fir, and 8 to 10 years for pine. These figures apply to the portions of the flume 
not in contact with the ground and are as long a life as can be expected under 
general favorable conditions. Some flumes have been used for periods longer 
than those given, but the annual cost of repairs in the later years of use or the 
uncertainty of service will generally make such use undesirable. The life 
of small flumes is generally less than that of large ones due to the less contin- 
uous use of many flumes on sublaterals. Flumes used intermittently on 
farms will have a shorter life than on laterals operated continuously. Bench 
flumes or flumes set in contact with or near the ground usually have a shorter 
life than well-built higher flumes. For unfavorable conditions the life of 
'flumes may not be over one-half that given. Some redwood flumes have been 
in use for 25 years in California, the relatively long operation season and rains 
during the remainder of the year keeping them continuously moist. Others 
have been replaced after fifteen years, the chief difficulty being with the rotting 
of the butt joints at the end of the lining plank and of the yokes behind 
them. Well-constructed fir flumes on the Hedge canal in Montana having 
3-inch T & G siding were replaced in 12 to 14 years. Small pine flumes have 
not lasted over 4 or 5 years in some cases. 

Life of Wood-stave Pipe. — The life of wood-stave pipe varies more widely 
than that of wood flumes as it is more dependent upon the conditions of ser- 
vice. Under favorable conditions, the life of wood pipe should exceed that of 

Table XXV. — Life of Wood-stave Pipe 

Average life in 

Kind of wood Condition of use years 

Fir Uncoated, buried in tight soil 20 

Fir Uncoated, buried in loose soil 4 to 7 

Fir Uncoated in air 12 to 20 

Redwood Uncoated, buried in tight soil, loam or 

sand and gravel over 25 

Fir . Well-coated, buried in tight soil 25 

Fir Well-coated, buried in loose soil 15 to 20 

flumes; under unfavorable conditions, it may be quite short. Wood used 
in pipes comes into more direct comparison with other materials than does 
wood used in flumes and the results with its use have been more closely ob- 
served. Table XXV prepared by Mr. D. C. Henny and printed in the Recla- 
mation Record of August, 1915, summarizes the data collected from a large 
number of installations. 

The following general conclusions were also given: 

*'(a) Under favorable conditions of complete saturation, fir well-coated 
may have the same life as redwood uncoated. 

"(6) Either kind of pipe will have a longer life if well -buried in tight soil 
than if exposed to the atmosphere. Such life may be very long, 30 years or 
over, if a high steady pressure is maintained. 

" (c) Either kind of pipe will have a longer life if exposed to the atmosphere 
than if buried in open soil, such as sand and gravel and volcanic ash, provided 
in a hot and dry climate it be shaded from the sun. 



572 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

" (d) Under questionable conditions, such as light pressure or partially 
filled pipe, fir even if well-coated may have only one-third to one-half the life 
of redwood. 

" (e) Under light pressure the use of bastard staves should be avoided. 

" (/) The use of wooden sleeves in connection with wire-wound pipe is 
objectionable and has caused endless trouble and expense. 

" (g) If wooden sleeves are employed they should be provided, at least for 
sizes from 10 inches up, with individual bands to permit taking up leaks." 

These results indicate the importance of the character of the backfill. If 
porous soils into which air penetrates easily are used, the benefits of covering 
are lost, with the added disadvantage that inspection cannot be readily made. 
A covering of heavy soil, 3 to 4 feet in depth, which maintains more constant 
moisture conditions and excludes air, gives the best results. The pipe should 
be kept full of water if a long life is to be secured. The upper portions of 
siphons, which may be only partly filled, have been found to have a shorter 
life than the parts under greater pressure. The water, when under pressure,* 
maintains a more uniform condition in the staves, a condition also more 
easily secured if the thickness of the staves is no greater than required for 
strength. Cuts from the butts of trees, being denser, are considered to have 
longer life than top cuts. The life of the pipe is usually determined by the 
life of the staves. Certain chemical conditions in the soil, such as the presence 
of some alkalis or of acids from decaying vegetation may result in a shorter 
life for the bands than for the staves. For such locations it is preferable to 
place the pipe above ground and free from such action. 

Wood pipe is often coated, particularly the smaller machine-banded pipe. 
The coating on these is applied by running the pipe through a bath of warm 
asphaltum pitch. The pipe is then rolled in sawdust to preserve the outside 
coating and make handling easier. On large pipes an application of gas tar 
followed by one or more coats of refined coal tar, is often used. A mixture of 
asphaltum and tar has also been used. These are applied to the finished pipe 
before it is put under pressure. It is difficult to secure adherence to wet wood, 
particularly with oil paints. In general it appears that the use of a coating is 
preferable for buried pipe in dry porous soil and possibly on all buried pipes, 
although the added benefit may be small for pipe buried in heavy moist soils 
free from vegetable matter. Above ground the value of the coating is more 
uncertain. For the protection of the bands on exposed pipes paints similar to 
those used on structural steel may be used. 

Life of Wood Structures. — The conditions of use for the usual wood structures 
are not as favorable as for wood flumes or pipes. Parts of the structure may 
be continuously wet, parts alternately wet and dry and parts continuously dry. 
The cutoff walls and other substructure may outlast one or more renewals of 
the superstructure. Heavy well-built structures will have longer life than light 
ones due to the longer time required to cause the complete decay of the thicker 
material as well as to the greater resistance to injury offered by the stronger 
structures. 

Under favorable conditions irrigation structures built of redwood or cedar 
may have a useful life of as high as 20 years ; for aveage conditions the average 
life is about 12 years and in some cases as low as 8 years. It is longest in the 
larger and heavier structures such as have been used on some of the earlier 
systems in California. Some of these have actually been in use for over 25 
years. It is shortest in regions of high temperature where the wood is both 
damp and heated at depths of from 1 to 2H feet below the surface. At lower 



I 



IRRIGATION 573 

depths the heat is not sufficient to make decay as rapid ; nearer the surface the 
structure is dryer. Small redwood structures have required replacement 
after 5 years in such locations. Structures built of fir have a life varying 
from a usual maximum of 15 years to a usual minimum of 6 years with an 
expected life under usual conditions of 8 to 10 years. Where pine is used, 
structures will not generally last over 10 years and may not last over 5 years ; 
under usual conditions a life of 6 to 8 years is to be expected. Structures will 
usually have a longer life in heavy soils than in those in which the air has 
greater access such as sands or gravels. 

Life of Concrete Structures. — Considered as a material, concrete is practically 
permanent. There has been some injury from the action of certain forms of 
aikali but the injuries to concrete structures are much more generally those 
due to undercutting or other accidents in use rather than to any disintegra- 
tion of failure of the material similar to the failure of wood structures due to 
decay. Concrete has not been in use in irrigation sufficiently long to secure 
data on its rate of depreciation. Depreciation estimates which have been 
used in valuations have been based on estimated obsolescence or mechanical 
injury rather than on actual deterioration of the structure. In a few instances 
resurfacing has been required; such cases have generally been due to lack of 
care in the original construction rather than to actual abrasion. Structures, 
such as linings or retaining walls, may fail due to excess pressure behind them; 
such failures are not due to the material of the structure itself but to faults in 
drainage or design. Winter operation may cause injury in the opening of 
frozen gates or in the breaking of side walls. 

The examples of injury from the action of alkali while scattered have in 
some cases been important. There is still need for further knowledge as to 
the details of such action and the methods of its prevention. Injury is 
caused by the seepage into the concrete of alkali water, the sulphates, particu- 
larly magnesium and sodium sulphate, being the most harmful. With some 
salts no harmful action may occur. The best remedy is prevention which can 
be secured most practically by using a dense well-mixed and faced concrete 
which reduces the absorption of the alkali water to a minimum. The conclu- 
sions of the U. S. Bureau of Standards based on the observations of the first 
year's tests with concrete drain tile exposed to alkali in a number of localities 
are that tile not leaner than a 1 to 3 mixture are apparently unaffected structur- 
ally when exposed for 1 year in operating drains in very concentrated alkali 
soils. Leaner mixtures are not generally recommended although in some cases 
tile of 1 to 4 mixture were not affected at the end of 1 year. 

To overcome or reduce the effect of low temperatures on concrete, the 
surfaces have been treated with waterproofing solutions on the Strawberry 
valley project. This was applied to structures onjivhich surface disintegration 
had already begun. Vertical surfaces were treated with alum and soap solution 
and horizontal surfaces with paraffine. The surfaces were thoroughly dried 
and cleaned before treatment. The alum solution consisted of 2 ounces of 
alum to 1 gallon of hot water. The soap solution consisted of % pound of 
castile soap dissolved in 1 gallon of hot water. The alum solution was applied 
at a temperature of 100°F. and worked in with brushes, the soap solution 
being similarly applied while the surface was still moist. In some cases 
additional coats were given. One gallon of alum solution and >^ gallon of 
soap solution were sufficient to give two coats to 50 square feet. The cost of 
treating 24,000 square feet varied from $0.41 to $1.28 per 100 square feet and 
averaged $0.76. Alum costs 18 cents and soap 12>^ cents per pound. 



574 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

For horizontal surfaces, the paraffine was boiled to drive off water, heated 
and applied with a paint brush. A blow torch was used to force the paraffine 
into the pores by its heat. The concrete would absorb only one coat of such 
treatment. On 4,000 square feet treated, 1 pound of paraffine was used for 
11^ square feet of surface. The cost varied from $1.70 to $3.78 per 100 
square feet, averaging $2.11. Paraffine cost $4.80 per 100 pounds. The 
surfaces treated have shown no further disintegration after going through four 
winters. 

Concrete pipe has been used very extensively on a number of systems 
during the past 10 years. With the present knowledge of its construction 
and use there should be little difficulty in securing well-made pipe. Such pipe 
should have a relatively long or indefinite life. In 1907 the Irrigation Co. of 
Pomona relaid a line of 8-inch concrete pipe of 1 to 4 mixture which had been 
laid in 1888. Only 7 per cent, of the joints were found to be perfectly sound, 
the remainder had disintegrated. General maintenance of such pipe Unes 
consists of draining in winter and the sluicing of deposits which may form. 
It is usual for such pipe lines to operate at higher velocities than the canals 
so that deposits of silt or sand are not to be expected. Such deposits may 
occur, however, at the lower rates of discharge which may be used at the 
beginning and end of the season. Cracks at the joints due to the expansion 
and contraction of the pipes have caused trouble in some cases where the 
range of temperature is large or the covering of the pipes porous or thin. A 
length of life of 30 to 40 years has been used in valuations of concrete pipe 
lines. These figures are largely arbitrary, however, as direct experience has 
not extended over the full life of larger concrete pipe. In common with other 
forms of permanent materials, replacements may be more often needed due to 
changes in the requirements of use such as changes iii location or capacity 
needed, rather than due to actual deterioration of the material itself. 

Life of Steel. — Steel is used in irrigation practice in flumes, in pipes and in 
gates. The development of steel flumes has occurred within the past 15 years. 
A steel flume with wood supports is a combination type of structure. The 
trestles and stringers are similar to those used with wood flumes and should 
have a useful life similar to that of the same kind of material when used with 
wood flumes. Such trestles with steel flumes may have a longer life than 
with wood flumes, if the leakage with the steel flume is less. The useful life 
of steel flumes has not been determined, as their adoption is guite recent. 
Many have been built on the systems of the U. S. Reclamation Service. From 
observations on the Boise project it was reported at the Conference of Opera- 
ting Engineers in 1914, that "Of the flumes built in 1909 practically all were 
more or less corroded. Of about 13 flumes built in 1910, the majority were 
in good condition but one was considerably corroded. Of about 2 1 flumes built 
in 1911, two were considerably corroded. Of about 14 flumes built in 1912, 
two were seriously corroded." It was stated that there was no decided 
difference between different makes of flumes. The greatest amount of corro- 
sion and rust appeared to be along the joints, on the downstream side. It 
was recommended that the bands, channels or other parts forming the joints 
should be galvanized as well as the sheet metal of the flume. In case de- 
terioration appears, painting was recommended. In an article in the Recla- 
mation Record for November, 1916, Mr. F, D. Pyle states that of several 
kinds of paint tried on the Uncompahgre project only coal tar and coal-tar 
compound paints had stood one season's use and gave indications of per- 
manence. It was also stated that the indications on that system were that 



IRRIGATION 575 

unprotected galvanized-steel flumes will have a life of 10 or or 12 years ex- 
cept under the most trying conditions, i.e., high velocity of water carrying 
sand and fine gravel, where the life in one particular instance was only four 
season's use. 

The use of steel and iron pipe in irrigation has generally been limited to 
those conditions of pressure for which other types of pipes were not suited. 
Their use in irrigation has not been sufficient in length of time or in amount to 
indicate their probable useful life for such purposes. Data, however, are 
available from use in mining and power service. Thin steel pipes, such as 
% inch in thickness, are used in the smaller sizes for the lighter pressures in 
some distribution systems, particularly with pumping plants. These should 
have a useful life of 15 to 25 years. Heavier pipe, 3^ inch thick, should last 
25 to 50 years. For pipe of the larger sizes, which can be recoated during the 
portion of the year when they are not in use, even longer life may be secured. 

Due to the thinness of the pipe, protective coatings are relatively more 
important on steel pipes than on those of other material. The more generally 
used coatings consist of some of the forms of tar or Asphalt mixtures applied 
hot, the smaller pipe being dipped and the larger ones treated in the field. 
The San Fernando siphon of the Los Angeles aqueduct was painted inside and 
outside with one coat of water-gas tar and two coats of coal tar. One gallon 
of tar covered about 200 square feet of pipe. The Spring Valley Water Co. 
has used a mixture of coal tar and natural crude asphaltum, using 1,400 pounds 
of asphaltum to 50 gallons of coal tar. Some of this coating has been in use 
nearly 50 years. The Pacific Gas & Electric Co. uses one coat of Dixon's 
Graphite Paint, inside and outside on unburied pipe, repainting every 2 or 3 
years. In some cases steel pipe may be encased in concrete. Where steel 
pipes are laid in alkali soils special protection may be needed. Pipe ^^e inch 
thick has in some cases been corroded entirely through in 3 years where laid 
in alkali soil in the California oil fields. On the Uncompahgre project in 
Colorado a 26-inch siphon was built in 1910 in alkali ground for which ingot 
iron pipe was used. This was in good condition after 4 years use although 
some rusting had occurred. 

Cost of Reinforced Concrete Drops, Canadian Pacific Ry., Irrigation Pro- 
jects. — Robert S. Stockton gives the following data in Engineering and Con- 
tracting, April 14, 1915. 

On the Western Section of the Irrigation Block being developed by the 
Department of Natural Resources of the Canadian Pacific Railway Co., some 
of the timber structures were built as early as 1905 and have had eight years 
in the ground. Most of these structures, especially the highway bridges and 
division gates, are good for a number of years yet, but some of the drops, of 
which there are a large number, are beginning to develop signs of weakness, 
and as they must be replaced without stopping the flow of water during the 
irrigation season, May 1 to Oct. 1, the reconstruction must take place before 
or after the water season, or during that time by diverting the water around 
the structure by temporary works. 

The policy of the company has been to replace the large timber structures 
as they approached the end of their life with permanent concrete structures 
of approved design. The program of betterments for 1913 included the re- 
placement of the large timber holdup drop known as drop No. 2A in the Secon- 
dary "A" Canal, Langdon District, S. E. \i section 19-23-27. The new 
10-ft. drop was designed to be built of reinforced concrete with a central pier 
and two openings that can be closed with stop plank 5 ft. 9 ins. long. The 



576 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

holdup feature of this drop is required to insure the dehvery of water to "B'* 
Distributary in Langdon district, which takes out 3 ft. above canal grade. 
The drop is designed to discharge 1,000 sec. ft. of water over the crest when 
the canal carries 8 ft. depth of water. Previous experience indicated the 
economy of diverting the water and building the drop during favorable 
weather. The construction crew was moved to the site July 17 to 19 and 
began the work of excavating the by-pass and building a diverting dam in the 
canal. The by-pass was completed July 29 and the work of tearing out the 
old timber drop commenced. The old structure was heavily built, having 
2,200 lin. ft. of piling and 54,243 ft. B. M. of lumber incorporated in it. 
Certain timbers in the old drop proved to be pretty well decayed, particularly 
above the water line. The piling behind the breast wall was rotted and con- 
stituted the weakest spot in the structure. 

The excavation disclosed 4 ft. of soil underlaid by a compact boulder clay 
which proved to be quite impervious, and after the footings and lower concrete 
floor was in place, there was no pumping required. 

The nearest gravel pit was about 15 miles distant and 42 cu. yds, of un- 
screened material was hauled and used. The pit contains good sand but poor 
gravel, and when the cost of screening was added and quality considered, it 
was thought best to ship the larger part of the sand and gravel to Bennett 
Siding, about two miles from the work. The gravel received from the Cal- 
gary Sand & Gravel Co., however, had some oversize that was picked put by 
hand. The steel shipped to Bennett Siding was mixed up with steel for 
Strathmore, which necessitated a team haul to straighten out. 

A carload of lumber was delivered at Bennett Siding for building the forms, 
chute, and cement shed, and 1,421 F.B.M. was hauled from Dalroy Water- 
master's Headquarters. The carpenters started building forms on August 6 
and the cut-off walls were poured on Aug. 27. The last concrete was put in on 
Sept. 20. 

The general mixture was intended to be 1 sack of cement to 2}^ cu. ft. of 
sand and 5 cu. ft. of gravel. For thin walls and copings a mixture of l-2y2-4: 
was used, and for the lip of the drop 2-2i/^-5. Since 948 sacks of cement were 
used, the average was 4.74 sacks per cubic yard of concrete. The concrete 
was mixed wet enough to spade and was spaded so as to require little patching 
when the forms were removed. The concrete appears to be of excellent 
quality. The concrete was mixed with a No. 1 Smith Mixer with steam engine, 
boiler and side loader mounted on steel trucks. 

All labor was paid at prevailing rates, stated at so much per day of 10 hours. 
Every rate is stated in full and so carried in the time books with board deduc- 
tion of $5.50 per week. The cost of team feed is taken at 90 cts. per day 
per team and pro-rated to all work on which team time is charged. 

The wages of foreman, barn boss, and for Sunday time of teamsters are 
pro-rated to all labor items. Two rates of wages were paid, as it has been 
necessary to make a raise at harvest time to hold the men; even at the in- 
creased rate, considerable trouble was experienced, as farmers were then 
paying about $2.50 per day and board. The wages paid were as follows: 
Laborers at $2.50 to $2.75 per day of 10 hours; teamsters at $2.10 to $2.35 per 
day of 10 hours, and including Sundays ; carpenters at $3.50, $4 and $5 per day, 
and foreman at $120 per month. 

The detailed cost records follow: 



IRRIGATION 



577 



Labor Cost — Drop No. 2A — Langdon District 



Labor 

Feature cost 

Moving camp (16 miles) $ 68. 00 

Setting up camp (for 24 men) .... 19. 55 

Camp expenses 7 . 00 

Hauling supplies 159. 30 

Excav. of by-pass (Clay loom) .... 210. 00 

Excav. of old drop 1 , 250. 00 

Removal of old drop 126. 80 

Building cement shed 8. 96 

Building chute in by-pass 34 . 00 

Hauling lumber (2 miles) 46. 60 

Steel (2 miles ) 4. 10 

Cement (2 miles) 40. 00 

Gravel (2 miles) 162. 90 

Sand (2 miles) . 72. 00 

Sand and gravel (15 mi.) 88. 60 

Mixer and pump (21 mi.) 29. 30 

Pumping water 13. 10 

Building forms 591. 00 

Bending and placing steel and wire 

fabric 110.65 

Mix. and placing concrete 336. 10 

Removal of forms 51 . 25 

Backfilling by-pass 143. 40 

BackfiUing drop 375. 70 

Removal of chute 6. 88 

Repairs to bank 106. 88 

Riprap to bank 30. 10 

Cleaning up, etc • 13. 72 

Total labor cost $4 , 105. 89 



Unit 




Quantity and unit 


cost 








$'6: 139 


1 


,507 


cu. yds. 


0.636 


1 


,967 


cu. yds. 


2.338 




54.243M. ft. B. M 


8.070 




1.112M.ft. B. M 


33.660 




l.OlOM.ft. B. M 


1.987 




23. 438 M. ft. B. M 


0.031 




129.96 cwt. 


0.042 




948. 00 


cwt. 


0.975 




167 


cu. yds. 


1.060 




68 


cu. yds. 


2.685 




33 


cu. yds. 


"oiioo 


5 


,929 


sq. ft. 


0.851 




129.96 


cwt. 


1.680 




200. 00 


cu. yds. 


0.009 


5 


,929 


sq. ft. 


0.090 


1 


,600 


cu. yds. 


0.237 


1 


,588 


cu. yds. 


6.812 


1 


,010 


M. ft. B. M 


0.822 




130 


cu. yds. 


1.027 




29.3 


cu. yds. 






. . Includes team feed. 



Material Cost — Drop 2A — Langdon District 



Cost Freight Total cost 
229.72 $-60.55 $ 290.27 



6.73 
45.75 
61.30 
25.10 
54.80 



Feature Quantity 
Reinforcing steel.. 11,921 lbs. 

Wire fabric .. . 1,075 s. f. 

Cement 237 bbls. 

Gravel 167 yds. 

Sand 68 yds. 

Lumber. . 23,438 ft. B. M. 

Rope repairs, etc . . 

Total material cost $1 ,362. 21 $254. 23 $1 ,527. 83 

Total labor cost, including team feed $4 , 

Total material cost 1 ^ 

Depreciation on concrete mixer, pump, wagons, 

harness, horses, etc $302. 44 

Depreciation on camp equipment 42'. 45 



22.84 
482.86 
183. 70 

74.80 
323.94 

44.35 



29.57 
528.61 
245.00 

99.90 
290. 13* 

44.35 



Unit 

cost 

$ 0.024 

0.027 

2.230 

1.467 

1.469 

12. 380 



105. 89 
527. 83 



Overhead expense of superintendence, 
accounting, etc 



engineering, office work, 



344.89 
938. 00 



• Less $88.61 salvage value. 



$6,916.61 



37 



578 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Summary op Feature Costs — Drop No. 2A — Langdon District, 1913 

Cost per yd. 

Cost of concrete 

Camp and supplies $ 311. 92 $1. 560 

Excavation and backfilling 2 , 085. 98 10. 430 

Preparatory work 219 . 04 1 . 095 

Hauling materials 414. 20 2. 071 

Building forms 591 . 00 2. 955 

Bending and placing steel 110. 65 0. 554 

Mixing and placing concrete 336. 10 1 . 681 

Removal of forms 51. 25 0. 257 

Steel and wire fabric 319. 84 1. 595 

Cement 528. 61 2. 643 

Gravel and sand ' 344.90 1.725 

Lumber 290.13 1.451 

Riprap below drop 30. 10 0. 151 

Depreciation 344. 89 1. 725 

Overhead expense 938. 00 4. 690 



$6,916.61 $34,583 

Camp and supplies and preparatory work $ 530. 96 $ 2. 655 

Excavation and backfilling 2,085.98 10.430 

Concrete work 2,986. 68 14. 932 

Riprap below drop 30. 10 0.151 

Depreciation 344. 89 1. 725 

Overhead expense 938. 00 4. 690 

$6,916.61 $34,583 

Cost of a Reinforced Concrete and Check Delivery Structure for an Irrigation 
Canal. — H. M. Rouse, in Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 6, 1911, gives 
the following: 

- Five small reinforced concrete check and delivery structures were con- 
structed in 1910 by the California Development Co., for one of its new irriga- 
tion canals in the Imperial Valley, California. Three of the five gates were 
under construction at the same time, the common camp being a half mile from 
the Banyan check and delivery. 

All materials were purchased through the company Store Department 
which made a charge of 10 per cent of cost of materials in store. This charge 
includes unloading from cars at Calexico, Store Department bookkeeping and 
miscellaneous labor, and depreciation on tools. The labor rates were as 
follows: 

Foreman, per month ■. $135. 00 

Sub-foremen and first carpenters, per day ' 3. 50 

Second carpenters, per day 3. 00 

Carpenter helpers, per day $2. 75 & 2. 50 

Laborers (white), per day 2. 50 

Laborers (Mexican), per day 1. 50 

2-horse team, wagon and driver, per day 4. 50 

4-horse team, wagon and driver, per day 7. 00 

The structure contains 66.5 cu. yds. of concrete, and the total cost was 
$2,124.27, divided as follows: 

Development Work. — The development work was little; it comprised build- 
ing a protection levee, placing a water storage tank and building a mixing 
board at an aggregate cost of $6.61 or 9.94 cts. per cubic yard of concrete. 

Excavation. — The excavation for the concrete work amounted to 180 cu. 
yds, and was done with shovels. About one-half of the excavation was from 



IRRIGATION 579 

trenches 10 ft. deep and 3 ft. wide, maximum dimensions, and the material 
had to be handled twice. The material was adobe and its excavation cost 
$160 or 88.8 cts per cubic yard. The charge per cubic yard of concrete in the 
structure was $2.41. There were 2.71 cu. yds. of excavation per cubic yard 
of concrete. 

Form Construction. — A total of 3,200 ft. B. M., second-hand Oregon pine 
lumber was used for the forms; 2,400 ft. B. M. 1 X 6-in. boards and 800 ft. 
B. M. 2 X 4-in. studding. This lumber was valued at $25 per M. ft B. M, 
by the Store Department. The labor required comprised erecting forms on 
both sides of 6 and 8-in. walls. The cost of forms for materials and labor was 
as follows : 

Materials : Cost 

3,200 ft. B. M. lumber at $25 per M $ 80. 00 

Store department charge of 10 % 8. 00 

Loading 3. 00 

Hauling 20. 00 

Total lumber $111.00 

80 lbs. nails at 4 cts , $ 3.20 

Store department charge of 10 % 0. 32 

Total nails $ 3 52 

Grand total materials $114, 52 

Labor: 

Building and renewing forms $197. 65 

Grand total materials and labor $312. 17 

Summarizing we have the following cost per cubic yard of concrete for 
forms : 

Item Per cu. ydT 

Materials '. $1. 72 

Labor 2. 97 

Total $4. 69 

The cost of forms per thousand feet, board measure, was as follows: 

Item Per M ft. 

Materials $35. 79 

Labor r 61.80 

Total $97. 59 

Reinforcement. — The reinforcement used consisted of %-m.. round bars and 
wire. The bars used were of nickel steel and were cut with hacksaw and bent 
with gas pipe. The cost for materials and labor was as follows: 

Materials: Cost 

3,500 ft. ^-in. bar at 3.28 cts $114. 80 

Store department charge 1 1 . 48 

Loading 1 . 50 

Hauling 5. 25 

Total bars $133. 03 

Wire at $4.07 per 100 lbs : $ 2. 23 

Total materials $135. 26 

Labor: 
Cutting, bending and placing $ 27. 22 

Total reinforcing in place $162. 48 



580 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Summarizing we get the following costs per cubic yard of concrete: 

Item Per cu. yd. 

Materials $2. 03 

Labor 0.41 

Total , $2. 44 

Concrete. — The concrete was a cement, sand and gravel mixture of 1.24 bbls. 
cement and 1.28 cu. yds. of sand and gravel per cubic yard of concrete in 
place. The cost of 82).^ bbls. of cement on the ground was as follows: 

Item Cost 

65 bbls. Calton at $3.80 on cars Calexico $247. 00 

17^^ bbls. Alsen at $4.98 on cars Calexico 87. 15 

Store department charge 33. 42 

Loading 1 . 50 

Hauling 47. 00 

Total cost on ground $416. 07 

This is a cost for cement of $5.04 per barrel on the ground and of $6.26 per 
cubic yard of concrete in the structure. 

There were used 79.07 cu. yds. of gravel and 6 cu. yds of sand at the follow- 
ing cost: 

Item Cost 

44. 85 cu. yds. Andrade gravel at $2.95 $132. 31 

30. 46 cu. yds. Frink gravel at $3.11 94. 80 

3. 76 cu. yds. Mammoth gravel at $2.91 10. 94 

6 cu. yds. Whitewater sand at $2.17 13. 02 

Total on cars at Calexico $251 . 07 

"Store department charge $ 25. 10 

Loading 8. 00 

HauHng 140. 00 

Total sand and gravel on ground $424. 17 

The average cost of sand and gravel on cars at Calexico was $2.95 per cubic 
yard. Hauling cost $1.65 per cubic yard and the other charges noted brought 
the cost per cubic yard on the ground up to $4.98. The cost per cubic yard 
of concrete in the structure was $6.37. The concrete was mixed by hand in 
J'^ cu. yd. batches, wheeled in barrows and rammed in place. The labor cost 
for mixing and placing was $171.09 or $2.57 per cubic yard of concrete. Sum- 
marizing we have the following costs for concrete in place: 

Item Total Per cu. yd. 

Cement $ 416.07 $6.26 

Sand and gravel 424.17 6.37 

Labor mixing and placing 171. 09 2. 57 

Totals $1,011.33 $15.20 

Backfilling and Puddling. — The cost of backfilling and puddling trench as 
described above was as follows: 

Item Total 

Men $32. 97 

Fresno team 2. 25 

Total $35. 22 

This is a charge of 53 cts. per cubic yard of concrete. 



IRRIGATION 581 

Gates and Gate Lifters. — The cost of materials and labor for six gates and 
lifting apparatus was as follows: 

Per 

Item Total gate 

410 ft. B. M. redwood at $40 $ 16. 40 $ 2. 73 

82 ft. 2H X 3-in. angle at 4 cts. lb 20. 80 \ 

Bolts 3. 43 / 4. 04 

6 lifter sets at $20.31 121. 86 

6 c. i. pedestals at $4.34 26. 04 

11 30-in. sections c. i. rack at $1.35 14,85 



Total $162. 75 $27. 12 

Grand total material $203. 38 $33. 89 

Store department charge 20. 33 

Hauhng 10. 00 



Total material on ground $233. 71 $38. 95 

Labor 6 gates at $2.11 12. 70 



Total gates in place $246. 41 $41. 07 

General Labor. — The charges for general labor was one-third of foreman's 
time at $135 per month; one-third of time keeper's time at $2.50 per day. 
The amounts were: 

Foreman $57. 35 

Timekeeper - 16. 60 

Total $73. 95 

Engineering. — Engineering included office work, drafting and paper and field 
work inspection and staking our structure. The charges were: 

Office work $ 47. 30 

Field work 68. 80 

Total $116. feo 

This is a cost of $1.74 per cubic yard of concrete. tj 

Recapitulation. — From the above figures we get the following summaries 
of costs: 

Per cu. yd. 
Item Total concrete 

Development work $ 6. 61 $ 0. 9094 

Excavation 160. 00 2. 4100 

Concrete work 1 ,485. 98 22. 3400 

Backfilling 35. 22 0. 5300 

Gates, etc 246.41 3.7000 

General labor 73. 95 1. 1120 

Engineering. 116. 10 1. 7400 

Total $2,124.27 $31.94 

Summarized by the items, labor, materials and engineering the cost per 
cubic yard was as follows: 

Item Per cu. yd. Pet. 

Labor $10. 29 32. 22 

Materials 19. 91 62. 32 

Engineering 1 . 74 5. 46 

Total $31. 94 100. 00 



582 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Costs of Irrigation Construction on the Rock Creek Conservation Co.»s 
Project at Rock River, Wyoming.— W. D'Rohan, in Engineering and Con- 
tracting, Dec. 27, 1911, gives the following : 

All the canals and laterals were taken out by contract to a uniform section 
of 8 ft. bottom and 1 to 1 slopes, at an average price of 17 cts. per yard, they 
are all in cut, with an average depth of 4}^ ft. 

Owing to the wide extent of the project, the long moves over rough roads 
would soon wreck any machinery, so the management decided that it would 
be more economical to mix all the concrete by hand, and over 3,000 cu. yds. 
were mixed and placed in this manner. Gravel was obtained from the creek, 
and was hauled to the various points by contract at $6.70 per yard. The con- 
tractor had to screen it as well. For this, he built a trap 18 ft. high, with a 
10-ft. chute, in the bottom of which was placed the screen; the gravel was 
taken out of the creek bed with wheelers, carried up the inclined run and 
dumped into the trap from which it ran down the screen into the wagons. 
Sand was shipped from Laramie at 40 cts. per ton, freight $1, and hauling on 
the job $1.80 per ton. Ideal cement cost $2.20 per bbl. laid down and was 
hauled by company teams on the work. Lumber for forms cost $22 per 1,000 
ft. and was used four times. 

Headgate. — The top slab of the gate over which is a wagon road was rein- 
forced with y2-m. rods spaced 8 ins. apart, while plums were used in the heav- 
ier parts of the walls. The mix used throughout was 1:2|.^:5 for plain con- 
crete, and 1:2:4 for reinforced. The cost of the headgate was distributed as 
follows, for 111.7 cu. yds. of concrete: 



Excavation: Total Per cu. yd. 
Item 

276 hrs. laborers at 25 cts $ 69. 00 

15 hrs. teams at 50 cts 7. 50 

50 hrs. foreman at 35 cts 17. 50 



Total excavation $ 94. 00 $ 0. 84 

Materials : 

133 bbls. cement at $2.20 $ 279. 30 

5,000 ft. lumber at $22 per M 27. 50* 

46 cu. yds. sand at $4.80 220. 80 

60 cu. yds. gravel at $6.70 402. 00 

48 cu. yds. "plums " at $1 48. 00 

160 lbs. steel rods at 2 cts 3. 20 

Water and hauling cement 25 . 00 

Total materials $1 , 005. 80 $ 9. 00 

Labor: 

540 hrs. mixing and placing at 25 cts $ 135, 00 

160 hrs. carpenters at 40 cts 64. 00 

90 hrs. helpers at 27.5 cts 24. 75 

80 hrs. foreman at 40 cts 32. 00 



Total labor $ 255. 75 $ 2. 29 

Grand total $1 , 355. 55 $12. 13 

* Lumber used four times. 



IRRIGATION 



583 



Dimen- 
sions 

h 

m 

n 



Ft. 

2 
4 
6 
1 
8 
1 
7 



—Depth of water in feet.- 
Ft. ins. Ft. ins. 



b. 

t. . 







10 
2 



2.5 
4 
6 
1 
8 
2 
7 

4.5 
6 
8 
1 
11 
2 
9 



6 
6 

iy2 

73-^ 

iy2 

6 

7>^ 

13^2 

11^ 
5>^ 



3 
5 

7 
1 
9 
2 
8 
5 
7 
9 
1 
11 
3 
9 





3 
3 

3M 

6' 


9 
9 

2H 
11 



Ft. 

3.5 

5 

7 

1 

9 

2 

8 

5.5 

7 

9 

1 
12 

3 
10 



6 
6 

4>^ 

103-^ 

3>^ 

'e" 

6 

10>^2 

4>^ 
5>i 
4>^ 



Ft. 

4 

6 

8 

1 
10 

2 

9 

6 

8 
10 

2 
13 

3 
10 



9 


'6 



8 

10 



V 



k 



N 



M- 



; 



/ -- 



-^a^iY—n- 





L 






dection AA 

Fig. 12.- — Standard concrete drop. 



Drops. — All of the drops were of the standard design, shown by Fig. 12. 
The cost of this drop was as follows for 65.5 cu. yds. of concrete: 



Total 
Excavation: 

270 hrs. laborers at 25 cts $ 67. 50 

30 hrs. foreman at 30 cts 9 . 00 

Total excavation $ 76 . 50 

Materials: 

2,500 ft. B.M. lumber at $22 per M $ 13. 75* 

32 cu. yds. sand at $4.80 153. 60 

317 sacks cement at $2.10 per bbl 166. 42 

35 cu. yds. gravel at $6 210. 00 

25 cu. yds. "plums" at $1 25. 00 

Total materials $568. 77 



Per 
cu. yd. 



$ 1.15 



$ 8.55 



584 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Total 
Labor: 
315 hrs. mixing and placing at 25 cts $ 78. 75 



58 hrs. carpenters at 40 cts. 

95 hrs. helpers at 27,5 cts 

20 hrs. wiring forms at 25 cts. 
Hauling cement, water, etc. . . 



23.20 

26.12 

5.00 

6.60 



Total labor $146. 47 

Grand total $791 . 74 



Per 

cu. yd. 



$ 2.20 
$11.90 



* Lumber used four times. 




i' 



^ d-0 -^ 

3ection . 
Con domlZCUd.^ 



< _i_i_+_x^ 



til 



1 ^^ 1 . _4_l_^ .4. -( — ■ — I— i.«..j. 

irn"T^"i"l"l"i"f bit 

I^M4i-!-tf^^i-l-l•t 



Plon 

Fig. 13. — Details of concrete 
lined chute. 

Item: 
632 hrs. slip teams at 50 cts . 
735 hrs. laborers at 25 cts . . . 
129 hrs. foreman ; 



Oven Chute. — The open chute, shown by 
Fig. 13, is 297 ft. long. It is built of rein- 
forced concrete 6 ins. thick, the bottom being 8 
ft. wide with sides 18 ins. high on a 1 to 1 slope, 
and is on a 5 per cent grade. The water from 
it is discharged into a chamber, from which it 
is carried under the railroad tracks by a 54-in. 
cast iron pipe with a fall of 3.06 ft. in 60 ft. 
It discharges into a cushion, 25 ft. long, and 5 
ft. deep below the ditch bottom, the upper part 
having sides sloping to conform with the shape 
of the ditch; 560 ft. of 4-in. tile drain pipe laid 
12 ins. underneath the concrete takes care of 
the seepage water. The cost of the chute and 
crossing was as follows, not including the cast 
iron pipe which I was unable to obtain. The 
excavation includes chute, railroad crossing and 
200 ft. of ditch and cost as follows: 

Total 

$316.00 

181.25 

38.79 



Total. 



$535. 95 



The cost of the chute proper not including the crossing intake and outlet, 
as as follows for 146.6 cu. yds.: 



Materials: 

513 cu. yds. sand at $4.80 $ 

77. 7 cu. yds. gravel at $6 

24. 9 cu. yds. "plums" at $1 

698 sacks cement at $2.10 per bbl 

4,000 ft. B.M. lumber at $22 per M 

^-in. steel rods, 12 ins. on centers, at 2^^ cts 



Total 

246. 24 
466. 19 

24.90 
366. 45 

22.00 
279. 19 



Per 
cu. yd. 



Total materials $1 ,422. 97 $ 9. 71 

Labor mixing and placing concrete $ 317. 10 $ 2. 16 



Grand total ! $1 , 740. 07 



$11.87 



The intake and outlet structures, contained 139.3 cu. yds. of concrete which 
was placed for $10.42 per cubic yard. The chute and railroad crossing were 
put in according to plans made by the Union Pacific R. R. Co. 

Concrete Pipe. — About one mile from the railroad on another hillside, it was 



IRRIGATION •SSS 

decided to put In concrete pipe instead of the open chute; 288 ft. of bell pipe 
was made. The mix used was 1:2:3 and was reinforced with ordinary barbed 
wire, 6 rings being used to each pipe. The concrete was placed very wet and 
allowed to stay overnight in the forms which were painted with crude oil 
before every setting. The cost of the pipe making and laying was: 

Pipe making: Cost 

810 hrs. mixing and placing in forms at 25 cts $202. 50 

50 hrs. team hauling water at 50 cts 25. 00 

158 hrs. foreman oiling and setting forms at 30 cts 47. 40 

total $274. 90 

Materials : 

220 sacks cement at $2.20 per bbl $121 . 00 

33 cu. yds. sand at $4.80 158. 40 

Oil 10.00 

Barbed wire 10. 50 

Total materials $299. 90 

Total pipe $574. 80 

(This gives for 288 ft. of pipe a cost of practically $2 per lineal foot. — 
Editors.) 

The cost of laying pipe was as follows: 

292 hrs. laborers at 25 cts $73. 00 

45 hrs. foreman at 30 cts 13. 50 

Total $86. 50 

(This gives for 288 ft. a cost for laying of 30 cts. per Uneal foot. — Editors.) 
The excavation and backfilling of the trench was done with slip scrapers at a 
cost as follows: 

Item: Cost 

220 hrs. teams at 50 cts $110. 00 

160 hrs. laborers at 25 cts 40. 00 

87 hrs. foreman at 35 cts 26. 10 

Total $176. 10 

The intake of the pipe chute consists of a well 8 ft. deep by 7 ft. wide, the 
bottom 2 ft. acts as a cushion, thus giving the pipe an effective head of 6 ft. 
The pipe discharges into a concrete basin so built that the top of the pipe is 
level with the bottom of the ditch which takes out almost at right angles to the 
chute. The two structures contain 118.5 yards of concrete and cost $14.10 
per yard. 

Wooden Drops. — Owing to the difficulty of obtaining sand, it was impossible 
to complete the concrete structures in time for the irrigation season, so, 
temporary wooden drops had to be put in. The drops are very effective. 
The cost of an 8-ft. drop was: 

Materials : Cost 

4,000 ft. B.M. lumber at $22 per M $ 88. 00 

35 lbs. nails at 5 cts 1 . 75 

Total materials $ 89. 75 

Labor: 

42 hrs. carpenters at 40 cts $ 16. 80 

90 hrs. labor excavating at 25 cts 22. 50 

20 hrs. teams at 50 cts 10. 00 

Total labor $ 49. 30 

Grand total $139. 05 



586* HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Flashhoards. — All of the ditches being in cut makes it necessary to place 
diversion gates in the channel in order to divert a sufficient head into the 
laterals. For this purpose, large steel overflow gates are provided. Owing 
to the want of sand however thay could not be placed in time, and temporary 
flashboards which contain 250 ft. B. M. of lumber and cost $7.75 to build 
were used. 

Siphon Construction. — The intake and the outlet of the siphon ditch which 
takes out of the B osier Canal are two massive reinforced concrete structures. 
The floor of the intake, is 7 ft. thick reinforced top and bottom, with 1 in. 
corrugated bars spaced 12 ins. apart. The walls are 15 ins. thick reinforced 
with K-in. and ^-in. rods front and back, spaced 12 ins. and are strongly 
buttressed. The structure contains 394 cu. yds. of concrete, and 26,627 lbs. 
of steel. The concrete cost $15.88, and forms and placing steel 73^^ cts. per 
cubic yard. The gates are of the Western type, and cost $500, and the whole 
structure cost $7,249.97. 

The outlet of the siphon is a triangular shaped chamber with 200 sq. ft. of 
floor space; the east and west outlets taking out at the lower corners. The 
floor is 3 ft. thick, reinforced with }4 in. and % in. rods spaced 10 ins. The 
outlets are controlled by overflow diversion gates with three openings 
each 4 X 5 ft. The structure contains 367 cu. yds. of concrete, and 
17,727 lbs. of steel and without the gates cost $5,879.07. Forms and 
steel placing cost 86 cts. per cu. yd. and the concrete $16.01 per cu. yd. 

The 54-in. wood pipe inverted siphon is 4,939 ft. long, and is built of Oregon 
fir. The staves are 1% ins. thick and kiln dried. The shoes are of the Allen 
patent of cast iron, and the bolts 3^ in. thick are of mild steel, and 50,000 lbs. 
tensile strength. At the intake and the outlet, and also under the track,' the 
wood pipe laps over a 60-in. cast iron pipe, the joint being made by lapping 
the iron pipe with tarred oakum rope. 

All of the pipe forms, and the welding of the bands for the swelled joints 
were made on the works, the slotting of the staves which is usually done at the 
factory was also done here. The bands were painted with asphaltum on the 
pipe. The tarred rope did not make a successful joint as the tar prevented the 
rope from absorbing water and swelling; so a concrete collar was put around 
the joint, an open space 2^.X 12 ins. being left on the top of the pipe, this was 
afterwards plugged with oakum. The costs of the pipe were distributed 
as follows: 



Slotting staves: 

970 hrs. laborers at 27K cts $ 266. 75 

260 hrs. foreman at 30 cts 78. 00 

Total $ 344. 75 

Making Pipe Forms, Bells and Sills: 

'<140 hrs. carpenter at 40 cts $ 56. 00 

20 hrs. blacksmith at 25 cts 5. 00 

Total $ 61. 00 

Welding bands: 

50 hrs. blacksmith at 30 cts . $ 15. 00 

Laying pipe, cinching bands, painting bands: 

7,932 hrs. laborers at 25 cts $1 ,983. 00 

207 hrs. foremen at 30 cts 62. 10 

541 hrs. foreman at 35 cts 189. 35 

Total $2 , 234. 45 



IRRIGATION 587 

Materials used: 

163,000 ft. B.M. lumber at $31 $5,053. 00 

Bands 3 , 188. 06 

Shoes 605. 20 

Asphaltum 10. 00 

Splines 196. 00 

Oakum for iron pipe joints 20. 00 

Manhole 56. 30 

Total $9,128.56 

Hauling cost (distance 2 miles): 

Lumber $ 489. 00 

Bands 162. 75 

Shoes 60. 00 

SpUnes 4. 50 

Total. $ 716. 25 

Back filling of pipe line: 

1,101 hrs. teams at 50 cts $ 550. 50 

790 hrs. laborers at 25 cts 197. 50 

217 hrs. foreman at 35 cts 75. 95 

Estimated to complete backfilling 150. 00 

Total c $ 973. 95 

That is 4,939 ft. of pipe cost $13,473.96, or $2.70 per foot, without the 
excavation. The pipe was laid under a maximum head of 75 ft., the bands 
cost roughly about 42 cts. each, the shoes 8 cts. each. 

Cost of Spray Irrigation. — The following is an abstract in Engineering 
and Contracting, March 14, 1917, of a bulletin on Spray Irrigation issued by 
the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 

Economic Conditions Justifying Spray Irrigation. — The COSt of spray- 
irrigation systems depends upon the type installed as well as upon conditions 
peculiar to each form. A portable outfit may cost as little as $50 per acre for 
the field equipment, while a stationary distribution system may cost as much 
as $150 per acre. To these figures must be added the cost of a main pipe line 
leading from the water supply to the fields and usually the cost of developing 
a water supply and installing a pumping plant. These additional items may 
being the total outlay per acre up to two or three times the cost of the distribu- 
tion system, especially on small acreage. Assuming a cost of $250 per acre 
on a stationary plant for a small acreage, the farmer should be able to increase 
his annual returns from each acre to cover approximately the following 
charges: 

6 per cent interest on $250 $15. 00 

5 per cent depreciation on equipment 12. 50 

2 per cent maintenance and repairs 5. 00 

Cost of fuel and oil at 4 cts. per 1,000 gal. of water pumped for 6 acre- 
inches *6. 50 

Labor in irrigating, 1 man 6 days at $2 12. 00 

Total overhead and operating expenses $51. 00 

* Cost of pumping estimated for a plant operating at 50 per cent efficiency 
against a total head of 150 ft., using gasoline as fuel. The amount of water 
pumped annually is assumed at 6 acre-inches as a typical duty of water in the 
Atlantic Coast States where spray irrigation is most extensively used. More arid 
sections require larger amounts. 

It will be noted that $51 per acre per year is necessary in returns to cover 



588 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

overhead and operating expense incidental to the spray system. To reaUze 
a fair profit from the irrigation plant, the crops must increase in value some- 
thing more than $51 per acre. In the case of berry, tobacco, and orchard 
crops the increase must be derived from one main crop and a possible inter- 
crop. On the other hand, the irrigator of truck who follows intensive culture 
has a chance of dividing the annual increase among three to six crops. The 
high cost of spray irrigation eliminates its use on many crops which respond 
readily to irrigation. It is possible, however, to use cheaper methods of 
distribution on many of these crops which are grown on land having an even 
surface. A combination of spray irrigation and surface methods on the 
same farm often can be placed under one pumping plant, as illustrated in 
Fig. 14, thereby utilizing to the fullest extent the water supply, pumping 
equipment, and main pipe lines. The typical farm illustrated in Fig. 14 indi- 
cates the use of spray irrigation on the more uneven parts where the topogra- 
phy is not adapted to cheaper methods, but where the soil and southern slope 
are desirable for the growing of early and intensive truck and berry crops 
that will justify spray irrigation. The main feed pipe is extended to the upper 
and more even parts of the farm, where cheaper methods of irrigation can be 
applied to alfalfa, orchard, bush berries, potatoes, and other crops grown in 
wide rows for horse cultivation. 

Truckers in the arid sections seem to favor a combination of spray irrigation 
and surface irrigation on the same field. The spray is used in the preparation 
of the seed beds, germinating seeds, and starting newly set plants. Later the 
crops are irrigated during the maturing and fruiting periods by the surface 
furrow or check methods. A portable spray equipment often meets these 
conditions most economically, because it can also be used for the irrigation 
of hot-bed and cold-frame crops. 

Farm Conditions Adapted to Spray Irrigation. — Spray irrigation can be 
practiced to advantage on both light and heavy soils. By this method it is 
possible to apply evenly to sandy soils the small quantities of water which 
such soils will retain, without the loss of water by percolation which might 
occur with other methods. It is possible also to apply to heavy clay soils 
the small quantities of water required to soften such soils when they have 
baked after rains, and to apply water no faster than the soil can absorb it, 
thus preventing loss by surface run-off. 

Lands to be irrigated should be drained as completely as possible of excess 
moisture. Many tile-drained fields are the most responsive to crops under 
spray irrigation. 

Spray irrigation is practically independent of the topography of the field 
and can be applied to land too rolling or rough for surface methods. It is, 
therefore, adaptable to the irrigation of side hills on which soils tend to wash 
or erode. 

Amount of Water Required for Spray Irrigation. — As yet, the available 
knowledge on the amount of water required for spray irrigation is limited, 
because of the comparative newness of the methods and the lack of actual 
records on plants under a time test. In the humid regions amounts not exceed- 
ing \i in. in depth often are considered a sufficient application to seed beds 
and young vegetables, while in the case of maturing garden crops and straw- 
berries y2 to 1 in. may be apphed. It is probable that truckers in the humid 
region do not use more than 6 in. in a growing season and in many seasons 4 in 
or less will supplement the rainfall sufficiently. More water is required for 
sandy soils than for clay. A crop like the spray-irrigated citrus groves of 



IRRIGATION 589 

Florida may require as much as 3 in. per irrigation. Truck and citrus growers 
in the arid regions apply more water than those in the humid region, probably" 
because of a large evaporation loss. In the arid region the truck farmer is 
inclined to make frequent applications — every 3 or 4 days — rather than to 
apply the extra amount of water required in large applications which will 
wet below the reach of the vegetable roots, while the citrus grower applies 
from 4 to 8 in. each time. 

For spray irrigation sufficient water to cover the land to a depth of 1 in. 
per week for humid regions and 1\^ in. per week for arid regions is believed 
to be a safe estimate for designing purposes. A spray plant should be large 
enough to supply these amounts of water in a reasonable length of time. 
This is accompHshed generally by installing the system of spray from one- 
fifth to one-half of the total acreage at one time, depending somewhat 
upon the type of distribution used and the available water supply. 

All spray irrigation plants require power pumping equipment unless pres- 
sure can be supplied from an elevated source or municipal waterworks. To 
generate a spray requires a high-pressure pump producing 25 to 40 lb. pressure 
on the nozzles in addition to elevating the water to the field. 

The Designing of Spray Irrigation Systems. — Every spray irrigation system 
can be divided into three parts, which must be considered in their proper 
relation to each other in the design of a plant. First, the distribution-pipe 
system, which applies the water directly to the crops through some type of 
nozzle; second, the main feed pipe, which conveys the water from the source 
to the distributaries; third, the pumping equipment, which lifts the water 
and develops the pressure, unless the water and pressure are obtained from a 
gravity or municipal supply. 

The distribution system should be laid out to use the minimum amount of 
large pipe for both distributaries and main feed pipe. The laterals or nozzle 
lines should run in a direction which will give the least amount of obstruction 
to the cultivation of the field in the most efficient manner. The field should 
be laid off in irrigation blocks or units, a unit representing the area to be 
irrigated at one item. The unit should be of a desirable length for' the kind 
of crops to be irrigated. Where possible, it is advisable to divide the field by 
the irrigation system into blocks which will make the estimating of acreages 
easy when arriving at the amount of seed and fertilizer required or determin- 
ing yields. This is done usually by having a convenient fraction of an acre 
under each spray line or by having the crop rows a length which will make each 
rod or yard in width a known fraction of an acre. 

To keep the cost of a spray distribution system as low as possible, yet obtain 
a good uniform pressure and distribution of water, the sizes of pipes must be 
proportioned properly. Each lateral or nozzle line must be proportioned in 
size according to the number and capacity of the nozzles used. The main 
feed pipe must be proportioned to carry the total amount of water to the most 
distant irrigation unit and then be reduced in size as the water is decreased 
by each nozzle line within the irrigation unit. The water required to run 
an irrigation unit determines the capacity of the pumping equipment. 

Table XXVI is a bill of materials for the typical farm shown in Fig. 14. 
Pipe less than 2 in. in diameter can be cut in the field, hence the actual number 
of feet required is stated for such pipe. "Location" refers to the location in 
the field. Nozzle lines are assumed to be 630 ft. long on each side of the farm 
road. Pipe posts are assumed to be set 18 ft. apart, and 9 ft. long, to support 
nozzle lines Q],i ft. above the surface. 



590 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 




Fig. 14. — Typical 80-acre farm in humid regions, showing development of 
water supply by reservoir and a combination of spray and surface methods of 
irrigation operated from one pumping plant. 



IRRIGATION 



591 



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592 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Cost of Spray System of Irrigation for Lawn Sprinkling. — According Burt 
A. Heinly, Engineering News, April 11, 1912, the cost of lawn sprinkling 
which was practically eating up the annual appropriation for parks, was cut 
80 per cent by automatic sprinkling apparatus. 

The system is simple in the extreme. It is composed (Fig. 15) of pipes 
laid in radiator circuits from 12 to 15 in. beneath the ground, which supply 
stand-pipes to which sprinkler heads placed flush with the ground are attached 
at intervals of 20 ft. Experiments showed that a circle whose diameter is the 
diagonal of a 20-ft. square is about the maximum over which water can be 
distributed from a single sprinkler top. It is obvious that to irrigate any 
large area simultaneously, the supply main and radiating pipes would have to 
be of large size, else the resultant release of water from many escapes would 
so reduce the pressure as to destroy the purpose of the apparatus. The radia- 
tor system is therefore separated into circuits or series, each of which is 



...:.Areos Sprayed by Individual Tops 
' - AH c'Pipes, excepf Mains 



Union 




^ 

3A 




Feed Line 



riafera/s 2" Radiators 

I lllllll 



2 feed from Large Mains 
Double T^Qd Line 



Reducer 



('Elbow- 



'^'SprinklerTop 
\^''Shorl 
Nipple 

, J' Lateral 



Standpipes for Two Sysfems 
Fig. 15. — Spray irrigation system, Los Angeles, Cal.^ 

controlled by one or two valves, according to whether the circuit is fed from 
one or two ends. With the application of a volume of water equal to the 
discharge, the series is set in operation, the sprinkler then providing the nec- 
essary distribution in the form of a spray. 

The system was devised by Frank Shearer, superintendent of parks, and the 
installation was made in Central Square, a five acre tract near the heart of 
the retail shopping district. The park was being entirely remodeled, which 
included the stripping of the lawn, so that unusual opportunity was offered 
for the work. Here a single-feed system, controlled by one valve (Fig. 15) 
was used. The supply main is 4 in. in diameter and the circuit pipes 2 in. in 
diameter. The water pressure in the city mains is approximately 60 lbs. per 
sq. in. at this point. Three dozen sprinkler heads were attached to each 
series, which irrigates approximately 17,000 sq. ft. Eleven series are thus 
required for sprinkling the 4.3 acres of lawn area. The system cost about 
$400 per acre, installed, which is nearly double the cost of piping for hose irri- 
gation which includes the purchase of hose. 

With this system in use, it requires the time of one man for only two hours to 
do the day's sprinkling over the entire park. With irrigation by hose sprink- 



IRRIGATION 593 

ling it took two men the entire day to perform the task. At the rate of $2 per 
day for eight hours' work this is a net daily saving of $3.50 per day, or 
$1277.50 per year on this small park, where within 20 months the device 
will pay for itself. 

Selection, Installation and Cost of Small Pumping Plants for Irrigation. — 
The following discussion is given by B. A. Etchverry, Department of Irri- 
gation, University of California, in Engineering and Contracting Nov. 5, 1913. 

The proper selection of a pumping plant depends upon many factors which 
should be carefully considered by the intending purchaser. These factors are: 
(1) source of" water supply, (2) capacity of plant and period of operation, (3) 
the kind of pump, (4) the class of engine or driving power. (5) the first cost, 
(6) the fuel cost, (7) the cost of fixed charges and attendance. These factors 
are interdependent and should be considered together. Their relative impor- 
tance will vary with local conditions and for that reason it is not possible to 
state definite rules which will apply in all cases. A study of the conditions 
affecting each factor is therefore necessary in each case. 

1. Source of Water Supply. — The source of water supply may be surface 
water supply, such as water occurring in rivers, lakes, canals, etc., or may be 
ground water supply. Where surface water is available, the water will be 
developed by means of a proper intake, which for the simplest cases will con- 
sist simply of the suction pipe of the pump extending into the body of water. 
Where ground water is available the most common means of development is 
by wells. 

Wells. — The well may be a dug, bored or drilled well. The most common 
form of well for individual pumping plants in California is a drilled or bored 
well 10 to 16 ins. in diameter or larger, lined with a casing, which may be one 
of the three following types: 

(1) Standard steel screw casing; 

(2) Single galvanized iron casing. No. 12 to No. 16 gauge, with joints 
riveted together; 

(3) Double black steel casing. No. 12 to No. 16 gauge, known as California 
stovepipe casing, and very generally used in southern California. This 
casing is made of riveted steel sections 2 ft. long placed with broken joints. 
The bottom of the casing consists of a starting section 15 to 20 ft. long, made 
of triple thickness, riveted together, with a steel shoe at the lower end. 

The well and casing should extend into the water-bearing gravel sufficiently 
far to give a perforated area equal to at least five times the cross section area 
of the well. The perforations are made with an improved cutting tool, and 
consist of 6 to 8 slits made in each ring or circle; each slit 12 to 18 ins. long and 
% to ^4 in. wide. A space of 4 ins. is skipped and another ring of slits stag- 
gered with the adjacent ones is made. Slits should not be over 18 ins. long 
with stovepipe casing. 

In southern California, near Chino, the price of drilling deep wellsis as follows : 

For 10, 12 and 14-in. wells in fine material, $1.25 per foot for first 500 feet. 

For 16-in. wells in fine material, $1.50 per foot for first 500 feet. 

For depths greater than 500 ft. the price is 50 cts. extra for each additional 
foot. 

The cost per foot of steel stovepipe casing is about as follows : 

Diameter, ins.' 12 gage 14 gage 

10 $1.12 $0.92 

12. 1.27 0.99 

14 1.51 1.12 

16 1.80 1.24 

38 



594 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

2. Capacity of Plant and Period of Operation. — The required capacity of 
the plant will depend on the area irrigated, the duty of water or depth of 
water required on the land and the period of operation. For ordinary orchard 
soil a total depth of 12 ins. of water during the irrigation season will be suflB- 
cient for young orchards. For a full-bearing deciduous orchard 18 ins., and 
for a citrous orchard 24 ins. should be ample, while for alfalfa and other for- 
age crops 24 to 36 ins. is plenty. Where the cost of pumping is high, such 
as for small plants and high lifts, it will usually not be feasible to grow at 
a profit anything but orchards. To reduce the cost of pumping, no excess 
water should be used, all losses should be prevented by careful irrigation and 
thorough cultivation, in which case a young orchard on fairly deep retentive 
soil may not require more than 6 to 9 ins. of irrigation water and a full-bearing 
orchard not more than 12 or 15 ins. for deciduous trees and 18 ins. for citrus 
trees during the irrigation season. To put a depth of 2 ft. of water on one 
acre, it takes a flow of very nearly 1 cu. ft. per second for 24 hours; this is 
equivalent to 450 gals, per minute for 24 hours. This relation can be applied 
to any case to obtain the size of the pump. For example, if it is desired 
to irrigate a 40-acre orchard 1^.^ ft. deep, in an irrigation seasons of 120 days, 
this requires 60 acre feet in 120 days or y2 acre foot per day. This will be 
obtained by a pump giving li cu. ft. per second, or 110 gals, per minute, when 
the pump is operated continuously 24 hours a day every day during the irriga- 
tion season of four months. For a 10-acre orchard the required capacity 
based on the same conditions would be one-quarter of the above, or 28 gals, 
per minute, or 1/10 cu. ft. per second. 

The above two examples are based on a pump operating continuously at 
the rates given above. While continuous operation decreases the required 
size of plant, it Is usually preferable to select a plant of larger capacity and 
operate it only a part of the time. This is especially desirable for very small 
orchards, in which case continuous operation gives a stream too small too 
irrigate with. The other disadvantages of continuous operation are: 

(1) Continuous operation requires continuous irrigation and constant 
attention to operate the pumping plant. For very small tracts a regulating 
reservoir may be used, but it must be of considerable capacity to be of any 
service, and it must be lined with concrete to prevent seepage losses of the 
wateri which when pumped is too valuable to lose. Usually it is preferable 
to purchase a larger plant and do without a reservoir. 

(2) Continuous operation gives a small stream which cannot be applied 
economically. 

(3) Continuous operation means that the water cannot be applied to the 
different parts of the orchard within a short time, so that only a small part of 
the orchard or farm receives the water when most needed, and the remainder 
must be either too early or too late. 

(4) A small plant is less efficient and requires a proportionately larger fuel 
consumption than a larger plant, to pump the same quantity of water. 

On the other hand, a very short period of operation requires a comparatively 
large pumping plant, which will greatly increase the first cost of installation 
the interest on the capital invested, the depreciation and fund necessary 
to provide for renewal. It also requires a larger source of supply, which may 
not always be available. For instance, the required flow may exceed the 
capacity of the well or may so lower the water plane that the cost of pumping 
will be increased. Also in some localities the power company may offer a low 
flat rate for continuous use. 



IRRIGATION 595 

Usually it is desirable to operate the pump not over one-half or one-third 
of the time during the irrigation season and often a shorter period is desirable. 
This requires a pumping plant two or three times or more the size required 
for continuous irrigation. The capacity of the pump must be sufficient 
in all cases to give a large enough stream to irrigate economically; even for 
the smallest orchards a stream of at least 5 to 10 miner's inches or about 50 
to 100 gals, per minute is desirable. 

For a full-bearing orchard 18 ins. of irrigation water for deciduous trees 
and 24 ins. for citrus trees, applied in three to four irrigations of 6 ins. each, 
at intervals of 30 to 40 days, should be ample in most cases. As. stated above 
where the water has to be pumped to high elevation, the higher cost of the 
water demands greater care in its use and 12 to 18 ins. total depth of irrigation 
water would be sufficient. 

Table XXVII gives the required pump capacity for various sizes of orchards 
or farms and for different periods of operation. It is based on a depth of 
irrigation water of 6 ins. each month, or 18 ins. in three months, which is taken 
as the irrigation season. The period of operation is given in number of 
24-hour days that the pumping plant is operated each month. These days 
need not be consecutive; for instance, if the operation period is 10 days, instead 
of applying 6 ins. of water in one irrigation lasting 10 days, the soil may be so 
porous and gravelly that it will not retain the moisture, in which case it may 
be preferable to apply 3 ins. at a time in two irrigations during the months, 
of five days each. The required pump capacity is given in U. S. gallons per 
minute. 

The capacity of pumps for smaller or greater depths of water applied per 
month can be easily computed by proportion from the values given. For 
different areas and different periods of operation the capacity may be obtained 
by interpolation. 

Table XXVII. — Necessary Capacity op Pumps in U. S. Gallons per Minute 

TO Give a 6-inch Depth of Water on the Land Each Month When 

Operated the Following Number of 24-hour Days Each Month 

Area, acres 30 days 20 days 15 days 10 days 5 days 1 day 

5 19 28 38 56 113 563 

10 37.5 56.25 75 112.5 225 1,125 

15 57 85 113 170 340 1,690 

20 75 113 150 225 450 2,250 

30 113 160 225 338 675 3,375 

40 150 225 300 450 900 4,500 

60 226 338 450 675 1,350 6,750 

80 300 450 600 900 1 , 800 9 , 000 

120 450 675 900 1,350 2,700 13,500 

3. Kind of Pump. — The kinds of pump commonly used to raise water for 
Irrigation are: (1) centrifugal pumps, (2) power plunger pumps, (3) deep well 
pumps, (4) air lift pumps, (5) hydraulic rams. Where the source of water 
supply is a surface body of water, either a centrifugal pump, a power plunger 
pump or a hydraulic ram will be used; where the source of water supply is 
ground water developed by wells, usually either a centrifugal pump, a deep 
well pump, or an air lift pump will be used and in some cases a power plunger 
pump. For deep wells usualy the vertical centrifugal pump placed in a pit 
or an air lift pump is used. Hydraulic rams are used for small quantities of 
water such as for domestic purposes or for irrigation of small pieces of land. 
They are economical in operation, but require special conditions such as a 
nearby stream or canal with sufficient fall in a short distance. 



596 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Centrifugal Pumps. — A centrifugal pump consists of a circular casing with 
the inlet or suction end connected to the center and the outlet or discharge 
end formed tangent to the perimeter. Inside the casing is the runner or 
impeller keyed on the shaft and revolving with it. It is formed of curved 
vanes closely fitting the casing. There are two general types: First the hori- 
zontal centrifugal pump, which has a horizontal shaft; second, the vertical 
centrifugal pump with a vertical shaft. When in operation the impeller. by 
revolving imparts a velocity to the water between the vanes and forces it 
away from the center of the casing towards the perimeter of rim of the casing 
through the .outlet and up the discharge pipe. This produces a partial 
vacuum at the center of the impeller, which induces a flow through the suc- 
tion pipe into the casing. The number of revolutions of the runner or speed 
of the pump has an exact relation to the head or lift against which the pump 
is working and for every head there is a speed for which the pump works 
most efficiently. This speed can be obtained from the pump manufacturers. 
It is important that the pump be connected to an engine or motor which will 
give it the proper speed. Over-speeding is preferable to underspeeding, but 
either reduces the pump efficiency. 

Simple centrifugal pumps specially designed and driven at a sufficiently 
high rate of speed may be used for lifts considerably over 100 ft., but usually 
the stock pump obtainable from the manufacturers is not suitable for lifts 
over 75 ft., and for the smaller sizes the total lift should not exceed 50 ft. 
For higher lifts compound or multi-stage centrifugal pumps are used. These 
consist of two or more pumps connected in series, the discharge of the first 
pump or stage is delivered into the suction of the next pump and the operation 
is repeated, according to the number of stages. Usually 75 ft. to 125 ft. is 
allowed to each stage. When the required capacity of the pumps is over 
100 or 150 gals, per minute and the total lift less than 75 ft. the centrifugal 
pump is no doubt the best adapted. 

Centrifugal pumps are usually denoted by a number which represents the 
diameter of the discharge in inches. The efficient capacity of each size will 
vary to some extent with the speed of the pump, which depends on the total 
lift pumped against. The pumps can, therefore, not be rated accurately. 
The capacities given in Table XXVIII are worked out from the ratings given 
by a reliable pump manufacturer and are subject to considerable variations 
either above or below the values given. 

Table XXVIII. — Capacities of Centrifugal Pumps 

Number of acres irrigated 6 in. deep 



No. of pump 




Capacity in 


each month for operation period 


or diameter 


Capacity in 


second-feet, 




— during the month of- 




of discharge 


U. S. gallons 


or acre-inch 


30 


20 


15 


10 


5 


1 


in ins. 


per min. 


per hr. 


days days days 


days 


days 


day 


2 


100 


0.22 


27 


18 


13 


9 


4K 


OHo 


. 2>^ 


150 


0.33 


40 


27 


20 


13 


6H 


IHo 


3 


225 


0.50 


60 


40 


30 


20 


10 


2 


SH 


300 


0.66 


80 


53 


40 


27 


13 


2H 


4 


400 


0.90 


110 


71 


55 


36 


18 


^H 


5 


700 


1.60 


190 


127 


95 


63 


32 


QVs 


6 


900 


2.00 


240 


160 


120 


80 


40 


8 


7 


1 ,200 


2.70 


320 


213 


160 


107 


54 


lO^i 


8 


1,600 


3.50 


430 


287 


215 


143 


72 


UVs 



To start a centrifugal pump the suction pipe and the pump must be filled 
with water or primed. This may be done by closing the discharge pipe with a 
check valve and connecting the suction end of a hand pump to the top of the 



IRRIGATION 597 

casing. Where a steam engine is used, a steam ejector may take the place 
of the hand pump. For small pumps and low lifts a foot valve on the end of 
the suction pipe may be used and the pump primed by pouring water in the 
casing or suction pipe. The disadvantage of a foot valve is that if the water 
is not clear a small stone or twig may lodge itself in the foot valve and prevent 
priming. This will necessitate that the suction pipe be uncoupled and the 
obstruction removed. 

The pump must be placed as near as possible to the water level to keep the 
suction lift down. While theoretically the suction lift may be as great as 
33 ft. at sea level and about 30 ft. at an elevation of 3000 ft., it is desirable not 
to exceed 20 ft., and less is preferable. The horizontal centrifugal pump is 
preferable where the depth from the ground surface to the water plane is not 
large. But where the depth is large, it is necessary to place the pump in a 
deep pit, in which case either the vertical centrifugal pump or a deep well 
pump is generally used. A horizontal shaft centrifugal pump is usually more 
efficient than a vertical centrifugal, and it eliminates the end thrust of the 
shaft obtained with the vertical shaft which is difficult to balance properly. 
During the past few years a new type of vertical centrifugal, commonly 
named turbine centrifugal pump, has been developed for pumping from deep 
wells without the necessity of a pit. These pumps are installed inside the 
casing of bored wells 12 to 30 ins. in diameter. 

The plant efficiency can be increased by reducing the friction in the suction 
and discharge. As few bends as possible should be used and those should be 
made by using long turn elbows. The suction and discharge pipes should b^ 
larger than the intake and outlet openings of the pumps and joined to the 
pump with an increaser. The diameter of the suction pipe and especially 
of the discharge pipe should be 1>^ times the diameter of the intake, and 
if the discharge pipe is long it may be economy to make the diameter even 
larger. Where the source of water supply is a surface body of water, enlarging 
the lower end of the suction pipe will further decrease the friction. This 
may be done by a funnel-shaped section whose length is about three times the 
diameter of the suction pipe and whose large end is about iy2 times the 
diameter of the pipe. The larger opening at the entrance to the suction pipe 
will decrease the tendency to suck up sand or gravel. When the water carries 
weeds, gravel or other material a strainer should be used and the total area of 
the strainer should be at least twice the area of the suction pipe. The dis- 
charge pipe should not carry the water any higher than necessary. 

Power Piston or Plunger Pumps. — This type' of pump is used where the water 
is obtained from a surface source or where the water plane is near the surface 
of the ground and the lift to the point of delivery is large. It consists of one 
or more cylinders, in each one of which a piston or plunger moving backwards 
and forwards sucks the water into the cylinder and forces it up the discharge 
pipe. When the cylinder has only one suction valve and one discharge 
valve, the motion of the piston in one direction causes suction and the dis- 
placement in the opposite direction forces the water through the discharge 
pipe. With two sets of valves so arranged that there is a discharge for each 
displacement of the piston, the pump is known as a double acting pump. 
When the pump has two cylinders,* it is known as a duplex pump, with three 
cylinders it is a triplex pump, and in either case may be either double acting 
or single acting. The cylinders with the driving gears or pulleys are assembled 
together and built at a height above the water plane, which must not exceed 
the suction lift. 



598 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The capacity of the pump will depend on the diameter of the cylinder, the 
length of the stroke of the piston, and the number of strokes or revolutions per 
minute. The capacities of a few sizes of double acting, single piston pumps, 
single acting triplex pumps and of double acting duplex pumps are as follows: 

Capacity of Double Acting, Single Piston Pump 



Diameter 




Revolutions 




of water 


Length of 


or strokes 


U. S. ga 


cylinder ins. 


stroke, ins. 


per min. 


per min 


3 


5 


40 


12.4 


4 


5 


40 


21.6 


5 


5 


40 


34 


6 


6 


40 


58 


7 


6 


40 


80 


8 


6 


40 


104 


Capacity of 


Single Acting, 


Triplex Piston 


Pump 


3 


4 


50 


18 


4 


4 


50 


32 


4 


6 


50 


50 


5 


6 


50 


76 


5 


8 


45 


91 


6 


8 


45 


131 


7 


8 


45 


180 


7 


10 


42 


210 


8 


10 


40 


270 


8 


12 


40 


310 


9 


10 


40 


340 


Capacity 


OF Double Acting, Duplex Pumps 


2H 


4 


75 


20 


3 


4 


75 


36 


33^ 


6 


60 


58 


4 


6 


60 


78 


5 


6 


60 


120 


6 


6 


60 


174 


5 


10 


50 


170 


6 


10 


50 


245 


7 


10 


50 


334 


8 


12 


50 


522 


9 


12 


50 


660 



The sizes of pumps and the capacities vary with the different manufac- 
turers. The values stated above show the approximate range of the different 
sizes. For small capacities the double acting single piston pump may be used. 

Deep Well Pumps. — These pumps are used where the water plane it at 
large depths below the ground surface. A deep well pump consists of a brass 
cylinder in which operate two plungers with valves. The lower plunger is 
connected to a solid rod which fits into a hollow rod to which the upper 
piston is connected. The plungers are so operated by the driving power that 
the pump is double acting, one plunger moving up while the other moves 
downwards, so that there is a continuous discharge. Above the cyhnder and 
connected to it is the vertical discharge or column pipe into which discharges 
the water passing through the valves in the plunger. The cylinder is about 
2 ins. smaller in diameter than the well casing and the delivery pipe about 1 in. 
less; the cylinder and delivery pipe are both lowered into the well until the 
plungers are under water. At the surface the driving power and circular 
motion of the belt of the engine is transmitted to the driving rods by means of 
gears and levers combined into a power head designed to produce overlapping 
strokes, so as to eliminate to some extent the pulsations which are further 
decreased by an air chamber. The sizes range from 6-in. cylinders and 



IRRIGATION 599 

28-in. stroke to 16-in. cylinders and 36-in. stroke. The number of strokes 
ranges from 16 to 24 per minute, depending on the Hft and the size. The 
maximum Uft is 350 ft. The capacity ranges from about 115 gals, per minute 
to a maximum of 1000 gals, for the largest pump with extra long cylinder. 
Air Lift Pumping Plants. — Air lift or compressed air pumping plants consist 
of one or more air lift pumps. The air compressor with receiver and motive 
power and the necessary piping to deliver. the compressed air from the receiver 
to the pumps. Each pump consists of: (1) the discharge pipe, which is smaller 
than the well casing and is placed inside of it, extending below the water sur- 
face to a depth equal to IH to 2 times the lift measured from the water sur- 
face; (2) the air pipe, which is usually inside the discharge pipe, but may, if the 
well is enough larger than the discharge pipe to so permit, be placed outside 
and connected at the lower end of the discharge pipe by means standard 
fittings or special castings ; (3) the foot piece, which is a special casting connect- 
ed to the lower end of the air pipe and so designed to admit the air evenly in 
small bubbles. There are various designs of patented foot pieces, but there 
is little difference in their efficiency; (4) the tail piece which forms a slightly 
enlarged extension of the lower end of the discharge pipe below the foot 
piece. The air is delivered through the foot piece at pressures varying accord- 
ing to the lift and the ratio of diameters between air pipe and water pipe, 
and its expansion and displacement produces the lifting power. The relation 
between the volume of air supplied and the volume of water pumped for 
different lifts has been found by experiment to be as follows: 

Head in feet , 

_, ^. Cubic feet of air 
Ratio ; 



10 


20 


30 


50 


100 


.0 


1.5 


2.0 


2.5 


3.0 



Cubic feet of water 

The velocity of water in the discharge pipe, based on the volume of water 
pumped should not exceed 5 ft. per second in order to keep down friction 
losses. 

The compressor may be direct connected to a steam engine or gasoline 
engine or may be connected by means of belts, gears, etc., to the driving 
power which may be a steam engine, a gasoline engine or electric motor. The 
compressed air passes from the air cylinder to the receiver, which is used to 
store the air and equalize the pressure. From the receiver the air is conducted 
through pipes to each well. 

The efficiency of the plant when properly installed as calculated from the 
ratio of actual water horse-power to the indicated horsepower in the cylinder 
of the engine is generally between 20 and 30 per cent. Air lifts are best 
adapted for pumping from several wells not farther apart than one-half mile 
and where the wells are sufficiently deep to allow proper submergence. 

Hydraulic Rams. — The hydraulic ram works on the principle that a large 
volume of water failing through a low head will pump a smaller volume of 
water through a higher head. The ram consists of the valve box and air 
vessel, the supply or drive pipe which connects the valve box with the source 
of supply and the delivery or discharge pipe which connects the air vessel 
with the point of delivery. The efficiency of the plant is ^ = qh/QH where 
q = volume of discharge water, h = discharge head in feet above ram, 
Q = volume of drive water, H = drive head in feet. For best results the 
ratio of the length of drive pipe to the length of drive head should not exceed 
2.5; but it is practicable to increase this ratio to 25 and use a drive pipe 1000 
ft. long. The delivery head may be anything up to about 250 ft. and the 



600 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

drive head anything above 18 ins. The efficiency diminishes as the ratio of 
delivery to drive head increases. With this ratio as great as 30 to 1 the effi- 
ciency will not be over 20 per cent; with a ratio not greater than 4 to 1 the 
efficiency may be as high as 75 per cent. Rankine gives the following equa- 
tion to determine the efficiency for varying ratios of drive head to discharge 



head: E = 1.12 



-Wi- 



Hydraulic rams are usually limited to small quantities of water. A notable 
example of a large plant for irrigation purposes is one installed at Sunnyside, 
Wash., for the irrigation of 240 acres of land. The plant was installed by the 
Columbia Steel Works of Portland, Ore., and consists of eleven 6-in. rams, 
with a common discharge cylinder emptying into a 10-in. wood stave discharge 
pipe. The plant is used to irrigate 150 acres under 105 ft. lift and 90 acres 
under 144 ft. lift. The lifts are measured from rams. The drive head is 38 ft. 
and the drive water 5 sec. ft. The plant was furnished under guarantee to 
deliver .75 sec. ft. at higher outlet. The cost of plant is as follows: 

Eleven 6-in. rams and 3,212 ft. of wrought iron drive pipe $3,200 

1,900 ft. of 10-in. wood discharge pipe. . .• 608 

Installation, complete 2 , 000 

Total cost $5 , 808 

No maintenance except two visits per day to clear weeds out. 
An efficiency test'gave the following results: H = 37.6; /i = 144.1; Q = 6.25; 
q = 1.15 

^ 1.15 X 144.1 ^ 
6.26 X 37.6 

Adaptability of the Several Types of Pumps for Small Pumping Plants. — 
Where the source of water supply is a stream or surface body of water, the 
choice is usually between a power pump and a centrifugal pump and will 
.depend largely on the lift and capacity. Power pumps are best adapted to 
high heads above 75 ft. and to small or moderate volumes of water, usually 
under 200 gals, per minute. For these conditions the efficiency of a power 
pump is usually greater than that of a centrifugal pump. For greater volumes 
the plunger pumps are comparatively expensive and centrifugal pumps are 
usually preferable unless the lift is excessive. The centrifugal pump has the 
advantage that it is simple in construction with no parts to get out of order, 
and that it is cheaper than a power pump. 

Where the source of water supply is ground water with the water table in the 
well at a depth below the surface not much greater or less than the limit of 
suction lift, so that a deep pit is not necessary, then the choice is between a 
centrifugal pump, a power pump and an air lift pump. The selection between 
the centrifugal and power pump will depend on a consideration of lift and 
capacity as explained above. Air lift plants have low efficiency, require a 
depth of well below the water table equal to about twice the lift measured 
from the water table and are hardly to be considered in connection with sepa- 
rate small pumping plants. They are best adapted to a large number of wells 
(at least six or preferably more) placed close together. 

Where the source of water is ground water developed by deep wells with the 
water table at a large depth below the surface (50 to 200 ft. or more) the 
choice is between a vertical centrifugal pump in a pit and a deep well pump 
which eliminates the pit. Deep well pumps are best adapted where the lift is 
In excess of 100 or 150 ft. and for wells that do not yield more than about 400 



IRRIGATION 601 

gals, per minute. Their efficiency is greater than that of centrifugal pumps, 
but the cost of repairs and depreciation is greater. 

The selection should be made only after careful consideration of the first 
cost of the pump and the annual cost of fuel, operation and maintenance. 
Where the lift is high, the fuel cost will be considerable and it is good economy 
not to select the cheapest pump obtainable, but one that is guaranteed for its 
efficiency. On the other hand, if the pump is to be operated only during a 
very small portion of the season, it would be poor economy to invest a large 
capital in a high-grade pumping plant to save in fuel cost. 

4. Classes of Engines or Driving Power. Methods of Connection of Pump 
with Engine. — The driving power is generally either gasoline engine, steam 
engine, or electric motor. 

Centrifugal pumps are usually either direct connected (except for varying 
low heads) or connected by means of belt, gears, or chains. Power pumps are 
connected by belts or gears. Direct connection is preferable when possible; 
it is more efficient and eliminates the adjustment of belt or chain necessary 
with belt or chain driven pumps. The connection of these pumps and driving 
power must be such that the pumps will be given the speed or number of 
revolutions per minute for which they are designed and for which the highest 
efficiency is obtained. For this reason direct • connection can only be used 
where the driving power and the pump have the same speed. The speed of 
centrifugal pumps is usually high; so is that of electric motors; and for this 
reason they can, if properly designed, be direct connected. This is done 
usually by means of a flexible coupling. Gasoline and steam engines are 
generally operated at a much lower speed than centrifugal pumps, and for that 
reason are not direct connected unless the engine and pump are specially 
designed. This is done by some manufacturers. Power plunger pumps 
are operated at a low speed, and for that reason are not direct connected to the 
driving power. When connected by gears, belts or chains, the driving gear 
and driven gear, or the driving pulley and driven pulley jnust be so propor- 
tioned that the pump will be given its correct speed. When a plunger pump' 
is built with steam engine in a single machine, with the piston or plunger of the 
water cylinder on the same driving rod as the piston of the steam cylinder, 
it is called a direct acting steam pump. The fuel consumption of a steam 
pump is greater than that of a steam driven power pump and for that reason 
steam pumps are not considered. 

Deep well pumps are usually equipped with gears and levers combined and 
connected with the driving rods of the pump, forming what is called the pump 
head, the object of which is to convert and transmit the circular motion of the 
driving power to the driving rods of the pump. The engine or motor is usually 
connected to the pump head by belts, but may be connected by means of gears. 
In some cases steam heads are provided in the place of the pump head. 

Capacity of Engine. — The power necessary to life water is indicated in 
horsepowers. A horse power represents the energy required to lift 33,000 
lbs. 1 ft. high in one minute; this is equivalent to 3960 gals, of water per minute 
raised 1 ft. high. This relation enables one to find the net horsepower required 
in any case by multiplying the discharge of the pump in gallons per minute 
by the total lift in feet and dividing by 3960. The result obtained represents 
the useful water horsepower necessary to lift the water. The horsepower 
delivered by the engine to the belt or gears when the pump is belted or geared 
to the engine, or to the pump itself when direct connected is the brake horse- 
power, and must be greater than the useful water horse power to allow for the 



602 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

loss of energy in the pump and transmisson. The horsepower developed 
within the engine itself is the indicated horsepower, and must be greater than 
the brake horsepower to allow for the energy loss in the engine itself. Gasoline 
engines and motors are rated on brake horsepower, but gasoline engines are 
frequently over-rated. Steam engines are rated on indicated horsepower. 
The combined eflQciency of a pumping plant represents the ratio of the 
useful water horsepower, to the rated horsepower of the engine, and will vary 
considerably with the type of pump, method of connection of engine with 
pump and the care taken in opeiating both pump and engine at the proper 
speed. In ordinary field practice a good pumping plant, properly installed, 
should easily reach the efficiency given in Table XXIX : 

Table XXIX. — Efficiency of Centrifugal Pumping Plants and Brake 
Horsepower Per Foot of Lift 

No. cen- Discharge, Water 

trifugal U. S. gals. h.p. per Efficiency, Brake h.p. 

pump per min. ft. of lift pet. per ft. Hft 

2 100 .025 30 .081 

2H 150 .038 35 .11 

3 225 .057 40 .14 

33^ 300 .08 45 .18 

4 400 .10 45 .22 

5 700 .17 50 .34 

6 900 .23 50 .46 

7 1,200 .31 50 .62 

8 1,600 .41 55 .75 

The efficiency of power plunger pumps varies with the size of the pump and 
with the lift. A greater efficiency is obtained with the higher lifts and with the 
larger sizes. The efficiencies of properly installed plunger pumps and the 
horsepower for various lifts are given in Table XXX. 

Table XXX. — Brake Horsepower Required to Operate Plunger Pumps 

Diam- 
eter of Length of Capacity in 

cylinder stroke U. S. gals. — Efficiency and brake hp. for lifts of — 

ins. ins. per min. 50 ft. 100 ft. 150 ft. 200 ft. 250 ft. 



3 4 18 

4 4 32 

4 6 50 

5 6 76 

5 8 90 

6 8 131 

7 8 180 

7 10 210 

8 10 270 

9 10 340 



fE. 0.30 0.40 0.42 0.45 0.45 

iHp. 0.75 1.1 1.6 2.0 2.5 

fE. 0.35 0.50 0.60 0.65 0.65 

Hp. 1.2 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.1 

fE. 0.35 0.50 0.60 0.65 0.65 

IHp. 1.9 2.5 3.1 4.0 4.8 

fE. 0.40 0.55 0.65 0.70 0.70 

IHp. 2.4 3.5 4.4 5.5 6.7 

[E. 0.40 0.55 0.65 0.70 0.72 

, Hp. 2.8 4.1 5.2 6.5 7.8 

^E. 0.45 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.72 

iHp. 3.6 5.5 7.5 9.3 11.4 

fE. 0.45 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.72 

iHp. 5.0 7.5 10.5 13.0 15.5 

fE. 0.50 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.78 

iHp, 5.25 8.0 11.0 14.0 17.0 

fE. 0.50 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.78 

IHp. 6.75 10.25 14.50 18.25 22.1 

IE. 0.50 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.78 

[Hp. 8.5 13.0 18.0 23.0 28.0 



The plant efficiency of deep well pumping plants as ordinarily installed and 
operated was found from measurements made in a number of pumping plants 
In southern Cahfornia to be from 35 to' 55 per cent. With proper installation 
and operation the plant efiaciency or ratio between useful water horsepower 
and brake horsepower should be from 50 to 65 per cent. 



IRRIGATION 603 

The plant efficiency of air lift pumps expressed as the ratio between the 
useful water horsepower and the indicated horsepower in the engine cylinder 
was found from test on a number of such plants in southern California to 
average a little less than 20 per cent. 

Type of Engine. — Tables XXIX and XXX will give the size of the engine. 
The driving power must be either a gasoline engine, steam engine, or electric 
motor. The methods of connecting the engine with the pump have been 
already considered. Other factors being equal direct connection is preferable 
when possible. 

For small plants irrigating a few acres, the steam engine, although very 
reliable, is not so commonly used as the gasoline engine except where coal or 
oil is very cheap as compared to gasoline. However, for larger areas and 
where coal or oil is cheap, it may be cheaper than either a gasoline 
engine or electric motor. For large plants operated continuously it may 
be economy to install an efficient boiler and a high grade compound 
condensing, triple expansion, or quadruple expansion, steam engine, in 
order to decrease the fuel cost. For small plants operated only for short 
periods during the irrigation season it is much more important to decrease 
the cost of installation. The interest on the capital invested and the depre- 
ciation of the plant are very important items of cost as compared to the 
fuel cost. For these reasons, unless the acreage is large and the lift very 
high, the steam plant will consist of a semi-portable locomotive type boiler 
and an ordinary slide valve steam engine. 

5. First Cost of Plant. — The first cost of a pumping plant depends on the 
grade of machinery, the cost of transportation, the expense of installation. 
Because of these factors accurate estimates of cost cannot be given. However, 
the approximate cost values given below in Tables XXXI, XXXII and 
XXXIII will be of value to the land owner who is considering the feasibility 
of a pumping plant. The values given represent the prices at the factory and 
do not include transportation and installation. 



Table XXXI. — Approximate 


Cost 


OF Single 


Stage 


Centrifugal Pump 


No. of pump 


Capacity 


in gals. 


per min. 


Cost 


2 






100 






$ 42 


23^ 






150 






51 


3 






225 






57 


SH 






300 






65 


4 






400 






75 


5 






700 






85 


6 






900 






115 


7 




1 


,200 






145 


8 




1 


,600 






170 



The cost of two step centrifugal pumps of the same sizes will be about four 
times the values given above. 

Table XXXII. — Approximate Cost of Triplex Single Acting Power 

Pump 



Diameter of 


Length of 


Capacity in 


Height of 




water cylinder stroke in ins. 


gals 


per min. 


lift, ft. 


Cost 


4 


8 




65 


75 to 100 


$17- 


5 


10 




130 


100 


250 


5 


12 




220 


100 


340 


4 


6 




48 


175 


. 225 


5 


8 




91 


175 


325 


7 


8 




180 


175 


450 


8 


10 




270 


175 


700 


8 


12 • 




310 


175 


750 



604 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Table XXXIII. — Approximate Cost of Electric Motors Gasoline Engines 
AND Simple Slide Valve, Non-condensing Steam Engines, with Loco- 
motive Boiler and Auxiliaries 





Cost of electric 








motors, 1,200 rev. 


Cost of gasoline 


Cost of steam 


Horsepower 


per minute 


engines 


engines 


2 


$ 70 






3 


85 






5 


110 


$'*375 


i' * 500 


10 


200 


550 


625 


15 


230 


700 


800 


20 


320 


850 


925 


25 


360 


1,000 


1,000 


30 




1,200 


1,200 


40 


'450 


1,600 


1,350 



Cost of Accessories and Installation. — The costs given in Tables XXXI, 
XXXII and XXXIII are for the pumps and engines, and do not include the 
accessories, the foundation, the labor of installation, and the housing. For an 
electric plant the cost of transformers should be added unless these are supplied 
by the electric company. The accessories will include the suction and dis- 
charge pipes, the valves and fittings, the priming pump, the connection 
between pump and engine. The suction pipe is usually made of steel; the 
discharge pipe may be steel or wood banded pipe and should cost delivered as 
given in table XXXIV. 



Table XXXIV.- 


—Cost 


op Pipes Safe 


FOR 


150 Feet Head 








Cost per foot of wood 


Coat 


per foot of steel 


Diameter of pipe 


inches 




banded pipe 






pipe 


4 








$ .20 






$ .30 


6 








.30 






.50 


8 








.40 






.80 


10 








.55 






1.10 


12 








.65 






1.35 


14 








.75 






1.60 


16 








.95 






2.00 


18 








1.10 






2.50 


20 








1.44 






3.00 



For a rough estimate the total cost of valves, priming pump, all fittings and 
suction pipe, but not discharge pipe, may be taken as about 10 per cent of the 
cost of pump and engine for a gasoline or steam plant and 20 per cent for an 
electric plant. The cost of installation should not exceed 5 per cent. The 
cost of a building to house the plant will range from about $25 for a small plant 
to $100 or more for a larger plant. The cost of transportation and hauling 
will depend on the railway charge and on the distance from the station to 
point of installation. 

6. Fuel Consumption and Fuel Cost. — The selection between a steam engine, 
gasoline engine and an electric motor will depend to some extent on the 
comparative cost of coal, gasoline and eletrical energy. 

A gasoline engine is usually guaranteed for a fuel consumption of }4 gal. 
per rated or brake horsepower per hour. A new engine well adjusted will 
come up to this efficiency, but an engine that has been operated some time 
will consume about }4 gal. of engine gasoline or distillate per brake horsepower 
per hour. 

The fuel consumption of a steam engine will vary greatly on the type of 
boiler and engine. A small slide valve non-condensing engine under 25 hp. 



IRRIGATION 605 

win use probably 50 to 60 lbs. of steam per brake horsepower per hour. A 
locomotive type of boiler should give 5 or 6 lbs. of steam for 1 lb. of coal or 
about 0.6 lb. of oil. Therefore, a small steam engine under 25 hp. should 
consume 10 lbs. of coal per brake horsepower per hour or about 6 lbs. of oil. 
Steam engines of the same type from 30 to 50 hp. will consume from 8 to 5 
lbs. of coal per brake horsepower per hour or from 5 to 3 lbs. of oil. 

Electrical energy is measured in kilowatts. A killowatt is equal to 13^ hp., 
but because of the loss of energy in the motor, 1 kilowatt will usually give 
about 1.1 brake horsepower. Based on this figure 1 brake horsepower hour 
is equal to %o of a kilowatt hour. 

The above values show that to produce 1 brake horsepower per hour requires 
either y& gal. of distillate, about 10 lbs. of coal, or 6 lbs. of oil, or ^o of a 
kilowatt hour. Based on these figures Table XXXV shows the cost of fuel 
per brake horsepower per hour for several equivalent cost values of fuel. In 
the table is also given the fuel cost of pumping one acre foot of water through 
one foot of lift, assuming plant efficiency of 50 per cent and 75 per cent. 

Table XXXV 



-Equivalent unit costs of fuel Fuel cost (in cents )- 



Cost of Per acre foot of 

Gasoline, Crude oil electric. Per brake water lifted 1 foot high 

cents per bbl. Coal per cents per hp. per 50 per cent 75 per cent 

per gal. (335 lbs.) ton K.W. hour hour efl&ciency efficiency 

6 $ .55 $2.00 1.00 2.75 1.83 

8 .75 2.66 .... 1.33 3.70 2.45 

10 .93 3.33 1.85 1.66 4.60 3.05 

12 1.12 4.00 2.22 2.00 5.50 3.65 

14 1.30 4.66 2.60 2.33 6.40 4.25 

16 1.50 5.33 3.00 2.66 7.30 4.90 

18 1.67 6.00 3.33 3.00 8.25 5.50 

20 1.85 6.66 3.70 3.33 9.15 6.10 

22 2.05 7.33 4.10 3.66 10.10 6.70 

24 2.25 8.00 4.35 4.00 11.00 7.35 

26 2.42 8.66 4.80 4.33 11.80 7.95 

7. Fixed Charges and Attendance, A. Fixed Charges. — The cost of installa- 
tion represents a capital which if invested would bring in an income repre- 
sented by the interest. It is therefore necessary to consider this interest as 
part of the cost of operation. To this should be added the annual cost of repairs 
maintenance and renewal. These items of cost represent the fixed charges. 
After six or eight years a gasoline engine may need to have its cylinder 
rebored and a new piston provided, the cost of which is about one-fourth 
the cost of a new engine. With ordinary care the life of a gasoline engine 
may be taken as 10 years; the life of an electric motor about 15 to 20 years. 
The fixed charges on the entire plant may be taken as follows : 

GasoHne Steam 

engine Electric engine plant 

plant plant (small) 

Depreciation and renewal 8% 5% 8% 

Repairs and maintenance 3 1 2 

Interest 6 6 6 

17% 12% 1%% 

B, Attendance. — An electric motor requires a minimum of attendance, 
small gasoline plants require frequent inspection, and steam engines require 
considerable attention and usually cannot be economically used for small 



606 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

plants operated during short periods. The cost of attendance for an electric 
motor pumping plant should not exceed 5 cts. per hour, for a gasoline engine 
plant 10 cts. per hour, and for a steam engine plant 30 cts. per hour. While 
electric motors and gasoline engines are usually operated by the orchardist 
or irrigator, his time is valuable and a charge should be made for it. 

8. Final Selection of Type of Plant. — The final selection of a pumping 
plant should be based on a careful consideration of the factors stated above. 
The best size of plant, the period of operation, the kind of engine or driving 
power, can only be correctly determined by a final consideration of a cost 
of installation and cost of operation. Where electric power is available, the 
choice is between a steam engine, a gasoline engine and an electric motor. 
The electric motor requires minimum attendance. It is reliable and its 
first cost is much less than that of a gasoline or steam engine. For these 
reasons if electric power is available, an electric motor is preferable and 
will prove far more economical even should the cost of electrical energy be 
higher than the fuel cost for a gasoline or steam engine. 

The application of the above information and cost data to any particular 
case is illustrated by the following examples : 

A 20-acre orchard is to be irrigated by pumping from a surface body of 
water requiring no wells. The quantity to be applied is 6 ins. per month, and 
the total depth in one season 18 ins. The lift is 50 ft. and the discharge pipe 
200 ft. long. Engine gasoline or distillate costs 12 cts. per gallon. Assuming 
the pump is operated one-third of the time or ten 24-hour days each month, 
this will require a pump capacity of 225 gals, per minute, which is obtained 
with a No. 3 centrifugal pump and 7 hp. engine. The discharge pipe will be 
4 ins. in diameter. The first cost and total cost of operation will be about as 
follows: 

First Cost of Plant 

No. 3 centrifugal pump $ 57 

7 hp. gasoline engine 450 

Priming pump, suction pipe, fittings, etc 50 

Freight charges and hauling 30 

Wood banded discharge pipe, 200 ft. of 4-in 40 

Installation, 5 per cent of cost 35 

Building to house plant 40 

Total cost $702 

Total Annual Cost op Operation 

Fuel cost of 7 brake hp. engine for 3 periods of 10 days each 

or 720 hours = 720 X 7 X 0.02 $100 

Fixed charges at 17 per cent of first cost 120 

Attendance, 720 hours at 10 cts 72 

Total cost for 20 acres $292 

Cost per acre, $15. 

Where electric power is obtainable, the first cost of plant and annual cost 
of operation for same conditions, assuming the unit cost of electric power to be 
3 cts. per kilowatt hour, would be: 

First cost of plant $375 

Total cost of operation (annual) 215 

Cost of operation per acre 11 

Tables XXXV and XXXVI show the first costs of gasoline engine pumping 
plants and the costs of operation for orchards of 20, 40 and 80 acres for lifts 



IRRIGATION 607 

of 50 ft. and 150 ft., and for different periods of operation. For the higher 
lifts single acting triplex pumps are used. The costs given are based on gaso- 
line at 12 cts. a gallon, for a depth of irrigation of 18 ins. for the lower lift and 
depths of 18 ins. and 12 ins. for the higher lift, it being assumed that by careful 
use of water, if the soil is retentive, 12 ins. may be sufficient. The discharge 
pipe is assumed to be 200 ft. long. 

Table XXXVI. — Cost of Pumping with Gasoline Engines and Centri- 
fugal Pumps for 50-foot Lift, Gasoline 12 Cents a Gallon 

Annual cost of operating per acre; 
-18 ins., depth of water applied- 



l 


c8 ^ 


3 

•si 


ft 


S3 


'^% 




S 
^ 




S 




ft 

< 


ill 




O 

1 

us 


o 
'^ S 

O C3 










1 


3 

o 


20 


53-^ 


400 


4 


12 


$ 970 


$4.80 


$8.25 


$1 


.90 


$14.95 




10 


225 


3 


7 


700 


5.10 


6.00 


3 


.60 


14.70 




20 


113 


2 


5 


590 


7.00 


5.00 


7 


.20 


19.20 


40 


5 


900 


6 


25 


1,575 


4.50 


6.70 




.90 


12.10 




11 


400 


4 


12 


970 


4.80 


4.10 


2 


.00 


10.90 




20 


225 


3 


7 


700 


5.10 


3.00 


2 


.60 


11.70 


80 


10 


900 


6 


25 


1.575 


4.50 


3.35 




.90 


8.85 




22 


400 


4 


12 


970 


4.80 


2.05 


2 


.00 


8.85 



Table XXXVII. — Cost of Pumping with Gasoline Engines and Single 
Acting Triplex Pumps for 150-foot Lift 

' Annual cost of operation per acre for a 
depth or irrigation, water of: 
-^ 18 inches 12 ins. 



03 'd 


ft5 


















a"5 
















;3 fl 
















^a 


^"a 


«^-H 
















^«3 


o 

1 

o 


11 




1 


O 
C3 








TO 1—1 

5o 




^1 






1 

< 


1 


li 
g 


^yi 


270 


15 


$1,850 


$ 9. 90 


$15.75 


$3.00 $28.65 $24.35 


12>^ 


180 


10 


1,375 


9.90 


11.70 


4.50 


26.10 


21.30 


25 


90 


6 


1,025 


10.90 


8.70 


9.00 


28. 60 


22.00 


13M 


340 


18 


2,200 


8.70 


9.35 


2.40 


20.45 


16.75 


16% 


270 


15 


1,850 


9.90 


7.90 


3.00 


20.80 


16.50 


25 


180 


10 


1,375 


9.90 


5.85 


4.50 


20.25 


15.45 


263^ 


340 


18 


2,200 


8.70 


4.70 


2.40 


15.80 


12.10 



20 
40 
80 

The capacities of pumps, especially plunger pumps, and the sizes of engines 
vary with the different makes, and for that reason the sizes given are not 
always obtainable, but sizes approximating these can be used in place. 

The above cost estimates are only approximate. They are based on the 
conditions stated above and are not applicable to all cases because of the 



608 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

varying conditions which make the installation of nearly every pumping plant 
a special problem. The estimates are made for gasoline engines and are con- 
siderably higher than for electric motors. The first example showed that with 
an electric plant the cost of pumping was only 73 per cent of the cost with a 
gasoline plant. The tabulated values show the following interesting results: 

(1) The cost per acre of pumping is much larger for a small area than for a 
large area. 

(2) The cost per acre does not vary considerably with the period of opera- 
tion, and in some cases a plant moderately large operating for a shorter period 
will cost less per acre than a smaller plant operating a longer period. This is 
due to the lower fuel cost with the larger and more efficient plant and the 
decreased cost of attendance for the shorter period of operation which over- 
balance the larger fixed charges. Even should the resulting cost be smaller 
for the smaller plant, the inconvenience due to pumping for a long period and 
the extra labor in irrigation may overbalance the saving in cost. 

(3) For the lifts assumed a period of operation equal to about ten 24-liour 
days during the month of one-third of the time during the irrigation season 
seems to be preferable with the centrifugal pump. With the higher price 
triplex plunger pumps a period of operation of one-third to two-thirds of the ■ 
time is preferable. 

Co-operative Pumping. — The lower cost per acre for larger areas shows the 
advantage to be gained by co-operation between small owners. By uniting 
and installing a large plant instead of several smaller plants, the cost of install- 
ation and operation is very much reduced, and the plant can be given more 
competent attention, which relieves the orchardist and increases the life of 
the plant. Where by such co-operation several hundred acres can be brought 
together, a central steam plant to generate electric power, which is transmitted 
to the several electric motor pumping plants, is the most economical and best 
solution. 

For separate plants above 20 or 40 hp., gas producer plants connected to gas 
engines will furnish the cheapest power. These plants are reliable and easily 
operated. They consist of the producer in which hard coal is placed and 
through a process of partial combustion, in the presence of air and steam, 
forms the gas which operates the engine. Gas producers operated on hard 
or anthracite coal have been in successful operation for a number of years, 
and those operated on soft or bituminous coal and on oil are coming into use, 
but are still in the experimental stage. The fuel consumption is very low, 
usually from 1 to 3^ lbs. of coal or K to IM gals, of crude oil per horsepower for 
one hour; or >^ to % ct. per horsepower for one hour with hard coal at $10 
per ton and about H ct. with oil at 2 cts. a gallon. This is from 2^ to 6 times 
less than the fuel cost with gasoline at 12 cts. a gallon. Producer gas plants 
are much expensive than gasoline engines and for small plants the fuel economy 
will be overbalanced by the larger interest and depreciation charges. For 
very large single plants, high duty steam engines will be the most economical 
form of installation. 

Limits of Economical Pumping. — The cases previously worked out for gaso- 
line engine pumping plants show that for small tracts of 20 to 80 acres the 
cost of lifting sufficient water to give a depth of irrigation water of 18 ins. 
will range for a lift of 50 ft. from about $8.85 per acre for the larger area to 
about $15 per acre for the smaller area, and for lifts of 150 ft. the respective 
costs are about $15 and $25 per acre. These costs may seem high as compared 
with gravity water, but to obtain an idea of the economy and feasibility of 



IRRIGATION 609 

developing water by pumping, comparisons must be made with the value of 
gravity irrigation water in the same conditions. Except in southern Cali- 
fornia, up to a few years ago gravity water without pumping has been 
obtainable. For that reason pumping has not been necessary, and compara- 
tively few pumping plants have been constructed. However, water is 
becoming more valuable and the steps which many irrigation companies are 
taking to conserve water and prevent losses of transportation by carrying the 
water in concrete-lined canals and in pipes constructed at considerable 
expenses, show that in some localities at least, water has become sufficiently 
valuable to justify pumping. If a comparison is made with water thus 
obtained, we find that the cost of construction of a well constructed system may 
go up to $50 or $60 an acre and even higher. This cost is charged up to the 
land which is sold to the orchardist and in addition reasonable profit is made 
on the value of the land. It is probably conservative to assume that land 
under an irrigation system in localities well developed and where irrigation is 
necessary, will cost at least $100 an acre more than similar land for which 
there is no gravity supply. The chief advantage of gravity systems is the low 
annual cost of operation, usually less than $2 or $3 per acre, although in some 
cases it may be as much as $5 per acre or more, but if to this be added the 
interest on the difference in cost between land under the irrigation system and 
land which is to be supplied by pumping, assumed at $100, the total annual 
cost may be $10 to $15 an acre. This is about equal to the cost of pumping 
with gasoline engines to a height of 50 feet and about half as large as for lifts 
of 150 feet. Where electric power is available or for large pumping plants the 
cost of pumping would compare very favorably with gravity water, even for 
higher lifts than those stated above. 

Some of the advantages of -underground pumped water as compared to water 
obtained from a gravity irrigation system are: 

(1) An underground' supply Is more reliable and is not likely to be deficient 
before the end of the irrigation season. 

(2) The irrigator is independent and controls his own water supply, and is 
prepared to irrigate his crops at the best time. 

(3) The underground water is free from the seeds of weeds. 

A consideration of pumping in some of the well developed irrigated districts 
Is of interest to show its feasibility. In eastern Washington water is being 
pumped in one case to an elevation of 250 ft. above the source of supply. In 
the citrus district of southern California lifts above 200 ft. are not unusual, 
and it is considered profitable to pump 460 ft. In the Pomona district of 
southern California the cost of pumped water averages $15 per acre for one 
acre foot when purchased from irrigation companies, while for smaller private 
plants the cost is often greater. In 1905 the Irrigation Investigations Office of 
the United States Department of Agriculture made tests on various pumping 
plants and these show that the cost of pumping at private plants of 10 to 100 
hp. with lifts of 100 to 300 ft., varied from $10 to $90 per acre for one acre foot 
of water. 

There is a limit beyond which it is not economically feasible to pump. In 
the California citrus districts lifts above 400 ft. have been considered profitable. 
For the orchard lands of the Northwest equally high lifts should be profitable, 
for the net return per acre from a good apple orchard is usually more than that 
from a citrus orchard. A citrus orchard 10 years old should average a net 
profit of $100 to $150 per acre. The net profits from apple orchards 10 to 12 
years old in the Yakima Valley are given in bulletins of the United States 
39 



610 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Department of Agriculture as $200 to $600 per acre. With profits larger than 
those obtained from citrus orchards in southern California, what haa been 
considered feasible in pumping there, is at least equally so for apple orchards 
or other valuable crops when no other more economical source of water supply 
is available. However, for small pumping plants and small areas it is well 
not to exceed 200 ft., while the larger plants lifts of 400 ft. may be economically 
feasible. 

First Cost and Cost of Operation of Irrigation Pumping Plants. — The follow- 
ing data, published in Engineering and Contracting, June 2, 1915, are con- 
' densed from a paper by H. D. Hanford in the proceedings of the Washington 
Irrigation Inst. 

Plant Costs, — ^As a basis for the figures, the representative of a well-known 
manufacturer was asked to give prices, efficiency and other data on both cen- 
trifugal and triplex power pumps, ranging in capacity by the hundred gallons, 
from. 100 to 500, inclusive, a minute, and for heads of 25, 50, 100 and 200 ft. 
Taking these prices as a basis, and adding the cost of motor, fittings, erection 
and building, we have the following schedule of plant costs : 

Direct Connected Centrifugal Pumps 



Capacity, G. P. M. 


Head 


Size 


Cost of plant 


100 


25 


23"2-in. 


$ 407.00 


100 


50 


2-in. 


369.00 


100 


100 


2-in. 


479.00 


100 


200 


2-in. 2 S 


715.00 


200 


25 


3-in. 


550.00 


200 


50 


3-in. 


550.00 


200 


100 


23^-in. 


600.00 


200 


200 


23^-in. 2 S 


875.00 


300 


25 


4-in. 


644.00 


300 


50 


3-in. 


644.00 


300 


100 


3-in. 


715.00 


300 


200 


3-in. 2 S 


1,034.00 


400 


25 


5-in. 


732.00 


400 


. 50 


4-in. 


698.00 


400 


100 


3-in. 


748.00 


400 


200 


4-in. 2 S 


1,249.00 


500 


25 


5-in. 


787.00 


500 


50 


4-in.' 


765.00 


500 


100 


4-in. 


831.00 


500 


200 


5-in. 2 S 


1,524.00 




Belt Driven 


Triplex Pumps 




Capacity G. P. M. 


Head 


Size 


Cost of plant 


100 


50 


5}4 X 8-in. 


$ 741.00 


100 


100 


53^ X 8-in. 


764.00 


100 


200 


5H X 8-in. 


821.00 


200 


50 


7}4 X 8-in. 


1,216.00 


200 


100 


7yi X 8-in. 


1,261.00 


200 


200 


7H X 8-in. 


1,319.00 


300 


50 


SH X 10-in. 


1,437.00 


300 


100 


SH X 10-in. 


1,517.00 


300 


200 


8H X 10-in. 


1,600.00 


400 


50 


10 X 10-in. 


1,877.00 


400 


100 


10 X 10-in. 


1,979.00 


400 


200 


10 X 10-in. 


2,065.00 


500 


50 


10 X 12-in. 


2,463.00 


500 


100 


10 X 12-in. 


2,510.00 


500 


200 


10 X 12-in. 


2,792.00 



In comparing the schedule note that in a number of instances the cost of 
plant for a given head is less than that of the preceding lower head, and that 
smaller sizes are used, — these are not errors. In centrifugal pumps, the capa- 
city within a certain range is governed by the design of the impeller and the 



IRRIGATION 611 

speed, and not by the diameter of the discharge nozzle. Also in the triplex 
pumps, exactly the same pump is offered for more than one head. The total 
plant costs are also affected by the cost of motor used, which varies according 
to the speed, the slow speed motors costing considerably more than those of 
high speed. The sizes and types of pumps and motor speeds are those selected " 
by a man of large experience in irrigation work; and while better selections 
might be made in some cases, the list represents probably average practice, 
and as used here, is a fair basis. 

Operating Costs. — In arriving at a basis of operating costs for each year, the 
following assumptions were made: 

(1) That the irrigation season covers the period from May 1st to September 
30th, inclusive. 

(2) That the pumps would operate 24 hours a day for 26 days each month, 
or a total of 130 days. 

(3) That the pump would operate 624 hours each month. 

(4) That the capacity of the several sizes of pumps operating on the above 
schedule would be as follows for the season: 

Size Acre ft. 

100 gallons per minute * 57. 5 

200 gallons per minute 115. 

300 gallons per minute 172. 

400 gallons per minute 230. 

500 gallons per minute 287. 5 

(5) That power would be paid for on the meter basis, and on the schedule 
in use in the Yakima Valley. 

(6) That interest on investment in plant be figured at 7 per cent. 

(7) That depreciation and renewals be figured at 7 per cent. 

(8) That cost of supplies be taken at 1 per cent of cost of plant 

(9) That insurance be figured at 1 per cent. 
The total for the last four items is 16 per cent. . 

In determining final costs for any particular location, it will be necessary 
to add the charges upon whatever pipe line is required to deliver the water to 
the desired point, also the yearly cost of water right, if water is purchased from 
a ditch. Estimated costs of pumping follow : 

Direct Connected Centrifugal Pumps 

Capacity, in gals. Cost per acre-foot 

per min. Head, in ft. pumped 

100 25 $2.24 

100 50 3. 00 

100 100 4.93 

100 200 8. 17 

200 25 1.68 

200 50 2.24 

200 100 3. 68 

200 200 6.59 

300 25 1.37 

300 50 1.93 

300 100 3. 16 

300 20a 5. 57 

400 25 1.25 

400 • 50 1.74 

400 100 2.90 

400 200 4.99 

500 25 1.11 

500 50 1.59 

500 100 2.65 

5QQ 200 4. 82 



612 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Belt-driven Triplex Pumps 



Capacity, in gals. 




Cost per acre-foot 


per min. 


Head, in ft. 


pumped 


100 


50 


$4.08 


100 


100 


4.80 


100 


200 


6. 65 


200 


50 


3.47 


200 


100 


4.25 


200 


200 


5.89 


300 


50 


2.83 


300 


100 


3.64 


300 


200 


5.23 


400 


50 


2.76 


400 


100 


3.54 


400 


200 


5.02 


500 


50 


2.77 


500 


100 


3.46 


500 


200 


5.00 



By platting these figures on paper, we have, Fig. 16, a diagram from which it 
is possible to ascertain the approximate cost per acre foot for pumping to any 




joo ^00 coo COC 

Cosf of Pumping One Acre Foot 
Fig. 16. — Cost per acre-foot of pumping for irrigation. 



head between 25 ft. and 200 ft. for the centrifugal pumps of the respective 
capacities, and for heads between 50 ft. and 200 ft. for the triplex pumps. On 
the diagram, the centrifugal pumps are represented by full hues, and 
the triplex pumps by dotted lines. The point at which the full and 
dotted lines of the same capacity cross, indicates the approximate head at 
which the types will operate with equal economy. This is 110 ft. for the 
pumps of 100 G. P. M. capacity, 150 ft. for the 200 G. P. M.,' and 165 ft. for 
the 300 G. P. M. Above these heads, the diagram indicates that the triplex 
pumps will be the more economical. It also shows that for the 400 G. P. M. 
capacity the types balance at 200 ft. head; and that for the 500 G. P. M., the 
centrifugal is the more economical pump within the range of he^d considered. 



IRRIGATION 613 



r 

|H The figures and diagram clearly show the lower cost per acre foot as the 
^ size and capacity are increased. This leads to the suggestion that where con- 
ditions are favorable for serving two or more tracts from one point, that it 
will be economy for the owners to join in building one plant that will give the 
best results, rather than to construct two or more plants of lower efficiency and 
higher cost and maintenance. 

Over Head Charges for Pumping Plants Used for Irrigation. — In Engineer- 
ing and Contracting, Aug. 30, 1911, the following is given. 

The rate of depreciation of pumping plants varies through an enormous 
range, being determined largely by the skill and care of the attendant. Ma^y 
plants are not insured at all. Averaging all conditions, the following appears 
to be a fair estimate of the rates suitable for use in computing the fixed charges 
of the various types of plants, 

• 

Gasoline engine plants Per cent 

Depreciation 12 to 15 

Interest 6 

Taxes and insurance 1 

Average total 20 

Motor-driven plants 

Depreciation 7 to 9 

Interest 6 

Taxes and insurance 1 

Average total 15 

Steam plants of ordinary type 

Depreciation 9 to 11 

Interest 6 

Taxes and insurance ; 1 

Average total 17 

Highest quality steam plants — average 12 

These percentages, determined by the Office of Experiment Stations, De- 
partment of Agriculture, are applied to the first cost of the entire pumping 
station, including the cost of wells. 

Cost of Small Earth Reservoirs as an Adjunct to Electrically Operated 
Irrigation Pumping Plants. — Engineering and Contracting, June 13, 1917, 
gives the following data: 

Earth reservoirs as an adjunct to electrically operated pumping plants are 
now being used to a considerable extent on small individual irrigation develop- 
ments in southern California. In the territory served by the Southern 
Sierras Power Co. some 45 of these storage basins have been constructed within 
the past two years. The pumping installations in general operate about 700 
hours per month and deliver a quantity of water to the storage basins approxi- 
mately equal to }4, in. of water per acre under cultivation. The reservoir is 
located upon the highest point of the acreage and the water drawn out through 
the pipe line as needed. 

Three general types of reservoirs have been constructed during the, past two 
years. The least expensive of these is a basin with earthen embankments. 
This is constructed with a four-horse team and f resno and the bottom is sealed 
by puddUng with clay, adobe or manure. One of these basins, 120 X 120 X 
5 ft. inside dimensions, clay sealed and holding 450,000 gal., cost $125. 
Another, 150 X 150 X 5 ft., holding 750,000 gal., cost $147. In each of these 
the embankments were 14 ft. thick at the base and 3^^ ft. at the top. 



614 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The cement basins commonly have walls 6 in. thick at the base and 4 In. 
at the top. They are banked around the exterior with earth. One of these 
basins, 4 ft. deep and 75 ft. in diameter, with a capacity of 125,000 gal., was 
constructed at a cost of $380. This basin holds water for the irrigation of 23 
acres of alfalfa and 4 acres of garden truck. The pumping installation con- 
sists of a 5-hp. motor and a 2-in. horizontal pump. This outfit delivers water 
at the rate of 140 gal. per minute. The total expense of irrigation in this case 
is $250 per year. 

The third type of earth reservoir is a basin rendered watertight by spraying 
the bottom and sides with oil or by applying a coat of cement or lime plaster. 
This plaster lining is from >^ to 1 in. thick and is applied after the soil has been 
thoroughly tamped. Two-inch mesh chicken wire is spread over the bottom 
and sides of the basin prior to the application of the plaster. The plastering 
costs about 6 ct. per square foot. 

In sealing the earth reservoir by spraying with oil the best results have been 
obtained by using heavy crude oil with not less than 90 per cent asphaltum, 
heating this from 400 to 450° and pumping it on the ground under pressure in 
the form of a spray, then following this up with sand, which is spread over the 
oil. This latter feature is very essential, especially on the banks. Best 
results are obtained with two coatings of oil, in all about % gal. per square 
yard. The oil costs from $2 to $3 per barrel put on, depending upon the dis- 
tance to be hauled. It is delivered to the job in motor truck loads, each of 
about 25 bbl. 

The success of construction work of this kind depends upon the thorough- 
ness with which the work is done. The soil should be worked over very care- 
fully and raked with a fine rake, eliminating any large lumps, etc., that might 
be either in the bottom or on the banks. A second coat of oil has proven very 
efficient in making the reservoir tight. It must be borne in mind, however, 
that the oil used should be asphaltum residue of very heavy specific gravity, 
about the consistency of heavy coal tar. The sifting of the soil and sand on 
the hot asphaltum keeps it from running until it has an opportunity to cool 
and thus gives it a better body to keep it in place. 

One of these oil-sealed basins, holding 500,000 gal. of water, was constructed 
in 1916 at a total cost of $350. The sealing required 75 bbl. of oil and cost 
$160; construction cost $147, and the gates, inlet and discharge pipes cost $33. 
This basin is operated in conjunction with a direct connected plant consisting 
of a 25-hp., 400-volt, 3-phase Westinghouse motor and a special 4-in. Bryon 
Jackson pump. The basin furnished water for 90 acres of alfalfa and 20 
acres of grain. 

Cost Wells and Well Drilling Equipment. — The following is given in For- 
tier's "Use of Water in Irrigation" (1915). 

According to C. E. Tait, the most common sizes of drilled wells for new 
plants in southern California at this writing (1914) are 12, 14, 16, and 20 inches 
in diameter. A few 24- and 26-inch wells are also in use. The increase in 
size in recent years has been largely due to two causes. The larger circum- 
ference of the casing permits more openings to be made and more water to 
enter from the adjacent gravel. They are also better suited to the use of 
deep well pumps of the plunger and turbine types in that they permit a long 
stroke at low speed. 

The casing consists of a double thickness of riveted steel sheets 2 feet long. 
The cost of casing per foot for various diameters and thickness of metal sub- 
ject to a discount of 30 per cent is as follows: 



IRRIGATION 615 



I 









Well casing 






iameter, 


inches 


16-gauge 


14-gauge 


12-gauge 


10-gaug 


7 




$0.59 


$0.68 






10 




0.83 


0.99 


$i!26 




12 




0.90 


1.06 


1.37 


$i;78 


14 




1.08 


1.20 


1.62 


1.97 


16 




1.21 


1.33 


1.94 


2.17 


20 






1.57 


2.23 


2.64 


24 




.... 




2.69 


3.20 



What is known as a starter is a tube about 20 feet long riveted to the bottom 
of the casing. This consists of a triple thickness of metal for large wells and 
for wells in bowlders or rock. A steel shoe or ring is in turn riveted to the 
bottom of the starter. A 3-ply, 12-gauge starter for a 12-inch well costs $1.80 
per foot, while a 12 X % inch ring costs $16. 

Wells in southern California are drilled by contract. The equipment con- 
sists of a California portable rig costing $500 to $600 without the tools. In 
starting a well a hole is first bored and the starter inserted. A sand bucket is 
then used to make the excavation unless rock is encountered. The rig is 
provided with hydraulic jacks which apply a pressure of 100 tons or less to an 
Iron ring which rests on the top of the casing. The cost of drilling in sand or 
clay exclusive of casing is $1.50 per foot for a 12-inch well. Contractors are 
usually protected by a provision inserted in the contract to the effect that if 
bowlders or rock are encountered requiring more than 2 hours to bore through 
an extra charge will be made. 

Strainers, which form so essential a feature of many wells in the rice belt, 
are not necessary in southern California as there is no quicksand or very fine 
sand unmixed with coarser material. Water is admitted through long vertical 
slots in the casing which are cut by a special tool after the casing is in place. 
The cross sections of the openings thus made are trapezoidal in form, the 
narrowest side being at the outside to prevent clogging. Four vertical slots 
about 20 inches long are made in the circumference of each joint of a 12-inch 
casing opposite and slightly below each water-bearing stratum. 

In the rice belt, according to C. G. Haskell, Irrigation Engineer, Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, the hydraulic rotary method for drilling wells is the most 
common. 



CHAPTER X 
LAND DRAINAGE 

This chapter contains data on the methods and costs of constructing both 
open and tile drains. Further matter of use in relation to this subject may 
be found by referring to the index. 

The reader is also referred to Gillette's "Handbook of Cost Data" pages 
1796-1802 for costs of laying tile drains and for the weights of drain tile 
which are given on page 1798. 

The Elements of Costs of Drainage Systems are given by J. L. Parsons in 
"Land Drainage" as follows: Cost of materials, cost of labor, cost of delivery 
of materials, cost of administrating drainage contracts, cost (interest and 
depreciation) of necessary plant, cost of financing the contract, and probable 
damage claims and legal expenses. In addition to the probable contract 
price as thus estimated, the element of engineering and other overhead ex- 
penses and right of way or damage claims must be considered by the engineer 
in arriving at the total estimated cost to the owner. 

Probable Damage Claims and Legal Expenses. — During the prosecution of 
drainage contracts there is considerable danger of stock falling into ditches, 
with resulting claims for damages by the owners, and some allowance must be 
made in the contractors estimate for such damages. Also a contractor should 
avail himself of enough legal advice to insure business methods. 

Overhead Expenses. — The overhead expenses incidental to legal drainage 
organizations, as engineering, legal expenses, publication of notices, etc., if 
wisely administered, need not exceed 8 to 12 per cent of the total cost for 
drains costing $5,000 and upward. These expenses equal a larger percentage 
for the smaller districts, as many of the legal procedures required are as 
expensive for small drains as for larger ones. 

The item of engineering alone, including the preliminary survey, construc- 
tion superintendence, and assistance in the assessment of benefits and fixing 
of damages, should not be less than 5 to 10 per cent of the total cost, 
ranging from approximately 10 per cent for $2,000 districts to 5 per cent for 
$25,000 districts and upwards. 

Types of Equipment Best Adapted to Land Drainage. — Power machinery is 
now available which will construct outlet drainage ditches of all sizes, and 
under all conditions of soil and water, more cheaply than can be accomplished 
by any other method, according to D. L. Yarnell, drainage engineer of the 
Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering. In a special bulletin issued 
recently by the Department of Agriculture, the uses and limitations of the 
different machines that have been employed in such work are summarized by 
by Mr. Yarnell, whose conclusions as abstracted in Engineering Record, Feb. 
25, 1916, follow. 

The floating dipper dredge is more widely used in drainage work than is any 
other type of excavating machine. For work through wet land no other 
excavator will equal it in cheapness of construction of ditches having a cross- 
section of from 100 sq. ft. to 1200 sq. ft. It is by far the most efficient machine 
to use where many stumps will be encountered. Owing to its limited reach 

616 



LAND DRAINAGE 617 

it is not generally applicable to levee construction. Dipper dredges as con- 
structed for drainage work range in capacity from Yz cu. yd. to 4 or 5 cu. yd. 
The sizes most commonly used vary from 1 to 2 cu. yd. The smallest dredge 
costs about $5,000; the cost increases rapidly with the capacity of the dipper. 
The floating dipper dredge should be operated downstream, where practicable, 
to insure sufficient water at all times. 

In general, the clamshell or orange-peel dredge is not well adapted to ditch 
construction, especially if there be stumps to handle. Certain types of soil, 
such as the muck of southern Louisiana, can, however, be handled to advan- 
tage with this machine. It is also suited to levee building when a long boom 
is used. 

The dragline scraper excavator is constantly increasing in favor for drainage 
work. It is especially suited to the construction of ditches and levees of large 
cross-section, where the ground is sufficiently stable to support the machine. 
The scraper excavator is also suitable for ditch cleaning. 

The various forms of so-called dry-land machines find quite extensive use in 
drainage. The dipper and orange-peel dredges of the dry-land type are suit- 
able for use where "sufficient water cannot be had to float a dredge. The 
templet and the wheel types of excavators are applicable to open land, where 
the soil is neither too hard nor too wet. The ditches cut by these latter ma- 
chines are superior in hydraulic efficiency to those of similar section cut by any 
other type of excavator. The dry-land machines should be operated upstream . 

The hydraulic dredge is not suited to ordinary drainage ditch construction. 
It has been used to some extent in cleaning ditches, and, with the use of slope 
boards, has in at least one instance made a satisfactory record in 
levee construction. 

Costs of Dredge Excavation: of Drainage Ditches. — D. L. Yarnell gives the 
following in Bulletin No. 300, Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering, 
abstracted in Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 2, 1916. 

Method of Operating. — With a floating dredge the construction should, where 
practicable, begin at the upper end of the ditch and proceed downstream. 
Sometimes it is not feasible to transport the machinery and material to the 
upper end of the ditch and the dredge must then work upstream. This is 
undesirable, unless the fall be slight, since in working upstream dams must be 
built behind the boat to maintain the necessary water level. In working 
downstream the ditch remains full and the dredge, floating high, can dig a 
much narrower bottom than if working upstream in shallow water. Moreover, 
when floating low, the dipper may not properly clear the spoil bank. Again, 
in working downstream, any material dropping from the dipper into the 
ditch will be taken out in the next shovelful; whereas if working upstream 
any material dropped or any silt washed behind the dredge is left to settle in 
the bottom of the ditch. If work is begun on the natural ground surface a 
pit must be dug to launch the boat; or if in a stream, it may be necessary 
to build a temporary dam in the channel to raise the water high enough to 
float the boat. The depth of water required varies from 2 ft. upward, depend- 
ing on the size of machine. 

The floating dipper dredge moves itself ahead by means of the dipper. The 
spuds are first loosened from their bearings and the dipper is run ahead of the 
machine and rested on the natural ground surface in front of the ditch. The 
spuds are then raised and the engines operating the backing drum are started ; 
the dredge being free, is thus pulled ahead. The spuds are then lowered and 
excavation continued. 



618 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

In timbered country the right of way must be cleared. In many cases the 
timber cut will supply sufiBcient fuel for the dredge. It is poor policy to fell 
the trees and leave them on the ground to be removed by the dredge. The 
stumps should always be shattered with dynamite, as the strain on the 
machinery is thus rendered much less and the life of the dredge increased. 

An engineer, a craneman, a fireman, and a deckhand are required to operate 
a dipper dredge. The output, loss of time due to breakdowns, and the cost of 
repairs, depend almost wholly upon their skill and efficiency. The engineer 
should be an all-around mechanic as well as experienced in dredging. 

The amount of fuel consumed depends upon the size and type of boiler 
used, and upon the burning and heating qualities of the fuel. A very great 
saving can be effected by covering the boiler with an asbestos coat. Ordi- 
narily, about 25 lb. of coal per horsepower-hour are consumed on dredges. 
The cost of repairs depends largely upon the operator; a careless operator will 
cause many unnecessary breakdowns. It is not only the high cost of repairs 
for machinery but also the time lost which aids in increasing the actual cost of 
the output. It is a well-established fact that it is not the initial cost of a 
dredge or of any machine, but the operating and overhead expenses, that 
reduce the profits. 

Cost of Operation. — The cost of dredge work depends upon a number of 
factors. The locality of the work, the kind of soil, repairs, delays, labor, etc., 
greatly infiuence the actual cost of any work. If the water level can naturally 
be maintained within a foot or so of the surface of the ground, the cost of 
excavation can be reduced very low with this type of machine. The data 
given in the following pages were obtained from the actual cost records of the 
various projects. Unfortunately, the figures are not always strictly compar- 
able, one project with another, owing to variations in the items of cost in- 
cluded. Unless otherwise stated, interest is taken at 6 per cent and deprecia- 
tion at 35 per cent per annum on the cost of the dredging outfit. Interest and 
depreciation are, however, charged only for the interval of time upon which the 
unit cost is based. This is not strictly correct, as a certain amount of time 
consumed in getting the machine on and off the work should be charged to each 
project. In most cases it was impossible to ascertain the time that should be 
charged to moving, building, etc., and therefore the item has been ignored in 
all cases, for the sake of uniformity. On some projects figures for operation 
over an extended period were not obtainable. In such cases the unit cost is 
based upon the daily cost of operation and the average amount of ditch dug per 
day, no allowance being made for interest and depreciation. 

In the construction of a ditch in North Carolina a new l>^-yard dipper 
dredge was employed. This dredge had a 5 X 20 X 70-ft. hull and was 
equipped with SH X 10-in. double-cylinder hoisting engines; 7 X 7-in. 
double cylinder, reversible swinging engines; a 50-hp. Scotch marine return- 
flue boiler; a 13^-yard dipper, 31-ft. dipper handle, and 45-ft. boom. The 
spuds were convertible to bank or vertical and were operated by the hoisting 
engines. The cost of this dredge, erected, was $10,342.19. The dredge was 
operated continuously, each shift working 11 hours per day. The men were 
paid at the following rates per month: Superintendent in charge, $110; 
engineers, $100; cranemen, $60; firemen, $48; deck hands, $36. The men 
furnished their own subsistence. The ditch was 9}4 miles long and ranged 
from 22 to 30 ft. wide on top and from 8 to 10 ft. deep; it had side slopes of H 
to 1 and a berm 8 ft. wide. The water level was easily maintained near the 
ground surface. Very little right-of-way clearing was required. In the 



LAND DRAINAGE 619 

construction of this ditch the dredge excavated 350,720 cu. yd. of earth. One 
year was required for the dredge to complete this work. The following cost 
data were taken from the records of the drainage district which owned and 
operated the dredge: 

Cost of operation, including labor and fuel $15,889.01 

Repairs 1,948.24 

Interest and depreciation 4 , 240. 22 

Total $22,077.47 

Cost per cubic yard, $0.0629. 

A new dredge of the same size and type as the one just described was used 
in the excavation of a drainage ditch in the same locality as the foregoing 
project. The ditch followed an old creek channel for the greater part of its 
length. The cost of the dredge, erected, was $9,365.34. It was operated 
in one shift of 11 hours; the actual time of operation was not recorded. The 
crew and the rates of pay were the same as in the foregoing example. The 
ditch was 3% miles long and ranged in top width from 22 to 26 ft. and in 
depth from 6 to 10 ft. The side slopes were >^ to 1; the berm was 8 ft. wide. 
The dredge worked downstream and the water level was easily held near the 
ground surface. Practically no right-of-way clearing was done. The mate- 
rial excavated was a loam top soil underlain by stiff clay; very little rock 
was encountered. The cost of the work was considerably affected by the 
expense ($1,459) of passing three bridges. The total amount excavated in a 
period of about 10 months was 121,200 cu. yd. The dredge was owned and 
operated by the drainage district. The following costs were recorded: 

Cost of operation, including labor and fuel $ 5,921 . 05 

Repairs 1 , 028 . 73 

Incidentals 117.95 

Interest and depreciation 3 , 199 . 80 

Total $10 , 267 . 53 

Cost per cubic yard, $0.0847. 

A dipper dredge with a 5}4 X 16 X 60-ft. hull, 7 X 8-in. double-cyUnder 
hoisting engines, friction swing, 1-yard dipper, 35-ft. boom, and telescopic 
bank spuds was used in the construction of about 5 miles of ditch in western 
North Carolina. No reliable information was available as to the amount of 
material moved ; but the following figures as to the cost of installing the dredge 
are of interest : 

Hull: Labor and material $1 , 803 . 23 

Machinery : 

Material 4,800.00 

Freight 379 . 10 

Drayage 72 . 60 

Installing : 310 . 60 

Extra equipment (forge tools, etc.) 80. 00 

Lighting equipment (engine and dynamo and wiring) .... 207 . 00 

Total $7,652.53 

In Colorado, a dipper dredge having a 24 X 75-ft. hull, l^-yd. dipper, and 
50-ft. boom, was used in cleaning out and enlarging about 20 miles of canal. 
The equipment, complete, including cook and bunk boats, cost $16,500. 
Two shifts of 11 hours each were run. During the year for which the data 
are given the dredge was actually in operation but 187 days, or 58 per cent 
of the total working days. The following crew were paid the given rates 
per month, including board: Head runner, $120; 1 runner, $110; 2 cranemen 



620 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

at $55; 2 firemen at $45; 2 deckhands at $40; 1 teamster, $40; 1 cook, $50. 
No right-of-way clearing was required. The water for the boiler was taken 
from the canal, and as a result considerable trouble was experienced from mud 
and scale. The cost data below are based on the amount of material moved 
from inside the grade stakes during the year, amounting to 394,387 cu. yd. 
It was estimated that an excess of 25 per cent was actually moved. The 
following was the cost of the work for one year: 

Operation: 

Labor operating dredge $ 6 , 243 . 70 

Coal, including freight, 1,276.65 tons, at $2.35 3,000. 13 

Hauling coal, 1,276.65 tons, at 82 >^ cents 1 ,053. 24 

Oil, waste, and miscellaneous supplies 692.80 

Cost of controlling water to float dredge 369 . 24 

Repairs, labor, and material 3 , 894 . 67 

Removing and replacing bridges 837*. 78 

Interest and depreciation 6,765.00 

Total $22,856.56 

Cost per cubic yard, $0,058. 
Miscellaneous expenses: 

Engineering and supervision $ 1 ,856. 10 

Building up ditch bank and making road on top 4,721.75 

Right of way and legal expenses 190. 42 

Total $ 6,768.27 

The cost of the dredging outfit was as follows: 

Hull: 

Material $ 1,960.83 

Labor, including hauling 1 , 959 . 99 

Machinery: 

Cost, including freight 9 , 997 . 72 

Hauling and installing 817 . 55 

Cook and bunk boats: 

Material 663 . 90 

Labor 453.66 

Equipment 646. 35 

Total $16,500.00 

In connection with a drainage project in southwest Louisiana a steam- 
operated, floating dipper dredge, equipped with a 1-yd. dipper, 40-ft. boom, 
and convertible power spuds was employed in the excavation of about 10 
miles of ditch which varied in width from 18 to 50 ft. and in depth from 4 to 
6 ft.; 15-ft. berms were specified. The cost of the dredge on the work is said 
to have been $10,000. Two shifts of 10 hours each were run, but the actual 
number of days of operation was not recorded. The crew and monthly rates 
of pay, including subsistence, were as follows: Two runners, at $100; 2 crane- 
men, at $60; 2 firemen, ^t $60; 1 deckhand, $40; 1 cook, $30. The material 
excavated was a hard, stiff clay. The total amount excavated in about 8 
months was 147,000 cu. yd. The average cost, per month, of operation was as 
follows: 

Labor $ 510 

Board 100 

Coal 262 

Repairs 200 

Oil and supplies 50 

Interest and depreciation 342 

Total $1 , 464 

Cost per cubic yard, $0.0796. 



LAND DRAINAGE 621 

On another project in southern Louisiana there was employed a floating 
dipper dredge with a 5 X 22 X 73-ft. hull; 8 X 10-in. double-cylinder hoisting 
engine; 6 X 8-in., double-cylinder reversible swinging engines; 134-yd. 
dipper, and 40-ft. boom. The machine was equipped with bank spuds. The 
cost of the dredge, ready to operate, was $13,000. The ditches averaged 
about 30 ft. wide and were from 5 to 6 ft. deep. The land was nearly level and 
the water surface was easily kept within a foot of the ground surface. The 
material was a top muck underlain by an alluvial mud which was hardly solid 
enough to hold its shape when dropped from the dipper. There were few 
submerged logs or stumps. The dredge was operated the year around for 
two years. No record was kept of the actual time of oj^eration. The average 
output per shift (12 hours) on a 30-ft. ditch 5 ft. deep was 1,200 cu. yd., at a 
cost as follows: 

Labor (4 men) $10 . 50 

Fuel, 6 barrels oil, at $1.75 10.50 

Repairs, oil, and grease 5 . 50 

Total $26 . 50 

Cost per cubic yard, exclusive of interest and depreciation, $0.0221. 

In the same general locality as the foregoing case, and under the same soil 
conditions, a 1-yd. dredge which was, except in respect to capacity, equipped 
similarly to the above-described machine, was operated in the construction of 
ditches which averaged 30 ft. wide and 5 ft. deep. The cost of the dredge, 
erected, was $11,000. The average output per 12-hour shift during a 2-years' 
run was 1,000 cu. yd. The cost per shift was as follows: 

Labor (4 men) ; $10 . 00 

Fuel, 5 barrels oil, at $1.75 8.75 

Repairs, oil, and grease 5 . 50 

Total $24 . 25 

Cost per cubic yard, exclusive of interest and depreciation, $0.024 2. 

In another drainage project in southern Louisiana several ditches, each 
three miles long, were constructed by a dipper dredge installed on a 53^^ X 
18 X 70-ft. hull. The power was obtained from a 60-hp. internal-combustion 
engine. The dredge had a 13^ -yd: dipper, 40-ft. boom, and convertible 
power spuds. The total cost of the outfit, including house-boats and small 
towboats, was $12,000. Two shifts of 10 hours each were run for 26 days in 
each month. The crew were furnished subsistence, and each shift consisted 
of: One runner, at $125; 1 craneman, at $65; and 1 engine tender, at $40 per 
month. One cook, at $35, and one general utility man, at $60, were also 
employed, making a total labor cost of $555 per month. The average dimen- 
sions of the ditch were: Top width, 25 ft.; bottom width, 18 ft.; and depth, 
8 ft. The ground was nearly level and the water stood about 3 ft. below the 
ground surface. The excavated material was a stiff, sandy clay. About 3.4 
miles of the work consisted in cleaning old channel, which required 'frequent 
moving and gave small yardage. The total excavation in five months was 
about 216,000 cu. yd. The cost was as follows: 

Labor and board $3 , 555 

Fuel and oil 2,300 

Repairs 980 

Interest and depreciation 2 , 050 

Total $8,885 

Cost per cubic yard, $0.0411. 



622 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

A steam-operated floating dipper dredge, mounted on a 5 X 15 X 60-ft. 
hull and equipped with a 1-yd. dipper, 38-ft. boom, and inclined telescopic 
bank spuds, was used in the excavation of about 10^ miles of ditch in North 
Carolina. The cost of the dredge is stated to have been $6,613.82. One 
shift of 10 hours per day was run. The actual number of days of operation 
was not recorded. The crew and rates of pay were as follows: One engineer, 
$125 per month; 1 craneman, $2 per day; 1 fireman, $1.25 per day; 1 watch- 
man, $1.50 per day. The crew furnished their own subsistence. The ditch 
was about 18 ft. in top width, 12 ft. deep, and had H to 1 slopes. It followed 
an old creek bed for a large part of the distance. The material excavated was 
a clay, though some rock was also encountered. Based upon the given 
dimensions of the ditch, the total excavation amounted to 295,000 cu. yd. 
Eighteen months were required to complete the work. The cost was as 
follows : 

Operation: 

Labor $ 6,310.94 

Fuel 2,210.30 

Repairs: 

Labor 1,380.12 

Material 1,136.71 

Interest and depreciation 4 , 067 . 00 

Total $15,105.07 

Cost per cubic yard, $0.0512. 
Miscellaneous expenses: 

Engineering $ 164 . 83 

Clearing right of way 282 . 70 

Rebuilding bridges 104 . 96 

Incidentals 48 . 77 

Administration 618 . 00 

Total $ 1,219.26 

Costs of Dredging Main Canals on a Drainage Project in Louisiana.^ — Engi- 
neering and Contracting, Oct. 25, 1911, gives the following: 

The excavation was begun in the latter part of 1909 and was prosecuted 
almost continuously until the completion in August, 1911. This work was 
carried on by means of two Marion dipper dredges, one with a ^ cu. yd. and 
the other with a 1^^ cu. yd. bucket. The large dredge was on the ground 
when the work was begun and the small one was built afterward at a cost of 
about $8,500. Two oil barges of about 400 bbls. capacity each were built to 
carry fuel oil for the dredges from New Orleans. All supplies had to be 
brought in on barges. One 25-h.p. gasoline tug was used for all towing. 

The cost figures for the work which follow were taken from the company's 
books, with the exception of the charge for plant. This is an arbitrary figure 
based on an estimate of 25 per cent depreciation of the plant for the two 
years' work. The plant is taken as worth $20,500 at the beginning of work. 
The labor charge is taken from the payroll account and includes all labor 
charged to the contract, such as dredgemen, camp labor, clearing, towing, 
superintendence, etc. The supplies include all supplies except camp supplies. 
The repair account includes all repair parts and freight on same, but does not 
include the labor for making repairs. The general expense account includes 
all expense not included in other accounts, such as taxes on plant, traveling 
expenses, railway fares of men, office expenses, etc. No interest is included. 
The fuel account includes only the oil used for the operation of the dredges. 






LAND DRAINAGE 623 



The rates of wages paid were for common labor $2 per day, engineer $125 per 
month, craneman $65, fireman $50. 

The rates of the monthly men include board in addition. The costs 
follow: 

Total yardage 674,921 Per cu. yd. 

Plant (arbitrary) $0 . 0076 

General 0. 0059 

Repairs 0. 0020 

Supplies . 0138 

Fuel 0.0094 

Labor 0.0219 

Camp 0.0081 

Total cost per cu. yd $0. 0687 

Costs of Ditch Excavation with Templet Excavators. — Engineering and 
Contracting, Feb. 9, 1916, gives the following extract from Bulletin No. 300 
(Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering) by D. L. Yarnell. 

A single-bucket templet excavator was used in southern Louisiana on the 
construction of 7,825 ft. of ditch having a 24-ft. bottom width and ranging 
in depth from 3.5 to 7 ft. The side slopes were 1 to 1, and the width of berm 
was 15 ft. The total excavation was 43,128 cu. yd. The total cost of this 
machine on the work was $8,506.22. The soil was a yellow clay with a few 
spots of gravelly clay, and the top soil was baked very hard. No special 
difficulties were encountered except that considerable cribbing was necessary 
to level up the track supporting the excavator when crossing natural water 
courses; except for these streams the ground was level. Some trouble was 
also experienced with the traction device, due to the fact that the ditch was 
larger than that for which the machine was designed. The actual number of 
working days was 128, 73 days of which were spent in actual digging; 43,128 
cu. yds. were dug. The cost of operation per day was as follows : One operator, 
$3.85; one fireman, $2.28; three deck hands, $6.27; one team and teamster, 
$5.40. The total cost per day was $17.80. The average daily excavation for 
the 128 days worked was 337 cu. yds. or 107 lin. ft. of ditch. The total cost of 
operation for 5 months was $3,500 divided as follows: 

Operating, labor. $1 , 885 

Operating, materials 496 

Fuel 602 

Repairs, labor 294 

Repairs, materials 223 

Total $3 , 500 

Interest and depreciation in that time, at 41 per cent per annum, would 
amount to $1,453, making the total cost $4,953 and the cost per cubic yard 
$0.1149. 

Cost of Operating Wheel Type Excavators in Drainage Ditching. — Engi- 
neering and Contracting, Jan. 26, 1916, publishes the following extract from 
Bulletin No. 300, by D, L. Yarnell, office of Public Roads and Rural 
Engineering. 

Two machines of the wheel type designed to cut a ditch 4 ft. deep, 4 ft. 
wide at the top, and 2 ft. wide at the bottom, were used on the excavation 
of some ditches in one of the Gulf States. Each machine was driven by a 28- 
hp. gasoline engine. The digging wheel was 15 ft. in diameter and the two 



624 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

apron tractors each 5 ft. by 12 ft. The weight of each excavator was about 30 
tons. The first cost of the machine was $5,500 and freight to the point of 
use was $338.36, making the total cost of each machine $5,838.36. The soil 
was a hard, yellow, sandy clay overlain by a turfy muck, varying in depth up 
to 2>^ ft. The turf was easily cut, but the hard clay caused excessive wearing 
on the bearings. A large part of the work was done when water was from 2 
to 3 ft. deep on the land. The total length of the ditches dug was 165 miles, 
the average length of ditch being 2,475 ft. The average depth of digging 
was about 4 ft., with a 4-ft. top and 2-ft. bottom. The average distance dug 
per shift of 10 hours of actual running time was 2,250 ft.; the maximum dis- 
tance dug in 10 hours was 6,600 ft. The average yardages per month for tAe 
two machines were 13,245 and 13,180 cu. yds., respectively. The average 
daily outputs on the basis of the actual ruiming time were 1,000 and 1,126 
/ cu. yd., respectively. A part of the time the first machine ran a double 
shift, which accounts for the higher monthly and less daily average It 
required 13 months to complete the work, the actual time of operation being 
about half this. On account of the excessive wearing on the bearings, caused 
by the heavy sandy clay, it was necessary to make frequent stops for rebuild- 
ing the machines, which operation occupied an average of nearly two weeks. 
The total excavation was 317,162 cu. yd. 

The daily operating expense per 10-hour shift for each machine was about 
as follows : 

Per day 

One operator, at $100 per month $ 4 . 00 

One assistant 2 . 00 

50 gallons gasoline, at 16 cents . ... 8 00 

Repairs 6 . 00 

Other charges 12 . 00 

Total $32.00 

The itemized cost for operation for the entire work was as follows : 

Labor $ 5, 172. 11 

Interest, discount, and exchange 202. 05 

Maintenance and repairs 2 , 860 . 08 

General expense 273 . 10 

Management expense 1,600.00 

Provisions and cooking (cook's wages) 2 , 245. 91 

Freight and express 75 . 74 

Towing 458.19 

Gasoline 1,792.22 

Other oil ... 281 . 49 

Teams and livery 932 . 1 1 

Telephone and telegraph 25 . 29 

Motor boat operation 540 . 96 

Interest and depreciation on machinery 5, 185.00 

Total $21,644.25 

Cost per cubic yard, $0.0682. 

Machine Machine 

No. 1 No. 2 

Machine running $ 917.97 $1,509.66 

Machine repairing 1,431.37 771.96 

Machine moving 105.20 88.51 

Machine bogged 156.90 190.54 

Total $2,611.44 $2,560.67 

The excessive cost of labor given for the machines when bogged was due to 
the frequent crossings of a wide, muck-filled bayou which ran the entire length 



LAND DRAINAGE 625 

of the district. This bayou was about 1,500 ft. wide; the muck ranged from 
5 to 15 ft. deep and was very soft. No tree roots, submerged timber, or 
stumps were encountered. The work covered an area of about 7,000 acres, 
approximately square, which was traversed by parallel canals every half mile. 
The ditches cut by the excavators were at right angles to these canals and were 
spaced 330 ft. apart. It was thus necessary to turn the machine around and 
run it light 330 ft. for each half mile of ditch cut. The item " moving" is for 
taking the machine across the canals and for moving from one part of the 
district to another; it does not refer to the moving between adjacent ditches. 

On a project in southern Louisiana a wheel excavator, cutting a ditch 4>^ ft. 
deep with a top width of 43^^ ft. and a bottom width of about 20 in., was used. 
The machine worked on comparatively solid ground. Power was supplied 
by a 28-hp. gasoline engine. The first cost was $4,000, and freight charges 
from factory to works were $350. After the machine had been operated for 
a short time it became apparent that the excavating wheel was far too light 
and a new wheel was substituted. The soil was a silt loam, firm and uniform 
but not tenacious. No special difficulties due to soil conditions were encoun- 
tered in this work. The chief obstacles to rapid progress were at first the 
weakness of the light excavating wheel, and afterwards the extra-heavy exca- 
vating wheel which unbalanced the machine. The tractors were larger than 
necessary and often broke down when turning on the hard ground. At the 
time the following cost records terminated, the work had been carried on 
intermittently for about 18 months; about one-half this time was occupied in 
repairs. During this time the machines dug 117,000 ft. of ditch 4>^ ft. deep, 
45,500 ft. 3K ft. deep, and 9,250 ft. twice over, the machine making two 4^^- 
ft. cuts side by side. The average length of ditch cut per day was 800 ft., 
while the maximum was 1,950 ft. The daily cost of operatiQU was as follows: 

Labor $5.50 

Fuel 4 . 20 

Incidentals .50 

Repairs 2 . 40 

Total $12.60 

The average excavation per day was 410 cu. yd., based on the average of 
800 ft. of ditch, 4yi ft. deep, 43^ ft. wide at the top, and 20 in. wide at the 
bottom. The machine excavated 82,330 cu. yd. in 18 months at the following 
itemized cost: 

Gasoline based on 215 actual days' operation (estimated).. $ 903.00 

Repairs, actual cost 860 . 00 

Incidentals at 50 cents per day 120. 25 

Labor of foreman, 18 months, at $75 per month 1,350.00 

Other labor, two men, $2.50 per day for 250 days 625.00 

Interest and depreciation 2,675.25 

Total $6,533.50 

Cost per cubic yard, $0.0793. 

Cost of Straddle Ditch Excavators Work. — D. L. Yarnell gives the follow- 
ing in Bulletin No. 300, office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering, ab- 
stracted in Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 19, 1916. 

A machine of this type often used has a 30-ft. boom and a 1-yard dipper. 

The steam power used is obtained through a 2-cylinder, 35-hp. engine and a 

vertical boiler. The machine rests on a platform which is mounted on two 

steel beams^ each 29 ft. long, that straddle the ditch. It can be mounted on 

40 



626 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

either caterpillar tractors or wheeled trucks. In the latter case, each end of 
the two beams is supported on a two-wheeled oscillating truck, the wheels 
being 2 ft. high and 18 in. wide. They run on a wooden track 6 in. thick and 
3 ft. wide, which is built in six sections each 20 ft. long. One section of the 
track on each side is always unoccupied and these are lifted ahead by means 
of cranes operated by power derived from the engines. This track will sup- 
port the machine in the softest ground. The excavator will dig 12 ft. deep 
. and 22 ft. wide on firm ground; with an extension to the dipper handle it can 
dig 18 ft. deep. It will deposit the dirt on either side at a distance of 32 ft. 
from the center of the ditch. The dipper will swing over a bank 14 ft. high. 
Where track is used the machine is pulled ahead by a cable from the engine 
which hooks to the track on both sides ; this is done without interrupting the 
work of excavating. If desired, caterpillar tractors are furnished instead of 
the wheeled trucks. The front tractors are 4 ft. wide by 11 ft. long, and the 
rear tractors are 4 ft. wide by 73^^ ft. long. This excavator has been known to 
dig as high as 1,500 cu. yd. in 10 hours in especially favorable material. It 
has dug through 12 in. of frost. From seven to eight men can set up and take 
down the machine in from five to eight days. 

Another machine of this type has a 38-ft. boom and a 1-yard dipper. Power 
is supplied by an internal-combustion engine of 25 or 40 hp. which burns kero- 
sene, gasoline, or distillate oil. The machine rests on a platform which is 
mounted on two steel beams, whose standard span is 32 ft. Extension axles 
are provided which permit of a maximum increase of 3 ft. in the span. The 
front axle is mounted on a two-wheeled swiveling truck with cast-steel dou- 
bleflange wheels. The rear end is carried by two heavy, wide-faced, dou- 
bleflange steel wheels set loosely on the axle. The shipping weight of this 
size of dredge, including engine, dipper, and machinery, is approximately 
38,000 lb. 

Perhaps the cheapest straddle-ditch excavator of the dipper type that is in 
use is a home-made one which has been used to some extent on small ditches 
in Iowa. The machine is of the revolving type. It is equipped with a ^- 
yard dipper and a 28-ft. boom. The power is derived from a 6-hp. gasoline 
hoisting engine geared to three hoisting drums, one of which hoists the end of 
the dipper, one hoists the boom, and one pulls the machine ahead. The 
machinery is mounted on a platform which revolves upon a turntable sup- 
ported on two wooden beams which straddle the ditch. The beams rest on 
wooden wheels, the entire span being 22 ft. The dipper handle, instead of 
moving forward and backward at the boom, is pivoted. The entire machine 
weighs only about 17,000 lb. and costs about $1,200. 

This excavator has dug as high as 400 cu. yd. a day, but averages about 200 
cu. yd. It can excavate a ditch with a 20-ft. top and can dig 13 ft. deep, but 
6 or 7 ft. is the best working depth. Two men can erect the machine in 2^ 
days and dismantle it in ^^ day; it makes about seven wagon loads. The 
hoisting apparatus, which is the heaviest part of the machine, weighs 4,100 
lb. The excavator is moved ahead by means of a " dead man" and cable, and 
can be moved across country at a speed of about 1 mile per day. The machine 
can take out five shovel-loads in two minutes, and has dug through 6 in. of 
frost. Only two men are required to operate it — one operator and one 
trackman. 

A ditch constructed by this machine in Iowa had an 18-ft. top, 4-ft. bottom 
and 6>^-ft. depth. From 8 to 10 gal. of gasoline, costing 16H ct. at the works, 
were used per day. The material, which was a loam underlain by a stiff 



LAND DRAINAGE 627 

gravelly subsoil, was excavated at the rate of about 200 cu. yd. in 10 hours. 
The cost of operation per shift was as follows: 

One operator $4 . 00 

One trackman 2 . 00 

Ten gallons gasoline, at $0.16>j2 1 .65 

Total $7.65 

The cost per cubic yard, exclusive of interest and depreciation, was about 
3.8 ct. The contract price on 5,000 cu. yd. was 12 ct. 

Such a machine as this would be well adapted to digging the small ditches 
in the South that are almost universally put in by hand at a cost of about 25 
ct. per cubic yard. Even in ground covered with stumps, by using plenty of 
dynamite this type of excavator could be used to advantage in reducing the 
cost of small ditches. 

In general, it may be said that the dry-land dipper dredge, though applicable 
to certain conditions, has no extensive use in drainage work, as excavation that 
is suitable to this machine can usually be handled to better advantage by the 
drag-Une scraper excavator. 

Drag Line Excavators on Ditch Work. — The following extract, from Bulle- 
tin No. 300, office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering on "Excavating 
Machinery Used in Land Drainage" by D. L. Yarnell, is given Engineering in 
and Contracting, Feb. 2, 1916. 

A drag-line excavator of the rotary type, having a 2-yard scraper bucket 
and a 30-ft. boom, was used in the construction of drainage ditches in southern 
Texas. It was built mostly of wood and moved on rollers. Power was 
derived from an 80-hp. internal-combustion engine, burning oil. The cost of 
the excavator, ready to operate, was $12,000. It was operated about 10 
months in two daily shifts of 10 hours each, a shift consisting of 10 men. The 
actual working time was not recorded. The ditch ranged from 4 to 22 ft. in 
bottom width, from 3 to 12 ft. in depth, and had 1 to 1 side slopes. The soil 
varied from a stiff, heavy clay to a fine sand. The excavation amounted to 
230,000 cubic yards; the cost was as follows: 

Operating expenses $22 , 313 . 36 

Miscellaneous expenses 374 . 70 

Interest and depreciation 4 , 100. 00 

Total $26,788.06 

Cost per cubic yard, $0.1104. 

On another drainage project in southern Texas, a 2-yard rotary excavator 
was used. The machine was of steel throughout, had a 60-ft. boom, and was 
mounted on caterpillar traction. The crew consisted of a foreman, operator, 
engineman, oiler, and two laborers. The machine was operated by a 110-hp, 
internal-combustion engine, with oil as fuel. The total cost of the machine 
was about $17,500. The cost of erection was $509. During the four months 
of operation two 10-hour shifts were run. The ditches ranged from 4 to 22 
ft. in bottom width and from 3 to 12 ft. in depth, with 1 to 1 side slopes and 
8-ft. berms. The material excavated was a stiff, heavy clay. The excavation 
amounted to 91,400 cu. yd.; the cost was as follows: 

Operating expenses $ 8 , 873 . 82 

Miscellaneous 37 1 . 00 

Interest and depreciation 2 , 391 . 00 

Total. $11,635.82 

Cost per cubic yard, $0.1273. 



628 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

In the same general locality as the last example a l^-yard rotary drag-line 
excavator, operated by a 50-hp. internal-combustion engine and mounted on 
caterpillar traction, was used in the construction of some ditches in soil ranging 
from stiff, heavy clay to fine sand. The ditches were of the same dimensions 
as in the foregoing example. The machine was rebuilt 'from an old dipper 
dredge at a cost of about $1,200. It was operated in two daily shifts of 10 
hours each. The crew for each shift consisted of from five to six men. Dur- 
ing the five months of operation the machine moved 59,014 cu. yd. at an ex- 
pense, exclusive of interest and depreciation, of $8,921, or $0.1512 per cubic 
yard. 

A rotary drag-line excavator with a 2 3^ -yard bucket and 65-ft. boom, 
mounted on skids and rollers, was used in the excavation of 222,500 cu. yd. 
in South Dakota. The power was obtained from a 50-hp. internal-combustion 
engine, using gasoline. The cost of the machine, complete, was $10,500. The 
total time of construction was 148 working days, or approximately six months, 
of which 23 days were occupied in making repairs. Two shifts of 11 hours 
each were run. The soil was a loam underlain by clay. The crew and rates 
per month were as follows: One superintendent, $125; 2 cranemen, at $100; 
4 trackmen, at $50; 1 teamster, $45; 1 cook, $40. The operating expenses 
were as follows : 

Gasoline, 15,444 gallons, at $0.124 $ 1,915.05 

Labor 3,060.00 

Subsistence 561 . 81 

Cables 978.87 

Repairs and renewals 845 . 93 

Miscellaneous 2,078.72 

Interest and depreciation 2 , 152. 50 



Total $11,592.88 

Cost per cubic yard, $0.0521. 

The following costs were secured on the operation of a rotary drag-line 
excavator with an 85-ft. boom, 2-yard bucket, and a 50-hp. engine. The work 
was done on the New York State Barge Canal. The machine weighed 147 
tons and cost $10,000. It excavated earth 90 ft. from center on one side and 
deposited it 100-ft. from center on the other. It dug a channel 25 ft deep, 
and deposited the material on waste bank 15 to 25 ft. high. The material 
was a stiff clay, with few stumps or bowlders. The following is a condens- 
ed cost record for five months' work: 

Yards 
Total expense excavated Average cost 

Month for month during month per yard 

April $1,088.21 5,205 $0,209 

May 1,041.53 18.365 .0568 

June 1,152.04 25,333 .0455 

July 1,317.61 33,055 .0399 

August 1,535.36 47,363 .0324 

Average cost per yard for 5 months, including all charges, $0.0474. 

In May, items of cost were as follows: 

Engineer, at $90 per month $ 90. 00 

Engineer, at $95 per month 84 . 04 

Fireman, pumpmen, watchmen, etc., at $1.75 per day 363.00 

Coal, at $3 per ton 147.00 

Repairs, including labor and material 15.82 

Interest and depreciation 341 . 67 

Total '. $1,041.53 



LAND DRAINAGE 629 

Cost of Drag Line Excavator Operation. — Engineering and Contracting, 
Feb. 20, 1918, gives the following. 

In connection with drainage construction on U. S. Reclamation Projects 
over 2,000,000 cu. yd. of earth were excavated during 1916 with four Class 
9>^ Bucyrus electric dragline excavators. The machines were operated by 
Government employes. Electric power was furnished at a cost of about 0.35 
ct. per kilowatt hour from the Reclamation Service power plant. 

The drains constructed were all open-channel cuts varying from 7 to 12 ft. 
in depth, with side slopes of 1>^ to 1 and 2 to 1, and with usual base width of 
from 5 to 10 ft. 

The drag-line excavators were operated three 8-hour shifts per day with 
crews of one operator and one oiler. The material excavated consisted prin- 
cipally of clay, loam, soil, and boulder gravel laid in clay and sand. This 
latter material constituted about 40 per cent of the total excavation and wore 
out bucket parts very rapidly. Temporary 3-phase electric transmission 
lines for operating the excavators were erected at a labor cost of about $85 
per mile and torn down at a cost of $20 per mile, the line materials being used 
repeatedly along successive drains. The following table from the last annual 
report of the U. S. Reclamation Service shows the cost of excavating with the 
four drag lines for the 12 months, Jan. 1 to Dec. 31, 1916: > 

Cost per 

Classification Total cost cu. yd. 

Operation .,. $ 20,529.88 $0.0077 

Power 15,661.15 .0059 

Repairs 33,650.11 .0126 

Moving up 3,943.89 .0015 

Cutting side drains 4 , 984 . 68 . 0019 

Finishing (hand labor) 629 . 37 . 0002 

Drilling and blasting* 217 . 34 . 0001 

Moving to new work 1 , 923 . 00 . 0007 

Sub-total $ 81 , 539 . 42 $0. 0306 

Project general expense 4,468.96 .0017 

Depreciation excavation equipment 31,943.96 .0120 

Depreciation temporary power system 29 , 351 .11 .0110 

Total cost $147,302.99 $0.0554 

Total yardage 2 , 660 . 465 

Total mileage 54. 17 

Cost per mile $ 2 , 719 . 27 

*For excavation of 2,385 cu. yd. of rock. 

The average digging rate of the four machines was 150 cu. yd. per-hour, or at 
the rate of two cycles per minute, with 1>^ cu. yd. capacity buckets. The 
following table shows the machine efficiency: 

Total hours Per cent 

Digging 17,732.50 76.9 

Repairs 2,729.75 11.8 

Moving 1,486.00 6.5 

Blasting 64 . 75 0.3 

Side drains and runways 591 .75 2.6 

Power off 430. 25 1 . 9 

Total 23,035.00 100.00 

In excavating 2,660,465 cu. yd. the machines worked 2,824 shifts, the aver- 
age yardage per shifting being 940. The highest run per shift was 1,967 cu. 
yd. 



630 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Cost of Digging Drainage Ditch with Gasoline -driven Dragline. — P. F. 
Jones gives the following information in Engineering and Contracting, Dec. 
17, 1919. A H cu. yd. dragline during the past season excavated a drainage 
ditch for the Modesto Irrigation District of Stanislaus County, California, at 
cost of 13 ct. per cubic yard. This figure comprises actual running expenses, 
including labor and material, but not interest or depreciation. The material 
excavated was 50 per cent sandy loam and 50 per cent clay hard pan. The 
ditch had a 6-ft. bottom, was 8 ft. deep, with slopes of 13^ to 1. It w^s ap- 
proximately 2 miles in length. The crew included one operator at $200 per 






^ 

^^- 




-Ki 



-\ 




\\ 




Fig. 1. — Sketches showing arrangement of holes for excavating ditches with 

dynamite. 



month; one oiler at $5 per day and one 2-horse team and driver at $7 per day. 
The quantity of earth moved per 12-hour shift amounted to approximately 400 
cu. yd. 

Cost of Excavating Drainage Ditches with Dynamite. — A very considerable 
amount of farm ditching is being done with dynamite. Instead of digging 
these ditches by hand or machine, one or more rows of holes are made along 
the line of the ditch and a small dynamite cartridge is placed in each hole and 
the cartridges are exploded simultaneously. The result of the explosion is a 
channel which with very little labor makes a satisfactory drainage ditch. 



I 



LAND DRAINAGE 631 

Dynamiting is confined to the smaller sizes of ditches, say up to 5 ft. deep, 
but for channels of these sizes in suitable soils some very excellent results are 
reported. 

Fig. 1 shows the arrangement of holes for ditches of several widths. A steel 
bar driven with a sledge is employed to make the holes. The cartidges are 
placed at the bottom of the holes and connected up with fuse or wire and then 
fired in the usual manner. The arrangement and spacing of the holes differ 
with the soil and had best be determined for each condition by a series of 
trials. As examples, the following reports of work done at Chadbourne, N. C, 
for the Brett Engineering Co. are of interest: 

"Where the ground was comparatively free from stumps and roots we put 
down holes 18 ins. apart, 3\i ft. deep, and 100 holes in all. Each hole was 
pointed 45^^ and loaded with one stick of Hercules 60 per cent N. G. dynamite 
V/i X S ins., the center hole being primed with an extra stick land a double 
strength exploder. The result was a good ditch 7 ft. wide on top, 3 ft. on the 
bottom and 3 ft. deep and 150 ft. long. Costs of finishing and trimming 
according to specifications per running foot were: 

Total cost of explosives used $11 . 35 

Total cost of putting down holes .50 

Total cost of finishing and trimming 4.50 

Total cost of 150-ft. ditch $16. 35 

Total cost per running foot . 109 

" The next ditch was shot at SoUo Swamp, where the ground was heavily 
matted with roots and stumps. The specifications here called for a ditch 14 
ft. wide, 2]''^ ft. deep. We put a double row of holes, 100 in each row, 18 ins. 
apart laterally, 4^.^ ft. apart longitudinally, and 4 ft. deep. Both rows pointed 
45° in the same direction. The middle holes primed with an extra stick and a 
double strength exploder. Along the path of this ditch we counted 35 stumps 
from 6 ins. to 3 ft. in diameter. The result was a clean ditch 12 to 14 ft. wide, 
4 ft. deep and 150 ft. long. 

Cost of explosives per running ft $0. 10 

Cost of holes per running ft 0066 

i Cost of labor per running ft 03 

.1. Total cost per running ft $0.1366 

■' '* The next ditch was shot at Dunn Swamp, where we decided to put down 
150 ft. in the muddiest and stickiest kind of ground. We put down a double 
row of holes 18 ins. apart, 4^4 ft. laterally, 4 ft. deep, both rows pointed 45° 
in the same direction. Each hole loaded with one stick of 60 per cent and the 
middle hole of each row primed with a double strength exploder. All the 
holes well tamped. Result was a very clean ditch 14 ft. wide, 31^^ to 4 ft. 
deep and 150 ft. long. The total cost of this ditch was the same as the ditch 
shot at SoUo Swamp." 

According to Engineering and Contracting, March 21, 1917, dynamite was 
used in blasting open drainage ditches at the experiment station farm of the 
Montana Agricultural College at Bozeman, Mont. The soil where the ditch- 
ing was done is very gravelly and contains many large rocks, making digging 
difficult and expensive. 

Two sticks of 60 per cent Hercules dynamite were placed in holes 22 in. 
apart, this distance being determined by experimenting to be the most desir- 
able for the soil conditions. About 25 holes were usually fired at one shot, the 
middle hole being used for the primer. A length of 647 ft. was blasted at a 
cost for labor of $51.25, or $1.31 per rod. The expense of cleaning out the 



632 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

ditch after blasting was 27 cts. per rod, which is included in the above cost. 
Dynamite, caps and fuse for the job cost $1.05 per rod (dynamite at 22 ct. 
per pound). The following is a comparison of three lengths of ditch con- 
structed in 1915: 

Kind of work Length of Total cost 

ditch, rods per rod 

Hand-dug ditch 14 . $3 . 35 

First length of blasted ditch 17.0 3.10 

Second length of blasted ditch 39. 2 2. 36 

Cost of Maintaining Drainage Ditches in the South. — According to 
Engineering News- Record, Aug. 8, 1918, keeping a land drainage channel 
clear of growth and debris, cost $15 to $35 per mile on a ditch 8-ft. deep, 
14-f t. wide at base and with side slopes of 1>^ : 1 . These costs per mile include : 
labor, moving camp, food and cook's salary, depreciation on camp equipment 
and tools, together with all incidental expenses with the exception of Engineer- 
ing supervision. 

The rates of wages were as follows : foreman $3 per day, laborers boarding 
in camp $1 per day and laborers boarding themselves $1.25 to $1.50 per day. 

Costs of Cleaning Drainage Ditches. — Methods employed in cleaning 
drainage ditches are described by Seth Dean, in the Proceedings of the Iowa 
State Drainage Association; from which Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 
28, 1914, abstracts the following: 

In the spring of 1910 the writer cleaned a bed of silt ranging from 6 ins. to 
3 ft. in thickness and three-fourths of a mile in length from a channel originally 
cut 16 ft. wide on the bottom, but at the time in question the stream of water 
flowing over the silt was about 10 ft. wide and 1 ft. deep, the rate of fall being 
about 2 ft. per mile. There was considerable sand and some drift in the silt 
but no growth of weeds or brush. The plant used consisted of a flat-bottomed 
boat or scow, 7 X 18 ft. in size and 16 ins. deep, made of 1-in. plank. In the 
bottom of the scow a platform of 2-in. plank was laid to support the machin- 
ery, which consisted of a 4-hp. gasoline engine belted to a Myers pump with 
3-in. suction and 2y2-m. discharge. The pump was equipped with 10 ft. 
of 3-in. suction hose with strainer on the inlet end, and for discharge had about 
15 ft. of 23'^-in. fire hose with 1-in. nozzle. The scow when loaded required 
about 6 ins. depth of water to float. Commencing at the lower end of the 
silt bed the boat was poled forward or held in place, as required, and a jet 
of water turned through the nozzle into the silt that readily broke and stirred 
it up, permitting the water to float it away. The work was done in March and 
April, when the flowing water was clear and capable of carrying silt in suspen- 
sion, the distance from the center of the silt bed to the outlet of the ditch was 
about 10,000 ft., and the current sufficiently strong that little settling of silt 
occurred. Three highway and one railroad bridge spanned the ditch in the 
distance cleaned, but the boat readily passed under them. Two men operated 
the machine and the total amount of silt removed was 2,346 cu. yds. in 33 
working days. The cost of the equipment was as follows, viz.: 

Cost of scow $ 45 . 00 

Engine and pump 200 . 00 

15-ft. condemned hose and nozzle 3.00 

Belting and fixings 8 . 60 

Freight hauling and setting up . . . 32 . 00 

Two men 33 days at $4 132 . 00 

Gasoline and oil 26 . 40 

Repairs on machinery 1.05 

Total $448.05 



LAND DRAINAGE 633 

After the work was completed the plant was dismantled and the engine and 
pump shipped to other work which was charged with their cost, thus making 
the net cost of the plant $248.05 and the cost of cleaning 10.53 cts. per cubic 
yard. 

On one occasion a bed of silt interspersed with logs, brush, cornstalks, 
etc., was removed, using drags made from the beams and shovels ot wornout 
corn cultivators by bolting the parts together in such manner that they pre- 
sented the appearance of two anchors placed at right angles. The point* of the 
beam was fitted with a swivel so the implement could revolve. By attaching 
ropes to the drag, placing a team on each bank and dragging the plow in the 
channel, the mass was broken up. After pulling out the logs and wire (dyna- 
mite being used sometimes to dislodge them) the water floated out the silt. 
A close measurement of the silt and drift removed from the channel was not 
made, as the work was done under the day system, but approximately 2,800 
cu. yds. were taken out, the cost being the following items: 

Four teams with drivers, at $3.50 each for 24 days $336.00 

Two drags with ropes and fixtures . 10. 00 

Dynamite used . . 5 . 00 

Foreman, 24 days at $2.50 60. 00 



Total $411.00 

Or about 15 cts. per cubic yard. 

In the fall of 1912 we cleaned and deepened what is known as Seaton's ditch, 
near Missouri Valley. This is a drainage ditch 7,600 ft. long with 6 ft. bottom 
width, and side slopes 1 to 1. During the rainy season and for a time after- 
ward the ditch carries water but is usually dry during the fall months. The 
work of cleaning was done by contract at 19 cts. per cu. yd. The contractor 
bid to do the work with teams, but the ground proved too soft for this method, 
and a small drag line dredge was purchased and the work successfully carried 
out with this, which proved to be an excellent machine for the work. The 
machine was made at Cherokee, la., of light timber construction. The frame- 
work, 16 ft. wide, is mounted on rollers and designed to work astride the 
ditch in clean-out work. The power is generated by an 8-bp. gasoline engine, 
which also serves to move the machine forward or transport it from one job 
to another along the country roads if the distance is not great. It uses a 
one-third yard scoop; two men operate it, using about 10 gals, of gasoline 
per day. About 250 cu. yds. of earth in ten hours was the capacity of the 
machine on the job in question. The machine is of wood construction and is 
not very durable, but as most of it is of sizes kept in all lumber yards, defective 
parts can be easily replaced. 

Cost of and Profits from Tile Underdrains. — The following discussion by 
R. D. Marsden, published in Engineering and Contracting, July 7, 1914, is 
taken from the Year Book of the Department of Agriculture. 

^ Costs. — The cost of drainage will vary considerably with the location of the 
work, owing to differences in the cost of tile and of labor : it will vary more with 
the nature of the soil and the consequent depth and spacing of the drains. 
Tile of 4-in. inside diameter will cost $16 to $20 per thousand feet at the 
factory and often $25 per thousand delivered at the railway station. If 4-in. 
tile cost $25 per thousand, 5-in. will cost about $35, 6-in. about $45, and 
8-in. about $80 per thousand feet. Labor will vary from 75 cts. to $1.50 or 
more per day, but as the cheaper labor is considerably less efficient the cost per 



634 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

rod of drain will be more uniform. As an average cost for trenching, laying, 
and backfilling over the tile, about 50 cts. per rod for a depth of 3 ft. may be 
assumed; lower prices may be secured on large contracts that make it 
economical to use a trenching machine or a large force of experienced workmen. 
Deeper digging and larger tile require more excavation and involve higher 
prices. There also will be expense for hauling the tile from the railroad, 
and for engineering work in planning and laying out the drains. Silt wells, 
surface inlets, and masonry protection for tile outlets must be provided 
where needed. The total cost of drainage will ordinarily range from $15 to 
$45 per acre, the lower price mentioned being reached when the spacing of 
drains is perhaps 150 ft. and the higher figure when the spacing is about 4 
rods or a little less. A very common cost for tile drainage is $25 per acre. 
The farmer can often do a considerable part of the hauling and other labor 
with his own teams and regularly employed help, especially where the amount 
of work is not large, saving no small cash outlay. Of course the foregoing 
prices do not anticipate the excavation of rock, large stones, or other very 
hard formation in any considerable quantities, for this will quickly multiply 
the labor cost. 

Open ditches cost from 12 to 20 cts. per cubic yard of dirt removed, the 
price increasing with the size of the ditch because the material must be moved 
farther. A ditch 3 ft. deep, 2 ft. in top width, and 1 ft. in bottom width would 
cost 33 cts. per rod at 12 cts. per cubic yard; a ditch 4 ft. deep, with 3-ft. 
bottom and 6-ft. top, would cost $1.65 per rod at 15 cts. per cubic yard; and 
a ditch 4 ft. deep, with 4-ft. bottom and 8-ft. top, would cost $2.95 per rod at 
20 cts. per yard. If open ditches of the smallest size were used 150 ft. apart, 
with a collecting ditch of the medium size, the cost of drainage would hardly 
be less than $7 per acre. The difference between tile and open drains would 
then be $8 per acre; the interest on such an investment would be 80 cts, per 
acre at 10 per cent, or 50 cts. per acre at 6 per cent. This amount would not 
nearly pay for the labor of keeping the ditches clear of weeds, dirt, and other 
obstructions, not to mention the increase in labor occasioned by having the 
field cut into small parts. The advantage of using tile becomes greater as the 
distance between drains is reduced, not only because of the labor of cultiva- 
tion, but also because of the ground area used for ditches instead of for' 
cropping. 

Profits. — The actual value of farm drainage is indicated by the testimony 
of owners who have done this kind of work. Many of them state enthusias- 
tically that drainage has doubled and trebled their crops and has increased 
the value of the land 50 to 300 per cent. The examples cited herein have 
been selected as typical of the results from properly draining farm lands 
in the humid region of the United States. Because the reclamation of large 
swamp tracts frequently involves considerable expense for clearing and some- 
times for soil treatment after drainage, the profits shown below are in no way 
indicative of those to be obtained from large swamp reclamations. Neither 
should these results be used in considering the drainage of irrigated land in the 
arid region. 

In the coastal plain of North Carolina about 25 acres that were producing 
nothing were tile drained for perhaps $250, probably not including costs of 
teaming and of supervision, and since then have produced a bale of cotton per 
acre. A field of six acres was drained for about $160, and the owner makes 
good crops on soil worthless without drainage. In the black prairie belt of 
Alabama, a field that had not been cultivated in years because too wet was 



LAND DRAINAGE 635 

drained with tile; then it produced one bale of cotton per acre and repaid the 
entire cost of drainage the first year. The following year the field yielded 
50 bushels of corn per acre, twice the rate from the other parts of the farm. 
Another drained field produced one bale of cotton per acre, while the undrained 
land produced only half a bale. A 10-acre field that yielded practically 
nothing in 1912 was tile drained, and in 1913 produced 60 bushels of oats per 
acre; in 1914 the rate was again 60 bushels of oats, in contrast to 10 bushels 
per acre from the adjoining 15-acre field planted to the same grain. The cost 
of most of the tile drainage in Alabama has been about $25 per acre, some of It 
as high as $30 to $35, but increases of 50 to 200 per cent in yields and the 
assurance of good crops every year instead of only in very favorable seasons are 
very satisfactory returns. The cost of drainage there has usually been 
repaid in two to three years by the improved crops. In Iowa, a field of 40 
acres too wet for planting was tile drained at a cost of $24 per acre, after 
which it produced 60 bushels of corn per acre. Another field was drained 
for $23 per acre, thereby increasing the yield from 15 bushels to 40 and 50 
bushels of corn per acre. In Arkansas, on one of the State farms, 1 bale of 
cotton per acre was secured in favorable years, and nothing at all when the 
early part of the season was wet; the year following the installation of tile 
the yield was lYi bales per acre. In Nebraska a tract of more than 700 acres 
\vas tile drained at $24.25 per acre, a pumping plant cost $2 per acre, and as 
part of a larger district the cost of levees to protect from overflow was $9 
per acre. The improvement, for a total cost of $35 per acre, immediately 
increased the crop on about 80 acres of corn 22 bushels per acre, and on 
another part the increase in two years was from nothing to more than 30 
bushels of wheat per acre. 

Owners have found that tile drainage has reduced the cost of farming opera- 
tions 20 to 50 per cent, so the increased production on land cultivated previous 
to drainage is clear profit. To find the profit upon draining land that has 
been abandoned, of course the cost of planting, cultivating, and harvesting 
must be deducted from the gross receipts for the crops raised. Investigations 
of the cost of producing cotton and of producing wheat indicate that where 
expensive fertilizers are not used the cost per acre for growing and marketing 
varies little if at all with the rate of yield. 

To compute the actual money value of drainage requires that certain 
assumptions be made. If the average production of a field is increased about 
one-half bale of cotton per acre, worth 10 cents per pound, the income is 
increased about $25 per acre, equivalent to a 10 per cent dividend on $250, 
or a return of 71 per cent on a drainage cost of $35 per acre. If drainage 
increases the yield of corn 25 bushels per acre, worth 50 cents per bushel, 
the returns of $12.50 per acre would be equivalent to a 10 per cent dividend 
on $125, or 50 per cent annually on a cost of $25 per acre. However, to 
capitalize the net increase in value of the crops at the regular rate of interest 
might be a fair measure of the increase in producing value of the land, but 
this is the result of drainage added to what may be called the unused fertility 
of the soil. It will be better to consider the increase brought about by drain- 
age in the market value of the property. In the Piedmont section of North 
Carolina a 55-acre farm was bought about six years ago for $1,900; ditching 
was started the first year and tile drainage two years later; in 1913 the crops 
were worth $2,000, and in 1914 the owner refused $5,000 for the farm. In 
the mountain section of the same state about 22 acres that grew only saw 
grass and bulrushes were tiled for $35 to $40 per acre, and the owner now 



636 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

values the land at $150 per acre. Another farmer spent about $200 cash, and 
probably some of his own time, in tile drainage, and thereby increased the 
market value of his farm $500 to $800. Another man reports the results as 
300 per cent increase in the selling price of the land and 40 per cent in the 
assessed value; still another, who drained 10 acres for about $140, gives the 
results as one-third increase in assessed value, two-thirds increase in selling 
price, and more than 100 per cent increase in production. "In eastern Mary- 
land tile work costing $500 increased the farm value $1,000, and work costing 
about $240 increased the value of another farm $500. 

In considering the economy of farm drainage it is proper to compare the 
anticipated results with the probable returns from otherwise investing the 
money that the drainage work will cost. When a farmer considers investing 
some of his savings to increase his business a question often to be met is: 
Shall he buy more land or improve some of what he already owns? If corn 
land producing 50 bushels per acre sells for $80 per acre, and he has marsh land 
which cost $10 per acre that produces nothing, drainage at $30 per acre will 
be profitable if it will make the marsh produce 25 bushels of corn, provided 
there are no other costs for preparing the land for cultivation. If the whole 
cost of drainage and other reclamation work is $50 per acre, and the result 
50 bushels, the land has been made worth $80 for a total cost of $60 per acre. 
If land yielding 40 bushels per acre can be made to produce 50 bushels by 
drainage at $25 per acre, perhaps it would be true economy to buy more good 
land at the price stated rather than to drain; for $1,000 spent improving 40 
acres would yield 400 bushels, while the same money buying 123^ acres new 
would yield 625 bushels. The difference in value at 50 cents per bushel 
would be $1 12.50. However, the increase in cost of farming the larger acreage 
might be considerable; if it would amount to as much as $3 per acre it would 
more than offset the difference in total yield, for there would be no increase 
in cost of farming on the drained land. Actual comparisons of the profits to 
be obtained from farm improvement and from purchasing improved land 
will many times show the farmer to be true economy, in spite of seemingly 
small gross returns. As larger markets raise the prices of agricultural pro- 
ducts, land values must increase and larger expenditures per acre for drainage 
will be profitable. 

Cost 35 Miles of Tile Drains. — The following data are given by L. H. God- 
dard and H. O. Tiffany in Circular No. 147 of the Ohio Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station. 

Description of Soil on the Farm Drained* — Practically all of the soil on this 
farm is of glacial origin, and has been derived from the drift, which is here com- 
posed very largely of pulverized shale. The principal type, called Papakating 
clay, is a clay loam containing quite a large percentage of silt. The surface soil 
consists of a pale yellowish or grayish brown clay or heavy silt loam about 9 
inches deep, which gradually becomes heavier with depth until at 18 to 24 
inches it is mottled yellow and gray or blue clay, which becomes decidedly 
plastic at a depth of 3 feet. The higher elevations, or knobs, which were 
occasionally encountered, are somewhat lighter in texture, sometimes ap- 
proaching a sandy loam, and usually contain some large stones or gravel in 
both soil and subsoil. 

The lower lying soil, called Volusia silty clay loam, consists mainly of a 
dark colored clay loam or clay, varying greatly in depth and underlain by very 

• Prepared by Dr. George N. Coffey of the Ohio Agricultural Experiment 
Station. 




LAND DRAINAGE 637 

stiff mottled or bluish clay. This subsoil clay was considered by an expert 
to be of the right quality for tile making. 

Near the centers of the main swamp areas there occur small areas of muck 
and washed-in material. The deposit of muck is shallow and the soil is very 
porous, allowing the water to disappear readily after rains and storms. 

Methods of Procedure. — The work of installing the tile was conducted 
in the field by the Junior author, and all records were kept and compiled 
by him. The compilation and the manuscript have been checked by O. 
E. Brown, who was an assistant on the farm under Mr. Tiffany's management. 
This work of installation was done in cooperation with the Ohio Experi- 
ment Station and the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the regular time blanks 
of the Department of Cooperation of the Ohio Experiment Station being used. 
The records given herein are quite accurate so far as they go, and for the con- 
ditions under which the work was done. 

The planning and laying out of the tiling systems in any given field was 
done by the Farm Manager, usually just previous to starting tiling operations. 
In a few instances surveys of the main ditches were made by an engineer to 
determine the necessary depth of cuts at intervals along the line. Surveys of 
this kind are especially valuable when a deep cut is to be made. In many 
instances levels were run on ditches where the amount of fall was doubtful. 
An ordinary carpenter's spirit level with sights attached was used for this 
purpose. This method is hardly accurate enough, but on most laterals up to 
80 rods in length very good results were obtained. When a main ditch is 
over 80 rods long and has but little fall the Y level should be used. At the 
close of the season's operations an engineer was employed to make a plot of 
the fields tiled, showing the exact locations of all the drains. 

All ordinary labor, such as hauling of tile, filling of trenches, etc., was done 
by men and teams taken from the regular force on the farm. 

Tiling Work Done in 1909. — In the season of 1909 the drainage operations 
were confined to a single field (hereafter designated as No. 2), with the excep- 
tion of about one-half mile of tiling for which figures are not included in this 
circular. The outlet for this field, which was an open ditch, had been pro- 
vided the previous fall. 

The surface conditions of this field were somewhat varied. The larger 
portion of it, or about 30 acres, was upland and quite rolling for this section of 
the state. The other 10 acres was mostly a clay and muck swamp. On the 
upland it was comparatively easy to secure a sufficient fall in all ditches, the 
fall per 100 ft. averaging about 8 inches, but the swamp area the fall would 
not average over one inch per 100 feet. One main ditch, which was in 12-inch 
tile, was carried practically on a level for about 800 feet, the grade being deter- 
mined by the use of water. The condition of the upland portionl of this 
field would be an average for land in that section that had never been working 
It was covered with a heavy bluegrass sod which had been pastured for many 
years. The ten acres of lowland or of swamp area were covered with bul- 
rushes, cat-tails, swamp brush, trees, etc., and in many instances a clearing 
had to be made before starting a ditch. The cost of this clearing for a ditch 
was comparatively trivial, however, and is included in the cost of tiling the 
field. 

With the exception of about 160 rods the trenching was all done by hand 
this year; this 160 rods was dug by a machine rented at an average price of 
25c per rod for the trenching alone. This cost of trenching was not deducted 
and figured separately, but included with the hand dug ditches by using 



038 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

exact figures of cost. Regular workmen employed for spading or trenching 
were paid from 20c to 22>^c per hour for actual time put in. One man of long 
experience who did the bottoming, grading and laying of the tile received 25c 
per hour. The distance actually covered by each workman would not average 
over 8 rods per day under very favorable conditions. 

Operations in 1909 were begun in the month of May, and for two months an 
average of 6 men were employed to dig the trenches. Little work was done, 
however, during the month of July and early August because some of the 
workmen were needed for harvesting and because the ground became so hard 
and dry. No tiling was done later than. Oct. 1st. that year. Table I shows 
a summary of the 1909 tiling operations. 

Table I. — Summary of Tiling Operations in 1909 
Total rods, 2,560; total area, 40 acres. Man rate, 15c per hour; horse rate, 
10c per hour. 

— Total labor Labor per rod ■ 

Hours Hours 

Man Horse Cost Man Horse Cost 

Hauling tile 135.5 271 $ 47.42 .053 .106 $0.0186 

iTrenching &laying tile .. .3855.0 ... 963.74 1.500 .... .3760 

Filling ditches 305.0 305 76.23 .119 .119 .0300 

mother equipment charges 10.00 '.0040 

Cost of tile 555 .39 2170 

Overhead charges ... 58 . 88 . 0230 

Plotting drains 40. 45 0158 



Totals 1,752.11 6844 

1 Man rate varied from 20 to 25 cents per hour. The cost is exact, but hours 
approximate. 

2 Approximate. 

Explanation of Cost Classifications Found in Tables I, II and III. — Of these 
classifications, figures for machine operator, hauling tile, trenching and laying, 
laying tile, filling ditches, undivided operations and plotting drains are given 
in dollars based on the number of hours worked, the cost being obtained by 
multiplying hours of labor by the rate per hour. Machine charges and other 
equipment charges include, in addition to labor, cash repairs, interest on 
investment and depreciation on equipment. The gasoline, oil and cost of 
tile are straight cash charges and are put in at the actual price paid. 

Overhead charges in this work included only the cost of the actual time of 
the farm manager to lay out and plan the drainage system and to direct the 
work in the field. The time required to execute this duty varied considerably 
from day to day. After the system was once outlined and everything working 
well it did not ordinarily require more than one or two hours a day. 

Tiling Operations in 1910. — In 1910 tiling operations were conducted on 
ten separate fields, covering twelve water sheds. Table II shows that seven 
of these fields were small, and as several operations were carried on simul- 
taneously in them, it was not practical to keep the cost of each one separately. 
These contained 21 acres and included 216 rods of water pipe line, sewers and 
lines for hog barn disposal. The total area drained during the year was 65 >i^ 
acres and a total of 4080 rods or 12 3^^ miles was installed in that area. 

For the work this- year a new power tile ditching machine, equipped with a 
gasoline engine, was purchased early in the spring and nearly all the trenching 
done during this season was with this machine. One man was required to 
operate the ditching machine and another man to lay tile, although the tile 
layer occasionally assisted the machine operator in setting grade stakes, 



LAND DRAINAGE 



639 



Table II. — -Summary of Tiling Operations in 1910 

Man rate, 15c per hour: horse rate, 10c per hour; machine operator, 20c per 
hour. 

Field cost 

Seven 
misc. 

Operations Field 24 Field 29 Field 30 areas Total 

Areas in acres 29 103-^ 5 21 65>^ 

Rods 1,591 755 300 1,434 4,080* 

Machine charges $172.46 $81.84 $32.52 $155.41 $442.23 

Machine operator 66.92 28.04 12.64 20.86 128.46 

Gasoline 35.50 14.34 5.17 34.51 89.52 

Oil 1.74 1.43 .64 2.06 5.87 

Hauling tile 59.34 41.80 12.03 18.83 132.00 

Contract laying tile 115.95 41.25 22.95 78.60 258.75 

Filling ditches 52.08 28.40 5.16 17.12 102.76 

Other equipment charges. . 6.17 3.05 1.20 4.58 15.00 

Undivided operations 25.51 3.00 3.60 144.53 176.64 

Cost of tile 325.95 132.16 79.47 297.42 835.00 

Overhead charges 36.59 17.37 6.90 32.99 93.85 

Plotting drains 25.13 11.93 4.74 18.88 60.68 

Grand totals $923.34 $404.61 $187.02 $825.79 $2,340.76 

* 12^ miles. 



repairing the machine, etc. The main ditch was first installed and then the 
laterals were connected to it in a systematic manner. In connecting laterals 
to the main it was necessary to do some hand digging, because the machine 
could not be put to the proper grade nearer to the main ditch than 6 or 8 feet, 
depending, of course, upon the depth of the main. The cost of this necessary 
hand digging in connecting the laterals with the main ditches has been 
assembled with other costs in a column called "Undivided operations." 

The largest field tiled during the year 1910 contained 29 acres. In it 1591 
rods of drains were installed, or an average of 55 rods per acre. During 
July, August and September the work was much interrupted because of 
using the men for harvesting and farm work. 

This field, which was a heavy blue grass sod, with the exception of about 
3 acres of muck swamp which usually was covered with water about half the 
year, had been used as a pasture for many years. The drains of this field 
had two outlets; the principle one being a twelve-inch tile leading to an open 
ditch. The fall of this main for the last 500 feet did not exceed one inch per 
one hundred feet. In general, however, the topography of the field was quite 
broken, affording plenty of fall. Indeed there were slopes in which the fall 
was as much as 8 feet to the hundred. 

The second field of importance, which was drained in 1910, was a young 
orchard which had been set that same spring. There were 10 >^ acres in this 
orchard and in it a total of 755 rods of drain were installed, or 72 rods per 
acre. This greater amount of tile per acre was due to the fact that the trees 
were set 32 feet apart and that a line of tile was installed between each two 
rows of trees, whereas in other fields 40 feet apart for laterals was the distance 
more frequently used. The topography of this orchard field was rolling, but 
without abrupt breaks. The fall per hundred feet would run about 6 inches, 
although in a few instances there was a fall of three or four feet to the hundred. 

It should be noted in passing that wet weather in April, September and 
October, interfered quite a little in the operation of the tile ditching machine, 
due to mud sticking to it. 



G40 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Tiling Operations in 1911. — During the season of 1911 tiling operations were 
confined to two fields, Nos. 5 and 31 with the exception of 198 rods in two other 
fields. In all 4,755 rods of tile were installed in 122 K acres. Table III gives 
a summary of the work executed this year. 

Operations were begun late in March and continued throughout the season 
until October 31st. The first work was done under very unfavorable condi- 
tions. It was the digging of a main ditch which followed the channel of an 
old open ditch, in which the cut in places was from 4 to 6 feet. The ground was 
so wet at this time of the year that slipping of the propeller was not infrequent 
and caving in of the ditch greatly hampered the progress and necessarily 
increased the cost. In some places the soil where wet was such a waxy clay 
that it caused considerable trouble by sticking to the machine. 

Table III. — Summary of Tiling Operations in 1911 

Field 5 Field 31 Misc. areas Total 

Area in acres 54 65 3^ 122H 

Rods 2,666 1,891 198 4,755 

Machine charges $ 407 . 88 $ 289 .'32 $30 . 28 $ 727 . 48 

Machine operator 95.10 72.00 19.16 186.26 

Gasoline 66.00 69.48 9.72 145.20 

Oil 7.84 4.34 .96 13.14 

Hauling tile 63.10 94.94 12.50 170.54 

Contract laying tile 184.98 121.33 20.11 326.42 

Filling ditches.. 78.08 82.22 12.31 172.61 

Other equipment charges 11 . 17 7 . 98 .89 20 . 04 

Undivided operations 107 . 62 35 . 78 24 . 90 168 . 30 

Cost of tile 567.00 765.85 61.34 1355.19 

Overhead charges 61.32 43.49 4.56 109.37 

Plotting drains 42.12 24.58 * 66.70 

Grand totals 1,692.21 1,572.31 196.73 3,461.25 

Overhead charge is 2.3c per rod. Plotting drain charge is 1.58c per rod. 
* Not plotted. 

Ditching in field No. 5 began in April and continued throughout the smnmer 
until August 25th. As shown by the table, the area covered in this field is 
54 acres, in which were installed 2,666 rods of tile, making an average of 49 
rods per acre. The general topography of this field is rolling. There were 
two swamps in it; one a cat-tail swamp full of brush and trees and another 
which covered about 2>^ acres. A former owner had attempted to drain this 
latter swamp a number of years previously, but the attempt was unsuccessful. 
The soil in these swamps varied from a muck in their center to a heavy, 
black waxy clay around the outside. In a few places in this field stones were 
sufficiently numerous to retard the progress considerably but no serious 
breakage was occasioned. 

One of the main ditches in this field is worthy of note. It is 830 feet long 
with an average depth of cut of about 6.5 feet. The maximum cut was 9.7 
feet, which was maintained for a distance of about 300 feet. The machine 
was operated in this ditch to its maximum depth, which is 4>^ feet, and the 
remainder was dug by hand, using contract labor. The total cost of extra 
labor on this ditch, after the machine had done its part, was $103.62, or an 
average of $2.06 per rod. If we add the cost of gasoline, oil and other machine 
charges, which amount to $10.44, to the other labor charges of $103.62 we have 
a total cost of $1 14.06, or $2.27 per rod, which is the instaUing cost of his main 
ditch. Approximately 266 cubic yards of earth were excavated in digging this 



LAND DRAINAGE 641 

ditch. This would make the cost of excavating 42.9 cents per cubic yard. 
From the foregoing it will be manifest that outlets are expensive when no 
natural outlet is available. 

Tiling in field No. 31 began at the conclusion of work in field No. 5 and 
continued until the close of operations on October 31st. The area covered in 
this field was 65 acres. The field joined field No. 24, which was tiled in 1910. 
1 ,891 rods were installed in it, or about 29 rods per acre. The distance between 
laterals was greater in this field than in many of the others; varying from 50 
to 110 feet, with an average distance of about 90 feet. Fully 35 acres of this 
field was a swamp, a portion of which had been farmed and nearly all of which 
had been previously drained. The drains, however, which had been installed 
from 30 to 35 years previously, had become useless. 

Before anything could be done toward draining this field it was necessary 
to secure a satisfactory outlet. The excavation of this open ditch outlet, 
which was done by the farm teams and laborers, using slip scrapers, was 
started in the summer of 1910 and finished in October 1911, the work being 
prosecuted upon this ditch only at such times as men and teams were not 
required for farm work. The total length of outlet streams was 1 .2 mile, which 
included about 500 feet of new cuts. When this ditch was finished the bot- 
tom of the outlet had been lowered fully 2K feet. The cost of making this 
outlet was $558.18 and is not included in summary Table III. 

In the ditching of this field a few round stones were encountered in the 
upland but no trouble or serious delay was experienced. Continued heavy 
rains auring the late fall caused considerable delay, especially in the muck 
portions. The muck became so full of water that it rushed in from the sides 
of the ditch so fast that the tile layer had to let the excess run away before he 
could lay the tile. A few rotted logs, buried beneath the surface in the muck 
portion of the field, interfered somewhat with the work. 

Character and Cost of Tile Used. — The tiles used in all this work were ordi- 
nary, medium burned tiles, made from a good quality of clay. All tiles up to 
a diameter of 10 inches were in foot lengths, but 10-inch and larger sizes were in 
2-feet lengths. The breakage of tiles through handling was not large, the 
maximum amounting to five or six feet per load of 1,000 3-inch tiles. Even 
with this breakage the over-run amounted to from 3 to 6 per cent, in other 
words 100 feet of tile paid for at the factory would lay from 103 to 106 feet 
in the ditch. The larger tiles seemed to have a greater over-run than the 
smaller ones. The cost of tile per acre for tile drains varies of course in ac- 
cordance with the size of tile and the number of rods per acre. The average 
cost of tile per rod in the main fields in Table IV is 24.45 cents, and the cost 
per acre, with an average of 48 rods, is $11.72. 

Cost of Hauling Tile. — Table V furnishes a very good basis for estimating 
the time required for, and the cost of, hauling tile, especially when taken in 
conjunction with Table IV. Naturally, the cost of hauling tile would vary 
with the size of the tile, the length of the haul, and the condition of the roads. 
Favorable or adverse conditions in connection with any one of these factors 
may affect the cost materially. 

For example, in the. case of fields Nos. 29 and 30, in which the haul and 
weight of tile were practically the same, the roads were so bad when the tile 
was hauled for field No. 29 that it cost 38 per cent more per rod than it did for 
field No. 30. Again, in case of field No. 31, for which the haul was much 
shorter than for No. 29, and for which the roads were in good condition, the 
expense was much increased by the haul within the field, because it was 
41 



642 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



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LAND DRAINAGE 643 

necessary to haul much smaller loads, especially through the muck portions 
of the field. Ordinarily about the same sized loads were hauled on the road 
and in the field but in the case of field 31 it was necessary to unload a part 
of the tile and make a second trip through the field. 

Had it been possible in all cases to haul tile at no other time than when the 
roads were good the cost of hauling could have been materially reduced, 
but in this work it seemed necessary to use the regular farm teams and to try 
to do the hauling when it was not possible to use the teams at other farm work. 
This hauling was done with heavy teams, weighing not less than 2,700 pounds, 
and with wagons having 4-inch tires, thus enabhng the handling of heavy 
loads regardless of the condition of the roads. 100 feet of 12-inch tile or 
1,000 feet of 3-inch tile were considered a load on good roads. 

The Power Tile Ditching Machine. — The power tile ditching machine, in 
connection with which these data were obtained was equipped with cater- 
pillar tractor the weight of the machine thus being distributed over a surface 
of about 24 square feet. This feature enabled the machine to be operated 
over very wet ground and in many instances to be run through swamps covered 
with water without having serious trouble from miring. 

Table VI. — Summary of Hours and Cost for Machine Operator 
20c per hour for operator 

Totals — Per acre — Per rod 

Fields Area Rods Hours Cost HOurs Cost Hours Cost 

No. 24 . 29 1,591 334.6 $66.92 11.54 $2.31 .2103 $0.0421 

No. 29 lOM 755 140.2 28.04 13.35 2.67.1857 .0371 

No. 30 5 300 63.2 12.6412.64 2.53.2106 .0421 

No. 5 54 2,666 475.5 95.10 8.81 1.76.1784 .0357 

No. 31 65 1,891 360.0 72.00 5.54 1.11.1904 .0381 

Total. ..;.... 163K 7,203 1,373.5 274.70 

Average 8.40 1.68 .1907 .0381 

Uneveness of the ground surface made but little difference in controlling 
the grade, as the operator had complete control over the machine at all times. 
In a few instances the depth of cut was changed from 4 feet through a knoll 
to half that depth within a distance on the surface of about the length of the 
machine, and in doing this a perfect grade was easily maintained. 

The machine was equipped to do work at four different rates of speed, which 
were used according to depth of digging and stickiness of dirt. A higher 
speed would dig to a depth of two feet and with very favorable conditions 
even deeper at practically the same cost. The second speed was used in dig- 
ging to a depth of 3 feet under ordinary conditions, and in some cases as deep 
as 3y2 feet. The third speed would dig to 43.^ feet in depth, which was the 
limit of the machine. The fourth or slowest speed was not used in connection 
with this work. Dry ground had no effect upon the machine except to cause 
the knives to need sharpening more frequently. Soil frozen to a depth of 
four inches caused but little trouble. Freezing of wet earth to the machine 
occasionally caused trouble but this was of little consequence. While in 
some cases, in the early spring or late fall when the ground was soaked full of 
water and was of a spongy nature, good progress could not be made be- 
cause of the slipping of the propellers in the soft mud, yet during the greater 
part of the season the machine could be operated satisfactorily immediately 
after heavy showers. In most cases the machine was run only one way — 
from the main up the slope. However, at times when but little water came 



644 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

into the ditch the machine could be operated down the slope just as 
successfully. Round stones or boulders in the ditch line caused more or less 
trouble, depending upon the location in the ditch, the size of the stones, etc. 
Usually boulder the size of a man's head could be removed by the machine 
with comparative ease, but when larger than this it was necessary to raise the 
digger wheel and remove them by hand. 

Table VII. — Summary of Gasoline and Oil Costs 

— Total cost — — — ^Per acre Per rod 

Field Area Rods Gas Oil Gas Oil Gas Oil 

No. 24 29 1,591 $35. 50 $ 1.74 $1 . 224 $0.0600 $0.0233 $0.0011 

No. 29 lOK 755 14.34 1.43 1.365 .1360 .0190 .0019 

No. 30 5 300 5.17 .64 1.034 .1280 .0172 .0021 

No. 5 54 2,666 66.00 7.84 1.222 .1450 .0248 .0029 

No. 31 65 1,891 69.48 4.34 1.069 .0670 .0368 .0023 

Totals 163.5 7,203 190.49 15.99 

Averages 1.165 .0977 .0264 .00221 

Misc. area.. 243-^1,632 44.23 3.02 1.805 .1235 .0271 .00185 

Hours and Costs for Machinery Operator. — In Table VI, in which are 
summarized data regarding the machine operator, it will be noted that the 
cost per rod varies from 3.57 to 4.21 cents, with an average cost of 3.81 cents. 

It should be noted, however, that these prices are figured at 20 cents per 
hour for operator. This was the price actually paid, but it was lower than 
that for which an operator could ordinarily be secured, because of the fact 
that the man used for this purpose was one of the regular farm workmen, who 
had a natural bent in that direction. Ordinarily the wage of the operator 
would run from 30 to 40 cents per hour, thus making the cost greater. In 
order to be able to operate a machine successfully a man should understand 
the principles of tile drainage, the running of grade lines, etc., and at the same 
time he should be handy with machinery. 

Gasoline, Oil and Grease Costs. — In Table VII is shown a summary of 
gasoline, oil and grease costs for the entire area trenched with the machine. 
The average price of gasoline per gallon was 13.3 cents in 1910 and 12 cents 
in 1911. Cup grease cost 6^4 cents per lb., and oil from 16 cents to 35 cents 
per gallon. The best grade of gas engine oil was used on the engine but a 
cheaper oil was used on chains, sprockets, etc. "While this factor of the 
costs may seem somewhat small, yet 3 cents per rod cannot be ignored nor 
can we ignore the fact that the price of gasoline is advancing constantly. 

Tiling Machine Charges. — In Table VIII are summarized the overhead 
machine charges for the two years within which the machine trenching was 
done. These charges are classified under four headings, as follows: 

1. "Labor repairs" which included cost of labor, usually rendered by the 
machine operator, in connection with actual repair work on the machine. 
While of course there are many cases in which a half-hour's time or less was 
spent by the operator repairing the machine, these have not been separated 
from the operating charge. All periods of a longer time than one-half hour 
are charged to "Repairs" and are itemized in this summary. 

2. " Cash repairs " includes all repairs for machine, such as bolts, sharpening 
of knives, batteries for engine, for which cash is paid. 

3. "Depreciation" is a variable item, depending upon several influencing 
factors. In this table it has been figured at 5.1 cents per rod, although at best 
this charge must be an arbitrary one. unless a machine is actually worn out. 
The number of miles of ditch a machine will dig during its lifetime depends 



LANT) DRAINAGE 645 

Table VIII, — Tiling Machine Charges. Depreciation, Repairs and 
Interest on Investment 

Total costs 

Int. on 

Miles Deprecia- -^ — Repairs invest- 

Year Acres Rods tile tion Labor Cash ment Total 

1910 65.5 4,080 12.75 $208.08 $50.74 $100.00 $81.60 $441.23 

1911 122.5 4,755 14.86 242.50 88.05 365.47 71.15 767.18 

Per rod 

Depre- Total av. 

Year Labor Cash Interest ciation cost 

1910 . $0.01240 $0.02450 $0.02000 $0.0511 $0.1079 

1911 01852 .07677 .01495 .0510 .1613 

Av. for two yrs $0 . 1368 

upon the depth of digging; condition of soil as regards texture and freedom 
from stones; care given machine by operator, etc. In determining the arbi- 
trary figure of 5.1 cents per rod it was assumed that the machine would be 
capable of digging 100 miles of trench within its lifetime. Some machines 
have dug over 200 miles of ditch. It will be noted, however, that even on the 
200-mile basis the cost of depreciation per rod would be 2.55 cents and that the 
total machine charge would only be lowered from 13.68 cents to 11.13 cents, 
thus making this, comparatively speaking, a minor point. Depreciation is 
figured on an initial cost of the machine amounting to $1,632. This price, of 
course, may vary from time to time. If no larger tile than 8-inch were to be 
installed it would probably be cheaper to buy a smaller machine unless the 
ground to be trenched is somewhat stony. In this connection it is interesting 
to note that the repair charge, especially cash repairs, for the second year was 
almost three times as much per rod as it was the first year. 

4. "Interest on investment," which was figured at 5 per cent, decreases 
from year to year, as the initial price is cut down by the amount which is 
charged off annually for depreciation. 

Machine Trenching Compared with Hand Trenching. — In Table IX is shown 
a comparison between the costs of hand and machine trenching, so far as it is 
able to make such a comparison from the work done on this farm. It will be 
noted that the cost per rod of machine trenching varies from 30.5 cents to 39.8 
cents, whereas the hand trenching cost is 44.9 cents. It should be noted, 
however, that in these averages, there are more than four times as many rods 
of machine trenching as of hand trenching. While the cost of machine trench- 
ing would, in most cases, be increased somewhat by a higher rate per hour 
for the machine operator, and probably would be increased by the cash repair 
charges, yet even with these increases it probably never would overcome the 
difference between machine and hand trenching, which, as shown by Table 
IX, is 7.4 cents. 

While there may be conditions in the very early spring when the ground is 
thoroughly water-soaked which make the ditching machine not very satis- 
factory because of its slipping and of mud sticking to it, yet this is fully offset 
by the fact that it digs readily in dry weather even though the ground may be 
so hard that it is almost impossible to trench with a spade. It is very much 
easier to maintain a uniform grade when ditching with a machine than doing 
the work by hand. In the trenching which was done by hand in 1909 almost 
all of the ditches were tested with water before tile was laid. This is, of 
course, somewhat expensive, especially if the water is not near at hand. A 



G4C) 



HANDBOOK OP CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table IX. — Comparison Between Hand and Machine Trenching 



Field 

No. 2 

No. 24 

No. 29 

No. 30 

No. 5 

No. 31 

Misc. areas. 







Total cost 










except tile 


Per rod 


Per rod 


Vcr«8 


Rods 


and hauling 


machine 


hand 


40 


2,560 


$1,149.30 




$0,449 


29 


1,591 


538.05 


$0,338 




lOM 


755 


230 . 65 


.305 




5 


300 


95.52 


.318 




54 


2,666 


1,062.11 


.398 




65 


1,891 


750.52 


.397 




24>^ 


1,632 


632.43 


.388 





Totals.... 
Averages . 



228 



11,395 4,458.58 



0.375 



0.449 



fall of from four to six inches per hundred feet in the ditch line would, however, 
remove the necessity of testing with water. 

One other point in favor of the ditching machine is the speed that can be 
made with it. By a comparison of Tables I, VI and X, it will be noted that 
the machine operators use less than one-sixth as much labor per rod in trench- 
ing and laying tile as is spent when the work is done by hand. Considering 
the scarcity of labor and the advancing wages that farmers are being forced 
to pay, it is evident that even though machine trenching were to cost 
more than hand trenching they probably would be forced to make use of the 
machine. 

Cost and Time Required to Lay Tile. — In Table X is summarized the cost of 
laying or installing 7,203 rods of tile upon 163^'^ acres. This includes placing 
the tile in the ditch and putting on just enough earth to hold it in place. For 
various reasons the tile layer is required to excavate by hand occasional short 
ditches, as for example, in finishing a ditch where the machine could not 
approach a fence as close as was necessary. In field No. 30 the larger "Tile 
laying cost" of 7.65 cents per rod is due to hand work of this character, which 
was not separated from the laying of the tile. From this summary table it 
will be noted that the cost varied from a minimum of 5.46 cents to a maximum 
of 7.65, and that the average is 6.75 cents per rod. It will also be observed 
that one man installed on the average almost 45 rods of tile per day. 

Table X. — Showing Hours and Costs for Laying Tile 
Wages, 30c per hour 



Field Acres 

No. 24 29 

No. 29 lOK 

No. 30 5 

No. 5 54 

No. 31 65 



Totals 

Hours Cost 
386.5 $115.95 

137.5 41.25 
76.5 22.95 

616.6 184.98 
404.4 121.32 



Totals 1633-^ 

Averages 



Rods 
1,591 

755 

300 
2,666 
1,891 

7,203 1,621.5 486.46 



Per rod 

Hours Cost 

. 243 $0 . 0729 
. 182 . 0546 

.255 .0765 

.231 .0693 

.214 .0642 



.225 



0.0675 



Owing to the very great importance of having the tile laid properly it is 
usually deemed advisable to secure for this purpose the services of an efficient 
man who makes tiling his business. The services of such a man are always in 
demand and consequently a higher price per hour must be paid to secure him. 

In Table XI is summarized the cost of filling the ditches for 7,203 rods of 
tile installed in 1633^^ acres. From this table it will be noted that the cost per 
rod of filling ditches varies from 1.72 cent to 4.4 cents and that the average is 



LAND DRAINAGE 



647 



3.43 cents. It will also be noted that two men with a team can on the average 
fill 140 rods of ditch per day. 



Table XI. — Hours and Costs for Filling Ditches 
Man rate, 15c per hour; horse rate, 10c per hour 



Field Area 

No. 24 29 

No. 29 lOK 

No. 30 5 

No. 5 54 

No. 31 65 



-Fields- 



-Totals- 



Rods 
1,591 
755 
300 
2,666 
1,891 



-Hours- 



Man Horse 
208.70 207.8 
131.40 87,0 

21.07 20.0 
319.50 302.0 
333.50 332.0 



Totals 1633-^ 7,2031,014.17 948.8 

Averages 



Cost 

I 52.08 

28.41 

5.16 

78.13 

83.23 

247.01 



-Hours— 



-Per rod- 



Man Horse Cost 
,1312 .1307 $0.0327 
,1740 .1152 .0376 
0702 .0666 .0172 
1198 .1132 .0293 
1764 .1756 .0440 



.1408 .1317 .0343 



The cost of filling ditches varies with the condition of the soil and the depth 
of the cut. It was found advisable to fill the ditches soon after trenching, 
because they could then be filled about one-fourth faster than if allowed to 
remain open during a heavy rain storm. The rain packed the soil and made 
filling much more difficult for both men and team. 

A heavy team was used with a specially prepared scraper about 4 feet long, 
which consisted of a straight board with a steel cutting edge and had a hitch 
so constructed that when the team pulled taut at right angles to the ditch and 
the operator bore down on the handles the scraper would move into the ditch 
all the dirt thrown out on one side of it. It was, of course, necessary to back 
up the team and move the scraper longitudinally along the ditch for each 
scraper full. This method was found to be more satisfactory than the use of 
a plow or a large township road scraper. 

Plotting Drains. — The maps or plots of the several drainage systems were 
made by county surveyors after the system was installed. The charge for this 
operation includes the engineer's time, expenses in the field and in plotting 
and blue printing. It was not deemed necessary or advisable to make a plot 
of a system before installing, but after installing it was thought wise to have 
such a map for the purpose of affording a ready reference for the location of 
drains in. case of trouble with the system. 



Table XII. — Recapitulation of Installing Costs per Rod 



Hand work 
1909 
40 
2,560 



Area in acres 

Number rods 

Machine charges 

Machine operator 

Gasoline 

Oil 

Contract laying *$0. 376 

FiUing ditches .030 

Other equipment charges . 004 

Undivided operations 

Overhead charges . 023 

Plotting drains 0158 



Machine 
1910 

65K 
4,080 
$0.1084 
.0315 
.0219 
.0014 
.0634 
.0252 
.0037 
.0433 
.0230 
.0149 



Machine 
1911 
1223^ 

4,755 
$0.1529 
.0392 
.0305 
.0028 
.0686 
.0363 
.0043 
.0354 
.0340 
.0140 



Average 
machine 



$0.1324 
.0356 
.0266 
.0022 
.0663 
.0312 
.0040 
.0390 
.0230 
.0144 



0.4489 0.3367 



0.4071 



0.374C 



Averages 

* Includes trenching. 

In Table XII is given a summary of the preceding tables as regards all 
tiling operations except hauling, which, in accordance with Table IV, may be 



648 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

figured at about 4c per rod. The cost of tile will vary with size of tile used 
and other factors, but Table IV will assist in making an estimate of such cost 
in the absence of figures from the factory. From the foregoing pages it will 
be manifest that had the trenching for all the 11,395 rods of tile been done 
by machine the total cost of tile and installation would have been about two- 
thirds of a dollar per rod, and that with the fifty rods per acre used on this 
farm, three acres would have cost about one hundred dollars. 

Costs of Laying 20 Miles of Tile Drains. — S. C. Hartman gives the following 
in "The Monthly Bulletin" of the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station for 
May-June, 1921. 

Twenty miles of tile have been laid on the Washington Coimty experiment 
farm. Because different systems are used in the work the 20 miles or 6,400.7 
rods were divided into five sections. Section I was installed in 1915 and con- 
sisted of 955.6 rods; the trenches were dug by hand. The cost of the work 
is taken from the records of E. J. Riggs, who was then superintendent of the 
farm. Other sections were dug with the Station traction ditcher during the 
spring and summer of 1919. 

Section II was started on May 17 and consisted of 1,984.8 rods. Section 
III consisted of 1,202.5 rods and was begun on July 15. Section IV was dug 
on the farm of H. J. Tresch and consisted of 1,399.6 rods. This work was 
done under the direction of Mr. Tresch and serves as a check for the work done 
on the Washington County experiment farm. Section V was installed on the 
experiment farm after August 8; it consisted of 858.2 rods. 

Character of Soil Trenched. — The soil is underlaid with shale and sandstone 
from which it was largely formed. The soil varies from a comparatively light 
clay, commonly known as a mixed soil to a heavy red or Upshur clay. There 
are no boulders but the underlying rock interfered with the work in several 
places. While the soil has a slight tendency to run together it does not dry 
out as some of the other soils of the State. The ditcher, therefore, made 
good progress even in a dry season. 

Because of good fall and convenient outlets but a few large tile were re- 
quired. Two-thirds of the tile were 4-inch. Those laid on the experiment 
farm in 1919 held out to the number purchased with 15>^ feet of tile laid to a 
rod. A few Y-tile were used for making connections at branches. Sewer 
pipes were used for the outlets because they are longer than drain tile, are 
burned harder and are more easily held in place. 

Cost of Labor. — The labor available varied with the different sections. The 
work of digging the trench in Section I was in charge of an experienced ditcher. 
Practically one-third of the hours of labor were performed by him at 30 cents 
an hour. The remainder of labor performed for Section I was paid 20 cents 
per hour. The labor of 1919 was figured at 32 cents per hour. For compari- 
son, the unskilled labor of 1915 is figured at 32 cents also, and the skilled 
ditcher at 48 cents per hour. The labor employed in 1919 in addition to the 
farm force was such as one was able to employ, for the second and third sec- 
tions, at one of the busiest seasons of the year. Because of the scarcity of 
help it was necessary at times to employ more help than could be used at an 
advantage that sufficient help might be available when needed. For the 
fourth and fifth sections which were completed after harvest more help was 
available. 

The trench for practically all the tile was dug 30 inches deep. Tlie large 
main tile were laid in a deeper trench. Over most of the area drained the tile 
lines were laid 2 rods apart. Some lines were laid 3 rods apart. Those laid 



LAND DRAINAGE 649 

In 1915 were 36 feet apart. About 70 acres were drained by the 5,000 rods 
on the experiment farm and 20 acres by the 1,400 rods on the Tresch farm. 

Various Operations in Drainage. — The various operations in connection 
with installing the drainage system are conveniently considered as four opera- 
tions; namely, digging the trench, hauUng the tile, laying the tile and back 
filling. 

Digging the trench includes setting the stakes, and a small amount of time 
at laying off the tile lines. Only where the fall was doubtful or on a deep cut 
was a level used. 

Hauhng the tile includes the actual operation of hauling and also laying the 
tile carefully along the trench so that they could be easily reached by the 
person in the trench. 

Laying the tile followed the ditcher as closely as possible and includes the 
various operations between the digging and the filling of the trench after the 
tile are laid; helping the operator of the ditcher by setting stakes, cleaning 
out the crumbs in the trench, digging for connections where the branches 
unite with the main tile lines and other places where digging is necessary ; the 
actual operation of laying the tile and binding them or covering them with 
enough dirt to hold them in place until the trench can be filled. There is 
always some filling to be done by hand. With hand trench-digging, trenching 
and laying the tile could not be conveniently separated. In filling the trench 
the dirt was backed into the trench when possible. The dirt was also rigged 
over the trench. In some places it was necessary to finish the work by hand. 
Some time was also spent in refilling the trenches before the work was com- 
pleted. Such work was included in "filling the trenches." With a consider- 
able amount of fall in some of the tile lines and because of the nature of the 
soil some of the trenches washed deeply after being filled. In other places it 
was necessary to again refill before the cropping work could be continued in the 
field. Such work was not included in "filling the trenches" but charged to 
drainage maintenance. Other operations in some sections were considered 
as miscellaneous, such as hauling water and gasoline for the ditcher, measuring 
and laying off the lines, repair work and other work not closely connected 
with other operations. These items form a very small part of the work total- 
ing less than 1 cent per rod at the most. In two sections these items were 
included as most convenient with other operations. 

Trenching. — Section I, where the trenching which was done by hand required 
an average of 1.6 hours for each rod of tile. It was not possible to separate 
the time spent at digging from that of laying his section. The time and cost 
therefore of laying the tile in Section I is not easily comparable to laying the 
tile after the machine trenching in the other sections. In both the second and 
third sections considerable hand digging was necessary because of the inter- 
ference of the underlying rock and because of a gas line which crossed many of 
the tile lines. The distance dug is estimated and the required time determined 
as accurately as possible. It is a significant fact that the hand digging in 
Section II required more than twice as much time per rod as that of Section 
I. Ditching with the power ditcher is often done when conditions are not 
favorable for hand ditching which therefore must be done at a greater cost 
than would ordinarily be necessary. The cost of laying the tile after the 
machine trenching varied but averaged 4.6 cents per rod. The highest cost, 
that of 5.5 cents in Section IV, was due to the fact that it induces some mis- 
cellaneous work. 

Allowing 30 cents per rod for the ditching machine, hand trenching and 



650 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



laying cost from 170 to 180 per cent of the cost of machine trenching and 
laying, or one and three-fourths times as much, a considerable saving for 
machine trenching. With hand trenching, an average of 1.6 hours of labor 
v^^ere spent on each rod, with machine trenching .14 of an hour, exclusive of the 
machine operator. Hand trenching and laying, therefore, required eleven 
times as many hours of labor per rod as machine trenching. 



Table XIII. — Labor and Cost of Distributing Tile 



Tile, 

Section number rods 

1 955.6 

II 1,984.8 

III 1,202.5 

IV 1,399.6 

V 858.2 







Man 


Man 


Horse 


labor 


labor. 


labor, 


per rod. 


hours , 


hours 


hours 


90 


60 


.094 


225K 


3813^ 


.113 


130 


194 


.108 


140. 


180 


.100 


Q7H 


86 


.079 



Average 102 

Man hours at 32 cents per hour; horse hours, 15 cents. 



Horse 
labor 
per rod, 
hours 
.062 
.192 
.161 
.129 
.10 

.141 



Cost 
per rod 
cents 
.04 
.065 
.059 
.053 
.04 

.054 



Hauling the Tile. — A variable factor in the cost of a drainage system is the 
cost of hauling the tile. The cost varies vc^ith the distance and the condition 
of the roads. Since in this case the tile were delivered to the corner of the 
experiment farm the cost of hauling to the farm is not considered. Table XIII 
shows the labor required and cost of distributing the tile from the pile on the 
farm to the various tile lines as required. The larger factor in the cost ot dis- 
tributing the tile, exclusive of the efficiency of the labor, is the distance neces- 
sary to haul the tile. Part of the tile in Section II were hauled directly from 
the car to the field. The distance was greater and the cost more. The 
greatest distance necessary to haul the tile in distributing them was less than 
three-fourths of a mile and the average nearly one-fourth of a mile. The cost 
varied from 4 cents per rod in Sections I and V to 6.5 cents in Section II. 
The economy of delivering the tile to as near the place where they will be 
used as possible is apparent. It is evident from the number of man and 
horse hours that two men usually worked at hauling with each team. This 
proved to be the most economical, especially where the hauling distance was 
not great. 



Table XIV. — Time and Labor Cost op Laying Tile 



Section number Rods 

1 955.6 

II 1,946.8 

*38.0 

III 1,195.0 

*7.5 
IV 1,399.6 



Digging and 

laying by hand 

Time, Cost, 

hours dollars 

1,522 574.88 

-t24M '39*. 84 

"ioi^ "s.'sh 



-Laying only- 
Time, Cost, 
hours dollars 



-Per rod- 
Time, Cost, 



292 93.43 
*i68 53.' 76 



243 



V. 



858. 2 78^ 



77.76 
25.12 



hours 

1.6 
.15 

3.28 
.14 

1.40 
.174 
.091 



dollars 
.601 
.048 

1.05 
.045 
.45 
.056 
.029 



Average for machine dug trenches 123 . 039 

* Estimated distance dug by hand, other than that usually required. 
t The time required does not include laying the tile but merely the digging. 

Laying the Tile. — The most particular work of installing the drainage system 
is that of actually laying the tile in the trench. Anyone with a little exper- 



LAND DRAINAGE 



651 



ience can do a good job if they will take care with the work. Unless such a 
one is available an experienced tiler should be employed. . If the tile are not 
properly laid the expense of tiling is a poor investment. The actual opera- 
tion of laying the tile in the trench required but little time. The various 
operations which were for convenience considered with laying the tile required 
considerable time. Table XIV gives the time and labor cost of laying the 
tile for each section. 

Costs of Laying Tile Drain on Two Jobs. — H. R. Ferris, in Engineering and 
Contracting, Sept. 13, 1916, gives the following costs of laying 300 ft. of drains 
of the design and cross-section shown by Fig. 2 (1), all excavation in sandyloam 
surcharged with water (not quicksand). The ditch required close timbering 
in certain places. The actual excavation was about 3^^ ft. only, as a slight 
fill covered the top. The work was designed to be permanent, and has been 
in continual and satisfactory use for over three years. The costs follow: 



Labor: 

Foreman, 5 days @ $ 3.00 . 
Labor, 174 hrs. @ $0.30... 



Lumber (2 X 12 cedar), 600 ft. B. M 

Gravel 25 cu. yd. @ $ 1.50 

Timber (bracing), 800 ft. B. M. @ $12.00 
Tile (4-in. farm), 900 lin. ft. @ $0.03 



$18.00. 



$ 15.00 
52.20 



10.80 

37.50 

9.60 

27.00 

$152.10 



Per 
lin. ft. 
$0,050 

.174 



.036 
.125 



$0 . 507 




,X-tarth Back-fill 



\.- Gravel 

,\'Z*CQdar Plank 



Fig. 2. — Sections of tile drains. 




It was not practicable to separate the cost of laying planks, tile, etc. The 
labor (174 hr.) represents the total time on this work, with the exception of 
earth backfill, which was done several days later with team and scraper. 
The prices for materials include delivery along the work. Fig. 2 (2) shows 
the type of drain construction for the second job, covering 1,900 ft. of drain 
The costs were as follows: 



Labor : 

Foreman, 98 hrs. @ 40c $ 36. 80 

Labor, 700 hrs. (^ 30c 210. 00 

Team, 12 hrs. % 65c 7.80 

$254.60 



Cost. 

per ft. 

$0,019 
.115 
.004 

0.138 



652 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Materials : 

Rough planks (1 X 8), 1,900 lin. ft. @ $8.00 $ 15.20 

Gravel, 160 cu. yd. @ $1.00 160.00 

8traw, 11 bales 6, 60 

Tile (3-in. form), 3,800 lin. ft. (& 0.03 114.00 



$295.80 0.155 

The prices for materials cover cost delivered along the line of the work. 
Cost of removing surplus earth is not included. Excavation was in stiff clay, 
and the work was performed in wet weather. Good foreman and average crew. 
The costs of excavation, backfilling with gravel, etc., were not separated. 

Broken stone (30 cu. yd.) used in the drain was taken from a nearby sewer 
trench, which had been excavated in rock. This was delivered conveniently 
along the line of the trench, and the cost of delivery is not included in the above, 
but the cost, however, of the handling in the trench is included In all about 
190 cu. yd. of gravel and rock were used over the tiles. 

Making Cement Drain Tile by Hand on an Isolated Job. — R. C. Hardman, 
in Engineering and Contracting, May 29, 1912, gives the following costs for 
making 297 lin. ft. of cement drain tile by hand using unskilled Mexican 
labor. 

Two sets of wooden forms were built, each having molds for six sections of 
tile ; these formed the outside. For the core mold, or inside form, a galvanized 
iron cylinder was used. This cylinder was centered inside the wooden mold 
and pulled as soon as the cement was placed, to be inserted in another wooden 
mold. The wooden forms were let stand 24 hours before removal. All 
cement was hard tamped and was a 1 :4 hand mixture. The tiles molded were 
8X8 ins. X 23^ ft. outside and 6 ins. diameter inside. The cost was as 
follows: 

Cost 
Materials: Cost per ft. 

Cement, 4.5 bbls., at $3.43 $15.44 

Sand on site 

Lumber, scrap 



$15.44 $0.0519 
Labor: 

Carpenter, 9 hrs. on forms, at $0.50 $ 4.50 $0.0152 

Laborers, 66.5 hrs., at $0.15625 10.39 

Laborers, 17.0 hrs.. at $0.1875 3. 19 0.0457 

$18.08 $0.0609 

Total $33.52 $0.1128 

Centrifugal Pumping Plants for Drainage with Diagram of Plant Costs. — In 
a paper before the Louisiana Engineering Society, and published in the Journal 
of the Association of Engineering Societies, H. L. Hutson discusses a type of 
drainage pumping plant which his experience leads him to believe is preferable 
to others for conditions as found in Louisiana. The following abstract of Mr. 
Hutson's paper, is given in Engineering and Contracting, July 3, 1912. 

The plant which I should like to see become standard for drainage work in 
Louisiana would be one of large capacity consisting of two or more large 
centrifugal pumps, each direct connected to compound condensing engines of 
the Corliss or 4- valve type; the steam being furnished by water tube boilers 
using oil fuel. Such a plant, if the units were of 50,000 to 100,000 gals, per 
minute capacity, would be ideal from the mechanical engineer's standpoint. 



LAND DRAINAGE 653 

as the units would be sufficiently large to get good economy, the engines would 
run at such speed and be of such horse-power that the very lowest prices 
could be obtained, and the plant would be large enough to employ skilled 
labor to operate. I realize that this means the use of one plant for a large 
acreage, say 10,000 to 100,000 acres, and that this in turn means long canals 
and a high lift, but I will try to show that the cost of operation, even the cost 
of fuel, will be less per 1,000,000 gals, gotten rid of by the large plant than the 
small. I am giving only the point of view of the mechanical engineer. There 
may be conditions known to the civil engineer or to the farmer which would 
make the use of large plants out of the question in this territory. 

The drainage work which I am familiar with is that in Illinois and Iowa and 
that in Louisiana. The conditions are somewhat different, and these differ- 
ences are partly responsible for the variations in engineering practice. In 
Illinois and Iowa the drainage districts lie along the river bottoms and consist 
of land which have limited natural drainage when the rivers are low 
but which are subject to overflow. In the formation of levee and drainage 
districts, the natural boundaries are usually followed so that each district will 
have a single outlet with a pumping plant to take care of the rainfall during 
such time as the river is high enough to prevent gravity drainage. The Bay 
Island Drainage and Levee District No. 1, a district in Mercer County, 
Illinois, is typical of the larger plants. It has an area of 20,000 acres and 
takes the run-off of a smaller district of 4,000 acres additional. This plant 
was designed for a capacity of 200,000 gals, per minute against a lift varying 
from to 12>^ ft., and consisted of two 60-in. units, all the equipment being of 
the highest class, designed for high economy. 

The smaller plants in Illinois, no doubt, have simple non-condensing engines 
and are of cheaper construction. 

In Louisiana, where the country is flatter, the pumping plant must pump off 
the rainfall throughout the year. The land which is now being reclaimed lies 
in the midst of swamp or marsh or partly surrounded by lakes or bayous. 
Being nearly flat, the engineer has the choice of many outfall locations and may 
install either one large plant or a number of small ones. Obviously, with 
several small plants draining but a few thousand acres each and pumping to a 
free outlet at the pumping plant, the lift the pumps must work against is low 
— not more than 3 to 6 ft. With this lift and units of 36,000 gals, per minute 
or less, it is out of the question to advocate compound condensing engines of 
the Corliss type, as the cost per h. p. is out of proportion, due to the small 
size. Nor can we offer high-grade engines of the type generally used for this 
horse-power in electric work because the rotative speed of these large pumps is 
much below that of a generator requiring equal horsepower. No doubt the 
majority of engineers would consider that a low lift is very desirable and that 
it means getting rid of the water at a low cost of fuel. As a matter of fact, 
the fuel for pumping off a million gallons will be less with an economical plant 
pumping against a 9-ft. lift than with a simple non-condensing plant such 
as is usually installed pumping against 3-ft. lift. The extra 6 ft. of fall 
would undoubtedly be sufficient to increase the area which could be drained 
by from three to nine times the size of that served by the small pump. 

The saving in the matter of labor of a large plant over a number of small 
ones is obvious. The larger plant would require a higher class of help, but 
this is an advantage as the higher class man is more reliable than the cheaper 
help. The cost of the machinery for such a plant would be greater than that 
of several small plants with cheap equipment, but the cost of the complete 



654 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

plant erected would undoubtedly be less for the large than for a number of 
small plants. There would be many advantages with the large plant and 
better machinery. If compound engines were used, they would be made to 
carry great overload if necessary by using live steam in the receiver. If they 
were cross compound and an accident put one side out of commission, it would 
still be possible to run; and as the pump is little subject to accident, this 
feature would practically give a reserve unit. 

I have advocated water tube boilers and oil fuel as these features would 
permit steam to be raised quickly and one fireman could operate a boiler 
plant of any size required. If the boilers are of the sectional water tube 
type similar to those used in naval work, steam may be raised in 30 minutes 
without danger to the boiler With automatic oil-fuel pumps, one man could, 
if necessary, operate a plant in an emergency. In fact, there is one irriga- 
tion plant of which I know which is operated by one man who attends the 
boiler and engine. It is a compound condensing engine of 225 h. p. 

Cost of Plants. — The question as to the approximate cost of a plant of a 
certain capacity and lift is often asked by engineers and others who are mak- 
ing preliminary estimates. In fact, this is the first question which the pro- 
spective customer is likely to ask. Although we have several rough rules for 
figuring these costs, none of them is satisfactory as applying to both drainage 
and irrigation plants. It has been the custom in making rough estimates of 
pumping plants designed for lifts of from 25 to 40 ft. to figure them at $80 
to $100 per water horse-power, but one will readily see that the same figure 
will not apply to a drainage plant of like capacity pumping against a head of 
3 ft., as the cost of the pumps, suction and discharge pipes, etc., would be 
very nearly the same for the low-lift plant as for the high-lift, whereas the 
horse-power would be so small as to put the plant in a different class alto- 
gether from the one with the higher lift. In order to be able to give approxi- 
mate figures I endeavored to tabulate the various bids which the concern I am 
connected with has made on pumping plants within the last ten years, and 
found that a tabulation, or even a curve, of these bidding prices would be of 
little value, as in some cases we bid including the building, foundations and 
even intake work, whereas in others our price was merely for machinery f . o. b. 
cars, or again for machinery erected on foundations built by the purchaser. 
To make a comparison, therefore, I decided to take the cost of all the mechan- 
ical equipment necessary for the plant, and using our costs sheets as a guide 
make up curves which would represent these plants erected ready for opera- 
tion at some point in Louisiana or Texas; in other words, I have assumed, 
what is very far from the fact, that the cost of freight, barging, foundations, 
erecting, etc., is a constant percentage. This is done because it is not the 
intention that this diagram of costs shall be used for obtaining actual costs of 
plants but that it shall be relative only and be used for the purpose of deciding 
the most economical size of units to use in a large plant and also for making 
approximate estimates on the assumption that a plant of two or more units 
will be a multiple of the cost of a single unit plant. In this diagram, I have 
not included the building, as the cost of this would depend upon the style 
of architecture, nor have I included any dredging, intake work, flume or canal 
work. I did include the building foundation, as it is usually necessary to 
place a pumping plant in a pit, in which case the pit walls form the building 
foundation, and the pump foundation, engine-room floor and walls are made 
monolithic. 

For the reasons above given, it will be impossible to make smooth curves 



LAND DRAINAGE 



655 



using either the water horse-power or the gallons per minute as one of the 
coordinates. It seems more logical, therefore, and gives data which are 
much more useful, to divide the plant into two parts, and consider it merely 



ml" 



\ 

\ \ 

i. 



Ta 



Is 



M 







I- 



till 



I 



^J^IIOQ 



pdppDoq isntu £pudj9iDM pup Luoo/g quo/d buidiMnd /obnju^uQo 
Qpu2 uJD9is;o sodhj QnoiJO/\puo ^puj J9(dmjo ^imw^sdjddj £9puipjQ 



as a steam-power plant, which drives a pumping plant. I have, therefore, 
divided the cost into two parts : cost of the " steam end " and cost of the " water 
end." but showed these on the same sheet. In using this diagram it is very im- 
portant that this fact should be borne in mind and that the cost of the " water 



656 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

end" should be added to that of the "steam end." The cost of the "water 
end " Is given in terms of gallons per minute at the rated capacity. The cost of 
the " steam end" is given in terms of indicated horse-power and it is, therefore, 
necessary to figure this horse-power by assuming the combined efficiency of the 
engine, drive (if there is one) pump and piping. It will be noticed that it is 
necessary to use zones instead of lines to indicate these costs, the variation being 
due to numerous causes. The zone marked " Water end " covers pumps, suction 
and discharge pipes, and is the only one which refers to the gallons per minute 
scale at the bottom of the diagram. The zone marked " Steam end, compound 
condensing Corliss or 4:-valve engines'' covers the complete steam plant equip- 
ment including this type of engine with water tube boilers. The zone marked 
'* Compound condensing slide valve'' covers this type of engine with either 
water tube or return tubular boilers depending on the size of plant. The zone 
marked ''Simple slide valve non-condensing" covers the type of engine indi- 
cated with horizontal return tubular boilers. 

Engineers in comparing these costs with other power plant costs may decide 
that I have made them unnecessarily high even for approximate figures, 
but it should be remembered that practically all of these plants are installed 
between the high and low-water mark of the stream on which they are situated 
and that in the case of drainage plants they must almost invariably be put in 
on the land which they are to drain. The freight rates throughout this 
territory are high and the problem of transporting material from the railroad 
to the site of the plant ic> always a difficult one, as it usually means either haul- 
ing many miles over roads which are sometimes impassable, or barging on 
streams that are seldom navigated. All of these plants go in near the coast 
on land more than 100 miles from the location of any stone suitable for 
concrete. On one occasion the best quotation which we could get on sand or 
gravel delivered on barge at the site of the plant was $4.00 per yard, and yet 
this plant was located on a stream supposed to be navigable. On one drainage 
plant there were 90 days in which the water was either at or near the floor line 
and the erection work had to remain at a standstill. This same plant when 
completed could not be tested for lack of water to give contract conditions. 
In the case of every plant on the Rio Grande for which we have furnished 
equipment, the river has overflowed between the times when the machinery 
was delivered and the completion of the plant. This overflow has flooded the 
valley for eight or ten miles from the plant. 

If the curves were carried out a little further they would show the fallacy of 
a belief which many people have that simple slide-valve engines and return 
tubular boilers form the cheapest equipment which can be furnished under all 
conditions. Many saw-mill owners purchase this class of machinery with the 
idea that they are not interested in economy and, therefore, should buy the 
cheapest class of engines. Where the horse-power required is 400 h. p. or 
above, they could undoubtedly buy compound condensing equipment with the 
necessary horse-power of water tube boilers, and the cost of the complete 
plant erected, including building, would be much below that of the unecon- 
omical plant. 

Comparative Economy of Steam Operated and Electrically Operated 
Pumping Plants for Drainage. — An argument for the use of electric power 
for operating drainage pumping plants is contained in a paper read before the 
fourth meeting in Jan., 1912, of the Association of Drainage and Levee 
Districts of Illinois. The following matter is from an abstract of the paper 
as published in Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 1, 1913. 



LAND DRAINAGE 657 

/ 

Amount of Water to he Pumped. — The average rainfall for the lands com- 
prising the districts in the IlUnois River may be clo'sely estimated from the 
records which have been kept since 1899 by the Commissioners of the Coal 
Creek Drainage and Levee District and also from the Internal Improvement 
Commission of Illinois. The Coal Creek records show an average yearly 
rainfall of slightly less than 32 ins., while the maximum rainfall, which 
occurred in 1902, was 41.55 ins., or about 25 per cent more than the average 
rainfall. The average rainfall in Central Illinois, as given by the Internal 
Improvement Commission of Illinois, is found to be 35.34 ins., which is 
about 9 per cent greater than the records of the Coal Creek station. 

This paper refers specifically to the conditions existing in the case of drain- 
age districts lying along the Illinois River, and for these districts the average 
yearly rainfall is about 32 ins., while the maximum rainfall is about 40 ins. 

Average Run-off of Drainage Lands. — There are very few data as to the 
actual run-off measured in per cent of the average rainfall. The report of 
the Internal Improvement Commission of Illinois, 1908-1910, shows that the 
average run-off of the rivers of the state was about 26.6 per cent of the rainfall. 
This run-off is considerably exceeded in drainage districts because of the ease 
with which the water is drained from the land, thus making the evaporation 
less than would normally occur, and also because of a small amount of seepage 
from the river into the district under the levees. 

Tests were made during the past year of the actual discharge of the pumps 
in the Coal Creek Drainage and Levee District and it was found that after 
comparing the hours of operation with the rainfall from Jan. 1 to Sept. 25, 
1911, the run-off was at the rate of 31.2 per cent of the rainfall. This run-off 
indicates that the discharge was about one-sixth greater than the discharge of 
the rivers of the state, this increase being due no doubt to a small amount of 
seepage and a decreased amount of evaporation. It is probable that the 
figure of 31 per cent for run-off may be applied without serious error to all of 
the districts similarly situated in the Illinois valley. 

The report of the Louisa-Des Moines Drainage District, No. 4, for 1911, 
shows that the amount of run-off which occurred was equal to 31.8 per cent 
of the rainfall for that year. This figure corroborates the former figure to a 
marked degree and tends to make the figure of about 31 per cent a reliable one. 

The actual average amount of water to be pumped therefore amounts to 
about 31 per cent of 32 ins. in rainfall, or approximately 10 ins. in depth of 
water on each acre of the watershed. The maximum amount of water to be 
pumped probably amounts to about 31 per cent of 41.5 ins. or about 13 ins. 
depth of water on each acre of the watershed. 

Head of Water to he Pumped Against. — The lift of the water to be pumped 
from districts varies from zero for natural drainage up to a maximum of about 
21 ft. in the lowest districts. The extreme maximum lift, however, only 
occurs once in six or seven years, and then only for periods of probably ten 
days. From records which were kept in the Coal Creek District the maximum 
lift exceeded 19 ft. in only two years out of 13, and the total number of days 
during which this lift was exceeded amounted to 31 days in these two years. 

The normal maximum lift of the deeper districts of the river is probably 
about 18 ft. for those districts which never have natural drainage. Many 
districts are able to drain their land during time of low water simply by open- 
ing sluiceways. In these districts the normal maximum lift is about 13 to 14 
ft. The average lift through which water has to be pumped varies from 
6 to 11 ft. 
42 



658 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Maximum Pumping Capacity Required. — S. W. Woodward, in the United 
States Department of Agriculture bulletin, "Land Drainage by Means of 
Pumps," concludes after a very thorough examination of this question, that 
the maximum capacity should be suflacient to remove H in. of rainfall in 24 
hours of continuous operation. Pumping plants which have had this capacity 
have been able to drain successfully their districts in the worst storm condi- 
tions, and it would seem therefore that a larger capacity than this only entails 
useless investment. 

Since the maximum lift occurring in any district only occurs once in about 
six years, and then only for a short period it is not necessary to provide this 
capacity of 3'^-in. per day at the maximum lift. In general, the maximum 
power required should be that necessary to remove 3^ -in. of water in 24 hours 
against a lift of about 3 ft. less than the highest recorded lift. In other words, 
if the highest recorded lift be 21 ft. a pumping capacity of 3^ -in. per 24 hours 
against a lift of 18 ft. will be sufficient. 

To the lift mentioned above must be added the loss of head due to friction 
of the water in the suction and discharge pipes and the velocity head. 

Types of Steam Pumping Stations. — Most of the pumping stations now used 
to drain districts are steam driven and the majority of these stations comprise 
an installation of fire tube boilers, Corliss or four-valve engines either belt- 
driven or direct connected to centrifugal pumps. The usual arrangement 
is to have two pumps to a station, the relative capacities of which may usually 
be one-third and two-thirds, respectively, of the total capacity. The object 
of having a dissimilarity of sizes is due to operating conditions which require 
heavy pumping for only about three months of the year. During the other 
nine months the amount of water to be pumped is far below the capacity 
necessary for the maximum requirements, and the smaller unit is gen- 
erally intended to handle the minimum flow of water as economically as 
possible. 

From 60 to 75 per cent of the total work done in pumping the water is 
ordinarily done from March 15 to June 15, whfie the remaining 25 or 40 per 
cent is about evenly distributed over the other nine months of the year. 
This condition is detrimental to the economy of a steam plant because during 
a period of about nine months the amount of pumping to be done is far below 
the capacity of the plant. 

Fixed charges are a very appreciable part of the total cost of pumping. 
For the conditions existing on the Illinois River the item of interest should 
be taken at 6 per cent, taxes and insurance at 1 per cent and depreciation at 
10 per cent, giving a total of 17 per cent fixed charges per year on the original 
Investment. The fixed charges provide for the financing of the pumping 
plant as a permanent institution so that a sinking fund may be established 
which will provide money for renewals and rebuilding from time to time so as 
to maintain the plant continuously in working order. When the fixed charges 
have been properly taken into account after an adequate pumping station has 
been built it is never necessary to levy additional assessments from time to 
time to provide for rebuilding the plant. 

The operating expenses, of which the principal items are coal, labor, sup- 
plies and repairs, provide merely for the daily operation of the plant, and these 
operating expenses are in no sense the total cost of operation, as has often been 
assumed when the cost of pumping is discussed. The actual cost of operating 
the steam pumping stations of several drainage districts, based on the acreage 
in the district, is given in Table XV. 



LAND DRAINAGE 659 

Table XV. — Cost of Steam Pumping 

1 i ^^ I -s -s it « 

.S^ ".2 SS ^« ^-S ^t^ .S^ 8S -Sg 
^ ;i li& i^ §g o| 'o-c 1=^ 1^ I" 

1 W-2 2^ ^-s ^^ 1^ 1^ §^ ^^ 5^ 

A 100 $ 7,000 $1,190 $2,200 2,160 2,160 $1.02 $1.57 65 

B 275 30,000 5,100 8,412 11,000 11,000 .765 1.23 62 

C 500 5Q,000 8,500 5,966 16,000 13,000 .459 1.11 41 

D 250 25,000 4,250 5,400 7,420 6,800 .795 1.42 56 

E 325 35,000 5,950 4,700 7,420 6,800 .690 1.57 44 

Totals $3.74 $6.90 268 

Average $0,748 $1.38 53.6 

The average cost of drainage by well designed steam stations draining 
districts of about 10,000 acres is about $1.25 per acre per year, of which the 
operating expenses will be about 60 cts. at the present prices of coal and 
labor. 

Types of Electric Pumping Stations. — The types of electric pumping sta- 
tions now in use in the Illinois River include standard centrifugal pumps belt- 
driven by constant speed induction motors and the transformers and other 
electrical equipment necessary for the operation of the motors. The pumping 
capacity of these plants should preferably be divided into three units instead 
of two, as is the usual design in a steam plant. 

One of the great advantages of the electric pumping station over a steam 
station is that the pumping units may be properly sized for the work that they 
have to perform. One of these pumps should be small enough so that it may 
run for long periods and merely take care of the minimum flow of water. 
This small unit permits the level of the water in the ditches to be kept prac- 
tically constant and this water may be pumped out each day without addi- 
tional expense over letting the water accumulate and pumping it down at a 
high rate, as is done in steam plants. 

The average initial cost of the steam stations ^iven in Table XV is $3.71 per 
acre. The cost of electric stations for this same work would vary from $2.22 
to $2.41 per acre. 

The fixed charges of an electric plant are less than the fixed charges of a 
steam plant and they have been taken as follows: Interest at 6 per cent; 
taxes and insurance at 1 per cent, depreciation at 6 per cent, giving a total of 
13 per cent fixed charges per year on the investment in an electric station. 
Taking the higher figure of $2.41 per acre as the cost of electric stations, the 
fixed charges per acre per year amount to 13 per cent of $2.41, or 31 cts. per 
acre per year. 

The total average cost of drainage by steam pumps in Table XV is $1.38 per 
acre per year, based on the acreage in the district. Subtracting from this 
figure the 31 cts. fixed charges on an electric station shows that $1.07 per acre 
per year can be paid for operating expenses including electrical energy, without 
incurring a higher total cost than the average cost of steam pumping. 

Taking the total cost of pumping by well-designed steam stations as $1.25 
per acre per year, we find by the same method that the sum of 94 cts. per acre 



660 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

per year may be expended for operating expenses in an electric station before 
the total cost exceeds the cost of steam pumping. 

Following the same process with the minimum attainable cost of $1.10 per 
acre per year, it is found that 79 cts. per acre per year may be expended on 
operating expenses without these expenses exceeding the cost of steam 
pumping. 

The items of labor and supplies in an electric plant will not exceed 16 per 
cent of the total operating expenses. Reducing this figure to terms of the 
energy required, it is seen that if we combine the energy required with the 
labor and supplies on this basis an equivalent amount of energy equal to 24 
kilowatt hours per acre per year would be required. 

On this basis the average steam station given in Table XV could be substi- 
tuted by an electric station and a rate of $1.07 divided by 24 kilowatt hours, 
or 4.97 cts. per K W. H., could be paid without the total cost of pumping 
exceeding the cost given in Table XV. 

In the case of the total average cost for well-designed steam stations or 
$1.25 per acre per year, a district could afford to pay 3.92 cts. per K. W. H. 
without the total expense exceeding $1.25 per acre per year. 

In the case of the minimum attainable cost of $1.10 per acre per year a dis- 
trict can afford to pay 3.29 cts. per K. W. H. before the total cost of operation 
exceeds $1.10 per acre per year. 

All the evidence shows that if a supply of electrical energy can be bought for 
4 cents per K. W, H., that the total cost of pumping by electricity does not 
exceed the total cost of pumping by steam in well-designed steam stations. 
If a district is able to obtain a lower rate than 4 cts. per K. W. H. for energy 
they are able to save money over the cost of operating steam stations. 

If energy cannot be bought for less than 4 cts. per K. W. H., the question as to 
how high a rate it is permissible to pay depends on the relative value of electric 
pumping compared with steam, as measured by the results obtained instead 
of the money expended. When considering this question from the broadest 
view, a drainage district is formed for the purpose of raising agricultural 
products and not for pumping. It therefore follows that the method of 
pumping should be that which secures the best results, provided the expenses 
be not too great. 

The districts having electric pumping stations are known and recognized 
as the best drained districts in this locality. The failure of one crop would 
often pay for the building of three or four power stations, and such failures are 
less likely to occur with electric drive than from any other type of prime 
mover. 

For this reason electric drive, while it may cost less than steam drive, and it 
generally does, is worth considerably more money than is steam pumping. 

Explanation of Advantages of Electric Drive. — (1) The investment necessary 
to build well-designed electric pumping stations complete will vary from about 
$55 to $70 per horse power of the nominal capacity of motors installed. In 
general an electric station will cost from 55 to 65 per cent of an equally well- 
designed steam pumping station. 

(2) The size of the buildings required to house the pumping apparatus and 
the auxiliary electric equipment necessary is, roughly, about one-half of the 
size of a building required for a steam station on account of the elimination 
of boilers. 

(3) It often happens that the pumping capacity of a plant is found insuffi- 
cient at a time when there is greatest need for power. Should this occur, 



LAND DRAINAGE 661 

additional power may be secured on shorter notice by electric drive than by 
any other means. This ability to enlarge the power at short notice gives the 
district added safety against failure of crops due to unusual flood conditions. 

(4) An electric station will have a far longer life than a steam station 
because the rate of depreciation is much less. The pumps will last longer 
driven by motors than will the same pumps driven by steam engines, because 
the torque of the motor is perfectly uniform. 

• In a well-designed induction motor there are no other important materials 
than iron, copper and insulation. The only reason why a well-designed 
motor goes out of use is when the motor has been overloaded so as to heat the 
insulation to the limit of endurance, beyond which the fabric of insulating 
material deteriorates, and this fabric is always treated by a preserving mate- 
rial, after which it is baked so as to form a solid substance, and is thus pro- 
tected against moisture, mildew or decay. Theoretically, if the insulation has 
not been overheated due to overloading, a motor will last indefinitely, when the 
bearings are renewed from time to time, at small expense. Practically, 
owing to the fact that in spite of all precautions materials do deteriorate, the 
life of a motor under these conditions is at least 20 years, and the rate of 
depreciation is generally from 4 to 5 per cent, and the motor has considerable 
scrap value for the copper contained at the end of its life. 

In a motor there are no cylinders to be bored, valve seats to be refaced, or 
the usual maintenance that has to be put on engines and also on boilers to 
insure their continuous operation. The efficiency of motors is retained indefi- 
nitely, while the efficiency of every other type of prime mover grows less with 
increasing wear. 

One of the largest items in the cost of operating a steam station is the con- 
tinual maintenance and repairs to boilers, in fact many boilers in this service 
have lasted for only five or six years. As the boiler nears the end of its life 
the pressure on it must be reduced and this therefore lowers the power which 
can be developed by the engine, and hence reduces the pumping capacity. 
Boilers are apt to fail at the time of greatest need and when this occurs the 
loss of one boiler from the service is likely to result in serious damage to crops. 
The life of boilers in this service is also shortened by the fact that they are 
Idle for such long periods, and as a result the brick work cracks, the boiler 
setting becomes leaky, and the flues and shell are attacked by corrosion. The 
electric pumping station enables all boilers to be eliminated and thus the 
weakes't element of a steam plant is not necessary in an electric station. 

(5) There is no objection, as stated above, to installing small pumping units 
which may operate continuously at high efficiencies, as is not the case in a 
steam plant, because small steam-driven units are not as efficient as large 
ones. 

(6) It is practicable in electric stations to install protective devices which will 
protect the motors in case there is a temporary interruption of the service, or in 
case the motors are overloaded. 

A no-voltage release effectually protects the motors against temporary inter- 
ruption of service, and an over-load release or circuit breaker protects the 
motors against any load greater than that which it is safe to use continuously. 
It is good practice in electric stations to install in the pumping stations loud- 
sounding alarms which would operate if the power supply were interrupted 
temporarily, and in the residence of the attendant, so that in case the motors 
are stopped from either of these causes then the attendant may restore the 
service. 



662 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

(7) An electric pumping station of almost any size now required may be 
operated by one man, whereas as many as seven men are sometimes required 
to operate steam plants running 24 hours per day. It is not necessary for an 
attendant to be on hand when the pumps are operating. In fact, during a 
large part of the year electric plants can be made entirely automatic by means 
of float controls when submerged centrifugal pumps are used with a foot valve 
in the discharge pipe. 

(8) Only a few minutes are consumed in getting the station into operation 
after the attendant has arrived at the pumping station. The only prepara- 
tion which has to be made before actual pumping is started is to exhaust 
the air from the pumps by means of a small motor-driven vacuum pump, 
which operation requires from 5 to 15 minutes. 

(9) The motors themselves have only two bearings and these run in a con- 
stant stream of oil fed by the oil rings on the shaft. The oil in these bearings 
need not be replenished except at intervals of several weeks, and the grade of 
oil necessary to use costs far less than cylinder oil. 

The only repairs or renewals necessary to make in the motors are infrequent 
renewals of bearings and the brushes on the slip rings. The cost of supplies 
such as oil, waste and packing is greatly reduced in an electric plant. 

(10) A volume could be written on the difficulties which have been expe- 
rienced by drainage districts on having coal and supplies delivered at the 
pumping station. Many crop failures may be traced to the supply of coal 
running out at a time when the river was closed to navigation or to other 
causes beyond the control of the district. The necessity of storing practically 
a year's supply of coal in the fall results in the loss of interest on a large 
amount of money, and the heating value of the coal thus stored seriously falls 
off because of air slacking. 

(11) There is less risk from fire with an electric station than with any other 
type of prime mover, as no fire need be kept around the building except a 
small heating stove in the winter, if this is desired. The station is ade- 
quately protected from lightning entering on the transmission lines by the 
installation of efficient lightning arresters. 

(12) High-speed pumps may be used with electric drive and higher efficien- 
cies may be obtained from the higher speeds. High-speed pumps cost less to 
install than the slow-speed pumps which are necessary with steam engines. 
The even torgue given by electric motors insures a longer life to the pump and 
pump bearings, which with steam engines would, with the constantly changing 
direction of the forces applied, tend to throw the whole structure out of line. 

The steam engine is inherently a low-speed machine, especially when an 
effort is made to obtain economy by use of four valves in the cylinder. On 
account of this low speed the pump, if it is to be direct connected, must be 
made to suit the needs of the engine and thus sacrifice the efficiency which is 
attainable when higher speed pumps are used. The speed of the pumps in 
electric stations is not limited by any such consideration and hence the pumps 
may be designed for high efficiency without a compromise on account of the 
inherent characteristics of the prime mover. 

(13) Electric power companies are generally willing to contract for a supply 
of power over a long period of years, thus guaranteeing the districts that the 
cost of power will not increase during that period. The operating expenses 
of a steam station are almost wholly composed of coal, labor and supplies, 
and it is certain that the cost of these items will continually increase during the 
next few years. Electric power is the only kind of power for which a definite 



LAND DRAINAGE 663 

contract can be obtained as to its cost. This feature alone makes electric 
power supply a very safe one as an insurance against continually increasing 
operating expenses. 

(14) It is impracticable to operate more than one steam pumping plant in a 
district because of increasing operating expenses, and this fact has controlled 
the design of the layout of the districts so that the engineers were compelled 
to bring all of the water to one point. 

This feature of a steam station is very unfortunate, because many districts 
are so situated that if more than one pumping station could be built the cost 
of canals and ditches would be considerably less. In addition to this advan- 
tage, the long and elaborate canal system when all of the water is brought to 
one point means that the water generally has to be lifted through a greater 
height to the river than would be the case if two stations could be built. 

In other words, electric drive makes possible a revision of the accepted 
design for drainage systems, because more than one station can be operated 
without seriously increasing the cost of pumping. One attendant may operate 
both stations in a satisfactory manner. The added cost due to having more 
than one station is simply the larger cost of investment because of the 
separation. 

Amount of Energy Required. — The amount of electrical energy required to 
drain the water from a district depends on the lift, the efficiency of pumps and 
the amount of water to be removed. As has been previously shown, the 
average amount of water to be removed is about ten inches. The maximum 
average attainable eflficiency would probably be 70 per Cent for the pumps and 
90 per cent for the motors, or 63 per cent combined efficiency from the in-put 
to the motors to the work done by the pumps. An example has been worked 
out along these lines for a district comprising 7,518.5 acres of watershed, as 
follows: 

Average rainfall, 32 ins. 

Average run-off, 31.2 per cent X 32 = 10.00 ins. 

Average static head pumped against, 10.8 ft. 

Add 3 feet for frictions. 

Total head, 10.8 plus 3 = 13.8 ft. 

Water to be pumped per year: 

10 

— X 43,560 X 7,518.5 = 273,000,000 cu. ft. 

12 

Work done in raising water at 100 per cent efficiency; 

273,000,000 X 62.5 X 13.8 

= 119,000 H. P. hours. 

60 X 33,000 

119,000 X .746 = 88,800 K. W. H. of electrical energy. 

70 per cent X 90 per cent = 63 per cent maximum combined efficiency 

motor and pump. 

88 800 

— '■ = 141,000 K. W. H. per year, or 18.7 K. W. H. per acre per year. 

.63 

Energy Required for Various Combined Efficiencies 

K. W. H. required 
Combined efiSiciency per acre per year 

63 per cent 18.7 

60 per cent 19.6 

55 per cent 21.4 

50 per cent 23 . 6 



664 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The minimum energy requirements for average rainfall conditions are seen 
to be 18.7 K. W. H. per acre per year. If the average combined efficiency 
of 63 per cent could not be secured the table shows that the energy require- 
ments would go up to 23.6 K. W. H. per acre per year if the combined efficiency 
were as low as 50 per cent. The combined efficiency of 50 per cent in this 
case would mean an average pump efficiency of 56 per cent, which is con- 
siderably less than can be attained by good pumps operated with care. The 
actual energy requirements for average conditions would probably be 20 
K. W. H. per acre per year. This figure would correspond to a combined 
efficiency of about 59 per cent or an average pumping efficiency of about 65 
per cent, which can probably be realized. 

Cost of Electric Drive. — The average cost of building an electric station is 
from 55 to 65 per cent of the cost of an equally well-designed steam station. 

Conclusions. — It is fair to draw the following conclusions from the evidence 
presented : 

First — The total cost of steam pumping in well-designed plants is $1.25 per 
acre per year. 

Second — If electrical energy can be purchased for 4 cts. per K. W. H. the 
total cost of electric pumping does not exceed the cost of steam pumping. 

Third — Electric pumping has so many advantages over any other kind of 
power that it is worth more money to drainage districts because of these 
advantages. 

Reference to Cost Data on Pumping and Pumping Plants. — For greater 
detail and more data 'on the cost of pumping refer to the chapter on Pumps 
and Pumping in the "Handbook of Mechanical and Electrical Cost Data" 
by Halbert P, Gillette and Richard T. Dana, McGraw-Hill Book Company 
Inc. 1918. 



CHAPTER XI 

SEWERS 

This chapter consists of cost data relating to the construction of vitrified 
and concrete pipe sewers and larger sewers of reinforced concrete and brick. 
Further data on sewers may be found in this volume by referring to the 
index. 

There is an extensive section on cost of sewers in Gillettes* " Handbook of 
Cost Data" and detailed Methods and costs of trenching are given in Gillettes' 
"Earthwork and Its Cost" and the "Handbook of Rock Excavation." 

Cost of Shallow Sewer Trenching with Sewer Excavator. — A. W. Peters 
gives the following data in Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 28, 1912. 

Work was begun on the Moundsville, W. Va., sewer system in May, 1911. 
Labor troubles developed a few weeks later. The contract time was one 
year. The cuts called for were as follows: 33^ miles of trench from to 6 ft. ; 
16>^ miles, from 6 to 8 ft. deep; 3 miles, from 8 to 10 ft. deep; and 3 miles of 
trench in which the cut was greater than 10 ft. 

The contractor, finding the soil suitable for machine work, purchased a 
No. 00 Chicago Sewer Excavator, steam driven. The excavator was fitted 
with buckets 22 ins. wide, and a separate set of buckets 27 ins. wide was 
secured. The length of arm was 8 ft., with an extra 2 ft. extension for use in 
cutting trenches 10 ft. deep. The contractor was then in shape to handle 23 
out of 26 miles of his trench work, regardless of labor conditions. 

The topography of Moundsville was favorable to machine work; the grades, 
within the corporate limits, being, very light, The soil was excellent for 
machine work, being mostly fine sand mixed with loam and unstratified yellow 
clay, moist enough to stand well with only occasional vertical braces. Where 
the sand and loam predominated in the mixture, the machine made big 
daily runs; when the clay predominated, the going was much harder and 
slower. At places soil was encountered which was as stiff as a glacial drift 
hardpan, but which contained no boulders, or even small stones. 

As the light cuttings handled by this machine were situated between the 
two trunk sewers,. and therefore pretty well bunched, not much time was lost 
in shifting the machine from one street to another. When an occasional 
long shift was necessary the machine traveled under its own power at the 
rate of IK miles per hour. Table I gives the operating cost of the excavator. 
A little explanation is due some of the items: 

Superintendence. — Four gangs working, therefore one-quarter of superin- 
tendent's time is charged to the excavator. 

Sheeting. — Although this item has been figured into the daily cost, yet 
there were times when no bracing was necessary, the banks standing up well 
during the backfilling and flushing. For those cases where vertical bracing is 
not necessary our excavation cost is slightly high, or on the safe side. 

Coal. — A steam driven machine was selected by the contractor, because 
there are three bituminous coal mines within a mile of the city which supply 
coal, run of mine, at 5 cts. a bushel, 7 cts. delivered. 

665 



666 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table I. — Daily Opekating Cost of Chicago Sewer Excavation at 

MOUNDSVILLE, W. Va. 

Operation: 

Superintendence $ 1 . 50 

Engineer and helper 4 . 75 

Watchman ; ... 1.75 

Coal, 15 bu. at 7 cts 1 . 05 

Water, 1 single team 2 . 50 

Plumber, service pipes, average ....... 1.00 

Total $ 12.55 

Sheeting: Uprights and jacks; no rangers. 

2 men at $1.75.. . $ 3.50 

Lumber, used repeatedly, neglected. 

Maintenance: 

Replacing dull spuds on buckets S . 50 

Engineer's time Sunday cleaning up, $3.00/6. 0.50 

Miscellaneous , 0.50 

Total $ 1.60 

Dej)reciation: . 
Life of machine figured at '5 years, 9 months to the year, 25 days 

to the month , $ 4 . 00 



Daily total $21.55 

Hourly total $ 2. 15 

Table IL — Quantities and Costs of Machine Excavation on Sewer Work 



Lin. ft. 
trench 
excavated 

590 

565 

638 

530 

547 

180 

426 

100 

180 

272 

340 

130 

106 

162 

100 

565 

200 

283 

200 

100 

400 

109 

348 

450 

248 

447 

200 

316 

400 

400 

Totals 203 

23 X $21.55 

4096 
203 X 2.155 



Run 
no. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

5 

6 

6 

7 

7 

8 

8 

9 

9 
10 
11 
1'2 
13 
13 
14 
15 
16 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 



Aver, 
depth, 
ft. 
6.6 
7.5 
6.5 
8 6 
6.7 
6.0 
5.2 
6.0 
5.2 
6.9 
6.9 
4.3 
4.3 
6.8 
6.8 
. 7.8 
6.4 
6.4 
6.9 
5.5 
5.0 
5.0 
5.5 
5.5 
6.0 
6.3 
6.0 
5.8 
7.0 
4.0 



Hours 

actual 

run. 

time 

10 

10 

10 

9 

7.5 

2.5 

7 

2 

4 

4 

7.5 

2 

2 

3.5 

3 
10 
10 

5 

5 

4 
10 

5 

5 
10 



Cu. yds. 

per 
hr. actual 

run. 
time 
26.4 
28.6 
28.1 
34 2 
33.0 
29.2 
21.4 
15.0 
16,0 
31.8 
21.2 
19.0 
15.0 
21.4 
15,3 
29.8 

8.7 
24.6 
18.6 

9.2 
13.5 

7.4 
26.0 
16.8 
13.4 
19.1 

8.2 
12.4 
20.0 
16.6 



Cu. yds. 

per day 
264 
286 
281 
308 

*321 



Cost per 
yd. on 
day basis 
$0,082 
0.075 
0.076 
0.070 



180 



191 



197 



0.067 

'6!ii9 



0.113 
'6.*i09 



105 
46 

298 

87 



0.204 
0.468« 
0.072 
0.248^ 



216 

37 

135 



167 
168 
114 
191 
82 
124 
190 
108 
4,096 



0.100 
0.582*^ 
0.159 

' 6'. 129'* 
0.128 
0.189 
0.112 
0.262* 
0.173 
0.113 
0.200/ 



= aver, cost per cu. yd. = $0,121 on 10-hour day basis. 



4096 
Broken chain 



aver, cost per cu. yd. = $0,107 on actual running time basis. 
''Bad banks. ^ Long shift. <* Wet= 'Bad banks. /Long shift. 



SEWERS 667 

Depreciation.— In this particular case, no serious breakages have occurred 
to date, most of the smaller delays being due to the breakage of links in the 
bucket chain, the defective links being easily replaced. Still a time must 
come when the breakages, figured not in dollars and cents necessary to replace 
defective parts, but in delays to the general progress of the work, must con- 
vince the contractor that the efficiency of his machine is low enough to allow 
of its being discarded. It may be that five years is a conservative estimate; 
if so, then the costs deduced from this depreciation are on the safe side— a 
good place for them to be. 

Table II shows this excavator during a run of 23 consecutive working days, 
with time lost in making shifts from street to street and delays due to waiting 
for the pipe layers in wet ditches, handled an average 178 cu. yds. per day, at 
an average cost of 12 cts. per cubic yard. The maximum yardage per day was 
308. It is well to note this figure of 0.063 was made in a run of 530 ft. in 9 
hours with an average trench depth of 8.6 ft. This is significantly the maxi- 
mum depth quoted in this record. In explanation it may be stated that in 
shallow trench work the upper 6 or 8 ins. of road metal or even solid compact- 
ed surface, which in comparison to the rest of the is ditch hard to excavate, 
forms a considerable percentage of the total material excavated. 

Cost of Backfilling the Trench. — The backfill is divided into two parts: 
first, the foot of earth covering, which is thrown in and tamped by hand, 
which serves as a protection for the pipe and the cement joints during the 24 
hours in which the ditch is left open for the joints to set up before flushing can 
commence; and. second, the remainder of the backfill which is put in with 
team and scraper and flushed and settled with water. 

Part 1. — Part 1 may be estimated at 16 cts. per cubic yard, although the 
variation from this average cost was great in some instances. It is readily 
seen that in estimating the cost of backfill per lineal foot on ditches of various 
depths, the proportion of this expensive form of backfill varies inversely as the 
depth. It has also been noted that in shallow trenches the cost per cubic 
yard of excavation runs higher than the same unit cost in ditches whose depth 
approximates the maximum reach of the digging arm. 

Part 2. — The trench above the 1 ft. covering was filled with a Sydney 
scraper and team. Water was run into the ditches during this fill, from the 
hydrants, with a meter on the line. Two men followed behind the scraper, 
cleaning out the gutter and rounding off the top of backfilled trench. 

The daily cost of this part of the backfill is shown in Table III. 

Table III. — Cost Per Cubic Yard of Scraper Backfill 

Cost per 
Length Depth Actual cu. yd. Cost per 

trench trench Backfill, time, Cu. yds. actual Cu. yds. cu. yd. 
ft. ft. cu. yds. hours per hr. time per day day basis 



150 6.5 65 3 22 $0,055 

550 4.0 147 7 21 .057 212 $0,057 

800 4.0 213 6.5 33 .036 

280 5.0 93 3.5 27 .045 306 .039 

600 3.0 120 5 24 .050 ' (240) .050 

565 5.0 188 5 38 .032 (376) .032 

445 5.0 148 5 29 .041 (296) .041 



Totals 974 35 

974 

• ^^— = 28 = average backfill in cubic yards per hour. 
35 
* $0,044 = average cost per cubic yard. 
Remarks. Depths taken to top of pipe covering. 



(.044)* 



668 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



The operating cost per day for the scraper outfit was as follows: 

Team and driver $ 4 . 50 

Helper on scraper 1.75 

Helper on hose, etc 1 . 75 

Cleaning up gutter, 2 men at $1.75 3. 50 

Water, 5,000 gals., at 10 cts. per M 50 



Per day of ten hours $12 . 00 

Per hour $ 1 . 20 

Cost of Deep Sewer Trenching with a Carson Machine. — A. W. Peters 
engineer in charge of sewer construction of Mounds ville, W. Va., gives the 
cost of deep trench work with a Carson machine in Engineering and Con- 
tracting, April 2, 1913. The Carson machine is not an excavating machine 
but is used to convey in buckets on a cable material which is excavated by 
hand tools. 

On the two sections for which costs are quoted, the soil consisted of fine 
sand mixed with loam and unstratified yellow clay. In the shallow trenches 
this material could be excavated for a depth of 8 ft., and the ditch left open 
for several days in ordinary weather without endangering the banks, although 
in general verticals and trench braces were used. When the contractor 
opened up his deep ditches in this material he decided to use 8-ft. lengths of 
sheeting, placed without driving, in the excavated 8-ft. depth. In this way a 
section of trench 8 ft. deep would be excavated and the sheeting placed ; then 
the next lower 8 ft. of material would be removed, and the second set of 
sheeting placed with its top butting up against the bottom of the upper 
section, the banks being carried down approximately plumb. In backfilling, 
8 ft. of sheeting would be knocked out and the trench filled, the material 
being tamped against the trench side wall and not against the sheeting, as is 
ordinarily necessary. 

Table IV. — Quantities on Sections 1 a?^d 2, Moundsville Sewer Trenches 



0V 






♦ Section 1 296.0 

t Section 2 135.0 

Section 2 65 . 

Section 2 40.0 

Section 2 50.0 

Section 2 . 42.0 

Section 2 53 . 8 

Section 2 137.0 

Section 2 92.8 



Q 
31 

14-16 
16-18 
18-20 
20-22 
22-24 
24-26 
26-28 
28-30 



Section 2 015.6 

* Uniform depth of 31.0 ft. 
t Average depth of 22.1 ft. 



1,529 



Ot3 

•43 >» 



5.2 



2 , 526 4 . 1 



28 



31 



55 



82 



4.6 



6.8 



Of course, these Moundsville conditions are particularly favorable to low 
sheeting costs, and all that that means in deep trench work, so that the results 
as derived in Table V should be considered in that light. 



SEWERS 669 

The material in these two sections was usually picked before shoveling into 
the buckets, as it could be handled more rapidly in that way. The general 
progress of the truck work seemed to be fairly good. The buckets were 
loaded rapidly, the best men being placed at this work. The machine was 
handled ejfficiently and the buckets were run back and forth at a fairly high 
speed. 

Regarding the items of which the total cost is comprised a few explanations 
will be given: 

Excavation. — The first 3 or 4 ft. were thrown upon the bank and not loaded 
into buckets. For the remaining depth two men shoveled into each bucket, 
usually loosening the material before shoveling. 

Machine. — The sub-heading "moving" is made up principally of the cost 
of moving the machine along the ditch, which required tracklaying, anchorages 
and hitches ahead. 

Table V. — Trench Costs on Section No. 1, Uniform Depth, Moundsville 

Sewers 

Per cent Cost per Cost per 
Cost total lin. ft. cu. yd. 

Item 
Cost bucket loading 559.80 35.2 $1.88 $0.36 

Machine moving $ 13.96 0.9 $0.05 $0.01 

Machine engineer 80.40 5.0 0.27 0.05 

Machine signal 52.60 3.3 0.18 0.03 

Machine coal 18.00 1.1 0.06 0.01 

Machine rental 300.00 18.9 1.01 0.20 

Cost, conveying... $ 464.96 29.2 $1.57 $0.30 

Sheeting $ 231.42 14.6 $0.78 $0.15 

Tamping 97.06 6.1 0.33 0.06 

Teams 40.50 2.6 0.14 0.03 

Pavem't removal 15.12 1.0 0.05 0.01 

Pavem't replacement 41.20 2.6 0.14 0.03 

Superintendent 138.45 8.7 0.47 0.09 

Cost, misc.. $ 563.75 35.6 $1.91 $0.37 

Grandtota ..$1,588.51 100.0 $5.36 $1.03 

Table VI. — Trench Costs on Section No. 2, Variable Depth, Moundsville 

(W. Va.) Sewers 

Per cent Cost per Cost per 
Item Cost total lin. ft. cu. yd. 

Cost bucket loading $ 639.89 31.7 $1.04 $0.26 

Machine moving $ 62 . 56 3.1 $0. 10 $0. 03 

Machine engineer 100.33 5.0 0.16 0.04 

Machine signal 58.25 2.9 0.09 0.02 

Machine coal 10.20 0.5 0.02 

Machine rental 416.00 20.6 0.68 0.17 

Cost, conveying. $ 647 . 34 32 . 1 $1 . 05 $0. 26 

Sheeting $ 117.06 5.8 $0.19 $0.05 

Tamping 145.12 7.2 0.24 0.06 

Teams 155.25 7.7 0.25 0.06 

Pavem't removal 52.42 2.6 0.08 0.02 

Pavem't replacement 85.00 4.2 0.14 0.03 

Superintendent 175.19 8.7 0.28 0.07 

Cost, misc $ 730.04 36.2 $1.18 $0.29 

Grand total $2,017.27 100.0 $3.27 $0.81 



070 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Coal. — Due to the nearness of the bituminous mines, three within the city- 
limits, coal could be bought for 5 cts. a bushel at the mine or 7 cts. a bushel 
delivered. This fact makes the coal item very low. 

Sheeting. — Method of placement described under general soil conditions 
above. Thickness of sheeting 2 ins.; stringers 4 ins. X 6 ins. The cost as 
given includes placement, removal and depreciation. 

Tamping. — This gang consisted of six men, one shoveller and five tampers. 
The men did not use the heavy iron tampers, but were provided with pieces 
of 4 ins. X 6 ins., about 2 ft. long, with an old shovel handle set into one end. 
Better results were secured with these wooden tampers than with the iron 
ones. 

Teams. — This item is made up principally of the cost of removal of surplus 
dirt, and cost of evening up inequalities in trench depth. On Section 2 the 
cost of this item is greater than on Section 1, because the trench depths were 
increasing as the machine moved ahead, so that when the backfill was 
made under these conditions, a surplus resulted which necessitated the team 
expense. 

Pavement. — Brick on both sections laid on 1-in. sand cushion with 6 ins. of 
gravel foundation. Very little of the base was saved, so that in the replace- 
ment of paving new gravel was necessary. A great many brick were broken 
on removal or afterwards lost. 

Labor. — The wages on these ditches varied from $1.85 to $2.00, about 70 
per cent of the men getting $1.85 per day, and the remainder $2.00. 

Cost Analysis. — Referring to the tables it will be seen that Table IV is a 
general table of quantities with unit quantities reduced. Table V gives the 
trench costs for uniform depth, and Table VI presents the cost on a ditch of 
variable depth. 

For a trench ranging in depth from 14 to 30 ft. in Moundsviile, the "Digging 
Cost," equal to cost of bucket loading and conveying, was found to be 52 cts. 
per cu. yd., as shown by the sum of "Bucket Loading" and "Conveying" 
costs in Table VI. 

For the trench with uniform depth of 31 ft., the " Digging Cost " at Mounds- 
viile equals 66 cts. per cu. yd. See Table V. 

Referring to Table IV we see that the yardage per man-day for the variable 
ditch was 6.8, while for the uniform ditch it was 4.6. 

These results, without any further study of the tables, show that we cannot 
quote a uniform price for all depths of excavation, as is done by the machine 
people and some authors. 

A moment's thought will show that the difference between the lengths 
of haul in a 10-ft. ditch and a 35-ft. ditch may vary by as much as 15 per cent. 

It will also be noticed that the three main divisions of the total cost are 
approximately equal in each table, both in the case of the ditch of uniform 
depth as shown in Table V, and in the ditch of variable depth as shown in 
Table VI. This fact would seem to offer an approximate method of esti- 
mating trench costs, by using the "Cost of Bucket Loading" as a starting 
point. It would seem that this ratio ought to hold in soil conditions different 
from those encountered at Moundsviile, because the three main divisions 
contain items that are more or less dependent upon each other, so that a 
change in one would cause a corresponding variation in the others. For 
example, suppose that a wet ditch is being excavated. It will then take longer 
to load the buckets and the cost will therefore, be greater; the Conveying 
Costs will be similarly increased because the Machine Rental, which is a 



SEWERS 671 

large item, will be greater. It can readily be seen that the Miscellaneous Costs 
will be increased and the item of Pumping will be added. 

In the two Moundsville ditches quoted, the cost of bucket loading varies 
with the depth, and is almost numerically equal to it. The expression 
(D -f 4) where (D) is the depth of trench in feet, would give the cost per cu. 
yd. of Bucket Loading for both trenches. 

For a trench in "ordinary earth," such as the Moundsville trenches, with 
either a uniform or average depth, D, the total cost per cubic yard of trench 
work would then be given by the expression 3 (D + 4) . 

It is usually the case that excavation in hardpan costs approximately double 
the excavation of the ordinary earth. With a hardpan trench, therefore, the 
expression for total cost per cubic yard would become 6 (D + 4) . 

Of course, it is not expected that this expression will serve as other than an 
approximate check on estimated costs of deep trench work; neither is it ex- 
pected that it will meet the demands of a quicksand ditch; but for the ordinary 
run of ditches it is believed that it will check up in fairly good shape providing 
the Bucket Loading cost is selected with some care and judgment. 

Cost of Deep Trenching by Machine at Glencoe, 111. — The following is 
taken from an article in Engineering and Contracting, April 5, 1911, by Don 
E. Marsh. 

The length and depth of the various sizes of pipe for the sewerage system 
at Glencoe, 111. are as follows: 

15,500 hn. ft. of 8-in. pipe from 8 to 12. ft. cut. 
5,600 lin. ft. of 10-in. pipe from 7 to 13 ft. cut. 
250 lin. ft. of 12-in. pipe about 13 ft. cut. 
1,000 lin. ft. of 15-in. pipe about 16 ft. cut. 

4,700 lin. ft. 18-in. pipe from a very shallow cut up to a cut of 30 ft. 

Reference to the above tabulation will show that a good percentage of the 
larger size pipe was placed in very deep cuts. The soil, especially in the deep 
cuts, was a hard clay. The top fifteen feet was a brownish clay with slight 
traces of sand. Below this was a hard blue clay. During the fall and winter 
months this soil becomes extremely hard and difficult to handle, too hard in 
fact to be dug by hand without the aid of a pick. In some respects the char- 
acter of the soil was an advantage, since no sheathing was required. 

It was determined to utilize the largest size Municipal Excavator. The 
excavator was constructed to dig a trench up to 25 ft. in depth. Where the 
depth of excavation exceeded this amount, as it was for a considerable distance 
as deep as 30 ft., the street was graded down 3 or 4 ft. and the remaining foot 
or two was excavated by hand in the bottom of the trench and the dirt 
thrown either into the boom or back upon the completed pipe. 

The trench dug by this machine was about 33 ins. in width, giving ample 
room for the proper laying of the 18 ins. sewer pipe and for securing proper 
joints and also for the reception of junctions. All joints were calked with 
oakum and then cemented, to exclude seepage as far as possible, making a 
wide trench quite necessary, for room in which to operate. 

The sides of the trench were smooth and vertical. Vertical plank and pack 
screws were used for bracing. These were placed about 3 ft. apart in the 
deep trenches and farther apart in shallow cuts. 

Cost. — A record of a few average days, which does not take into considera- 
tion the long or short delays caused by break-downs, storm, or otherwise, the 



672 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

cost of labor alone for excavating at a depth of about 25 ft., laying 18-in. pipe 
and back filling appears about as follows: 

Per day 

1 foreman $ 8 . 00 

Excavating machine, including operator 40.00 

1 engineer 4 . 00 

1 fireman 3 . 00 

5 trenchmen at $3.00 15.00 

20 laborers, backfilling, at $2.50 50. 00 

2 teams at $6.00 12.00 

Coal. 5.00 

Repairs and sundry expenses 10 . 00 

Total $147.00 

One hundred and forty-seven dollars for 86 ft. or approximately $1.85 per 
lin. ft. While working in the deep cuts progress of 60 to 100 ft. per day was 
made. 

It will be noticed that a large amount of the cost is for backfilling. This 
item can be reduced where it is possible to use teams with slips. If the back- 
filling can follow close behind the excavating while the dirt is still fresh, one 
team with driver and one scraper holder will backfill about as much as ten 
laborers with shovels. 

Comparative Cost of Hand and Machine Trench Excavation and Some 
Miscellaneous Sewer Costs. — The following is taken from Engineering and 
Contracting, July 9, 1919. 

Machine trenching in the construction of the Stanley St. sewer at San Fran- 
cisco cost about one-fifth as much as by hand trenching. 

During construction, where the contour of the ground permitted, a ditching 
machine was used, which not only produced cheaply a uniform trench in which 
to lay the heavy cast-iron pipe but speeded the completion and earlier use 
of the entire system. 

The following costs to the contractor of some of the items — office overhead 
and the necessary insurance and bond not included are taken from the report 
of M. M. O'Shaughnessy, City Engineer, for the fiscal year ending June 30, 
1918: 

15-in. iron stone-pipe, per foot $ 1 . 65 

21-in. iron-stone pipe, per foot 1 . 79 

2X3 reinforced concrete sewer, per foot 3.31 

2 ft. 6 in. X 3 ft. 9 in. reinforced concrete sewer, per foot.. . . 3.51 

Brick manholes, each 40 . 50 

Overflow structure 465 65 

Trench excavation for the cast-iron pipe was in stiff sandy clay. The cost 
of that portion of the work done by hand was $0.91 per cu. yd. ; the cost by 
machine was $0.18 per cu. yd., including a fixed charge of $32 per day for the 
use of the machine. 

The 18-in. cast-iron pipe cost $0,228 per foot to lay, yarn, pour and calk 
the joints. 

The prevailing rate of labor during construction was $3.00 per day. 

Average Daily Progress in Excavating 37,800 Ft. of Sewer Trenches with 
Trenching Machines. — Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 10, 1915, publishes 
the following data given by J. E. Schwaab in a paper before the 30th annual 
meeting of the Illinois Society of Engineers and Surveyors. 

In the construction of the sewer system of Alton, 111. there were used one 
small 00 Austin gasoline ditching machine which excavated a ditch 24 ins. 



SEWERS 673 

wide. The following out-put data were furnished by G. M. Johnson, of the 
Lillie Construction Co., sub-contractors, and owner of this machine: 

Total amount of work done, lin. ft 19 , 800 

No. of working days 90 

Average cut per day, lin. ft 220 

Maximum cut per day, lin. ft 800 

Average cost per day for operation $30 

Depth of trench averaged 11 ft., with a maximum of 22 ft. and a minimum 
of 4 ft. 

There was also used a Parson's steam ditching machine with backfiller, 
which excavated a ditch 28 ins. wide. The following figures as to the work 
done by this machine were computed by the writer and are only approximate: 

Total amount of work done, lin. ft 18 , 000 

Number of working days 90 

Average cut per day, lin. ft ♦ 200 

Average cost per day for operation, laying pipe, and back- 
filling $45.00 

Average depth of trench excavated, ft 11>^ 

The material excavated was clay and sandy clay. The work was done 
during the summer of 1914. 

Progress and Distribution of Time of Force on Sewer Trenching by Machine. 
W. G. Kirchoffer gives the following information in Engineering and Con- 
tracting, April 10, 1912. In excavating for 5,270 ft. of 8-in. Sewer at West 
Salem, Wis., in a sandy gravelly clay, the contractor used a Parson's trenching 
machine. 

The trench averaged about 8 ft. deep. The total number of days' work put 
in on the job was 325^, or an average of 61.8 days per 1,000 ft. of sewer. 
The trenching machine was operated 20 days out of the total 26 put in upon 
the work, or an average of 263^^ ft. per day. The least distance made in a 
day was 20 ft. and the maximum distance was 550 ft. of completed sewer. 
There were five days in which the rate exceeded 400 ft. of sewer per day. 

The IdihOT put in upon the work was divided as follows in days per 1,000 
ft. of sewer: 

Contractor 1 . 092 

Inspector •. 4 . 935 

Pipe layer 4.315 

Foreman 4.270 

Engineer 4 . 79 

Fireman 4.412 

Team 3.417 

Mason 3.75 

Water boy 1 . 993 

Common labor 26 . 04 

Tamper 4.13 

The greatest number of men employed in any one day was 16 and the small- 
est number was two. 

Cost of Excavating for Large Trunk Sewer with Locomotive Cranes and 
Automatic Buckets. — Engineering and Contracting, June 29, 1910, gives the 
following data relative to the excavation of a section of the Louisville, Ky. 
sewerage system. 

The contract under consideration was for 2,723 ft. of sewer through unim- 
proved land. The sewer is of concrete, 12 ft. X 9 ft. for 1,126 ft. in length, 
and of three centered arch section. For the balance of the length it is horse- 
shoe shaped, and about 9 ft. 3 ins. X 9 ft, in section. 
43 



674 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The average depth of excavation was 22.4 ft. and the average number of 
cubic yards of excavation per lineal foot of trench was 12>i. The material 
excavated consisted of 6 ft. of blue and yellow clay below which was 6 to 
12 ft. of yellow clay and loam and the balance, fine and coarse sand. 

In opening the trench horse scrapers were used, and enough of the trench 
was excavated in this way and used for filling in low land nearby, to take up 
the amount which would necessarily have to be spoiled. An average of half 
a dozen teams were used on this work with one team acting as* a snap team. 
The longest haul was about 100 yards. 

The main excavating plant for this contract consisted of three ten-ton 
Browning locomotive cranes, two of which were equipped with automatic 
buckets, one orange-peel of 1 cu. yd. capacity and one clamshell of 3'^ cu. yd. 
capacity. The cranes ran on standard gage track, of 60 and 65-lb. rails, laid 
along the trench for 600 ft. 

Progress and Costs. — The working dey is 10 hours. Crane No. 1 operates 
a >^-cu. yd. Owens clamshell bucket and averages 400 buckets in 10 hours 
or 200 cu. yds. This bucket handles a full half yard at each operation. The 
labor cost on this machine is as follows: 

1 engineer at $ 3 . 50 

1 fireman 2 . 00 

1 tagman 1.75 

1 signalman 1.75 

Cost of labor for 200 cu. yds. (clay) $9 . 00 

Cost of labor per cu. yd., SO. 045. 

The second crane handles sand in a ^-cu. yd. dump bucket filled by hand. 
It handles 300 buckets or 225 cu. yds. a day. The labor cost on this is as 
follows: 

1 engineer $ 3 . 50 

1 fireman 2.00 

1 foreman 2 . 00 

8 men in bottom at $1.75 14.00 

Cost of labor for 225 yds $21 . 50 

This gives a cost of labor for 1 cu. yd. of $0,095. 

The third or backfill crane operates a 1-cu. yd. orange-peel bucket and 
handles 500 cu. yds. of material in 10 hours. The cost of labor backfilling 
is as follows: 

1 engineer $3 . 50 

1 fireman 2 . 00 

1 signalman 1.75 

Labor cost backfilling, 500 cu. yds $7.25 

Labor cost per cu. yd. of backfilling, $0.0145. 

This crane when not backfilling, pulls timbers and sheeting. The average 
amount of coal used by one crane in a day is 1,200 lbs. Run-of-mine coal is 
used at $4 per ton. About 160 gals, of water are used per crane per day. 
The cranes each cost $5,000 new and their annual interest and depreciation is 
figured by the contractor at 30 per cent. 



SEWERS 675 

Cost of Excavating Trench in Granite. — The following data, published in 
Engineering and Contracting, April 20, 1910, was arranged from a paper by 
E. A. James in Applied Science for March, 1910. 

The excavation was for an 18-in. sewer built at Muskaka, Ont. This sewer 
had a total length of some 1,300 ft., but only the 550 ft. in rock trench is 
referred to here. The rock was Laurentian granite and the trench was 9 ft. 
deep. The excavation was by drilling and blasting, the rock being hoisted 
by horse derricks and skips and deposited in horse drawn cars operating on 
track. The haul was some 1,500 ft. for about two-thirds of the spoil and less 
than 300 ft. for the remainder. The total amount of rock excavation was 
1,850 cu. yds., and the itemized cost of excavation was as follows: 

Per 
Total cu. yd. 
Superintending: 

Walking boss, at 60c per hour $ 222.45 $0. 12 

Clerk and timekeeper, at 37^c per hour 158. 60 0.085 

Foreman, at 45c per hour 608 .15 . 328 



Total for superintending $ 989. 20 

Labor — Mucking, loading, hauling and dumping: 

Laborers, at 20c per hour $2 , 877 . 00 $1 . 555 

Teamsters, at 21c per hour 499.70 .270 

Teams, at 40c per hour 1 , 010 . 60 . 545 

Cars, at 5c per hour 1 17 . 00 . 063 

Carts, at 5c per hour 65 . 50 . 035 

Derricks and power, at 15c per hour 175. 50 .095 

Handy men, at 27>^c per hour 125. 15 .067 



Total labor $4 , 870 . 45 $2 . 630 

Drilling rock: 

Foot drilling, at 30c per ft $1 ,245.00 $0,673 

Sharpening drills, at 27Kc per hour 250 . 80 . 135 

Nippers, at 173'^c per hour 382 . 20 . 206 

Coal, at $10 per ton 29.00 .157 



Total $l,t07.00 $1,171 

Explosives: 

Electric fuses $ 95.95 

Caps and fuses * 23 . 20 

Batteries, rent 38 . 00 

60% dynamite, at $10 per box 1 ,020. 00 



Total $1,117.15 $0,636 

Grand total 4.97 

To the above total must be added $930. for depreciation of plant or 50 cts. 
per cu. yd., making a total cost per cubic yard of $5.47. In studying this cost 
it must be noted that the trench was narrow, and small shots had to be used, 
making the amount of drilling large; 1 ft. of hole was drilled per 4.5 cu. yds. 
excavated. 

Cost of Hand Drilling Bastard Granite in Trench Work. — Edward B. 
Roberts gives the following data in Engineering and Contracting, June 15, 
1910. 

The trench was 2}.-^ ft. wide and 5H ft. deep and the rock, a bastard granite, 
was found in the bottom of an average depth of 2H ft. The drilling was done 
by hand using l>i-in. drills, 1 man holding and 2 men striking with 8-lb. 
hammers. A total of 96 ft. of hole was drilled or 3.2 ft. per cu. yd. of work. 



676 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The time required was 3.1 hours per lln. ft. of hole. The time work of exca- 
vating 35 cu. yds. was: 

Per 
Item cu. yd. 

347 hrs. drilling 9.92 

120 hrs. mucking 3.43 

Total 13.35 

The materials used were as follows: 

Per 
Item cu. yd. 

53 lbs. 60 % dynamite, lbs *1 . 5 

Explosives 2 . 

A batch of 120 drills were sharpened or 4 per cu. yd., or 1 per 0.75 ft. of hole 
drilled. The amount of explosive used per foot of hole was K lb. Labor 
estimating does not include backfills. 

Progress of Sheeting a Sewer Trench with Light Steel Sheet Piling. — 
Engineering and Contracting, Nov. 15, 1918, gives the following. 

The work was the laying of a terra cotta sewer pipe in the City of Water- 
town, N. Y. The course of the sewer was in a sandy soil which obtained quite 
uniformly throughout its length to a depth of about ten feet, underneath which 
was a wet sand mixed with gravel. The average depth of the sewer pipe below 
the surface was 15 ft. The nature of the soil necessitated the use of sheeting 
to prevent caving in of earth and thus permit of a narrow excavation with the 
minimum of material to be removed. Accordingly, 400 sheets of 3-^ -in. 
Wemlinger corrugated steel sheet piling in 10-ft. lengths were obtained and 
for driving them a steam-driven pile hammer, weighing approximately 650 
pounds, was used. The trench was first excavated for its width to a depth of 
about 5 ft., which was left unsheeted. The sheet-piling was then carried by 
hand and set in position on each side of the trench and driven its entire length 
before any further excavating was done. 

An A-framd^^built of timber straddled the excavation, and from it was 
suspended a 2-ton triplex differential chain block. It was intended to use the 
chain block for raising and lowering the pile hammer during the driving and, 
subsequently, to withdraw the sheet-piling. Throughout the entire operation 
the work of placing the sheeting, driving it with the pile hammer and pulling 
and resetting, was done by 3 men for each separate operation. As before 
stated the sheeting was all handled by manual labor, and it required 1 hr. and 
30 min. to set up 32 sheets in position for driving, including the time required 
to carry these sheets an average distance of about 175 ft. The time required 
to drive each sheet 5 ft. into sand was from 33 to 37 seconds. The driving 
was done so fast that the triplex block could not be worked quickly enough to 
follow the pile hammer, and so it was steadied by hand. No difficulty was 
experienced in doing the work in this way and the chain block was needed only 
to hoist the hammer from one pile to another. That this method of handling 
the hammer proved to be a success is largely due to the fact that it stood only 
about 4 ft. high on top of the sheet-piling. Including the time required for 
moving both the hammer and A-frame, an average of 7 ft. of trench was 
sheeted on both sides per hour. 

Average Costs of Sewers, Washington, D. C. 1902 to 1917. — Tables VII 
and VIII, are given in Engineering and Contracting, April 11, 1917, from the 
report of A. E. Phillips for the year ended June 30, 1916. 



SEWERS 



f»77 



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678 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cost of Sewer Construction, Webb City, Mo. — E. W. Robinson gives thp 
following dat^ in Engineering and Contracting, Aug. 14, 1912. 

The nature of the excavation encountered in this locaHty is too rocky to 
permit the use of a trenching machine. This necessitates that the work all 
be done by hand except the top two or three feet which can be loosened with 
a plow or rooter. While there have been a few instances of finding treacher- 
ous ground in the nature of joint clay, generally it is very stable and requires 
very little or no timbering for depths not exceeding 10 ft., except during wet 
weather. A fair sample of the log for the excavation for a trench 10 ft. deep 
would be, to 1 ft. black dirt with few small boulders; 1 ft. to 3 ft. boulders 
varying from the size of a man's fist to the size of a water bucket cemented 
together with a sort of dried clay; 3 ft. to 5 ft. large flint boulders and ledges 
with seams of clay between; 5 ft. to 7 ft. red or yellow clay with occasional 
boulders; 7 ft. to 10 ft. alternate clay and boulders and ledges, with occasional 
out-cropping of lime rock. As everything except lime rock in masses of 9 cu. 
ft. or over is classed as earth, one need not be surprised at the cost of exca- 
vating in this city compared with that of other localities. 

Construction Costs of 8" Seiver.—The following data give the actual cost of 
constructing one district sewer, and is a fair average for like sewers in this 
city. Total length of sewer, 2,135 ft.; 1,430 cu. yds. of excavation; 2 flush- 
tanks, 3 manholes. The items follow for the sewer proper: 

Unit cost 
Item cts. per ft. 

Labor: 

Foreman, 310 hrs. at 35 cts ^ (\q 

Pipe layer, 82 hrs. at 25 cts \ ?" q? 

Helper, 106 hrs. at 20 cts J ^ ^^ 

Team hauling, 17 hrs. at 35 cts 28 

Excavation, 153.5 hrs. at 25 cts., 3,909 hrs. at 20 cts. ($0.5736 

per cu. yd) 38 . 41 

Backfilling, 567.5 hrs. at 20 cts. ($0.0792 per cu. yd.) 5. 31 

Cleaning up, teams, 177.9 hrs. at 35 cts 2.92 

Flushing and tamping, men, hose rent, drayage, etc 1 . 61 

Per lineal foot 55 . 56 

Item 

Materials: Cost 

1,845 ft. straight 8-in. clay pipe at 13.05 cts $240. 77 

156 ft. 6-in^n 8-in. Y branches at 71 cts 110. 76 

Cement for joints, 303'^ sacks at 40 cts 12 . 20 

Jute for joints, 88 lbs. at 14 cts 12 . 32 

Picks sharpened, 352 at 10 cts 35. 20 

Caps for Ys, 156 at 3 cts 4. 68 

Drills sharpened, 3 at 20 cts .60 

Fuse, caps and dynamite 1 . 20 

Total materials on sewer pipe $417. 73 19 , 57 

Total labor and materials on sewer proper 75. 3 

Cost of Manholes. — The walls of the manholes are 8 ins. thick and are made 
of brick. The bottom is concrete. The manholes are circular in section with 
an inside diameter of 4 ft. The walls are carried up vertically and are drawn 
in in the upper 2 ft. 6 ins. to a clear opening of 28 ins. in diameter to admit the 
cast iron frame and cover. The inside of manhole is finished with three coats 



SEWERS ^ 679 

of Portland cement grout, and the outside of the wall is plastered with a >^-in. 
coat of mortar, mixed 1 part Portland cement to 2 parts sand. Wrought 
iron manhole steps are spaced 15 ins. apart vertically. The itemized average 
cost of labor and material are here given. The average is based on three 
manholes of an average depth of 83'^ ft. The cost data follow: 

Item 

Labor : Cost 

Excavation, 24 hrs. at 20 cts $ 4 . 80 

Mixing concrete for base, 2 hrs. at 20 cts 0.40 

Bricklayer, 7 hrs. at 40 cts 2 . 80 

Helper, 7 hrs. at 20 cts 1 . 40 

Team hauling, 2 hrs. at 35 cts 0. 70 

Painting inside with cement wash, 2 hrs. at 25 cts 0. 50 

Total labor on manholes, average $10. 60 

Per vertical foot $ 1.25 

Item 

Material: Cost 

Brick, 1,066 at $8 per 1,000 $ 8. 53 

Cement in concrete, 3 sacks at 40 cts 1 . 20 

Cement in mortar, 8 sacks at 40 cts 3 . 20 

Sand in mortar, 16 cu. ft. at 8 cts 1 . 28 

Gravel in concrete, 0.4 cu. yds. at 50 cts 0. 20 

Water, 2 bbls. at 10 cts 0. 20 

Cast iron cap and cover 9 . 50 

Wrought iron steps, 3 at 40 cts 1 . 20 

Total material on manholes, average $25. 31 

Per vertical foot $ 2 . 98 

Total labor and materials on manholes average of three $35.91 

Per vertical foot $ 4 . 22 



Cost of Flush-tanks. — Flush-tank walls are 8 ins. thick and are constructed 
of brick. The bottom is concrete and the siphon also is set in concrete. The 
top of the walls are drawn in as in the manholes previously described. The 
inside surface of the wall is finished with three coats of neat Portland cement 
mortar, and the outside surface with a 3^-in. coat of 1 :2 mortar. The inside 
diameter of the flush-tank is 4>^ ft. A 6-in. clay pipe overflow is provided. 
The overflow discharges into the vertical stack of the 6-in. clay pipe lamp 
hole placed adjacent to the flush-tank. The lamp hole stack at the base 
joins the outlet pipe forming the siphon discharge. The flush-tank has 
wrought iron steps of the type and spacing described for manholes. The 
following cost data on flush tanks give the average cost of two tanks of an 
average depth of 8 ft. ; 

Item 

Labor: Cost 

Excavation, 19 hrs. at 20 cts $ 3 . 80 

Team hauling, 4 hrs. at 35 cts 1 . 40 

Mixing concrete for base, 2 hrs. at 20 cts .40 

Bricklayer, 9.5 hrs. at 40 cts 3 . 80 

Helper, 10 hrs. at 20 cts 2. 00 

Digging ditch for water connection, 64 hrs. at 20 cts. 12,80 

Tapping water main 3 . 00 

Total labor on flush tanks, average $27 . 20 



680 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Item 

Material: Cost 

Brick, 1,232 at $8 per 1,000 $ 9.86 

Cement for concrete, 3>^ sacks at 40 cts 1 .40 

Gravel for concrete, 0.6 cu. yds. at 50 cts .30 

Cement for mortar, 12 sacks at 40 cts 4 . 80 

Sand for mortar, 24 cu. ft. at 8 cts 1.92 

Water, 2 bbls. at 10 cts 20 

Cast iron cap and cover 9 . 50 

Wrought iron steps, 4 at 40 cts 1 . 60 

Siphon, 6-in. Miller standard 23 . 50 

Corporation cock and lead connection 5 . 08 

Regulator, XXL 4 . 00 

6-in. clay pipe and specials for lamp hole 2.08 

Cast iron lamp hole cover 4.25 

306 ft. ^-in. galvanized water pipe at 6.37 cts 19 . 49 

Curb box and cock 2 . 50 

Total materials on flush tanks, average $90. 48 

Total cost of sewer, including manholes and flush tanks $ 1 , 947 . 02 

Per lineal foot 91 . 19 cts. 

It will be noticed that the above cost of the flush-tanks is rather high. This 
was partially due to the fact that it was necessary to go so far to make con- 
nection with the water main for both tanks. 

On the construction of four small (10-in. pipe) public sewers, aggregating 
8,551 ft. in length and 4,540 cu. yds. of excavation, two years previous to the 
construction of the sewer of which data are given above, the total cost complete 
of sewer proper was 59.8 cts. per lineal foot. For the construction of 28 
manholes averaging 8.5 ft. in depth the average cost was $4.01 per vertical 
foot. However at that time common labor was getting $1.50 and $1.75 per 
day of ten hours instead of $2.00 as in the later case. An average of three 
sewers constructed about the same time and under the same labor conditions 
as given in the foregoing data gave the following unit costs: Total labor and 
materials on sewer proper, 76.92 cts. per lin. ft.; total labor and materials 
on manholes, avg. depth 9 ft., $4.14 per vertical foot; labor and materials on 
flush-tanks, avg. depth 7.5 ft., each, $100.58; grand total, sewer complete, 
including manholes and flush-tanks, was 95.45 cts. per lineal foot. 

Cost of Sewer at Davenport, la.— W. S. Anderson, in Engineering and Con- 
tracting, Sept. 3, 1913, gives the following: 

The sewer construction here described was executed by contract under the 
Davenport specifications. All work was done by hand. 

The method used on most of the work here described was the " step up" 
system of excavation. Particular attention was paid, on this work, to keep- 
ing the pipe close up to the point of excavation, and in keeping a man on the 
same step, hence the method is referred to as the step up method. By the 
use of this method the probability of caving was lessened considerably; the 
foreman was better able to judge the output ot each man; each man ap- 
parently did a like share of work; the pipe was always up to the point of 
excavation, which was a helpful factor after a cave in; the pipelayer had 
more confidence in his safety and was therefore able to do more work. 
Each man removed only a definite portion, one spade in depth. The exca- 
vated material was thrown back far enough to allow walking space between 
the trench and the material bank. 

The first three feet were excavated considerably in advance of the steps, 
which allowed a greater number of men to be used. One man lowered 
the pipes, provided the jute and the 1:1 mortar for the joints. The pipe 



SEWERS 081 

layer in addition to laying and jointing the pipes carried a cut averaging 
from 15 to 22 ins. in depth, the material from which was thrown directly onto 
the laid pipe, where it was firmly tamped to prevent any lateral displacement 
of the pipe. A sand bag was used to remove all projecting material at joints 
and other loose material. 

No staging or platforms were used for a depth less than 9 ft. When 
used they consisted of planks 8 ft. long supported at the right elevation by 
trench braces. The pipe was laid on an up-grade as usual so as to make use 
of the laid pipes for drainage. The trenches were water tamped in nearly 
every instance. 

Contract 1, 1911, Section 1. — Work was started at Section 1. This section 
lies entirely in pasture land. The length of the 15-in. pipe line laid was 330 
ft. The average depth of trench was 6.5 ft. The maximum depth was 8 ft. 
9 ins. The minimum depth was 4 ft. The average width of trench was 30 
ins. The total yards excavated and back filled were 190. The pipe layer 
excavated a trench 15 ins. X 23 ins. and averaged 18 ft. of laid pipe per hour. 
No cave-ins resulted. A Doan scraper was used for back filling. The soil 
was all yellow clay except the upper foot which was black loam and sod. 

The weather was warm and dry. Wages per hour on job A were 40 cts. for 
foreman, 20 cts. for laborers, 25 cts. for pipe layers and timbermen, and 50 
cts. for teams. The following items do not include foremanship, water boy, 
or incidental expenses which amounted to 3 cts. per ft. of pipe on all sections 
of this contract. 

With these exceptions the costs for Section 1 follow: 

Cost per Cost per 
Item lin. ft., cts. cu. yd., cts 

29 cu. yds. excavation by pipe layer 0.8 7.6 

Laying pipe 2.4 

161 cu. yds. excavation 10.5 21.4 

161 cu. yds. backfill 5.1 10.5 

Totals 18.8 49.5 

Section 2. — On Section 2 a 327 ft. stretch of 12-in. pipe was laid. This 
section also lies entirely in pasture land. This section also lies entirely in 
pasture land. The average cut on this section was 9.3 ft.; maximum 
15 ft.; minimum 5>^ ft. The weather was very wet. The average width 
of trench was 26 ins. for 180 ft. and 30 ins. for 147 ft. (This extra 
width was necessary only where the depth exceeded 12 ft.) The pipe 
layer excavated a trench 15 ins. X 18 in. for 180 ft. and a trench 23 ins. 
X 18 ins. for 147 ft., averaging 15 feet, of laid pipe per hour through the 
shallow cut and 10 ft. through the deep cut. There were no cave-ins to speak 
of. For the deep cut one platform was required. The cu. yds. of material 
excavated and back filled were 219. 

The costs on this section follow: 

Cost per Cost per 

Item ft., cts. cu. yd., cts. 

28 cu. yds. excavation by pipe layer 1.2 14. 

191 cu. yds. excavation 21 . 1 36. 1 

Laying pipe 3.1 .... 

191 cu. yds. backfill 6.7 11.5 

Totals 32.1 61.6 

Section 3. — Section 3 consisted of 390 ft. of 12 in. pipe. The cut on this 
section varied from 10 feet to 24 ft. Tunnelling was resorted to through the 



682 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

deep sections. The longest tunnel was 54 ft. while several tunnels 15 ft. in 
length were put through. The total distance tunnelled was 95 ft., while the 
open cut distance was 295 ft. The average width of trench was 36 ins. The 
material was firm clay which stood up remarkably well when tunnelled. 
Near the bottom a material, which tended toward bog iron, was encountered. 
The weather was very favorable. 

Each tunnel was worked from both ends simultaneously, the excavated 
material being relayed back into each shaft. In one of the shafts part of the 
material was deposited onto the pipe, which had previously been laid, while 
in the other shaft some material for back filling the tunnel was allowed to 
remain. The excess material was removed to the surface. 

The tunnellers were paid 35 cts. per lin. foot tunnelled. The average 
height of the tunnel was 3K ft. and the width 3 ft. The tools used were a 
miner's pick with a " duck bill" on one end, and an 18 in. tile spade, a sharp 
adz, and a shovel, the handles on these tools being not over 20 ins. long. No 
timbering of the tunnel was required. The pipes were laid after the entire 
tunnel section was complete. Grade was teed in from stakes driven at the 
correct elevation, at each end of the section. The pipe was lowered into the 
shaft by means of a rope, and slid to the desired point on planks placed on the 
tunnel bottom. The back filling was carried on by relaying the material in 
from the tunnel opening and tamping it solidly. The unit costs on the tun- 
nels in Section 3 follow: 

Cost per Cost per 

Item ft., cts. cu. yd., cts. 

Tunneling, 95 lin. ft. (37 cu. yds.) at 35 cts. per ft.. 35. 92.4 

Removing 22 cu. yds. material from tunnel 5.5 28 . 2 

Removing 25 cu. yds. material from shaft 17.4 66. 

Backfilling tunnel 8.2 21 . 7 

Pipe laying, 95 ft. of 12-in. pipe 4.1 .... 

Totals 70.2 $2,083 

The item " removing material from tunnel" includes only 22 cu. yds. The 
remaining 15 cu. yds, were excavated from the short tunnels, where an addi- 
tional man was not required for removing the material from the tunnel since 
the tunnellers were able to throw the material back far enough for the shaft 
men to reach. 

The open cut on this section consisted of a 295 ft. stretch which includes the 
shafts. This entire length had to be sheeted with skeleton sheeting. The 
number of ft. B. M. used was 5,920. The average depth of this 295 ft. stretch 
was 17 ft., minimum 6 ft., maximum 23 ft. The average width excavated was 
30 ins. The weather was favorable. The trench bottom consisted of a 
mixture of clay and sand and water, which made pipe laying as well as exca- 
vating very difficult. The back filling was done mostly by hand. The mate- 
rial was so wet, sticky, and heavy that a scraper and team could not move the 
material satisfactorily. The pipe layer excavated a bench 12 ins. deep and 
18 ins. wide, or 16 cu. yds. of material and threw it back on the laid pipe. 

The cost of the open cut portion follows: j 

Cost per Cost per 

Item ft., cts. cu. yd., cts. 

Excavation by pipe layer, 16 cu. yds 1.3 24 . 

Excavation, 437 cu. yds 99. 5 63. 1 

Sheeting 10.4 

Laying 12-in. pipe 3.5 .... 

Backfill 15.6 9.9 

Totals 130.3 97.0 



SEWERS 683 

The labor of sheeting cost $5.20 per 1,000 ft. B. M. 

In comparing the cost of tunnelling with the cost of open cut, one must 
remember that excavating shafts is more difficult and therefore more costly 
than straight open work, since the ends of a shaft must be cut square; and the 
"step-up" method of excavation cannot be used to advantage.' Still the 
costs show that tunnelling for this particular sewer cost less per foot than the 
open cut. This is evidently true for any sewer excavation below a certain 
depth. 

Section 4. — Section 4 consisted of a 403-ft. stretch of 10 in. pipe. The aver- 
age cut was 8.5 ft., minimum 6 ft., maximum 9.5 ft. The average width of 
trench was 24 ins. The bottom was very wet, but no sheeting was required. 
The pipe layer excavated a bench 15 ins. X 18 ins. The trench was back filled 
by hand. The unit costs follow: 

Cost per Cost per 

Item ft., cts. cu. yd., cts. 

Excavation by pipe layer, 28 cu. yds 0.9 12.4 

Excavation, 216 cu. yds 13.6 25.4 

Lajdng 10-in. pipe 2.2 .... 

Backfill . 4.5 8.4 

Totals.. 21.2 46.2 

Section 5. — On Section 5 a 550 ft. length of 8 in. pipe was laid. The average 
depth was 11.5 ft., minimum 9 ft., maximum 16 ft. Width of trench 24 ins. 
The trench bottom was wet for 200 ft. Two caveins resulted, due to insuffi- 
cient bracing. Skeleton sheeting was provided every 5 ft. The pipe layer 
excavated a bench 12 ins. deep by 15 ins. wide and averaged 20 ft. of laid pipe 
per hour. The trench was back ffiled by hand. The costs follow: 

Cost per ft., Cost per cu. yd. 

Item cts. cts. 

Excavation by pipe layer, 26 cu. yds 0.7 16.5 

Excavation, 428 cu. yds 23 . 4 30. 1 

Laying 8-in. pipe 2.0 

Sheeting 2.3 

Backfill 7.9 10.2 

Totals 36.3 56.8 

2,560 ft. B. M. of sheeting cost $4.97 per 1,000 ft. for labor in placing and 
pulling. 

Section 6. — Section 6 consisted of a 563 ft. length of 6 in. pipe. The average 
cut was 11 ft., minimum 9 ft., rnaximum 12 ft. The average width of trench 
was 22 ins. The pipe layer averaged 30 ft. of laid pipe per hour, and excavated 
a 12 in. X 12 in. bench. The trench was back filled by hand. The costs follow: 

Cost per ft.. Cost per cu. yd., 
Item cts. cts. 

Excavation by pipe layer, 22 yds 0.4 10. 5 

Excavation, 380 cu. yds 15.2 22.2 

Laying 6-in. pipe 1.1 

Backfill 6.5 9.7 

Totals 23.2 42.4 

Section 7. — On Section 7 a 550 ft. length of 8 in. pipe was laid. The average 
cut was lOK ft., minimum 9 ft., maximum 1 1 ft. The average width of trench 
was 24 ins. The material was a hard and dry clay, which had to be picked 
for the first 4 ft. The pipe layer averaged 28 ft. of laid pipe per hour and 



684 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

removed a 6 in. X 12 in. bench. The trench was back filled by hand. No 
sheeting was required. The costs follow: 

Item 

Excavation by pipe layer, 20 cu. yds 

Excavation, 407 cu. yds 

Laying 8-in. pipe 

Backfill 



Cost per ft.. 


Cost 


per cu. yd., 


cts. 




cts. 


0.3 




16.5 


22.2 




30.0 


1.4 






6.0 




8.1 



Totals 29.9 54.6 

The material which had to be picked cost approximately 35 cts. per cu yd. 

Section 8. — Section 8 is 559 ft. stretch of 6 in. pipe. The average cut was 
10 ft., minimum 9 ft., maximum l6^ ft. The average width of trench was 
22 ins. The pipe layer averaged 36 ft. of laid pipe per hour, and removed a 
12 in. X 12 in. bench. The trench was back filled by hand. The costs 
follow: 

Cost per ft.. Cost per cu. yd.. 

Item cts. cts. 

Excavation by pipe layer, 20 cu. yds 0.4 11.5 

Excavation, 340 cu. yds 14 . 3 23. 5 

Laying 6-in. pipe 1.0 

Backfill 6.4 10.5 



Totals 22.1 55.5 

A 6 in. house connection 56 ft. long was laid at the following costs: 

Item Cost per ft., 

Excavation 12.9 

Laying pipe 2.0 

Backfill 6^. 4 



Total 21.3 

The average cut was 8 ft. The average width of trench was 24 Ins., the 
material was yellow clay. 

The general expense for all work on this contract, which includes foreman- 
ship, water boy and incidentals, was 3 cts. per ft. of pipe. This cost is not 
included in the foregoing unit costs. 

Contract 2, 1912. — Labor was very scarce and wages were high on this job. 
Laborers were paid 25 cts. per hour, while the pipe layer was paid 273^ cts. 
per hour. The foreman received 45 cts. per hour. 

Section A. — On Section A a 272 ft. length of 10 in. line was laid. The 
average cut was 9>^ ft., minimum 7 ft., maximum 10 ft. The average 
width of trench was 24 ins. For a stretch of 50 ft. the bottom material was 
all " muck " and necessitated the use of buckets for its removal. Considerable 
rain fell before the completion of this section, resulting in two cave-ins. 
The pipe layer excavated a trench 12 ins. deep and 15 ins. wide. The material 
encountered was black loam and a mixture of clay and sand. The unit costs 
follow: 

Cost per ft.. Cost per cu. yd., 

Item cts. cts. 

Excavation by pipe layer, 13 cu. yds 1.6 33 . 

Excavation, 170 cu. yds 23.9 38.2 

Laying 10-in. pipe 2.8 

Backfill 6.7 10.7 

Water boy ; 0.8 

Foreman 4.1 ...... 

Totals 39.9 81.9 



SEWERS 685 

Section B. — On Section B a 420 ft. stretch of 8 in. pipe was laid. The 
average width of trench was 22 ins. The average cut was 9H ft., minimum 
9 ft., maximum 10 ft. The material was so hard that picks had to be used. 
The pipe layer excavated a 12 in. X 12 in. trench at the bottom. Most of 
the material was solid clay, making spading difficult. About 250 ft. had to 
be picked to a depth of 4 ft. The costs follow: 

Cost per ft. Cost per cu. yd., 

Item. cts. cts. 

Excavation by pipe layer, 15 cu. yds 1.4 36, 2 

Excavation, 240 cu. yds 25.0 43.7 

Laying 8-in. pipe 3.2 

Backfill 7.3 12.8 

Foreman 4.0 



Totals 40.9 92.7 

Section C. — Section C consisted of a 292 ft. length of 6 in. pipe. The 
average cut was 9}4 ft., minimum 9 ft., maximum 10 ft. The average width 
of trench was 20 ins. The weather was very wet. The pipe layer removed a 
10 in. X 12 in. bench. The material was sand and clay and was good spading. 
The costs follow: 

Cost per ft. Cost per cu. yd., 

Item. cts. cts. 

Excavation by pipe layer, 20 cu. yds 0.8 11.7 

Excavation, 150 cu. yds 15.4 30.0 

Laying 6-in. pipe 1.7 

Back fill 5.5 10.7 

Foreman 4.0 



Totals 27.4 52.4 

Contract 3, 1912. — The rate of wages on Contract 2 was the same as on 
Contract 1. 

Section A. — On Section A a 374 ft. length of 12 in. pipe was laid. The 
average cut was 9.7 ft., minimum 8M ft., maximum 14 ft. The average 
width of trench was 26 ins. The material encountered was a mixture of sand 
and clay and was good spading. No bracing was required. The weather was 
ideal. In back filing the back-fill was tamped in layers of 10 ins., one tamper 
to every two shovelers. The pipe layer excavated a trench 8 ins. deep by 
18 ins. wide. The costs follow: 

Item 

Excavation by pipe layer, 14 cu. yds 

Excavation, 270 cu. yds 

Pipe laying, 12-in 

Back fill 

Foreman 



Cost per 


ft. 


Cost 


per cu. yd 


cts. 






cts. 


0.5 






13.3 


25.4 






35.2 


2.3 








10.8 






14.9 


2.4 









Totals 41.4 63.4 

Section B. — Section B is 265 ft. long. A 10 in. pipe line was laid. The 
average width of trench was 26 ins. The average depth was 9>^ ft., minimum 
8 ft., maximum 11>^ ft. No bracing was required. A considerable number 
of small boulders made excavation difficult. The material traversed was 
made land and clay. The weather was ideal. The trench back filling was 



686 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

tamped by hand as in Section A. The pipe layer excavated a trench 12 ins. 
deep by 15 ins. wide. The costs follow: 

Cost per ft., Cost per cu. yd., 

Item cts. cts. 

Excavation by pipe layer, 12 cu. yds 0.9 20.0 

Excavation, 180 cu. yds 30. 1 44. 3 

Laying pipe, 10-in 3.0 

Backfill 11.1 16.3 

Foreman 4.0 



Totals 49.1 80.6 

Section C. — Section C is a 10 in. line 330 ft. long. The average width of 
trench was 24 ins. The average depth was 9>i ft., minimum 8 ft. 6 Ins., 
maximum 11 ft. 3 ins. The weather was ideal. The material was mostly 
clay with some loam. The back filling was not tamped. The pipe layer 
excavated a 6 in. X 15 in. trench. The costs follow: 

Cost per ft., Cost per cu. yd., 

Item cts. cts. 

Excavation by pipe layer 0.3 16. 5 

Excavation, 175 cu. yds 22.4 42.2 

Pipe laying, 10-in 2.6 

Back fill 3.9 7.3 

Foreman 3.2 



^\ 



Totals 32.4 66.0 



CONCLUSION 

The labor costs of building manholes on Contract 1 show an average cost 
of 85 cts. per ft. depth, while on Contracts 2 and 3 with higher rate of wages 
prevailing, the cost averages $1.25 per ft. of depth. 

The labor costs of excavating trenches of various depths and widths, supple- 
mented by observation, show that the cost per cubic yard of excavating a 
trench 22 ins. wide is no greater than is the cost for excavating a trench 24 
ins. or 26 ins. wide. From this it appears that a saving can be effected by 
giving particular attention to the width of the trench to be excavated. Small 
contractors are, as a rule, prone to choose a constant width for pipe up to 12 ins. 
in diameter; whereas, a saving would result, in shallow excavations, by follow- 
ing a rule such as: add 14 ins. to the pipe diameter to secure the trench width. 
In a shallow trench up to about 8 ft. a man can work efficiently if the width is 
only 20 ins. 

The cost of back filling averages 8>^ cts. per cu. yd. on contract 1 and 10 . 
cts. per cu. yd. on contracts 2 and 3. 

For the purpose of estimating the cost of excavation from trenches up to 10 
ft. in depth with labor at 20 cts. per hour, material which requires no picks, 
and an absence of water may be taken. at 25 cts. per cu. yd. When water is 
encountered the cost may be several times that figure. For the pipe layer 12 
cts. per cu. yd. can be used. 

The cost per lineal foot for the actual laying of the pipe, which includes the 
lowering, the bedding of and the joining of the pipe may be arrived at approxi- 
mately by multiplying the diameter of the pipe in inches by 0.0025 when the 
pipe layer receives 25 cts. per hour and his helper 20 cts. per hour. 



SEWERS 687 

A saving is effected by having the pipe layer carry a cut in addition to 
laying the pipe. The figures show a reduction of 50 per cent in cost per 
cu. yd. for this excavation when compared to the cost per cu. yd. of the trench 
men. 

On any sewer construction the most important individuals are the men who 
lay the pipe and the men on the two benches preceding. Those men set the 
pace or speed of excavation for the entire gang and should, therefore, be paid 
accordingly. 

The author of this article was foreman on the jobs described, and, also, 
recorded all the costs given. 

Cost of Pipe Sewers and Appurtenances in Water Bearing Sand. — The 
following data, published in Engineering and Contracting, May 10, 1911, are 
given by A. P. Melton, who was city Engineer in charge of the work. 

During the years 1909-10 three district sewers were laid in Gary, which will 
be here referred to as Local Sewers Nos. 8, 9 and 10. These sewers were laid, 
for the most part, in water bearing sand. In some cases water stood in the 
ground within a foot of the surface. In all cases where water was encountered 
it was drawn down by pumping. In some cases small hand pumps were suffi- 
cient, but in the majority of cases steam power pumps were used. 

Suction lines were laid horizontally along the braces and two-way valves 
were placed in this main every four feet; I'^i-in. well points were driven into 
the sand with their tops near the water line and their bottoms from 1 ft. to 
6 ins. below the grade of the sewer. The points were connected to the suction 
main at the valves by means of a short piece of flexible hose. 

The excavating was done by teams and slip scrapers until the level of the 
ground water was reached. Below that point, after the water had been 
pumped out, the excavating was done by hand. The backfilling was done by 
teams and slip scrapers. The trenches were about 4^ ft. wide and were 
sheeted in all cases except on about two- thirds of the 12-in. lines in Sewer 
No. 10, where the cut was small. The cost of backfilling is included in all 
cases. The labor of sheeting is included unless otherwise stated. The sheet- 
ing was all pulled as the backfilling progressed. 

European laborers were employed on the common labor and all work was 
done under labor union conditions. 

The standard brick manholes and concrete gutter inlets, are shown by 
Figs. 1 and 2, respectively. 



Local Sewer No. 8 
747 ft. of 18-iii. Sewer. 



Teams and drivers, 49 days at $5.50 

Foreman, 19 days at $3.00 

Laborers, 208 days at $2.00 

Tenders, 30 days at $2.00 

Pipe layers, 12 days at $2.75 

Mixers, 14 days at $2.00 .' 

Sta. engr., 21 days at $3.00 

Firemen, 21 days at $2.25 

Pipeline men, 26 days at $2.00 

Water boy, 6 days at $1.00 

747 ft. of 18-in. pipe at 37>^ cts 

Hauling pipe at 6 cts. per ft 

Total $1,356.69 181.60 





Cost per lin 


Total 


cts. 


$ 269.50 


36.08 


57.00 


7.63 


416.00 


55.70 


60.00 


8.03 


33.00 


4.42 


28.00 


3.75 


63.00 


8.43 


47 25 


6.33 


52.00 


6.96 


6.00 


0.80 


280.12 


37.47 


44.82 


6.00 



688 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cost of sheeting trench and coal for boiler are not included in the above. 
This sewer was laid in water bearing sand. Well points were used for pump- 
ing. The average depth of cut was 14.5 ft. ; maximum cut 18.0 ft. 

Cost per lin. ft., 

Total cts. 
1,125 ft. of 15-in. Sewer. 

Teams and drivers, 143^ days at $5.50 $79.75 7.08 

Foreman, 16>^ days at $3.00 49 . 50 4 . 40 

Laborers, 2353^ days at $2.00 471 . 00 41 . 85 

Tenders, 20 days at $2.00 40 . 00 3 . 55 

Pipe layers, 14 days at $2.75 38 . 50 3 . 42 

Tenders, 14 days at $2.00 28.00 2.48 

Mixers, 16 days at $2.00 32.00 2.84 

Sta. engr., 25 days at $3.00. 75.00 6.67 

Firemen, 18 days at $2.25 40. 50 3.60 

Pipeline men, 44^ days at $2.00 89 . 00 7.91 

1,125 ft. of 15-in. pipe at 29.7 cts 334 . 13 29 . 70 

Hauling pipe at 5 cts. per ft 56 . 25 5 . 00 

Totals $1,333.63 118.50 

The cost of sheeting trench and coal for boiler are not included in the above. 
This sewer was laid in water bearing sand. Well points were used for pump- 
ing. The average cut was 11.3 ft. and the maximum cut was 13 ft. 

897 ft. of 12-in. Sewer, So. of 13th Ave. 

Cost per lin. ft. 

Total cts. 

Teams and drivers, 26^^ days at $5.50 $143.00 15.93 

Foremen, 14>^ days at $3.00 43 . 50 4 . 85 

Laborers, 166^ days at $2.00 333.00 37. 13 

Tenders, 25 days at $2.00 50.00 5. 57 

Pipe layers, 9^ days at $2.75 26.81 2.99 

Mixers, 113^ days at $2.00 22.50 2.51 

Sta. engr., 21 days at $3.00 63.00 7.02 

Firemen, 19 days at $2.25 42 . 75 4 . 77 

Pipeline men, 29 days at $2.00 58.00 6.47 

Helpers, 2 days at $2.00 4 . 00 0. 45 

897 ft. of 12-in. pipe at 22 cts 197 . 34 21 . 98 

Hauling pipe at 2>^ cts. per ft 22 . 42 2 . 50 

Totals $1,006.32 112.17 

The cost of sheeting trench and coal for boiler are not included in the above. 
This sewer was laid in water bearing sand. Well points were used for pump- 
ing. The average cut was 13.8 ft., and the maximum cut was 26 ft. 

1,023 ft. of 12-in. Sewer, N. of 13th Ave. 

Total Per ft., cts. 

Teams and drivers, 26 days at $5.50 $143.00 13.97 

Foremen, 15>^ days at $3.00 46. 50 4. 55 

Laborers, 186 days at $2.00 372.00 36.35 

Tenders, 10 days at $2.00 20.00 1.95 

Pipe layers, 10 days at $2.75 27 . 50 2. 69 

Mixers, 934 days at $2.00 18.50 1.81 

Sta. engr., 14 days at $3 00 42.00 4.11 

Firemen, 13 days at $2.25 29.25 2.86 

Pipeline men, 43 days at $2.00 86 . 00 8 . 43 

Helpers, 2 days at $2.00 4.00 0.39 

1,023 ft. of 12-in. pipe at 22 cts 225.06 22.00 

Hauling pipe at 23-^ cts. per ft 25 . 57 2 . 49 

Totals $1 ,039. 38 101 . 60 



SEWERS' 



689 



The cost of sheeting trench and coal for boiler are not included in the above. 
Well points were used for pumping. The average cut was 13.8 ft., and the 
maximum cut was 19.8 ft. 

10-in. catch basin connections. Total length of connections 710 ft. 



Total 

Teams and drivers, 2 days at $5.50 $11 . 00 

Foremen, IH days at $3.00 4 . 50 

Laborers, 48 days at $2.00 96 . 00 

Pipe layers, 6H days at $2.75 17 . 19 

Tenders, 1 day at $2.00 2.00 

Mixers, 5^ days at $2.00 11 . 00 

710 ft. of 10-in. tile at 16M cts 117. 15 

Hauling tile at 2 cts. per ft 14 . 20 

Totals 

No sheeting waj required and no pumping 
cuts were as follows : 

Average cut for 110 ft 

Average cut for 110 ft 

Average cut for 140 ft 

Average cut for 220 ft 

Average cut for 130 ft 

11 Brick Manholes. Average depths 11.7 ft 



Bricklayers, 102 hrs. at $1.25 

Tenders, 37 days at $2.00 

Mixers, 10^^ days at $2.00 

Laborers, one day at $2. 00 

Sta. engr., 1 day at $3.00 

Pipemen, 1 day at $2.00 

22 M. brick at $7.00 

11 manhole covers at $5.00 

Totals 

10 Standard Brick Catch Basins. 

Bricklayers, 62 hrs. at $1.25 

Tenders, 18^^ days at $2.00 

Mixer, 8 days at $2.00 

Laborers, 1 day at $2.00 

10 M. brick at $7.00 

10 C. B. covers at $5.00 . 

250 ft. 10-in. pipe at $0.163-^ 

10 double Ls and traps at $1.15 

Totals 

4 Standard Gutter Inlets and Connections. 



Laborers, 10 days at $2.00. 

Concrete 

4 gratings at $2.00 

100 ft. 8-in. tile at 11 cts. . 
4 8-in. L's at 50 cts 

Total 

44 



Cost per lin. ft., 

cts. 

1.54 

0.63 
13.52 

2.42 

0.28 

1.54 
16.47 

2.00 



$273.04 


38.40 


was necessary. 


The average 




Ft. 




16 




12.6 




16.2 




7.0 




16.2 


Total 


Per manhole 


$127.50 


$11.58 


74.00 


6.73 


21.50 


1.96 


2.00 


0.18 


3.00 


0.27 


2.00 


0.18 


154.00 


14.00 


55.00 


5.00 


$439.00 


$39.90 


Total 


Per basin 


$77.50 


$7.75 


37.50 


3.75 


16.00 


1.60 


2.00 


0.20 


70.00 


7.00 


50.00 


5.00 


41.25 


4.12 


12.50 


1.25 



$306.75 



Total 

$20.00 

10.00 

8.00 
11.00 

2.00 

$51.00 



$30.67 



Per inlet 
$5.00 
2.50 
2:00 
2.75 
0.50 

$12.75 



Total 


Per ft., cts 


$84.93 


3.98 


160.20 


7.50 


21.36 


1.00 


63.02 


2.95 


46.80 


2.19 


39.00 


1.82 


2.67 


0.13 



690 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

2,136 ft. of 6-in. House Connections. 

Pipe layer, 37^ days at $2.25 

2,136 ft. of 6-in. pipe at $0.07^ 

Hauling pipe at $0.01 

137 12-in. Y's at $0.46 

78 15-in. Y's at $0.60 

52 18-in. Y's at $0.75 

267 6-in. stoppers at $0.01 

Total $417.98 19.57 

All house connections were tunneled from the connection to the lot line. 
The sewers are in the center of the 12 ft. alleys. 

Local Sewer No. 9 
852 ft. of 12-in. Sewer, on Alley No. 4 West, North of 13th Ave. 



Foreman, 15 days at $3.00 

Pipe layer, 153^^ days at $2.75 

Mixer, 13 days at $2.00 

Sta. engr., 28 days at $2.50 

Firemen, 28 days at $2.25 

Pipeline men, 42 days at $2.25 

Laborers, 139K days at $2.00 

Tender, 8 days at $2.00 

852 ft. of 12-in. pipe at 22 cts 

Hauling pipe at 3 cts. per ft 

28 tons coal at $4.00 

Total $961.12 112.70 

This sewer was laid in water bearing sand. Well points were used for 
pumping; 20 hp. steam boiler and No. 4 Nye Pumps were used. The average 
cut was 10.9 ft., the maximum was 11.2 ft. 

747 ft. of 18-in. Sewer, on Alley No. 4, South of 13th Ave. 

Per lin. ft. 

Total cts. 

Foreman, 24 days at $3.00 $ 72 . 00 9 . 64 

Pipe layer, 13^^ days at $2.75 37 . 12 4 . 97 

Mixer, 13^ days at $2.00 27.00 3.61 

Sta. engr., 14 days at $2.50 35 . 00 4 . 68 

Fireman. 21 days at $2.25 47 . 25 6 . 32 

Teams and drivers, 5 days at $6.00 30 . 00 4 . 02 

Pipeline men, 41 days at $2.25 92 . 25 12 . 34 

Bricklayer, 1 day at $10.00 10. 00 1 . 34 

Laborers, 143 days at $2.00 286 .00 38 . 28 

Sheeting men, 37 days at $2.00 74 . 00 9 . 92 

Tender, 153^ days at $2.00 31.00 4. 15 

747 ft. 18-in. pipe at 37H cts 280. 12 37. 50 

Hauling pipe at 6 cts. per ft 44 . 82 6 . 00 

14 tons coal at $4.00 56 . 00 7 . 49 

Total ... $1,122.56 150.26 

This sewer was laid in water bearing sand. Well points were used for 
pumping; 20 hp. steam boiler and No. 4 Nye Pumps were used. Average cut, 
12.3 ft.; maximum cut 16.1 ft. The labor union rules required the presence 
of a bricklayer on the job. 





Per lin. ft. 


Total 


cts. 


$45.00 


5.28 


42.62 


5.00 


26.00 


3.05 


70.00 


8.22 


63.00 


7.39 


94.50 


11.08 


279.00 


32 . 72 


16.00 


1.87 


187.44 


21.95 


25.56 


3.00 


112.00 


13.14 





Per lin. ft 


Total 


cts. 


$81.00 


10.80 


35.75 


4.76 


23.00 


3.06 


41.25 


5.50 


42.75 


5.70 


9.00 


1.20 


69.75 


9.30 


304.00 


40.50 


28.00 


3.73 


10.00 


1.33 


222.75 


29.68 


37.50 


5.00 


$904.75 


120.56 



SEWERS 691 

750 ft. of 15-in. Sewer, on Alley No. 4 West, South of 15th Ave. 



Foreman, 27 days at $3.00 

Pipe layer, 13 days at $2.75 

Mixer, 11>^ days at $2.00 

Sta. engr., 163^ days at $2.50 

Fireman, 19 days at $2.25 

Teams and drivers, 1^^ days at $6.00 

Pipeline men, 31 days at $2,25 

Laborers, 152 days at $2.00 

Tender, 14 days at $2.00 

Steam roller, 1 day at $10.00 

750 ft. of 15-in. pipe at 29.7 cts. per ft 

Hauling pipe at 5 cts. per ft 

Total . 

This sewer was laid in water bearing sand. Well points were used for 
pumping. A 20 hp. steam boiler and No. 4 Nye Pumps were used. Average 
cut, 9.7 ft.; maximum cut 13.2 ft. 

693 ft. of 12-in. Sewer, on Alley No. 4 West, South of 17th Ave. 



Foreman, 8 days at $3.00 

Pipe layer, 133^^ days at $2.75 

Mixers, 123^ days at $2.00 

Sta. engr., 15>^ days at $2.50 

Fireman, 20 days at $2.25 

Teams and drivers, 2 days at $6.00 

Pipeline men, 33 days at $2.25 

Laborers, 219 days at $2.00 

Tenders, 14 days at $2.00 

15>^ tons coal at $4.00 

693 ft. 12-in. pipe at 22 cts 

Hauling pipe at 3 cts. per ft 

Total $957.37 138.07 

This sewer was laid in water bearing sand. Well points were used for 
pumping. A 20 hp. steam boiler and No. 4 Nye Pumps were used. Average 
cut, 10.9 ft.; maximum cut, 14.5ft. 

220 ft. of 10-in. Pipe Connections for Catch Basins. 

Pipe layer, 3 days at $2.75 

Laborers, 16 days at $2.00 

Mixers, 3 days at $2.00 

220 ft. 10-in. pipe at 163^ cts 

Hauling pipe at 2 cts. per ft 

$86.95 39.52 

These connections were all laid in dry sand and pumping was not required. 
Average cut, 4 ft.; maximum cut, 6 ft. 
1,632 ft. of 6-in. House Connections. 

Pipe layer, 40 days at $2.25 

1,632 ft. 6-in. pipe at 7H cts. per ft 

Hauling pipe at 1 ct. per ft 

204 6-in. stoppers at 7 cts 

12 10-in. stoppers at 12 cts 

1 12-in. stopper at 12 cts . 

Total $244.56 14.98 





Cost per lin. ft 


Total 


cts. 


$24.00 


3.46 


37.12 


5.36 


25.00 


3.61 


38.75 


5.59 


45.00 


6.49 


12.00 


1.73 


74.25 


10.72 


438.00 


63.20 


28.00 


4.04 


62.00 


8.95 


152.46 


21.92 


20.79 


3.00 





Cost 


per lin. ft., 


Total 




cts. 


$8.25 




3.75 


32.00 




14.54 


6.00 




2.73 


36.30 




16.50 


4.40 




2.00 





Cost 


per lin. ft., 


Total 




cts. 


$90.00 




5.52 


122.40 




7.50 


16.32 




1.00 


14.28 




0.87 


1.44 




0.08 


.12 




0.10 



692 



'HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



All house connection were tunneled to the lot line from the sewer in the 
center of the 12 ft. alleys. 

9 Standard Brick Manholes. Average Depth 12.106 ft. 



Total 

Bricklayer, 10 days at $10.00 $100. 00 

Laborers, 33 days at $2.00 66 . 00 

Mixers, 9 days at $2.00 18 . 00 

9 manhole covers at $5.00 45 . 00 

18 M. brick at $7.00 126.00 

81 manhole steps at 20 cts. ; . . . . 16.20 

Total $371.20 



Cost per 

manhole 

$11.11 

7.33 

2.00 

5.00 

14.00 

1.80 



$41.24 



Standard Man/7o/e ^yer. 




Fig. 1.— Standard brick manhole for Gary, Indiana. 



7 Standard Catch Basins and Connections. 

Total Cost per basin 

Bricklayer, 5 days at $10.00 $50 . 00 $7 . 13 

Laborers, 17 days at $2.00 34.00 4.88 

Mixers, 5 days at $2.00 10. 00 1 . 42 

7 M. brick at $7.00 49.00 7.00 

7 cast iron covers at $5.00 35.00 5.00 

7 double L traps at $1.25 8.75 125 

Total $186.75 $26.68 



Well points and a small hand pump were used. 
water to remove. 



There was about 6 Ins. of 





Cost per lin. ft 


Total 


cts. 


$12.00 


1.14 


516.00 


49.35 


78.75 


7.53 


55.00 


5.26 . 


33.00 


3.15 


33.00 


3.15 


54.00 


5.16 


17.00 


1.62 


5.00 


0.48 


230.12 


22.00 


26.15 


2.49 


140.00 


13.38 


56.00 


5.35 



SEWERS 693 

Local Sewer No. 10 
1,046 ft. of 12-in. Sewer in Alley No. 3 West, N. of 13th Ave. 



Foreman, 4 days at $3.00 

Laborers, 258 days at $2.00 

Pipeline men, 35 days at $2.25 

Bricklayer, 5H days at $10.00 

Pipe layer, 11 days at $3.00 

Tender, 11 days at $3.00 

Firemen, 27 days at $2.00 

Mixers, SH days at $2.00 

Water boy, 10 days at $0.50 ' 

1,046 ft. of 12-in. pipe at 22 cts. per ft 

Hauling pipe at 2^ cts. per ft 

14 days' rental of boiler and outfit at $10.00. 

14 tons of coal at $4.00 

Total.. $1,256.02 120.06 

This sewer was laid in water bearing sand. Well points were used for 

pumping. Boiler and pumps as before. Average cut, 6.6 ft.; maximum cut, 

8.4 ft. The labor union rules required the presence of the bricklayer on 

Sewer No. 10 wherever shown, to take charge of and assist in the pipe laying. 

746 ft. of 18-in. Sewer in Alley No. 3 West, South of 13th Ave. 

Cost per lin. ft.. 

Total cts. 

Teams and drivers, 17 days at $6.50 $110.50 14.82 

Foreman, 14 days at $3.00 42 . 00 5 . 63 

Laborers, 150 days at $2.00 300 . 00 40 . 19 

PipeHne men, 313-^ days at $2.25 70.88 9 . 52 

Bricklayer, 12 days at $10.00 120. 00 16. 07 

Pipe layer, 11 days at $3.00 33.00 4.42 

Tender, 11 days at $3.00 33.00 4.42 

Firemen, 35H days at $2.00 71 . 00 9 . 52 

Mixer, 9H days at $2.00 19.00 2.55 

Water boy, 12 days at $0.50 6.00 0.80 

746 ft. of 18'in. pipe at 37^ cts 279 . 75 37 . 47 

Hauling pipe at 6 cts. per ft 44 . 76 6 . 00 

Rental of boiler and outfit 18 days at $10.00. 180.00 24. 13 

18 tons of coal at $4.00 72.00 9.66 

Total $1,381.89 185.20 

Water in sand, well points, boiler and pumps as before: Average cut, 10.1 
ft.; maximum cut, 12.9 ft. 

750 ft. of 15-in. Sewer in Alley No. 3 West, South of 15th Ave. 

Cost per lin. ft., 

Total cts. 

Teams and drivers, 8 days at $6.50 $52.00 6.93 

Foreman, 16 days at $3.00 48.00 6.40 

Laborers, 162 days at $2.00 324 . 00 43 . 20 

Pipeline men, 36 days at $2.25 81 . 00 10 . 80 

Bricklayer, 9}4 days at $10.00 95 . 00 12 . 67 

Pipe layer, 143^^ days at $3.00 43 . 50 5. 80 

Tender, 133^ days at $3.00 40. 50 5 . 53 

Firemen, 133^ days at $2.00 27.00 3. 60 

Mixer, 11 days at $2.00 22.00 2.93 

Water boy, 7 days at $0.50 3. 50 0.47 

750 ft. of 15-in. pipe at 29.7 cts 222.75 29 . 68 

Hauling pipe at 5 cts 37 . 50 5 00 

Rent of boiler and outfit 133-^ days at $10.00. 135 .00 18 . 00 

133^^ tons of coal at $4.00 54.00 7.19 

Total $1,187.75 158.20 



694 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Water removed as before. Average cut, 11.5 ft.; maximum cut, 15.1 ft. 
719.5 ft. of 12-iii. Sewer in Alley No. 3 West, South of 17th Ave. 

Per lin. ft., 

Total cts. 

Teams and drivers, 37 days at $6.50 $240 .50 33 . 

Foreman, 243^ days at $3.00 73 . 50 10. 22 

Laborers, 207 days at $2.00 414 . 00 57 . 55 

Pipeline men, 27 days at $2.25 60 . 75 8 . 45 

Helpers, 20 days at $2.00 40. 00 5. 55 

Bricklayer, 163-^ days at $10.00 165 . 00 22 . 93 

Pipe layer, 4 days at $3.00 12 . 00 1 . 67 

Tender, 17K days at $3.00 52. 50 7.29 

Fireman, 20 days at $2.00 . 40. 00 5. 56 

Mixers, 163^ days at $2.00 33 . 00 4 . 58 

719.5 ft. of 12-in. pipe at 22 cts 158 . 29 21 . 98 

Hauling at 23^ cts. per ft 17.99 2.50 

Rent of boiler and outfit 20 days at $10.00.... 200 .00 27 . 80 

10 tons of coal at $4.00 40.00 5.56 

Total $1,547.53 215.06 

Water removed as before. Average cut, 12.8 ft.; maximum cut, 14.5 ft. 
18 Standard Brick Manhole, Average Depth 12.106 ft. 



Bricklayer, 14 days at $10.00 

Mixer, 14 days at $2.00 

Laborers, 55 days at $2.00 

36 M. brick at $7.00 

18 cast iron covers at $5.00 

164 manholes steps at 20 cts 

Total $652.80 $36.27 

3 Standard Brick Catch Basins and Connections. 



Bricklayer, 2}4 days at $10.00 

Foreman, 2 days at $3.00 

Mixers, 23^ days at $2.00 

Laborers, 21 days at $2.00 

3 M. brick at $7.00 . 

3 cast iron covers at $5.00 

309 ft. of 8-in. pipe at 11 cts 

3 double L traps at $1.25 

Total $151.74 $60.58 

Well points and small pump used to remove about 6 ins. of water. 

Cost of Constructing a Small Submerged Sewer Outfall Into a Stream. — 
J. C. Schneidwind in Engineering and Contracting, June 14, 1911 gives the 
cost of constructing the Leland Ave. outfall into the North Shore Channel 
Chicago as follows: 

Briefly the design requires the end of the sewer to be built as close as possible 
to the water edge where a concrete bulkhead is placed and the sewer carried 
through it to the face. At a sufficient distance back from the face, an ordi- 
nary junction pipe is placed with the connection on the flow line of the sewer. 
This in turn is joined by means of straight and curved tile pipes to a cast iron 



Total 


Per manhole 


$140.00 


$7.78 


28.00 


1.56 


110.00 


6.11 


252 . 00 


14.00 


90.00 


5.00 


32.80 


1.82 



Total 


Per basin 


$25.00 


$8.33 


6.00 


2:00 


5.00 


1.67 


42.00 


14.00 


21.00 


7.00 


15.00 


5.00 


33.99 


11.33 


3.75 


1.25 



SEWERS 



695 



water pipe which extends into the water about 2 ft. below the surface. To 
deflect the sewage into the drain pipes, a brick weir is placed at the joint on the 
down stream side of the junction, and of sufficient size to care for a quantity 
equal to two times the dry weather flow plus 10 per cent. 

The construction of the Leland Avenue outfall was carried on as follows: 
after the sewer was built to the site of the bulkhead, the excavation for the 
latter was completed and filled with concrete to a depth of 6 ins. The 
junction pipe was then placed in its proper position and held by a block and 
tackle, while the connection with the cast iron pipe was made. Concrete was 



K-- 



„ f Surface ofM/?^. 



CI Coyer 




Y—if—.^ 




annDD 

□ □□□n 
naDDD 

□ □nnn 

□ □ann 




Fig. 2. — Standard concrete gutter inlets, Gary, Indiana. 



then placed and securely tamped ground the pipes to protect them from 
disturbance, after which the work was merely a matter of constructing a 
cradle for the sewer proper and junction pipe. Elevations were taken on the 
latter to discover a settlement, if any, but none of material importance was 
observed. The next pipe was then set and in the joint was placed the brick 
weir. To fit the last pipe flush with the form the exact measurement was 
taken and a pipe cut to fit. The balance of the work consisted only of filling 
the form with concrete. 

The work was carried on by direction of a foreman, who did the necessary 



696 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



mason work, and a gang of six laborers. The concrete was composed of 1 part 
Portland cement, 2 parts torpedo sand and 4 parts crushed stone. The 
teniized cost was as follows: 

1 foreman H day at $10 $ 6.25 

3 laborers (excavating), }4 day at $3.75 5. 62 

5 laborers (concreting), 1 day at $3.50 17. 50 

7 cu. yds. crushed stone at $1.65 11 . 55 

4 cu. yds. torpedo sand at $1.50 6.00 

11 bbls. Portland cement at $1.50 16. 50 

• 5 lin. ft. cast iron pipe at $1.00 5 . 00 

6 lin. ft. 6-in. tile pipe at 10 cts .60 

2 lin ft. 24-in. junction pipe at $1.50 *3.00 

100 lin. ft. matched lumber at $35 per M 3 . 50 

Miscellaneous lumber 2 . 00 

Total $77. 52 

*Con tractor allowed this amount for substituting junction pipe for straight 
pipe. 

Costs of Constructing 18 and 12 In. Inverted Siphons for Sewer Crossings. — 

The following data are given in Engineering and Contracting, April 29, and 



Elev.m 




J! 1 ^4 ^ip5 
'' ' 5ewdr 



Datum 



Eng Confg. 




--6-0- -< 



Fig. 3. — Standard submerged sewer outlet, Chicago, 111. 



Aug. 12, 1914, by C. A. Bryan who was resident engineer for the work. 

Cost of 18-in. Crossing. — The construction of the outfall sewer serving 
the northern and the western section of the Borough of Carlisle, Pa., neces- 
sitated making a crossing of the Letort 'Spring, a stream flowing through the 
eastern section of the borough, in order to connect this sewer with the main 
outfall sewer. 

The width of the spring at the point where the crossing was made was 33 ft. 
at the water surface. The channel itself was, however, about 15 ft. wide, the 
remainder of the cross-section being more or less choked with mud and silt, 
and through this part of the section the velocity of flow was low. The average 
depth of water in the cross-section was 1.05 ft. 



SEWERS 697 

Soundings taken at the crossing showed that the bed of the spring was com- 
posed of a stratum of soft mud and clay about 4 ft. deep and underlaying 
this a stratum of stiff clay through which the soundings were not carried. It 
was therefore decided to construct this crossing in two sections, and to com- 
pletely finish and fill in the first section before beginning work on the other. 

Work was commenced on the eastern half of the crossing, and a cofferdam 
built extending from the eastern bank of the spring to a point a little beyond 
its center. The cofferdam was made about 20 ft. long and 5 ft. wide inside 
dimensions, and was built by driving two rows of 2-in. plank around the 
three sides exposed to the water. The plank used were 8 ft. long and were 
braced by one horizontal waling strip. A wooden maul was used to drive this 
sheeting and no trouble was experienced in driving it to a sufficient depth. 
The space between the two rows of sheeting was then filled with a well- 
puddled stiff clay excavated from the bottom of the stream. Water was then 
pmnped out of the cofferdam by gasoline pumps, while bags filled with sand 
were piled around the outside of the cofferdam to prevent excessive infiltration. 
The leaks in this cofferdam were plugged without much difficulty. The 
trench for the pipe was then excavated and it was found necessary to use tight 



^'{jCP ipe: 



Fig. 4. — Longitudinal cross section of 18-in. clay pipe inverted sewer siphon 
under Letort Spring, Carlisle, Pa. 

sheeting throughout its length. The trench was dug about 3 ft. wide inside to 
inside of sheeting in order to make a proper allowance for clearance of the bells 
of the pipe. The trench sheeting was held by one line of horizontal waling 
strips set just below the original bed of the stream. The material excavated 
from the trench was disposed of on the banks of the spring. When the exca- 
vation had been carried to the elevation called for on the plan, it was found 
that the foundation was not solid and it was therefore carried about 8 ins. 
deeper to a more solid stratum. The contract called for surrounding the 
pipe with 6 ins. of concrete and it was decided to further reinforce this by using 
1-in. round iron rods spaced 9 ins. apart on centers underneath the pipe. 

Work on the western half of the crossing was started a few days after the 
completion of the work just described. This work was handled in the same 
manner. The brick manholes at both ends of the crossing were then built. 
The water leaking into the cofferdam was handled by two gasoline diaphragm 
pumps. 

In order to provide a method of flushing out this syphon it was decided to 
connect the manhole on the west bank of the spring with the spring by a 12-in. 
cast iron pipe resting on the bed of the latter. This pipe was provided with a 
12-in. gate valve which was set in a valve chamber built into the manhole. 

Work on the construction of this crossing was started on Sept. 12, 1913, and 
completed on October 1. The itemized cost of this work to the contractor was 
as follows: 



698 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cost of Labor 

Item Amount 

18 hrs. supervision at $0.80 $ 14 . 40 

188 hrs. foreman at $0.30 56^40 

40 hrs. carpenters building cofferdam at $0.35 14. 00 

40 hrs. carpenter helper on above at $0.173^ 7 . 00 

280 hrs. excavation at $0.17K 49.00 

80 hrs. stopping leaks at $0. 173^ 14 . 00 

20 hrs. stopping leaks at $0.20 4 .50 

153 hrs. driving sheeting at-$0.17>^ 26.78 

35 hrs. pipe laying at $0. 17^ 6.13 

11 hrs. pipe laying at $0.273^ . , 3 . 03 

80 hrs. mixing and placing concrete at $0.173^ 14.00 

5 hrs. mixing and placing concrete at $0.20 1 . 00 

40 hrs. backfilling at $0.173^ 7 . 00 

37 hrs. moving pumps at $0.173^ 6 . 48 

36 hrs. engineer at $0.40 14 . 40 

44 hrs. mason at $0.30 13.20 

44 hrs. mason helper at $0.173^ 7.70 

25 hrs. cleaning up at $0. 173^ 4 . 38 

1 hr. cart at $0.273^ 0.28 

8 hrs. team at $0.45 3 . 60 

3 hrs. hauling 12-in. pipe at $0.45 1 . 35 

Total cost of labor $268 . 63 

Cost of Materials 

1 , 180 ft. B. M. lumber at $25.00 $ 29. 50 

200 lin. ft. ^-in. lumber 4.73 

45 empty sacks used in cofferdam at $0.10 4. 50 

9 cu. yds. of stone at $1.25 11 . 25 

7.5 cu. yds. of sand at $1.75 13. 10 

68 bags of cement at $0.40 27 . 20 

2,500 brick at $8.75 21.88 

55 gals of gasoline at $0. 173^ 9 . 63 

52 lin. ft. 18-in. terra cotta pipe at $0.60 31 . 20 

0.448 tons 12-in. c. i. pipe at $24.90 12.28 

2 manhole frames and covers at $6.70 13.40 

10 manhole steps at $0.35 3 . 50 

1 cut stone at $2.25 2. 25 

1 12-in. valve at $39.50 39 . 50 

Leading pipe into valve 2 . 50 

Steel reinforcement 3 . 40 

4 diaphragms for pumps at $3.25 13. 00 

Oil for pumps 1 . 50 

25 days of pumping for gas pumps at $1.00 25 . 00 

Total cost of materials $269 . 32 

Total cost of labor 268 . 63 

Total cost of crossing $537 . 95 

The itemized cost of constructing the 12-in. flushing main and valve in the 
manhole on the western bank of the spring was as follows: 

61 hrs. of laborers building cofferdam at $0.173^ $ 10. 68 

17 hrs. of mason at $0.30 5. 10 

3 hrs. of teams hauling supplies at $0.27>^ 0. 83 

1 12-in. gate valve at $39.50 39 . 50 

450 brick at $8.75 (M) 3 . 94 

1 cut stone 2.25 

2 cu. yds. of stone (crushed) at $1.25 2 . 50 

2 cu. yds. of sand at $1.75 3 . 50 

10 bags of cement at $0.40 4 . 00 

300 ft. B. M. lumber at $26.00 7 . 80 

10 gallons of gasoline at $0.15 1 . 50 

Leading pipe into valve 2 . 50 

Total cost of 12-in. fllushing device $ 84 . 10 



SEWERS 699 

Deducting the cost of constructing the 12-in. flushing device from the total 
cost of the crossing gives $453.85 as the cost of the contractor of constructing 
this inverted siphon together with the two manholes and other appurtenances. 

The length of this crossing was 52.5 lin. ft., or the cost of construction 
amounted to $8.65 per lineal feet. 

Cost of 12-in. Crossing. — The 10-in. branch sewer serving the northeastern 
section of the borough, joins the main outfall sewer, constructed along the 
east bank of the Letort Spring, at the corner of North St. and Porter Ave. In 
order to effect this junction it was also necessary to carry this branch sewer 
across the spring. 

In making this crossing a complete cofferdam was made so that the work 
could be finished without interruption. 

The spring at the point where the crossing was made was about 33 ft. wide 
and about 1.9 ft. deep in the deepest portion. A timber frame work was first 
built from 2-in. by 10-in. plank. This frame work, built on the bank, was 
32 ft. long and 6.5 ft. wide and 3.5 ft. deep. At the center of the long sides of 
the frame a flume was built across it. This flume was 5.65 ft. wide and its 
bottom was 1 ft. 3 ins. below the top of the frame at upper side and with a 
pitch of 3 ins. in the width of the frame work. When completed the frame 
work, sheathed on the sides, was placed across the stream, the sides resting in 
two shallow trenches. The structure was then weighed down, calked and 
banked about with clay. 

It was decided to use available, second hand cast iron pipe in this crossing 
on account of the fewer joints thus required and the greater ease and rapidity 
with which the contracter could lay it out. 

Work on the construction of this crossing was begun on Nov. 20, 1913, and 
the crossing was practically finished on Dec 3, although the work of finishing 
the construction of the various manholes, cleaning up, etc., was not completed 
until Dec. 19. 

The itemized cost of all work at this crossing was as follows: 



Cost of labor Amount 

Superintendent, 16 hours at 80 cts $ 12 . 80 

Foremen, 106 hours at 40 cts ' 42 . 40 

Foremen, 6 hours at 30 cts 1 . 80 

Excavation, 651 hours at 173^ cts 113 . 93 

Sheeting and bracing, 100 hours at 20 cts 20. 00 

Engineer, gas pumps, 82 hours at 40 cts 32 . 80 

Mason, 83 hours at 30 cts 24 . 90 

Mason helper, 83 hours at 173^ cts. 14 . 53 

Carpenter, 57 hours at 35 cts 19 95 

Carpenter helper, 111 hours at 173^ cts 19 . 43 

Sheeting and bracing, 100 hours at 173^ cts. 17. 50 

Laying pipe, 61 hours at 20 cts 12 . 20 

Laying pipe, 50 hours at 173^^ cts 8.75 

Concreting, 147 hours at 173^ cts 25.73 

BackfiUing, 80 hours at 173^^ cts 14.00 

Miscellaneous, 60 hours at 173^ cts 10 . 50 

Cleaning up, 38 hours at 173-^ cts 6. 65 

Hauling material, 4 hours at 45 cts 1 . 80 

Total cost of labor to complete all work at this crossing $399.67 



700 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cost of materials: Amount 

Bags of cement, 87 at 40 cts $ 34 . 80 

Cu. yds. of stone, 25 at $1.25 31.25 

Cu. yds. of sand, 13 at $1.75 22 . 75 

Lumber for sheeting and piles, 2.0 M. ft. B. M. at $26 52.00 

Flanged cast iron pipe, 48 lin. ft. 12-in 61 . 44 

Gaskets separating pipe, 6 at 5 cts .30 

Gallons of gasoline, 80 at 15 cts 12.00 

Manhole frames and covers, 2 at $6.70 13.40 

Lamphole frame and cover, 1 at $4.20 4.20 

Cast iron pipe, 12 lin. ft. 10-in. . 6.40 

Valve, 1 10-in. at $18 18.00 

Brick, 2,000 at $8.75. 17.50 

Diaphragms for gasoline pumps, 5 at $3.20 16, 00 

Gasoline torches, 3 at $1.25 3.75 

Pumping with gasoline pumps, 25 days at $1.00 25.00 

Total cost of materials and plant $318.79 

Total cost of labor..... . 399.67 

Total cost of crossing to contractor. . 718.46 

The itemized cost of constructing the 10-in. flushing device to the contractor 
was as follows: 

Labor building cofferdam, etc., 50 hours at 173-^ cts $ 8.75 

Mason labor, 30 hours at 30 cts 9.00 

Mason helper, 30 hours at 17>'2 cts 5.25 

Gasoline, 10 gals, at 15 cts 1 . 50 

Valve, 1 10-in. at $18.00 18.00 

Cast iron pipe, 12 lin. ft. 10-in 6 . 40 

Lamphole frame and cover, 1 at $4.20, 4 . 20 

Brick, 300, $8,75 per M 2 . 64 

Stone, 1.5 cu. yds. at $1.25 1.88 

Sand, H cu. yds. at $1,75 , 1.31 

Cement, 7 bags at 40 cts 2 , 80 

Lumber, 300 ft. B. M. at $26.00 7.80 

Total cost of flushing device $ 69 . 53 

Deducting the cost of constructing the flushing device from the total cost 
of the work leaves $648,93 as the cost to the contractor of making this crossing. 
The length of this crossing from the center of the manhole on the east bank of 
the spring to the corresponding point on the west bank was 51.5 ft., or the 
coat of this crossing per linear foot amounted to $12.60. 

Cost of Concrete Sewer Pipe at Bellingham, Wash. — H. A. Whitney gives 
the following in Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 8, 1911. 

The city of Bellingham, Wash., is using cement and concrete pipe for storm 
water sewers. This pipe is made under a guarantee by the manufacturers. 
While the city does not stipulate any process of manufacture as long as the 
finished product conforms to the specifications, all the cement pipe used is 
made by one local concern and gives satisfactory results, as compared to the 
vitrified clay sewer pipe. All sizes of pipe from 4 ins. to 24 ins. are machine 
made. The process is as follows: 

A flask made in halves is placed around a cast iron core, in a vertical posi- 
tion. The cement is placed in the annular space thus formed in batches, dry 
mixed, having 8 per cent to 10 per cent water. As the cement is deposited 
in the mold it is automatically tamped with a wood tamper running at the 
rate of five blows per second. The core in the meantime is kept stationary 
while the pipe is revolved around it, thus giving a smooth glazed effect to thQ 
insWe. The actual cost to the manufacturer is aa follows: 

\ 



SEWERS 701 

4-in. pipe 4 cts. per ft; 

6-in pipe 7 cts. per ft. 

8-in. pipe 14 cts. per ft. 

10-in. pipe 19 cts. per ft. 

12-in. pipe 25 cts. per ft. 

15-in. pipe 35 cts. per ft. 

18-in. pipe 50 cts. per ft. 

20-in. pipe 65 cts. per ft. 

The above costs are based upon: Cement at $2.30 per bbl.; sand at $1.10 
per cu. yd. ; gravel at $1.20 per cu. yd. ; labor at $2.25 per day, 8 hrs. ; foreman 
at $4 per day, 8 hrs. 

The pipe as sold, delivered upon the line of work at the following rates: 

4-in . pipe 11 cts. 

6-in. pipe 16^ cts. 

8-in. pipe 22^ cts. 

10-in. pipe 323^1 cts. 

12-in. pipe 40 cts. 

15-in. pipe 60 cts. 

18-in. pipe 75 cts. 

20-in. pipe 90 cts. 

The difference in manufactured and delivered price, represents hauling, 
breakage and profits. 

Cost of 8-Ft. Circular Reinforced-concrete Sewer. — The following labor- 
cost summary taken from Engineering News, Feb. 18, 1915, is for an 8-ft. 
circular reinforced-concrete sewer built between electric-car tracks in a street 
within the commercial district of San Francisco (Howard St. from Second St. 
to Fourth St., a distance of 1650 ft.) : 

Unit Costs of 8-ft. Sewer 

Excavation $ 7.86 per lin. ft. $0. 618 per cu. yd. 

Lagging 6. 450 per lin. ft. 0. 106 per sq. ft. 

Forms 1.765 per lin. ft. 0.070 per sq. ft. 

Steel 1 .480 per lin. ft. 0.028 per lb. 

Cdncrete 6.915 per lin. ft. 5.310 per cu. yd. 

Brick lining 0.691 per lin. ft. 0.046 per brick 

Finishing 0.348 per lin. ft. 0.014 per sq. ft. 

Backfill 2.020 per lin. ft. 0.202 per cu. yd. 

Miscellaneous , 0. 567 per lin. ft. 

Total $28 , 096 per lin. ft. 

The pavement consisted of basalt blocks on sand. During construction 
the street was left open to vehicular traffic. Ordinary labor was at the rate 
of $0.37K per hr. and superintendence at $0.50 and $0,625 per hr. 

Labor Costs on Concrete Sewers. — D. B. Davis, gives the following in 
Engineering and Contracting, April 14, 1920. 

The data show the labor required and the procedure followed in constructing 
a 48-in. diameter monolithic concrete sewer in Richmond, Ind., on which semi- 
circular forms were used. The contractor had 100 lin. ft. of the half circle 
forms, of which he used 50 ft. for invert and 50 ft. for the arch. The concrete 
was machine mixed ; the wheel being about 100 ft. from the mixer to the forms. 
The men were good workers., 

The order of the day's work was as follows: 

6 :30 a. m. to 9 :30 a. m. — Sliding invert forms ahead and setting. 

9:30 a. m. to 11:15 a.m. — Pouring concrete invert. 

11:15 a. m. to 2:30 p. m. (1 hdur for dinner) — Moving and setting arch forms. 

2:30 p. m. to 4:00 p. m. — Pouring concrete arch. 

4:00 p.m. to 5:30 p.m. — Pouring flow-line strip 2 ft. wide. 



702 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST. 

The labor required for a day '3 run of 50 ft. of sewer was: 

Total labor, 
hours 

Invert forms — 8 men in gang 24 

Pouring invert — 12 men in gang 21 

Arch forms— 6 men in gang 13 

Pouring arch — 10 men in gang 15 

Pouring base strip — 10 men in gang 18 

Total labor, hours 91 

Or 1.82 labor hours per lineal foot. 

The organization of concreting gang was: 

2 men spreading and tamping concrete about forms. 

3 men shoveling gravel in mixer. 

4 men wheeling concrete a distance of 100 feet. 

1 man running concrete mixer. 

2 men setting metal, etc. 

The extra men used for pouring concrete were taken from the gangs doing 
excavation. 

The following data shows the labor required to build a 48-in. diameter 
monoUthic sewer, using complete circular forms. The contractor had six 
sections of form, each section was 6 ft. long. When these were assembled it 
made a length of 35 ft. The concrete was machine mixed and the wheel for 
concrete was about 90 ft. The workmen were exceptional and the conditions 
good. 

The labor required for a day's run of 35 ft. of sewer was: 

4 men working 2}4 hours each removing and resetting six sections of 

complete circular forms, or total of 10 hours 

4 men working 6 hours each and 7 men working 2 hours each pouring 
concrete for complete circle and for flowline strip, changing runs, 
etc., or total of 38 hours 

Total labor required for 35 ft 48 hours 

Or 1.37 labor hours required for each lineal foot. 

The labor required to build 175 ft. of 42-in. monolithic sewer, using the 
complete circular forms with the same gang as above, was: 

Hours 

First day's work, poured flow-line 16 

Second day's work, built 35 feet complete sewer 30 

Third day's work, moving forms (rain) 10 

Fourth day's work, built 35 feet complete sewer 35^^ 

Fifth day's work, built 35 feet complete sewer 3034 

Sixth day's work, built 35 feet complete sewer 31>^ 

Seventh day's work, built 35 feet complete sewer 30 

Total labor for 175 ft. of sewer., 183M 

Or 1.05 labor hours required per lin. ft. 

In building 245 ft. of 36-in. monolithic sewer using complete circular forms, 
the gang built 35 ft. of sewer each day. 

It required 31>^ hours each day for 7 days or total of 220 hours. Or 0.90 
labor hours required per lineal foot. 

It will be observed that it requires approximately the same number of labor 
hours on the form labor for the 36-in., the 42-in. and the 48-in. diameter 
sewers. 



SEWERS 



703 



Fig. 5 shows the standard type of monoHthic concrete sewer construction 
in Richmond, Ind. and the cost per hneal foot of labor to construct a 36-in., 
42-in. and 48-in. sewer. 




t Segment Inverf Block 























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40 .50 .60 .70 .60 .90 
Average Wage Paid Per Hour 



PiQ 5, — Labor cost of building monolithic concrete sewers of standard section 

shown. 



In Fig. 5 the costs are plotted on the following basis: 

36 in. diam. requires . 90 hours per lin. ft. 
42 in. diam. requires 1 . 05 hours per Un. ft. 
48 in. diam. requires 1 . 37 hours per lin. ft. 



704 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



The principal dimensions of the pipe are as follows: 



Inside diameter, in. 
36 
42 
48 
54 
60 
66 



Thickness "T," ins. 
4 
4 
5 
5 
6 
7 



Volume concrete, cu. ft. 

3.5 

5.0 

7.3 

8.5 
11.2 
14.3 



Cost 
E. W. 

July 9, 
yard. 



of 6-Ft. Semi-circular Concrete Storm Water Sewer, Webb City, Mo. 
Robinson gives the following costs in Engineering and Contracting, 
1913, of constructing 184 ft. of storm water sewer through a lumber 




Fig. 6. — Cross section of 6-ft. concrete storm water sewer at Webb City, Mo., 
showing design for form used. 



The section shown in Fig. 6 was selected for the reason that sufficient depth 
was not available for a circular section of the same area. Even as constructed 
the top of the concrete was only slightly over 1 ft. below the surface of the 
"ground. A flat reinforced top was not used for the reason that it would have 
cost more, concrete materials being so cheap in this district that it pays to 
reduce or eliminate steel wherever possible. The only reinforcing used was 
under the cement house where three piers that support one end of the house 
rest on the crown of the arch. Three >^-in. round rods were inserted imder 
each pier as an additional factor of safety. 

The excavated material was creek gravel and clay, mostly fill, and was easily 
loosened and removed. From the cement house to the upper end the excava- 
tion was carried on by means of a plow and slip scrapers. All other excava- 
tion was taken out with pick and shovel and reshoveled into wagons which 
were dumped about 100 yds. from the site. No supports were needed under 
the projecting end of the cement shed for the reason that it was nearly empty 
all the time and was well supported by numerous other piers. The total cost 
for excavating 259 cu. yds. was $95.72, or a unit cost of about 37 cts. per cubic 
yard. 

The base or invert was first concreted and allowed to set before the arch was 



SEWERS 705 

started. Two-by-six pieces were used for the side forms, and were set accur- 
ately to line and grade from a line of center stakes. A Coltrin continuous 
mixer, No. 9, was mounted upon the bank of the trench and the concrete was 
chuted into the ditch and wheeled some 50 ft. each way. The concrete was 
placed to approximately the proper thickness, tamped well and shaped to the 
exact contour with a drag cut to the proper radius. From }i to 3^^ in. of 1 to 
2 cement mortar was troweled on the invert before the concrete had taken its 
initial set. The side walls were brought up 1|4 ins. above the base by laying 
2 X 4-in. scantlings on the finish and holding them in place by short pieces 
nailed to the side forms and by filling behind with concrete to the top. This 
was done to allow the arch forms to be wedged up and not let concrete flow 
under the sides. Gravel was brought to the mixer by wagons, and three men 
at the machine kept up a continuous flow of concrete into the trench. Three 
men placed, tamped and dragged the concrete and two men mixed and placed 
the mortar finish. The whole 33 cu. yds. of concrete in the invert was placed 
in nine hours, though some time was lost in getting gravel to the feeder and in 
moving the machine. 

The form of arch centering used is shown in Fig. 6. Two 16-ft. sections 
were made, consisting of No. 2 yellow pine flooring nailed to ribs consisting 
of two thicknesses of K-in. pine about 5 ins. in depth. The ribs were cut at 
the crown and were hinged with 6-in. strap hinges. The bottoms were held 
so as to be rigid yet easily taken off. There were seven ribs to each section, 
spaced 2 ft. 6 ins. c. to c. Each section complete weighed about 750 lbs. and 
was easily handled. The first section or arch that was concreted was not 
wedged far enough up off the base at the center, which with the swelling of the 
wood caused an exceeding tight fit, and it was necessary to take off the hinges 
at the crown and take the centering out in halves. However no other trouble 
was experienced, and four men would take down and set up both outside and 
inside forms for a 15-ft. section in an hour. The outside forms consisted of 
No. 2 1 X 4-in. yellow pine nailed to 2 X 4-in. ribs, made up in 16-ft. sections. 
They reached from the bottom up to about two-thirds of the heigh th of the 
arch, and were held in place by stakes and braces from the bank of the trench. 

In mixing and placing for the arch the concrete could not be chuted into 
place 'for the reason that the top of the forms were so near the level of the 
ground. One man shoveled from the mixer and two men placed and tamped 
it. The concrete for the lower part of the arch, as far as the outside forms 
extended, was mixed wet enough to flow easily into place ahd required little 
tamping, but the top was mixed with less water, just enough being used to 
permit tamping the concrete thoroughly and yet have it stay in place. Five 
men would complete a 15-ft. seetion of arch in two hours, consisting of one 
hour actual run and one hour of preparation and cleaning up. The construc- 
tion of the arch was started at the center of the sewer and alternate sections 
were built each way each day. This allowed the concrete 48 hours to set 
before removing the centering. 

All concrete was mixed in the proportion of one part Portland cement to 
flve parts of "chats" or "mill tailings." The latter is the by-product of the 
zinc and lead mines of this district and can be had for the hauling. In this 
case the nearest suitable pile was at such a distance that 1 cu. yd. an hour was 
the best the teamsters could do. It consists of crushed white and blue flint 
ranging in size from He to % in. in size, with sufficient of the finer material, 
to practically fill the voids in the larger. When mixed wet in the proportion 
of 1 to 5 a very (J^ftge concrete was produced. 
45 



706 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



The following data give the actual cost, except overhead charges and back 
filling, reduced to lineal foot of sewer: 



Lineal 
ft. of 

_ . sewer 

Iiixcavation: 

259 cu. yds. at 37 cts $0 . 5202 

Lumber (two 2 X 6) 2 ft. B. M. at 2^ cts 0.0450 

Labor, two men 0.153 hrs. at 22% cts 0. 0338 

Base — concrete in place (1.18 cu. yds. per lin. ft.): 

Foreman, at 30^^ cts. per hr . 0299 

Laborers, 8, at 22% cts. per hr 0. 1304 

Mixing machine, at $1 per hr . 0489 

Cement, $1.60 per bbl. on job 0.3152 

Gravel, at 38% cts. per cu. yd. on job 0.0655 

Sand, at 8 cts. per cwt. on job 0.0156 

Arch— ^forms (two 15-ft. sections): 

Mill work on circles, labor and material 0. 1033 

Hinges, nails, wedges, etc . 0258 

Lumber, at $2.75 and $2.25 per 100,100 ft. B. M 0.0680 

Labor, 2 men, at 25 cts. per hr 0. 0245 

Arch — concrete in place (0.237 cu. yds. per lin. ft.): 

Foreman, at 30% cts. per hr . 0598 

Laborers, 5, at 22% cts. per hr . 2265 

Mixing machine, at $1 per hr 0.0745 

Gravel, at 38% cts. per cu. yd. on job 0.0923 

Cement at$1.60 per bbl. on job 0.6043 

Total per lin ft. sewer 

Total per cu. yd. of concrete 



Total 
lineal 
ft. of 
sewer 

$0.5202 



0.0788 



0.6055 



0.2216 



1.0574 

$2.4835 
5.956 



Nine hours was a day's work and common labor was paid $2 per day for 
concreting and $1.75 for excavation. The above price for excavation included 
a foreman at $2.75 per day and teams at $3.50 per day. The mixing machine 
belonged to a local contractor and was rented for $1 per hour. The work was 
stopped twice on account of rain, but most of the time the weather was ideal 
for concreting. 

Cost of a Large Concrete Sewer. — E. T. Thurston gives the following in 
Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 12, 1917. 

The work consisted of the complete construction of 450 ft. of 8-ft. 6-in. X 
9-ft. standard horseshoe section, reinforced concrete sewer, 100 ft. 8-ft. 6-in. 
X 9-ft. extra -heavy, horseshoe section, reinforced concrete sewer under a 4- 
track main line railroad crossing, 908 ft. 7-ft. 6-in. diameter, circular-section, 
reinforced concrete sewer with vitrified brick invert, and 2,695 ft. 5-ft. 2-in. X 
7-ft. 9-in. egg-shape, reinforced concrete sewer with brick invert (including a 
90° curve of 21 ft. radius and two 10-ft. taper sections connecting the respec- 
tive standard sections), representing a total length of 4,173 ft. of sewer. 
Auxiliary structures comprising 18 standard brick manholes, 26 concrete 
catch basins and catch-basin connections consisting of 79 ft. of 18-in. vitrified 
pipe and 1,724 ft. of 12-in. vitrified pipe are not included. The sewer for 
most of its length runs in a 100-ft. street, its center line being located 22 ft. 
from the center line of the street, and from 8 to 10 ft. from the center line of a 
single-track electric street railway, the operation of which was suspended 



SEWERS 707 

during construction. The required excavation was from 9 ft. to 20 ft. 6 in. 
deep, averaging 15 ft. 3 in. 

For the first 1,000 ft. the excavation averaged 12 ft. in depth through a layer 
of heavy, black gumbo about 6 ft. thick, overlying black, muddy silt carrying 
considerable water and in plgices approximating quicksand. The conditions 
required close sheeting and heavy timbering and much trouble was had with 
sloughing sides and seeping water. This changed gradually to stiff yellow 
clay mixed with black gumbo overlying water-bearing gravel and finally to 
very stiff yellow clay, difficult for the steam shovel to handle without 
the assistance of its crowding engine. For two-thirds the length of the trench 
the ground required constant attention and careful shoring to ensure against 
cave-ins Ten street intersections were crossed, six of which carried live 
sewers and water mains and one carried a 4-track, main-line railroad, one a 
2-track interurban railroad and one a 3-track electric street railway, a concrete 
sewer culvert and a network of heavy water mains. The work was com- 
menced in the middle of March, 1914, and was completed with the end of 
October, 1914. 

Organization and Equipment. — The original working equipment consisted 
of a steam shovel, two concrete mixers supported on trucks, charging barrows, 
concrete hoppers and chutes, 2-yd. dump wagons, slip scrapers, 2 diaphragm 
pumps, 1 gas-driven centrifugal pump and miscellaneous small tools such as 
shovels, picks, mattocks, German hoes, etc. A locomotive crane with equip- 
ment of dump buckets was added later. 

The working force consisted of a superintendent, a time-keeper, an engineer, 
6 foremen (overseeing respectively the finishing of the excavation, the 
shoring and lagging of the trench, the concrete work, the steel reinforce- 
ment, the handling of forms and the extra gang constructing catch- 
basins and outlying manholes and connections with same, gutters, curbs, 
etc.), the steam shovel crew, a general mechanic, carpenters and labor- 
ers; to ^vhich was subsequently added an engineer and a signal-man for the 
locomotive crane. 

The superintendent had active general charge of the work, assisted by 
the engineer, who in addition attended to overseeing the manufacture and 
handling of the forms and the bending of steel reinforcement, the forms being 
designed at the main office, the ribs sawed out to order in a planing mill and 
the forms made up on the job. Had it not been impossible at the commence- 
ment of the work to secure a general superintendent that was competent to 
read and interpret plans and specifications, the engineer would not been 
necessary, and during the latter half of the work his services were dispensed 
with. 

The timekeeper kept a carefully segregated record of time, employing a 
mnemonic system of record and making four round trips per day over the entire 
work to secure a classified record. He also assisted in keeping track of 
materials and supplies and made out and forwarded the superintendent's 
daily report to the head office. 

The excavation foreman had charge of a gang of about 30 laborers which 
followed the steam shovel, shored or lagged the trench, finished the trench to 
size, line and grade by templet, excavated street crossings and installed the 
underdrains. The excavated material was handled out of the ditch by stages. 

The concrete foreman supervised the work of a gang of 10 men mixing and 
placing concrete and assisting the foreman carpenter in handling the forms. 

The steel foreman had one or two assistants and when not engaged in 



708 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

placing reinforcement the gang was kept fairly busy bending it into the shape 
required. 

The foreman in charge of the extra gang had a dozen or more men, depend- 
ing on the demands of the more important part of the general work. 

General Plan of Operation. — This required that the finishing gang keep close 
behind the steam shovel, but owing to the fact that the latter was limited in 
depth of cut to about 16 ft. and as the ground was of an extremely unstable 
nature and the excavated material very wet and difficult to handle, it was found 
impossible even approximately to follow this plan. The fact that the street 
crossings had to be excavated entirely by hand also delayed the progress of 
the finishing gang. For this reason the numerous delays in the steam-shovel 
work really retarded the general progress very little. At one time the shovel 
was 850 ft. ahead of the finishing gang. 

After the trench had been finished to exact size and underdrain installed, 
the invert reinforcement was placed, then the invert forms, after which the 
first of the two mixers was moved into place and the invert poured. At the 
expiration of two days the forms were removed and brick invert, if any was 
required, laid, after which the arch reinforcement was placed; then the arch 
forms set in place and braced, and the balance of the concrete poured with the 
second mixer. The sides were poured first and after the concrete had set the 
wing forms were adjusted and braced and the top poured, the sides and arch 
generally, but not necessarily, being poured on different days. 

After sufficient time, in the opinion of the inspectors, had elapsed, generally 
about a week, backfilling was proceeded with by means of a team with slip 
scraper, driver and holder, scraping into the trench that portion of the exca- 
vated material that had been dumped alongside for that purpose. The loose 
fill being thus completed up to within about a foot of the surface of the ground 
the whole ditch was flooded. Additional fill to bring the trench up to sub- 
grade was brought by team direct from the steam-shovel excavation. The 
trench being thus filled practically to the level of the pavement it was left 
until near the end of the job when the entire work of repaving was done as one 
job. 

Excavation. — The main excavation was done with a steam shovel mounted 
on trussed cross-timbers supported on hardwood rollers running on boards 
laid on either side of the proposed trench, spanning about 20 ft. on centers, 
the outfit pulling itself along as required by means of a cable attached to a 
deadman ahead. The shovel was especially equipped with a 1-cu. yd. dipper 
on a long dipper stick enabling it as mounted to dig about 16 ft. below grade. 

The outfit, assembled as described, just as it had been returned from a 
similar job some 3 years before was rented for $250 per month on the assurance 
that the boiler and engine, though dirty and rusty, were in good working order, 
the boiler having received new tubes just before it was laid up in the yard. 
Two days overhauling and inspection by a complete crew and the contractor's 
supervision engineer resulted in a favorable report on the shovel, but, within 
the rental period, the boiler tubes were rerolled until they had to be reinforced, 
the boiler" required sheathing and a new idler pulley, new bronze gear pinion, 
new friction strap and shoes, and ultimately an entire renewal of the crowding 
engine were necessary. Minor troubles, such as chain breakage, were of 
about daily occurrence and probably doubled the reasonable cost of operation. 

Rental was paid for 161 calendar days. Of these, 22 days were required 
in moving from storage to job and return; 20 days were holidays or rainy days 
and 15 days were lost on account of jurisdictional disputes between labor 



SEWERS 709 

unions, leaving 104 days available for actual work. Of these 104 working 
days 37 were devoted wholly to repairs and renewals, leaving only 67 days 
or 64 per cent of the working time or 41>^ per cent of total time on which 
actual excavation, together with incidental repairing, was done. 

Sufficient material for backfilling was piled on one side of the trench and 
the balance of the excavated material was dumped direct into wagons moving 
on the other side. In addition to the shovel crew, three attendants were in 
general required for miscellaneous work, principally keeping street clean 
around wagons, watching trench banks for signs of failure, planting and shift- 
ing deadmen and attending rollers while moving ahead. Owing to the 
structural limitations of the machine and the weakness or entire uselessness 
of the crowding engine, which limited the control and power of the dipper, the 
cut was not carried as close as desirable to the finish lines on the sides and 
bottom, and an average of about 6 in. on either side and from 6 in. to 5 ft. in 
the bottom was left for the finishing gang to remove. 

The trench as dug by the shovel varied from 12 ft. to 7 ft. wide and from 
7 ft. to 15 >^ ft. deep, and the material was mostly black gumbo and sandy 
clay, easy digging except in the last quarter of the work, where stiff, sandy 
clay, merging into hardpan, was encountered, and with a crippled crowding 
engine the digging was found difficult. 

The shovel crew, working 8 hours per day, 6 days per week, with time-and- 
half allowance for overtime and double time for working Sundays and holidays, 
comprised the following: 

Per day 
and board 

1 stedm shovel engineer $6 . 00 

1 cranesman 4.25 

1 fireman 3 . 00 

3 laborer attendants 2 . 50 

Coal was $9.00 per ton delivered. 

Following the statement of the performance of the steam shovel: 

Steam Shovel Performance 

Per 
Days Mat'l. Labor Total cu. yd. 

Investigating outfit 4H $ $ 70 $ 70 $ 

Moving on and off job — 

Moving 34 inile and loading on 

car... ... 5 42 318 350 

Unloading and setting up on job. . 53^^ 7 110 117 

Freight both ways. 5 60 60 

Moving off j ob 3^ mile and loading 

on car...! SH 7 130 137 

Unloading and returning 34 mile 

to owner 3 100 100 

Compensation insurance on labor 40 40 



Totals for moving 22 $ 156 $ 658 $ 814 $0,063 

Operation — 

Rental and labor 161 $1,356 $1,494 $2,850 $0,228 

Fuel and oil (coal at $9 per ton) 1 ,063 1 ,063 0.082 

Compensation insurance 113 113 0.008 

Repairs and renewals 37 256 474 728 0. 056 



Total operation cost 67 $2,788 $1,968 $4,754 $0,366 

Note. — Quantity of material handled (13,000 cu. yd.) is given as originally 

estimated necessary to be done and takes no account of extra material handled 

because of slides and failure of banks. 



710 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The best day's performance of the shovel was 109 lin. ft. of trench or about 
345 cu. yd. excavating to a depth of about 12 ft. 6 in. Toward the end of the 
job, while excavating to its maximum depth of 16 ft., its best day's work was 
60 ft. of trench or 220 cu. yd. The shovel averaged 194 cu. yd. for each day 
in which digging was done and 125 cu. yd. for each available working day. 
In considering the performance record it should be borne in mind that the 
necessity for storing a portion of the excavated material along the trench for 
subsequent backfill enabled the shovel to keep at work regardless of whether 
the dump wagons were spotted promptly for loading, thus materially reducing 
what is usually the controlling factor in steam-shovel output. 

Hand Excavation and Trimming. — The finishing gang with picks, shovels, 
German hoes and mattocks, did all the excavation left by the steam shovel, 
and finished the trench carefully to size, shape, line and grade and laid an 
underdrain of 4-in. tile covered with gravel which carried the seepage water 
to sumps constructed at intervals of about 600 ft., which in turn were relieved 
by an electrically operated, 2-in. centrifugal pump, tended chiefly by the 
general mechanic. During the first two months the gang comprised about 
30 laborers at $2.50 per day (8 hours), a straw boss and interpreter (Italian) 
at $3.75, and a foreman at $5. The excavated material was shoveled by 
stages to the surface of the ground and thence into wagons. This portion of 
the work in particular was in very wet ground, necessitating the construction 
of dams of sacks of sand and the use of a 2-in. centrifugal pump and a 3-in. 
diaphragm pump. Latterly, a 5-ton locomotive crane with outfit of dump 
buckets was secured and mounted on the street car track alongside the trench, 
greatly facilitating the work. There was less mud to contend with in the 
portion of the trench served by the crane. 

Preceding the finishing gang and immediately behind the steam shovel, a 
lagging gang of from 2 to 5 men at $2.50 and $2.75 per day, under a foreman at 
$4 per day, placed necessary shoring and lagging. The bracing, where sheet- 
ing, was required, comprised 2 lines of 6 X 8 rangers on either side with 6 X 
8 spreaders on 6 to 8-ft. centers and 2-in. X 12-in. sheeting was driven behind 
these rangers, a total of 29,000 ft. B. M.; 2-in. plank was used for this lagging, 
very little of which was recovered intact. In addition 16,00 ft. B. M. 
Oregon pine lumber were used for rangers, spreaders, etc. 

The total cost of deepening and finishing trenches to templet after rough 
work had been done by the steam shovel (except at street crossings which the 
shovel had to skip and which, therefore, was all hand work) and depositing 
material either in spoil bank or in wagons (except the section through unim- 
proved street, which was all hand work under superior working conditions and 
from which all material was spoiled along the trench) was as follows, laborers 
receiving $2.50 and $2.75 per day and foreman $3 per day: 



Quantity, 
cu. yd. Mat'l. 

Hand work, by stages 1 ,800 $ 

Hand work, crane and 

bucket 3,100 766 

Hand work, by stages, 
through unimproved 

street 1 , 700 

Tools, etc 422 



Labor 


" Total 


Per 
cu. yd. 


$4 , 382 


$ 4,382 


$2.43 


3,059 


3,825 


1.23 


1,553 
58 


1,553 
480 


.92 



Total 6,600 $1,188 $9,052 $10,240 $1.55 





Per 


Total 


cu. yd. 


$ 624 


$0,201 


63 


.020 


15 


.005 


36 


.012 


55 


.018 


854 


.276 


69 


.022 



SEWERS 711 

The performance of the crane alone is summarized as follows, engineer on 
crane receiving $6 per day and signalman $5 per day : 

Mat'I. Labor 

. Rent, crane (96 days) $624 

Rent, buckets 63 .... 

Freight and cartage 15 .... 

Renewals and repairs 9 $ 37 

Fuel, oil, etc 55 .... 

Crew (engineer and signalman) 854 

Compensation insurance 69 .... 

Total $835 $891 $1,726 $0,556 

(3,100 cu. yd. handled.) 

Forms, — The forms for invert, sides and arch of each standard section were 
constructed of l>^-in. solid and 1^-in. and 2^-in. built-up ribs, and 1X3 
and 1X6 tongue and groove sheathing. The ribs were sawn to detail, 
deUvered from mill to job in the knockdown and there, with sheathing, assem- 
bled into units. The invert units were made in one piece, but those of the 
arch in three pieces designed to collapse on removal of separator at bottom 
and be moved forward in sections. The arch and invert forms for the two 
10-ft. taper sections, joining sewers of different shape and size, were built in 
place on ribs delivered sawn to detail. The forms for a 90° bend of 21-ft. 
radius were assembled and built in three sections comprising arch and sides 
intact, and three invert sections, on ribs taken from discarded straight units, 
and lowered into place bodily. 

The forms for the 8-ft. 6-in. X 9-ft. horseshoe-shape and the 7-ft. 6-in. 
circular sewers were made in units 10 ft. long, but these were found too bulky 
and the forms for the arch and sides of the 5-ft. 9-in. X 7-ft. 6-in. egg-shape 
sewer were therefore made in 8-ft. units; 200 ft. of arch and 100 ft. of invert 
forms were made for the horseshoe-shape sewer, 200 ft. of arch and invert 
forms for the circular sewer, and 320 ft. arch and 100-ft. invert forms for the 
egg-shape sewer. The quantity was about right for the last-named, but 
turned out to be excessive by about 50 per cent for the others, due to errone- 
ous anticipation of working conditions. The mill work on these built-up 
ribs cost about $23 per M ft. and on the solid ribs $10 per M ft. 

The labor cost per foot of sewer built was as follows, carpenter's wages 
averaging $3.50 per day: Making forms, exclusive of millwork, 10.2 ct. ; placing 
and removing forms 51.6 ct.; making, placing and stripping forms for curve, 
$8.52 per foot. The forms were greased with crude oil to facilitate stripping 
and the abutting ribs of adjoining sections were connected by special bolts 
with loose threads and thumb nuts, thus largely obviating the use of wrenches 
and accelerating the work of stripping and erecting. 

The wing or outer arch forms for the horseshoe and circular sewers were 
made up in 10-ft. lengths of sheet steel reinforced with flat bars, sufficient to 
form 50 ft. of sewer. It was considered that these forms, which were so made 
as to be adjustable, by rebending over a form, to suit the varying extradosal 
curvature, would serve the entire job, but they proved somewhat awkward to 
handle and were not used for the egg-shape sewer, wooden forms being 
substituted. 

Reinforcement. — The bars were bent to templet in the material yard close 
by and brought to the job ready to place. To avoid treading the invert 



712 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

reinforcement into the mud at the bottom of the trench, it was necessary to 
lay boards in the bottom and to tie the bars to position after the invert forms 
were in place, after which the boards were removed. The arch reinforcement 
was placed before the forms were set and rigidly tied and braced to position. 
The arch bars were required to be bent slightly but sharply 18 in. from each 
end so that when wired at the angle points to the invert bars they were in ' 
exact position. This expedient was noticeably effective in speeding up the 
work. In all 174,300 lb. of reinforcing steel was used, averaging 56 4 lb. per 
cubic yard concrete, and cost to handle 68 ct. per 100 lb., with labor averaging 
$2,873^^ per day. 

Concrete. — The specifications provided : *' All concrete used in the work shall 
be composed of Portland cement, sand and broken rock or cement and gravel 
in the proportion of 1 cu. ft. of cement to 2 cu. ft. of sand and 4 cu. ft. of stone." 

The contractor's choice of a concrete plant was governed by the experience 
of another contractor on a similar job in a nearby locality and by the fact that 
a complete outfit of two mixers mounted on cross-timbers, with gas-engine 
power, trucks and rails complete, was ready to hand at a fair rental. The 
rails were laid on heavy longitudinal timbers on either side of the trench and 
the mixers mounted directly over the center of the sewer. One mixer was 
placed ahead to pour invert and the other followed to pour the arch. This 
plan was adopted to avoid delay involved in moving the heavy machinery 
back and forth, for the invert progressed at times 200 ft. ahead of the arch. 

The outfit was expensive to install (this item amounting to about $300) , 
difficult and expensive to move (requiring the entire concrete gang, a team 
of horses and the undivided attention of the superintendent) gave frequent 
trouble and often flatly refused to perform at critical moments ; and the splash- 
ing and dripping of the concrete out of the mixer on the workmen beneath 
rendered the working conditions decidedly unsatisfactory. After three 
months of trying experience, a new 12-cu. ft. mixer on trucks and equipped 
with side loader and electric motor was substituted. The new outfit worked 
alongside the trench and delivered the concrete to the forms by means of open 
metal chutes. It was specially fitted to be operated, fore and aft, by one 
man, was easily moved and the labor cost of mixing and placing the concrete 
was thereby reduced 40 per cent. The progress of the concreting was not 
chiefly dependent on the capacity of the plant, but on the advancement of 
other portions of the work, mainly the preparation of the trench. 

The forecasting of the work was assisted by the following table (Table I) of 
roughly approximate unit quantities, from which delivery and placement of 
material was determined and performance of the gang judged during the prog- 
ress of the work. 

Table I. — Approximate Unit Quantities 

8' 6" X 9' 0" 8' 6" X 9' 0" 7' 6" cir. 5' 2" X 7' 9" 

Type. — Standard Heavy^ 

Total length, including 

taper sections 450 ft. 105 ft. 918 ft.— 2,700 ft. — 

Invert Arch Invert Arch Invert Arch Invert Arch 
Concrete per ft., cu. yd.. .315 .685 .430 1.000 .185 .630 .148 .500 

Rock, per ft., cu. yd 27 .58 .37 .85 .16 .53 .13 .43 

Sand, per ft., cu. yd 14 .29 .19 .43 .08 .27 ,07 .22 

Cement, per ft. bbl 45 .98 .62 1.44 .27 .91 .21 .72 

Rock, per 25 ft., cu. yd.. 7 15 9 21 4 13 3 11 

Sand, per 25 ft., cu. yd.. 3 75 11 2726 

Cement, per 25 ft., bbl.. . 12 25 16 36 7 23 5 18 



SEWERS 713 

The cost of the concrete work done by each outfit is shown in the follow- 
ing statement: 

Old Mixers: Material Labor Total 

Rent $ 502.00 $ $ 502.00 

Freight and cartage 60 . 00 157 . 00 217 . 00 

Repairs and equipment 102 . 00 36 . 00 138 . 00 

Gasoline 53.00 53.00 

Small tools (M total) 37 . 00 37 . 00 



Plant expense $ 754 . 00 $ 193 . 00 $ 947 . 00 

Concrete (1,405 cu. yd.) 6,930.00 2,241.00 9,171.00 



Totals $7,684.00 $2,434.00 $10,118.00 

Totals per cu. yd 5.47 1.73 7.20 

New Mixer: 

Depreciation $ 400. 00 $ 400. 00 

Equipment 81 . 00 $ 33 . 00 114 . 00 

Small tools (H total) 38 . 00 38 . 00 

Freight and cartage 13 . 00 28 . 00 41 . 00 

Motor rent and installation 57 . 00 57 . 00 

Power 35.00 35.00 



Plant expense $ 624.00 $ 61.00 $ 685.00 

Concrete (1,686 cu. yd.) 8,317.00 1,598.00 9,915.00' 



Totals. $8,941.00 $1,659.00 $10,600.00 

Totals per cu. yd 5.31 0.98 6.29 

The average concrete gang on the original outfit numbered 10 laborers at 
$2.75 per day, 1 mixerman at $3 and 1 foreman at $5; on the new outfit, 6 
laborers at $2.75, 2 men at $3 each and 1 foreman at $5, the latter being dis- 
placed ultimately by one of the $3 men raised to $3.50. It may be noted that 
the labor cost of mixing and placing concrete was 95 ct. under the new 
arrangement, against $1.59 under the old. 

The largest day's concrete work with the old mixers included about 60 ft. 
of invert and 50 ft. of arch, the invert being 350 ft. in advance of the arch at 
this stage; 643^^ bbls. of cement were used, indicating 43 cu. yd. concrete and 
the labor was as follows: 

1 foreman at $5 $ 5 . 00 

2 laborers at $3 6 . 00 

10 laborers at $2.75 27 . 50 

Total labor $38. 50* 

* Or $0.90 per cu. yd. 

The largest day's concrete work with the new mixer comprised about 79 ft. 
of complete arch and 97 ft. of sides only, the work extending over a distance 
of 176 ft. of sewer; 98% bbls. of cement was used, indicating 66 cu. yd. con- 
crete and the labor was as follows : 

1 foreman at $5 $ 5 . 00 

2 laborers at $3 $ 6 . 00 

6 laborers at $2.75 $16.50 

2 laborers at $2.50 $ 5.00 

Total labor $32. 50* 

* Or 0.50 per cu. yd. .^ 

In each of the foregoing instances, conditions were favorable for rapid 
work, which consumed an entire day of 8 hours with the men working for a 



714 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

record. Concrete was poured on 62 days by the former plant and 71 days by 
the latter plant, the average outputs being 22.6 cu. yd. and 23.8 cu. yd., 
respectively, per day worked. 

Cement cost $2,375 per barrel delivered in sacks, with an allowance of 10 
ct. each for empty sacks returned in acceptable condition (about 70 per cent of 
total) ; sand and gravel $1.40 per cubic yard delivered; water at 7 ct. per cubic 
yard of concrete — all included in cost of concrete materials as it appears in 
the statement. The statement covers cost of patching, applying the cement 
wash specified for the interior and final cleaning out of the sewer in preparation 
for minute and official inspection. 

Brick Lining of Invert. — The invert of the circular and egg-shape sewers was 
lined with vitrified paving brick, laid flat in mortar composed of 1 part Port- 
land cement to 2 parts quartz sand. This work, necessarily intermittent, 
had an important influence on the progress of the job, rendering speed, relia- 
bility and expertness on the part of the men especially desirable. Slowness 
or unavailability on call meant direct delay, and an uneven lining would greatly 
increase the difficulty of making a tight joint between the side arch forms and 
the invert. The brick mason on this work was paid $8 per day, his hodcarrier 
$5, and a laborer helper $2.75 for 8 hours, work. The bricks were first piled 
along either side on the haunch of the iavert against the reinforcing bars, and 
then the surface of the concrete swept and flushed clean and dusted with 
cement. The hodcarrier mixed the mortar as required and generally assisted 
the mason, while the laborer kept them supplied with material from above. 
The labor cost of laying the invert was 4 ct. per square foot, or about $10 per 
1,000 brick. Although the wages paid the mason and hodcarrier involved 
an advance of $1.00 each per day over the standard wages for high-grade work- 
men, the results are deemed amply to have warranted the extra expense. 

Backfilling. — The backfilling was accomplished in part by wagon dump direct 
from the steam-shovel or other excavation, and in part by shoveling and scrap- 
ing from the spoil bank left on one side of the trench, using a slip scraper, team 
and driver at $6.00 per day with generally two men at $2.50 and $2.75 per 
day to handle the scraper. The trench was filled to a crown as soon as conven- 
ient after completion of concrete, puddled by introducing water at the bottom 
through a pipe attached to the end of a hose and inserted in the ground and 
allowing to run until water appeared on the surface of the sunken fill, after 
which it was allowed to stand and partially dry out before adding more fill. 
Water for this purpose was charged at the rate of 0.7 ct. per lineal foot of 
trench puddled. It was only after some experimenting and considerable 
argument that the contractor was permitted to proceed in this manner, for 
the specifications prescribed tamping in layers; but the method allowed proved 
very satisfactory. It is estimated that about 8,200 cu. yd. compacted fill was 
required at a special labor cost of about 26 ct. per cubic yard, which of course 
ignores the work of the teams that worked directly between the excavation and 
the backfill. A large portion of this expense, amounting to 10.8 ct. per cubic 
yard of excavated material, or nearly 10 per cent of the unusually high cost of 
all the trench work, would not obtain in a well co-ordinated job. 

Repaving. — The specifications for repaving contained what the contractor 
termed a "joker;" for in addition to providing as usual that the pavement 
where disturbed should be restored to its original condition, it was further 
provided " That no pavement shall be laid on a foundation of less than 4 ins. 
of gravel or broken stone below the original pavement." As the pavement 
was oil macadam of substantially its original thickness of 5 to 6 ins., this meant 



SEWERS 715 

the somewhat unusual thickness for macadam in this locality of from 9 to 
10 ins. Coarse gravel being cheaper than macadam rock, the contractor, with 
the consent of the engineer, innocently chose the former for the underlying 
ballast ; somewhat to his sorrow, however, for not until it had been plentifully 
fed with screenings did it form a stable bed for the macadam proper. 

The sub-grade was trimmed by hand to show a slight crown and vertical 
edges and compacted by means of a horse roller, followed by 5 and 10-ton 
steam and gasoline rollers. The gravel ballast was delivered by rail in gondola 
cars on a siding about 3-^ mile average haul from the work. It was unloaded 
by hand direct into bottom dump wagons, deposited on the subgrade in piles, 
spread by scrapers, finished with shovels and rolled to a level surface to receive 
the macadam. The cost of preparing the subgrade was approximately ^ 
ct. per square foot, and of spreading and finishing the ballast }4 ct. per square 
foot. 

Hauling of Material by Motor Truck. — The bulk of the macadam rock and 
screenings was delivered by barges holding from 250 to 350 cu. yd. and equipped 
with a combination belt-and-bucket conveying system for unloading and dis- 
charging into a small wharf bunker of about 15 cu. yd. capacity from which 5- 
yd. auto trucks were loaded in less thanl minute. The discharging capacity 
of the barge machinery was about 1>^ cu. yd. per minute. The hauling of the 
macadam material was contracted at 30 ct. per cubic yard, but some record 
was kept of the performance of the trucks which may be of interest. 

The first barge-load of 274 cu. yd. was hauled during one day by three good 
trucks, two 5-yd. and one 4-yd., averaging about three trips per hour. The 
standard charges for motor-truck service were $25 and $30 per 9 hours work 
for 4-yd. and 5-yd. trucks, respectively, or say 69 ct. per cubic yard capacity 
per hour. At this rate, if the trucks had been hired by the day, and had given 
the employer equally good service, the cost of the hauling would have been 
23 ct. per cubic yard. 

The second barge-load was, owing to unavailability of adequate motor-truck 
service during the daytime, hauled between 3 : 00 p.m. and 2: 00 a.m., commen- 
cing with one 4-yard truck, to which others were added from time to time 
until ultimately three 4-yd. and four 5-yd. trucks were in commission. For 
the three 4-yd. trucks, the total truck hours on the job were 23.33, of which 7.5 
were time lost in intervals of 1 hour or more on account of breakdowns or 
necessity of the drivers, leaving the actual working time, including minor 
incidental delays, 15.83 hours during which they hauled 132 cu. yd. At the 
standard service rate this would represent a cost of 33.4 ct. per cubic yard. 
For the four 5-yd. trucks, the total truck hours were 29.25, of which 20 truck 
hours represented legitimate work during which they hauled 220 cu. yd., 
which would have cost at the standard service rate 30^^ ct. per cubic yard. 

In addition to the inconvenience of working at night, some of these trucks 
were not in the best of condition, nor were all the drivers expert. Their 
variable performance is indicated by the fact that the average times per round 
trip for the three 4-yd. trucks were 24, 30 and 31 minutes, and for the four 5-yd 
trucks, 21, 27, 29 and 32 minutes, respectively. The haul of this barge-load 
averaged about Ij^^ miles. 

Macadamizing. — The macadam rock was for the most part dumped on the 
ballast, the truck moving ahead while dumping, adjusting the speed so as to 
effect as nearly as might be the proper distribution of the rock along the trench. 
Where the rock was left in piles it was spread by means of a fresno scraper 
and the entire surface of the work in place was finished by laborer with shovels 



716 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

and potato hooks. The screenings were then shoveled over the entire surface 
sufficient almost to cover all the lock, well sprinkled and rolled successively 
with a 5-ton and a 10-ton steam or 12-ton gasoline roller. Accompanying the 
roller, a laborer spread additional screenings to fill the principal surface voids. 
Road oil was then applied to the specified amount of ^i gal. per square yard, 
on which immediately were spread screenings and rolled to a compact surface, 
rescreening as required to take up all surplus oil. 

The cost of spreading the macadam rock and screenings as aforedescribed 
was 42 >^ ct. per cubic yard, or nearly 1 ct. per square foot of pavement, with 
labor at $2.50 and team and driver at $6 per day of eight hours. 

The 5-ton roller was rented at $7 per day, the engineer was paid $6 and be- 
tween $3 and $4 per day was expended for fuel. The 10-ton roller, including 
engineer and fuel, was rented at $2.50 per hour, and the 12-ton roller at $1.90 
per hour, including engineer and fuel. The total cost of the rolling, including 
subgrade and oiled surface, amounted to about 0.6 ct. per square foot. 

The oil was furnished and spread with a standard spraying machine by 
contract with a local paving contractor at $2 per barrel spread. (Hot oil at 
retort being quoted at $1.65 per barrel.) 

Insurance.— The item of employes' compensation insurance is a consider- 
able one in this class of work, the premium rate being high and many com- 
panies refusing to take the risk on deep sewer work. The manual rate, 
endorsed by the State Insurance Fund, was 14.03 per cent of the payroll, 
although the company insuring the job cut this rate to 7.72 per cent. Every 
precaution was taken to avoid accident with the result that only one man was 
injured sufficiently to require unusual attention or to incapacitate him for 
work for more than a few hours. 

Averaged for 8 months duration of work, the general expense, inclusive of 
overhead, amounted to $104 for material, and $413 for labor per month, or 
2^i per cent and 12>^ per cent of the respective net totals excluding insurance. 
The fact that this total general expense amounted to 15>i per cent of the 
actual cost of material and labor is interesting in view of the engineer's 
interpretation of the contract provision that extra work should be paid for at 
"actual cost as estimated by the City Engineer" (making no allowance for 
the use of tools, plant or general superintendence) " plus 15 per cent for profit" 
Under the engineer's interpretation the contractor was not permitted to appor- 
tion any of the time of the superintendent, timekeeper, or other miscellaneous 
expense, to extra work. It is a not uncommon notion of engineers and 
architects that a 15 per cent, or even a 10 per cent, allowance, over and above 
actual cost of labor and material, is ample to cover general expense and profit 
on extra work. As a rule extra work imposes on the contractor trouble and 
expense out of proportion to the average for the job and the fact cannot be too 
clearly impressed upon the minds of engineers and architects that it is this 
general annoyance and expense that entitles him to a fair, clear profit over all 
estimable items of expense entering into the work. 

Labor Cost of 8-Ft. Concrete Sewer. — The following data are given in 
Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 14, 1917. 

The reinforced concrete sewer, 96 in. interior diameter was built by contract 
in an eastern city. The excavation was in sandy loam, not difficult to dig. 

There was no pavement removed, for this was a section of the city having 
few residences. 

The earth was loaded into buckets that were lifted by a derrick and dumped 
alongside or into Koppel cars, such portion going into the cars as was not 



SEWERS 



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718 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

used in backfilling. The derrick was mounted on the forward end of a plat- 
form that spanned the trench and ran on wheels. On the same platform, 
but at the rear, was another derrick used in handling buckets of concrete. 

Water was encountered about 2 ft. above the bottom of the trench, and two 
Pulsometer pumps were usually kept busy handling this water. The pumps 
received their steam from the boiler that supplied the hoisting engines. 

The following was the organization of the gang engaged in building the 
sewer: 

Per day 

1 superintendent at $6 $ 6 . 00 

1 engineman at $3.50 3. 50 

1 hoister (one engine) at $2 2 . 00 

2 tagmen at $1.65 . . 3 . 30 

10 men excavating earth at $1.65 16. 50 

2 men on dump cars at $1.65 3.30 

1 bracer (carpenter on bracing) at $3 3.00 

2 bracer's helpers at $1.65 3.30 

2 men laying bottom planks at $1.65 3.30 

and moving pumps, etc., $1.65 : 3.30 

3 men pulling sheeting at $1.75 5.25 

16 men mixing and placing concrete at $1.65 26.40 

3 men on forms at $1 .75 5 . 25 

1 water boy at $1 1 . 00 

Total $85.40 

Coal and oil cost about $5 per working day of 10 hours. 

During half a year the actual field cost of the labor on this sewer was $7.86 
per lin. ft., distributed as follows: 

Per lin. ft. 

Excavation $1 . 80 

Placing sheeting and bracing . 58 

Placing bottom plank 0.17 

Pulling sheeting 0.45 

Backfilling 0.33 

Making and placing concrete invert 1 . 17 

Making and placing concrete arch 1 . 54 

Laying brick in invert 0. 29 

Bending and placihg reinforcing steel in arch . 20 

Bending and placing reinforcing steel in invert . 09 

Placing and moving forms and centers . 62 

Watchmen, waterboy, etc . 62 

Total $7 . 86 

The excavated section of the trench was 12^^ ft. wide and varied somewhat 
in depth. When it was 12 ft. deep, the cost was $1.61 per lin. ft., which was 
29 ct. per cu. yd. for all labor, excepting the labor of backfilling. When the 
trench excavation averaged 5.56 cu. yd. per lin. ft., the backfill averaged only 
1.7 cu. yd. per fin. ft. and this backfilling was done at a cost of about 20 ct. 
per cu. yd. of backfill. The backfill was not rammed. 

The trench sheeting consisted of 4-in. plank, which was subsequently used 
as a floor or bottom upon which the concrete invert was laid. This plank 
floor consisted of two layers of plank, giving a thickness of 8 in. 

The sheeting was braced with 6 X 6-in. braces, three of which were used 
to each 16 ft. length of wale. There were two lines of 4 X 6-in. wales. 
Hence the trench required about 120 ft. B. M. of sheeting and bracing per 
lineal foot of trench. Since it cost $0.58 per lin. ft. of trench to place this 
timber, this is equivalent to $4.80 per 1,000 ft. B. M. 



SEWERS 719 

The pulling of the sheeting cost $0.45 per lin. ft. of trench, which is equiva- 
lent to about $3.75 per 1,000 ft. B. M. of timber removed. The pulling was 
done with a light tripod on which was mounted a winch operated by two men. 
A small wire rope from this winch passed over a pulley at the top of the tripod 
and was fastened to the sheet pile to be pulled. Two legs of the tripod rested 
on the ground and the third was supported by a plank resting on the bracing 
over the center of the trench. There were three men in the gang pulling the 
sheeting. 

The concrete was a 1:2:4 mixture, and about 1}4 bbl. of Portland cement 
were used per cubic yard. Gravel was used for the aggregate. The invert 
contained 0.8 cu. yd. of concrete per lin. ft., and the arch contained 1,4 cu. 
yd. per lin. ft., or a total of 2.2 cu. yd. The mixing was all done by hand. 
The concrete for the invert was shoveled into dump buckets and lowered to 
place by the derrick above mentioned. The concrete for the arch was 
delivered in two wheel dump carts pushed by hand. 

Referring to the tabulated labor costs given above, we see that making and 
placing concrete in the invert cost $1.17 per lin. ft., which is equivalent to 
$1.46 per cu. yd. of concrete invert. The corresponding cost for the arch was 
$1.54 per lin. ft., which is equivalent to $1.10 per cu. yd. of arch. The com- 
bined cost was $2.71 per lin. ft., which is equivalent to $1.23 per cu. yd. of 
concrete in the sewer. 

The greater cost of placing concrete in the invert was due partly to the 
presence of the reinforcing rods, which interfere with placing the concrete 
quickly. The labor of the men on the tag ropes swinging the derrick boom, 
as well as the labor of the derrick bolster, ran up the cost, particularly as the 
daily output of concrete was low. A bull wheel on the derrick would have 
eliminated the men on the tag ropes. 

Bending and placing the twisted steel reinforcing rods cost $0.29 per lin. 
ft. of sewer (invert and arch combined); and, as there were 366 lb. of this 
reinforcement per lin. ft. of sewer, the labor cost was 0.8 ct. per lb. The cost 
was frequently as low as 0.6 per lb. 

The concrete invert was lined with common bricks set on edge, there being 
about 40 bricks per lin. ft. of sewer. A brick mason was paid 15 ct. per lin. 
ft. for laying the bricks, and, in addition to this, the cost of labor mixing and 
delivering mortar, etc., amounted to 14 ct. per lin. ft., making a total of 29 ct. 
per lin. ft. of sewer. 

The cost of labor for placing and moving forms for the invert averaged 9 ct. 
per lin. ft., and the corresponding cost for the arch averaged 53 ct., making a 
total of 62 ct. as above given. Later on these costs were reduced to 5 ct. and 
46 ct., respectively, making a total cost of 51 ct. per lin. ft. of sewer. At 51 
ct. per lin ft., the labor cost on the forms and centers was only 23 ct. per cu. 
yd. of concrete. 

Cost of Mixing and Placing Concrete by Hand for a Four -foot Circular 
Sewer. — Engineering and Contracting, July 13, 1910, gives the following: 

The work on a 4-ft. circular sewer in Louisville, Ky., was carried on entirely 
by hand. The sewer was located through a park and near a roadway and 
materials for the work were placed at convenient points. The invert con- 
tained 0.21 cu. yds. of concrete and the arch 0.18 cu. yds. per lineal foot, and 
each ^as built separately. A light mixing board was made, and was shifted 
along by the gang as the work progressed. 

The gang consisted of 17 negroes and a foreman whose duties consisted of 
excavation and concreting for the sewer. The successive steps of their work 



720 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

were alternated with another gang which attended to the forms and reinforce- 
ment. The length of concrete laid at one operation was 72 ft. of either arch 
or invert and the time required to do the work averaged 3}4 hours. The men 
were divided as follows: 

2. men on mortar. 

4 men on gravel. 

2 men on sand. 

4 men on mixing board. 

1 man on water and cement. 

4 men in trench spading. 

1 foreman. 

All the men received 20 cts. per hour and the foreman received 35 cts. per 
hour. The cost of concreting 72 ft. of invert or arch was thus: 

17 men at 20 cts. per hour, 3>^ hrs $11 .05 

1 foreman at 35 cts. per hour, 33<4 hrs 1 . 14 

Cost of laying 72 ft. of invert or arch $12. 19 

This gives for 72 ft. of complete sewer a cost of $24.38 which divided by 
28.08 cu. yds. gives a cost of 87 cts. per cu. yd. In this work there were 
about 2.23 lbs. of steel reinforcement per lineal foot of sewer. Two men 
were employed continually to bend the steel and place it in position in the 
forms. 

Cost of Reinforced Concrete Pipe Sewers at Mishawaka, Ind. — The 
following data published in Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 15, 1911, are 
from a paper by Wm. P. Moore, City Engineer, Mishawaka, Ind., before the 
Indiana Engineering Society, Annual Convention, January, 1911. 

In the spring of 1909 bids were received by the city for the construction of 
the Laurel St. trunk sewer which was 3,480 ft. long and 36 ins. in diameter, 
the average cut being 10 ft. and the excavation sand and gravel. 

The specifications were drawn to include brick, monolithic and reinforced 
concrete pipe. When the bids were opened it was found the lowest bidder 
proposed to use the Jackson Reinforced Concrete Pipe Co.'s pipe and was 
awarded the contract. The cost of construction was about as follows for 
3,480 lin. ft. of 36-in. reinforced pipe: 

Cost per 
ft. 

1 foreman, 1,740 hrs. at 40 cts. per hr $0. 20 

2 pipe layers, 3,480 hrs. at 25 cts. per hr 0.25 

1 joint maker, 1,740 hrs. at 20 cts. per hr 0. 10 

1 pipe lower, 1,740 hrs. at 20 cts. per hr 0. 10 

1 mortar mixer, 1,740 hrs. at 20 cts. per hr 0. 10 

2 pipe rollers, 3,480 hrs. at 20 cts. per hr . . . 20 

2 sheeters, 3,480 hrs. at 25 cts. per hr . 25 

1 helper, 1,740 hrs. at 20 cts. per hr 0. 10 

6 men excav., 10,440 hrs. at 20 cts. per hr 0. 60 

1 team and helper, 1,740 hrs. at 60 cts. per hr 0. 30 

1 water boy, 1,740 hrs. at 10 cts. per hr . 05 

Cement, sand and gravel for joints 0. 09 

City water for flushing trench . 02 

Amount paid the Jackson Reinforced Pipe Co. for the pipe along line of 

ditch 1 . 80 

Total cost $4. 16 

In the above contract the Reinforced Concrete Pipe Co. made the pipe along 
the line of the sewer and assumed all risk in regard to the pipe and furnished 
them to the contractor for $1.80 per lin. ft. measured in the ditch. 



SEWERS 721 

In the same year the Common Council also received bids for the Logan 
Street trunk sewer which has 1,690 lin. ft. of 42-in. and 1,450 lin. ft. of 36-in. 
pipe. The contract was let with Jackson pipe also, the lowest bid being on 
their construction. 

The average cut was 16 ft. in sand and gravel with a small amount of water 
bearing gravel in the bottom, but not enough to require a pump. In this 
contract the contractor built the pipe and furnished all common labor and 
material and the Jackson Pipe Co. furnished the forms, reinforcement and a 
competent superintendent to see that the pipe were made properly. Their 
charge being $1.15 per lin. ft, for the 36-in. pipe and $1.45 per lin. ft. for the 
42-in. pipe. 

Sand and gravel delivered along the line of the contracts cost 60 cts. per 
cu. yd., common labor 20 cts. per hour, teams 40 cts. per hour and cement $1.25 
per barrel. Calculated on the above basis the cost of construction was about 
as follows for 1,450 lin. ft. of 36-in. concrete sewer 

Cost per 
ft. 

1 foreman, 725 hrs. at 45 cts. per hr $0. 22 

2 pipe layers, 1,450 hrs. at 25 cts. per hr 0.25 

I joint maker, 725 hrs. at 25 cts. per hr 0. 12^ 

1 mortar mixer, 725 hrs. at 20 cts. per hr . 10 

1 pipe lower, 725 hrs. at 20 cts. per hr 0. 10 

2 men rolling pipe, 1,450 hrs. at 20 cts. per hr 0. 20 

3 men sheeting, 2,175 hrs. at 25 cts. per hr 0.373^ 

8 men excavating, 5,800 hrs. at 20 cts. per hr 0. 80 

1 team and helper, 725 hrs. at 60 cts. per hr 0.30 

1 water boy, 725 hrs. at 15 cts. per hr . 07 

Cement, sand and gravel for the joints . 09 

City water for flushing trench 0. 02 

Total $2.65 

Cost of making this pipe follows: 

Cost per 
ft. 

5 men 411 hrs. mixing concrete, etc., at 18 cts 0. 12 

280 bbls. of cement at $1.25 per bbl 0. 24 

217.5 cu. yds. of gravel of 60 cts. per yd 0. 09 

Royalty for forms, reinforcements, supt. paid to the Jackson Pipe Co. . . 1.15 

Cost of making pipe $1 . 60 

Grand total $4 . 25 

The cost of 1,690 lin. ft. of 42-in. concrete pipe sewer was as follows: 

Cost per 
ft. 

1 foreman, 900 hrs. at 45 cts. per hr $0. 24 

2 pipe layers, 1,800 hrs. at 25 cts. per hr . 27 

1 man making joints, 900 hrs. at 25 cts. per hr 0. 14 

1 man lowering pipe, 900 hrs. at 20 cts. per hr 0. 11 

2 men rolling pipe, 1,800 hrs. at 20 cts. per hr 0. 21 

1 man mixing mortar, 900 hrs. at 20 cts. per hr 0.11 

3 men sheeting, 2,700 hrs. at 25 cts. per hr 0. 40 

2 men helpers, 1,800 hrs. at 20 cts. per hr. 0.21 

8 men excavating, 7,200 hrs. at 20 cts. per hr 0.85 

1 team and helper exc, 900 hrs. at 60 cts. per hr 0.31 

1 team and helper filling, 900 hrs. at 60 cts. per hr 0. 31 

1 water boy, 900 hrs. at 15 cts. per hr 0.07 

Cement, sand and gravel for joints 0. 10 

City water for flushing . 02 

Total. $3.23 

46 



722 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cost of making this pipe follows: 

Cost per 
ft. 

5 men mixing concrete, etc., 1,400 hrs. at 18 cts $0. 15 

384.5 bbls. of cement at $1.25 per bbl 0. 28 

313 cu. yds. of gravel at 60 cts. per cu. yd 0.11 

Royalty, forms and superintendent 1 . 45 

Total cost of making pipe $1 . 99 

Grand total for 1,690 ft. of 42-in. pipe 5.34 

In regard to the use of the above information I wish to advise that data is 
only approximately correct, as we were in no position to obtain the exact 
cost. The total number of men employed and the number of hours worked 
are correct, but necessarily in large contracts men are shifted and it was there- 
fore necessary to take the average number of men working in the different 
positions. 

Cost of Tile and of Concrete Sewer. — Work was started in December, 1916, 
on the construction of the Rideau River interceptor, a 17,900-ft. sewer that 
will drain a portion of south and east Ottawa. The first section was con- 
structed of segment tile, 60-in. in diameter; the next section is of 54-in. pipe, 
part segment and part concrete. A third section was built of 48-in. concrete 
pipe. The following cost data on the work, abstracted from an article by 
L. McLaren Hunter, City Engineer's Department, Ottawa, in The Canadian 
Engineer, are published in Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 12, 1919. 

The larger equipment used during construction included one 45-HP. 
boiler, one 40-HP. boiler, one derrick and traveler, three syphons, one 4-in. 
submerged pump (electric) and one 4-in. suction pump (electric) . 

The costs of various materials used were as follows: 

1917 — 54-in. concrete pipe, per ft $4. 34 

48-in. concrete pipe, per ft 3 . 44 

1918 — 48-in. concrete pipe, per ft 4. 30 

30-in. concrete pipe, per ft = 2 . 35 

1917— 60-in. Natco tile, per ft 5. 65 

1916 — Cement, per bag 43 

1917 — ^Cement, per bag 52 

1918 — Cement, per bag ' 73 

On the 60-in. Natco tile section, in 18 ft. of excavation, the costs were aa 
follows: 

Per lin. ft. 

Excavation and backfilling $ 8 . 240 

Pipe laying . 375 

Natco tile, including underdrain 7 . 427 

Pumping . 766 

Shoring . 652 

Grading, plant, sundries 1 . 744 

Total cost per lin. ft $19 . 204 

Tunnel section (excavation), per ft 19 . 37 

Manholes (concrete), each 61 . 46 

The cost of 48-in. concrete pipe section, in 4 ft. 6 in. of excavation, in 1918 
was as follows: 



I 



SEWERS 723 

Per lin. ft. 
Labor: 

Excavation $1 . 37 

Shoring 68 

Pumping .20 

Backfill 60 

Culvert drains .16 

Rolling pipe .29 

Running hoist. .33 

Derrick and track .44 

Grouting .12 

Pipe laying .34 

Sundries (including Saturday afternoon holidays) .58 

Total $5.11 

Material: 

Pipe (including hauling) $3 . 60 

Coal 24 

Cement .11 

Sundries .11 

Total $4 . 06 

The above costs on the 48-in. section were taken on 400 lin. ft. of work 
which was done in August, 1918. Laborers were paid 35 ct. per hour. On the 
Natco tile section, laborers were paid 27 H ct. per. hour. The work was done 
by day labor. 

Miscellaneous Costs of Concrete Sewer Construction, Louisville, Ky. — Engi- 
neering and Contracting, June 22, 1910, gives the following: 

Lining a Concrete Sewer With Brick. — This sewer was of concrete, horse- 
shoe section and about 4 ft. in diameter. The brick hning of the invert and 
side walls contained 8.3 sq. yds. in 65 ft. of its length. The brick were laid 
on edge and 8>^ bbls. of cement were used in the mortar: 

6 bricklayers at 62Kc. per hr., SH hrs $13. 12^^ 

6 helpers at 20c. per hr., SH hrs 4 . 20 

Cost of laying 8.3 sq. yds $17 . 32^ 

Cost of laying 1 sq. yd. brick lining $2 . 087 

Potter Machine on Trench 15 ft. Wide 21 ft. deep: 

7 men excavating (sand) at $1.75 per day $12. 25 

1 engineer at $3.50 per day 3 . 50 

1 fireman at $3.50 per day 3 50 

Rental of machine $200 per mo., at $8.00 per day 8.00 

Av. output per day 150 cu. yds $27.25 

Cost per cu. yd. 18c. 

Mixing and Placing Concrete by Hand. — Material had to be hauled 300 ft. 
in wheel-barrows, and was mixed by hand on platforms over the trench. 
It was poured through chutes to place. The average wages of these men 
were 223^ cts. per hour. The concrete men are paid more than the ordinary 
laborers who receive 17 H cts. per hour: 

6 men turning $10 . 80 

2 men mixing mortar 3 . 60 

5 men wheeling 9 . 00 

1 man on water and cement 1 . 80 

2 men handling chutes 3 . 60 

4 men spading 7 . 20 

20 men placing 30 cu. yds. at $36 . 00 



724 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

This gives a cost of $1.20 per cu. yd. for labor of placing concrete. 

Knocking Down the Blaw arch forms, wooden jacket and invert forms for 
this sewer, moving them ahead and setting them up required 8 hours for 3 
men. One man acted as foreman with two helpers. It required 4 hours to 
set the invert forms, 2 hours to set the jackets for the walls, and 2 hours to set 
the Blaw arch forms. This is for a 5 ft. sewer. 

Placing the reinforcing steel required the time of the above mentioned squad 
of 3 men. They set the steel for the invert and sidewalls in 5 hours and for the 
arch in IK hours. The foreman was paid 25 cts. an hour and the helpers 17 >^ 
cts. There were 53 lbs. of reinforcing steel per running foot. Striking and 
settling Blaw forms for 60 lin. ft. of horseshoe shaped sewer, 5 foot section^ 

1 foreman, 8 hrs. at 25c $2 . 00 

2 helpers, 8 hrs. at $173^ 2 . 80 

Total $4.80 

Striking and settling 60 ft. of forms, cost at >^ cu. yd. per lin. ft., per cu. yd., 
$0.16. 

Placing reinforcement for 60 lin. ft. of sewer: 

1 foreman, 73^ hrs. at 25c. $1 . 875 

2 helpers 73-^ hrs. at 17>^c 1.3125 

Total. $3. 18^ 

Placing reinforcement for 60 ft. of sewer at 3^ yd. per lin. ft., cost $0,106 
per cu. yd., and at 53 lbs. per lin..ft., $0,002 per lb. 

A summary of the cost of labor per cubic yard in constructing 60 lin. ft. of 
5-ft. sewer was: 

Cost per cu. yd. mixing and placing concrete $1 . 20 

Cost per cu. yd. striking and erecting blank forms 16 

Cost per cu, yd. placing reinforcement 106 

Total cost of labor per cu. yd $1 . 466 

Bricklaying Costs for 5 to 10-Ft. Brick Sewers at St. Louis, Mo. — C. L. 

French gives the following data in Engineering News, Nov. 12, 1914. 

The contract for the third section of the Glaise Creek Joint Sewer, consisted 
of 7,370 ft. of brick sewer, varying from 5 to 10 ft. in diameter and from 13 to 
18 in. in thickness. The total amount of brickwork was 10,264 cu. yd., 
consisting of 9,600 cu. yd. common and 664 cu. yd. of vitrified brick masonry 
(to line the invert for the dry-weather flow) . 

It was found that by planning the work so that a certain number of brick- 
layers could be constantly employed, the best men could be kept. The impor- 
tance of this feature is nearly always underestimated by contractors. The 
difference between the work done by a good man and an average man is at 
least 10 per cent, and where full time can be made the very best men are 
obtainable. 

The next step was to get the maximum of work from the bricklayers. This 
meant not harder work, but eliminating lost motion: The essentials were 
proper working room, sufficient materials in the right place, and safe working 
conditions. Solving each of these problems required much experiment. Too 
many or too few bricklayers in a given space was found to be equally expensive. 



SEWERS 725 

Materials in the right quantity, just where needed, make it unnecessary for a 
$9-a-day bricklayer to wait for a $2.50 laborer. 

The elimination of useless labor was one of the greatest problems. Mortar 
was mixed by machinery at a cost of less than Ic. per cu. yd. for power. Great 
care was taken to have this mortar of just the proper consistency. It was 
found that, everything else being equal, the day's work could be increased 2 or 
3% by having the mortar exactly right all the time. The mortar was dumped 
directly from the machine into barrows and then poured into chutes. Thus 
the bottom man had only to direct the mortar into the boxes below. Mortar 
mixers and mortar lowerers were thus eliminated. Materials were stored as 
close to the ditch as possible and in the same quantity as would be used in that 
length of sewer. 

The job was started Nov. 4, 1913, and finished Aug. 18, 1914. 

The cost data are based on the following prices for labor and material 
delivered : 

Bricklayer $ 1 . 12^ per hr. 

Labor 0.31 per hr. 

r> -^1 / common 8. 50 per M 

^"^^ 1 vitrified 16. 50 per M 

Cement 1 . 40 per bbl. 

Sand 0.85 per cu. yd. 

Electricity 0.10 per kw. hr. 

The constants for each cubic yard of brick were: 



430 common brick at. . 
338 vitrified brick at . . 

0. 65 bbl. cement at 

0.35 cu. yd. mortar at. 
0.10 kw. hr. at 



Unit 


Cost Per 


cost 


cu. yd. 


$ 8.50 


. $3.66 


16.50 


5.58 


1.40 


0.91 


0.85 


0.30 


0.10 


0.01 



The mortar was 1 part cement to 3 parts sand. 

This makes the material cost $4.88 per cu. yd. for common and $6.80 per 
cu. yd. for vitrified-brick masonry. 
The monthly records were as follows: 

Cubic yards laid Cost per cu. yd. ■ 

Per day 

of 8 hr. per Total, Total, 

Month Common Vitrified bricklayer Labor common vitrified 

Nov., 1913 768 53 9.3 $2.25 $7.13 $9.05 

Dec, 1913 1,444 99 10.8 2.02 6.90 8.82 

Jan., 1914 1,260 87 11.7 1.90 6.78 8.70 

Feb., 1914 60 4 12.0 3.00 7.88 9.80 

Mar., 1914 416 29 10.5 1.90 6.78 8.70 

Apr., 1914 1,132 78 11.8 1.78 6.66 8.58 

May, 1914 970 68 11.0 2.24 7.12 9.04 

June, 1914 1,019 70 9.9 2.26 7.14 9.06 

July, 1914 1,912 133 12.6 1.77 6.65 8.57 

Aug., 1914 619 43 8.5 2.65 7.53 9.45 



9,600 664 

Average cu. yd. per bricklayer per day of 8 hr $11 . 05 

Average labor cost per cu. yd 2 . 02 

Average cost of brickwork per cu. yd | Nitrified" $882 

The high cost of labor in May is due to tunnel work at night, when double 
time was paid to bricklayers. The high cost for June is due to bad working 



726 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



conditions, where frequent cave-ins caused much delay. The last month's 
figures are not significant, as the best men had left for other jobs and lots of 
cleaning up was necessary. 

Labor Cost of Concrete and Brick Sewer Construction in Toronto. — Engi- 
neering and Contracting, June 12, 1918, publishes the following, from an article 
in The Contract Record by W. S. Harvey and R. T. G. Jack. 

The storm sewer known as "Sparkhall Ave. relief sewer" was constructed 
to relieve the congestion in the district bounded by Danforth Ave. on the 
north. Bain Ave. on the south, Pape Ave. on the east, and Broadview Ave. on 
the west. The sewer has its outlet at the River Don and terminates at Logan 
Ave., with provision for a future extension to Pape Ave. 



^" Sr/cMiVorM 



9"* c/' /:3:S Cdr7cre/-e 
/y/'Ah /" 6 re A en ^/^r?e 





r/Z-r/T/eit 
4)r/cAc 



Section in TunneL Section in Open Cut. 

Fig. 7. — Typical cross sections of sewer in tunnel and open cut. 



Fig. 7 shows typical cross sections of the sewer in tunnel and open cut. The 
standard egg-shaped section was adopted as being the most economical under 
the existing conditions, the ground being good blue clay, which would permit 
of a minimum width of trench in open cut and minimum dimensions of heading 
in tunnel, as practically no timbering would be required. 

A cross section of the outlet across the Don Flats at Riverdale Park is 
shown in Fig. 8. A similar section was used under the C. P. R. tracks near the 
River Don, but heavier reinforcement was required in the roof slab. This 
section was used on account of the lack of cover available, a minimum of 2 ft. 
being called for. 

Unit Costs. — Under this heading it is the intention to deal with each section 
of the sewer as constructed and to give a unit cost in hours, using the following 
key to the distribution of labor: 

(A) Excavation; (B) sheeting and timbering; (C) backfilling; (D) handling 
surplus — excavation; (E) concrete forms; (F) placing concrete, including 
reinforcing; (G) placing cast iron pipes; (J) pumping; (K) brickwork; (N) 
mining and sinking shafts; (P) handhng supplies; (Q) handhng plant; (Z) mis- 
cellaneous labor. 






SEWERS 



727 



Cost of Reinforced Concrete Section, 3 ft. 6 in. X 5 ft, — Work was not com- 
menced until the latter part of the summer of 1916, so that the water in the 
Don River, which was to be the outlet for the sewer, would be at its lowest 
elevation. Even with this condition, it gave the contractor a certain amount 
of trouble. Construction was carried on from the Don to the C. P. R. tracks; 
here a break was made and resumed on the other side, where, owing to the 
porous nature of the ground, considerable water was encountered. This 
portion of Riverdale Park (Don Flats) has been reclaimed by the city with 
ashes and refuse, and for this reason it was specified that a 2-in. lumber deck- 
ing be placed in the bottom of the trench before the concrete was poured, and 
that the trench be tight-sheeted and the sheeting left in place. 



r^. 






2^ ^a'^ ^ars 



SAee/s 



^' A 



anc/ 6en/- os s/tofvn 



'orty 







2 y^6 



:t /^/{?/7X-^ 



T/'/nSef 47S s/fc^vrt /s /<> 6e /e/y- //? 

Fig. 8. — Cross section of outlet across Don Flats. 



N t 



The work was carried on b:^ two distinct gangs of men, each with a separate 
foreman. One gang attended to excavation, sheeting, handling surplus and 
backfilling; the other to setting forms, placing reinforcement and pouring 
concrete. 

As the trench was very shallow, no excavating machine was used. The 
material was cast up on top, where a horse and scraper removed the surplus 
and spread it out over the park. After the trench had been made ready and 
the decking and sheeting placed the concreting gang poured the concrete for 
the invert, leaving it low in elevation so that 3 in. of concrete, mixed in propor- 
tion of 1 sand, 1 cement and 3 of very fine stone, could be placed afterwards. 
When the concrete was properly set forms of the "knock-down" type, made 
of tongued and grooved sheeting, dressed one side, were placed for the side 
walls and roof, and all the concrete poured at one running. By this method of 
working no delays were caused by not having any trench ready, and the con- 
crete gangs were also able to get enough invert concreted, while waiting the 
required 48 hours for the arch concrete to set, in order to carry on the work 
successfully. 



728 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



This procedure was used all the way through this section and good progress 
was made, notwithstanding the fact that labor and material were scarce and 
that water gave considerable trouble. 

After the concreting of the rough invert side walls and roof had been com- 
pleted up to the bellmouth (manhole No. 3), the portion under the C. P. R. 
tracks was completed and the finishing concrete applied. Before doing this, 
however, a thorough inspection was made, and the invert made perfectly 
clean, so that a good bond was assured. 

While the concrete gang were doing the finishing the excavating gang were 
placing 24-in. cast iron pipe and building anchors for the support of same, 
so that the work in this open cut section was practically completed before the 
severe cold weather set in. The cast iron pipe was used on a short steep 
stretch to avoid constructing deep drop manholes. 



Matehial and Unit Labor Cost of Reinforced Concrete Sewer 

Length of concrete sewer (3 ft. 6 in. X 5 ft.), lin. ft 876 

Length of 24 in. cast iron pipe, lin. ft 120 

Cubic yards, 1: 2: 4 concrete for roof 125 

Cubic yards, 1:3:5 concrete for invert, walls and anchors 338 

Cubic yards, 1:1:3 concrete for finishing 195 

Cubic yards, 1:4:9 concrete for packing 9 

Cubic yards, excavation .- 2,012 

Cubic yards, backfilling. 620 

Surplus excavation, cubic yards 1 , 390 

Lumber left in place, ft. B. M 38 , 440 

Forms placed, square feet 10 , 500 

Sheeting in trench, square feet '. 14 , 000 

Reinforcing 

3^^ in. twisted bars, pounds 4 , 862 

No. 3, 9, 25 expanded metal, pounds 6 , 872 

. No. 3, 6, 40 expanded metal, pounds 8 , 293 

No. 30 road mesh, pounds 



Item Distribution 

Foreman* A 

Laborers. A 

Foreman C 

Laborers C 

Foreman D 

Laborers D 

Teams D 

Laborers E 

Laborers B 

Foreman F 

Laborers! F 

Laborers G 

Engineer J 

Laborers J 

Team ■. Q 

Laborers Q 

Team P 

Laborers P 

Foreman Z 

Laborers Z 

• This includes B. t This includes placing 













4.615 1 




Unit 


Unit 


Unit 




cost per 


cost per 


cost per 


Time, 


sq. ft., 


cu. yd., 


lin. ft.. 


hours 


hours 


hours 


hours 


490 




.24 


.50 


2,933 








1. 


45 


2.94 


72 










12 


.07 


723 








1. 


20 


.75 


81 










06 


.08 


805 










57 


.81 


320 










23 


.32 


600 




06 






.68 


440 




003 






.48 


700 








90 


.79 


1,935 








2. 


90 


2.21 


268 












2.20 


607 












.68 


135 












.16 


42 












.04 


18 












.02 


300 












.30 


340 












.34 


45 












.05 


750 












.75 


reinforcir 


g. 











SEWERS 729 

Cost of Two-Ring Brick Sewer in Tunnel (2ft,S in. X 4 ft.) — This section 
started at manhole No. 4, the tunnel being operated from one portal situated 
on the east bank and one shaft at Millbrook Ave. Owing to the location of 
the west portal, it was decided to dispense with an engine and derrick for 
handling excavation. Tracks were laid along a terrace on the bank and the 
material brought from the tunnel in cars and dumped over the side of the bank, 
where it was spread out to make more terraces, thereby beautifying this sec- 
tion of the park. The material used in construction was brought to the 
top of the bank, where it was stored, and, as required, was lowered down 
wooden chutes constructed for this purpose, and conveyed into the heading 
in cars. By this method of procedure the expense of an engineman, engine, 
and coal was eliminated. At Millbrook Ave. shaft a derrick was erected 
to remove excavation after it had been conveyed from the heading in cars. 
The shaft was placed at Millbrook Ave. with the intention of tunnelling in 
two directions, but when the required elevation was reached it was found 
that this would be impossible, as the nature of the ground changed very 
rapidly. On the west side of the shaft it was hard, dry clay and on the east 
side running sand, which could not be tunnelled without the aid of compressed 
air, and this would be too costly. Therefore, tunnelling was done only in one 
direction, thereby increasing operating expenses considerably. The surplus 
material was carried to a nearby dump in wagons and spread by the teamster. 

Material and Unit Labor Cost of Brick Sewer in Tunnel 

Length of 2 ft. 8 in. by 4 ft. two-ring brick sewer, lin. ft 845 

Cubic yards, excavation 557 . 70 

Cubic yards, surplus 557 . 70 

Cubic yards, brickwork 304 . 20 

Cubic yards, backfilling 90 

Brick used 119,300 

Brick packers 6,338 

Cement, bags • 1 , 365 

Sand, cubic yards 140 

Timber, ft. B. M 154 

Unit Unit 

cost per cost per 

Time, lin. ft., cu. yd., 

Item Distribution hours hours hours 

Foreman N 456 .54 .82 

Engineman N 509 .60 .91 

Miners* N 1,453 1.72 2.60 

Laborers! N 2,080 2.46 3.73 

Foreman K 496 .58 1 .63 

Engineman K 286 .34 .94 

Bricklayer K 738 .89 2.43 

Laborers '. K 2,030 2.40 6.64 

Laborerst C 207 .25 2.30 

Engineer J 75 .09 

Laborers /. .J 220 .26 

Engineman Q 48 .06 .... 

Laborers. . . . : Q 170 .20 

Teams Q 32 .04 

Teams D 427 .50 .75 

Teams P 235 .28 

Laborers P 135 .15 .... 

Laborers ... Z 235 .28 ..... 

* Paid on footage basis, f Includes sigrialm^ii and muckers. J Backfillers 

at shaft and pulling timbers, " v 



730 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cost of Two-Ring Brick Sewer (2 ft. 6 in. X S ft.9 in.) in Tunnel. — It was the 
original intention of the City Engineer that the excavating on this section 
be done in open cut. The contractor, however, decided to carry it out in 
tunnel, owing to the frost being in the ground to a depth of 4 ft. When the 
work on the 2-ft. 8-in. X 4-ft. section was completed, the derrick and engine 
were moved to a point midway on the 2-ft. 6-in. X 3-ft. 9-in. section. Very 
good progress was made in the east heading, and the required distance would 
have been completed in tunnel had not the existing local sewer been encount- 
ered which necessitated the discontinuance of the work by this method and 
the completing of same in open cut. In the west heading a layer of wet 
sand was encountered before the work had proceeded very far, making it 
more economical to open-cut the work than to proceed with tunnelling. 

The material through which the sewer ran was not as good for carrying on 
the work in tunnel as in the previous section and had to be close-sheeted. 
The work was done in the same manner as the other section (2 ft. 8 in. X 4 ft.), 
except that the excavated material was conveyed to the dump in cars after it 
had been brought to the surface in buckets. The dump was on city property 
and located close to the shaft. 

Materials and Unit Labor Cost of 2-ft. 6-in. X 3-ft. 9-in. Egg-Shaped 

Brick Sewer 

In tunnel 

Length of 2 ft. 6 in. X 3 ft. 9 in. two-ring brick sewer, lin. ft *..... 180 

Cubic yards, excavation 61.2 

Cubic yards, surplus 61.2 

Cubic yards, brickwork 42:0 

Brick used 22,394 

Brick packers 2,230 

Cement, bags. . . .- 253 

Sand, cubic yards - 30 

Timber, ft. B. M 350 



Item 
Engineman. 

Miners 

Laborers. . . . 
Engineman . 
Bricklayers . 
Laborers . . . . 
Laborers . . . . 
Laborers . . . . 
Engineman . 
Laborers . . . . 
Teams 







Unit 


Unit 






cost per 


cost per 




Time 


cu. yd.. 


lin. ft. 


Distribution 


hours 


hours 


hours 


N 


218 


3.40 


1.21 


N 


409 


6.68 


2.27 


N 


433 


7.00 


2.40 


K 


100 


2.40 


.55 


K 


225 


5.30 


1.25 


K 


446 


10.60 


2. 48 


D 


9 




.05 


P 


45 




.25 


Q • 


9 




.05 




68 




.38 


Q 


72 




.45 



Cost of Brick Sewer in Open Cut. — When it was found impossible to proceed 
any further with the work in tunnel, the balance of the 2-ft. 6-in. X 3-ft. 
9-in. section was constructed in open cut. The excavating was done by hand, 
and the material conveyed to the rear of the work in 3'^-yd. buckets on a 
traveling car, where it was dumped on the finished work as back-filling. A 
wet, sandy blue clay was encountered in places, which retarded progress to 
some degree, and, as an extra precaution against settlement, a plank decking 
was laid and the sewer constructed with a square base. As the work was 
being carried on in cold weather, it was decided to construct the sewer entirely 




SEWERS 731 

of brick, instead of concrete, as called for in the contract. Mixing concrete 
in winter is expensive and not always satisfactory. The manholes and diver- 
sion chambers were built entirely of concrete, with the exception of the 
chamber at Logan Ave. 

Open Cut 

Length of 2 ft. 6 in. X 3 ft. 9 in. two-ring brick sewer, lin. ft 208 

Cubic yards, excavation 815 

Cubic yards, backfilling 690 

Trench timbered, square feet 7 , 500 

Cubic yards, brickwork 70.7 

Brick used 33,357 

Cement for brickwork, bags 350 

Sand for brickwork, cubic yards 36 

Cubic yards Class " B " concrete (in manholes) 28 . 6 

Cubic yards surplus 125 

Unit Unit 

cost per cost per 

Time lin. ft. cu. yd. 

Item Distribution hours hours hours 

Foreman* A 260 1 . 25 .32 

Engineman A 235 1.13 .29 

Laborer.. A 1,790 8.60 2.20 

Carman A 324 1.56 .40 

Laborers B 265 1 . 27 

Labor C 412 2.00 .60 

Labor D 40 32 

Teams D 75 .60 

Foreman F 5 .18 

Labort F 122 . . . . .42 

Bricklayer K 235 1.13 3.00 

Labor K 644 3.10 9.10 

Labor P 73 .35 

Teams P 54 .27 

• Including B. f Including E. 



Concrete Section (2ft. 2 in. X 3 /<. 3 in.) with One Ring of Brickwork in the 
Invert. — In this section the excavation was carried on in the same manner 
as in the 2-ft. 6-in. X 3-ft. 9-in. section, but much more rapidly, as the 
average depth of trench, which was 14 ft., was considerably less and the class 
of soil through which the sewer ran did not require much timbering. Just as 
soon as excavation was completed to sub-grade the concrete was placed in 
the invert and the following day the brick invert was laid. This was done so 
that the concrete forms, which were made in three sections, could be braced 
at the bottom. The concrete in the side walls was then run and, if possible, 
the concrete was placed in the arch on the same day. If this was impossible, 
a good key was left and the concreting proceeded with from this point the 
following morning. The mixing was done in a 3^ -yd. gasoline mixer and 
•placed by means of chutes. The absence of reinforcing simplified pouring of 
concrete considerably. After the concrete had set sufficiently, the tongued 
and grooved forms were removed and any necessary finishing was done. 

At the end of this section a special diversion chamber was constructed 
with a leaping weir and a connection for a future extension. This chamber 
was constructed entirely of brickwork, which was usually found to be cheaper 
than concrete, as no form work is required, and therefore no waste, and the 
work could be continued from day to day without any delays. 



732 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Material and Unit Labor Cost of Concrete Sewer with Brick Invert 

Length of sewer (2 ft. 2 in. X 3 ft. 3 in.), lin. ft 878 

Cubic yards of excavation 2 , 050 

Cubic yards of backfilling 1 , 610 

Trench timbered, lin. ft 1 ,756 

Cubic yards, surplus. . 440 

Cubic yards, Class " B ' 265 

Brick used 11 ,240 

Brick, cubic yards • 27 

Cement for brickwork, bags 126 

Sand for brickwork, cubic yards 13 

Cement for concrete 1 , 510 

Stone for concrete, cubic yards 310 

Sand for concrete, cubic yards 186 



Item 
Foreman . . . 
Engineman . 
Carmen. . . . 

Laborers 

Laborers 

Laborers . . . . 
Foreman . . . 
Laborers . . . . 

Teams 

Laborers 

Laborers . . . . 
Foreman . . . 
Bricklayers . 
Laborers . . . . 
Engineman . 

Laborers 

Teams 

Foreman. . . 
Labor 







Unit 


Unit 






cost per 


cost per 




Time 


cu. yd. 


Un. ft. 


Distribution 


hours 


hours 


hours 


A 


• 400 


.19 


.45 


A 


423 


.20 


.48 


A 


845 


.41 


.96 


A 


2,465 


1.20 


2.80 


B 


600 




.70 


C 


380 


.23 


.43 


C 


30 


.02 


.04 


D 


20 


.05 


.02 


D 


190 


.44 


.22 


E 


512 




.58 


F 


870 


3-30 


1.00 


F 


160 


.60 


.18 


K 


135 


5.00 




K 


300 


11.11 






12 




.02 


Q 


12 




.44 


Q 


150 




.16 


Q 


70 




.12 


z 


135 




.15 



Labor Costs on a 3-Ft. Semicircular Storm Sewer. — E. W. Robinson gives 
the following records of the actual cost of labor, exclusive of excavation and 




Fig. 9. — Section of the sewer. 



back-filling, for constructing 290 ft. of 36-in. semicircular storm sewer, in Engi- 
neering Record, Aug. 3, 1912. The arch consisted of one ring of paving brick 
laid in cement mortar to which had been added a small amount of lime and 




SEWERS 733 

plastered on the outside to a thickness of about H in. The invert was of 
concrete, 4 in. in thickness, with a ^-in. surface finish of cement mortar. 
The centering was made 12 ft. in length, and was wedged up 2 in. from the 
invert. As soon as this length of sewer was completed, including the plaster- 
ing, the centering was lowered and pulled ahead and wedged up again, care 
being taken to avoid disturbing the brick previously laid. Not more than 15 
min. was lost each time in shifting the centering. 

The concrete for the invert was mixed in the proportion of one part cement 
to six parts gravel or mine " taiUngs." A No. 9 Coltrin continuous mixer was 
used throughout the job and the concrete was shoveled into place from the 
bank. The mortar for the finish was mixed by hand in the proportion of 1 
part of cement to 1^ parts of river sand. The concrete gang consisted of a 
foreman and seven men. 

Labob Charges on Concrete Invert 

1 foreman, 17 hours @ $0.55% $ 9 . 44 

1 finisher, 17 hours @ $0.33K 5 . 67 

1 feeding mixer, 17 hours @ $0.22^ 3 . 77 

1 shoveling from mixer, 17 hours @ $0.22% 3. 77 

1 mixing and carrying mortar, 17 hours @ $0.25 4. 25 

1 striking-off and tamping concrete, 17 hours @ $0.25 4. 25 

2 setting forms and trimming bottom, 30 hours @ $0.22% 6. 67 

Total for 290 lineal feet $37 . 82 

Per cubic yard of concrete 2.35 

Per lineal foot of sewer 0. 13 

The brick-laying gang consisted of two masons and two helpers, who mixed 
and carried the mortar and carried the brick from piles about 50 ft. from the 
line of the work. It will be noted that the cost of laying the brick was rather 
high, which was due to the fact that neither mason was an adept in this class 
of work, both having done only the roughest kind of work before. 

Labor Charges on Brick Arch 

2 brick masons, 74 hours @ $0.44^^ $31 . 78 

2 helpers, 74 hours @ $0.22% 16. 44 

Total for 290 lineal feet $48. 22 

Per 1000 brick $ 4 . 00 

Per lineal foot of sewer , 166 

Costs of Brick and Concrete Sewer Construction. — Engineering and Con- 
tracting, June 28, 1911, gives the following data, taken from a paper on Exca- 
vation, Foundations and Sewer Work presented before the Western Society 
of Engineers by Victor Windett. 

From an average of 6,000,000 brick laid in two and three ring sewers in and 
near Chicago it is determined that there are 520 brick required per cubic yard 
of masonry. This average is taken for brick as counted in cars or wagons, 
including breakage. As it is customary to lay all bats of one-half brick or 
greater in the outer rings of the arch, the loss from breakage is trifling. As 
shipped from the brick yards, sewer brick are uniformly of good quahty. 
Any underburned or soft brick found in the kilns are broken up or sold for 
building brick. The size of Chicago hard sewer brick will average 8^^ X 
3^ X 2J^6 ins. The use of the bats as indicated is not detrimental to the 
quality of the work, as the extrados is thickly plastered with cement mortar, 
and all joints well filled. 



734 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Brick Sewers. — The organization of a bricklaying gang is as follows: A 
foreman, whose duty it is to keep a steady supply of everything needed for the 
use of the masons, is placed on the berm of the trench. Each 2 bricklayers 
has a helper in the bottom. According to the depth of the trench there are 

1 to 3 scaffold men for each tender and a brick tosser on the bank, and 1 mortar 
carrier. Two mortar makers will serve 4 masons. From 2 to 6 men are 
required to take down the arch centering of ribs and lagging, pass it ahead, and 
set it up again. It is uneconomical to work an odd number of masons, as the 
same number of auxiliaries can serve 2 masons as easily as one. 

The average day's work of a mason working 8 hours was found to be 4,000 
brick laid in place. The maximum number laid per day was an average of 
two days* work on a 2 ft. diameter two ring sewer in a moderately wet trench 
where an average of 7,583 brick were laid per man. The minimum happened 
to be on a larger and easier sewer to build where, however, other adverse 
circumstances cut the day's work to 2,700 brick. A safer average is 3,500 
brick per man per day. 

Table X, based on 4,000 brick per day, gives the output and rate of con- 
struction for various sizes of sewers which ought to be reasonably expected, 
as it is the rate maintained for four years' time. 

Table IX. — Bricklaying, Force and Cost of^ 2 Ring Sewers 

Diameter of sewer in ft. . . 2-4 ; 4-8 ^ 

No. men Cost per day No. men Cost per day 

Bricklayers 4 $40. 00 6 $ 60. 00 

Tenders 2 7.50 3 11.25 

Scaffoldmen 2 5.50 3 8.25 

Brick tossers 2 4.50 3 6.75 

Brick wheelers 2 4.00 4 8.00 

Sand throwers 2 4.50 3 6.75 

Mortar mixers 2 5. 00 4 10. 00 

Mortar carriers 2 4. 50 4 9. 00 

Water boy 1 1.50 1 1.50 

Team H 3.00 1 6.00 

Foreman. 1 5.77 1 5.77 

Total 201^ $85.77 33 $133.27 

Brick and cement teaming 4^4 men at $6.00; 27 . 00 7 men 42 . 00 

Total 25 men . = 112.77 40 men = 175.27 

No. of men to 1 bricklayer 6 6}i 

Table X. — Length of Sewer Per Day's Work and Cost Per Foot 

3 Rings — 2 Rings 

2 ft 139 ft. $0.81 209 ft. $0.83 

23^ ft 107 ft. 1.05 160 ft. 1.09 

3 ft 102 ft. 1.10 153ft. 1.15 

3H ft 88 ft. 1.28 132 ft. 1.33 

4 ft 75 ft. 1.50 112 ft. 1.55 

43^ ft 68 ft. 1.66 103 ft. 1.70 

5 ft 55 ft. 2.08 83 ft. 2.10 

Working an odd number of masons is expensive, as 1 tender, tosser, scaflfold- 

man, sand thrower and mortar carrier can attend to 2 masons. 
Bricklaying per mason per day, 4,009. (Ave. of 28,177 ft. of work.) 

Manholes. — Brick manholes are usually built 3 ft. internal diameter of two 
bricks in thickness or 9 ins. The inner ring is built with brick standing on 
end and bonded every fourth course with one course laid flat. The outer 
ring is built best of half bricks or bats laid flat. 

The most economical way of building brick manholes is to use a light wooden 
drum, slightly conical in shape as a form against which to lay brick. The taper 



( 



SEWERS 735 

need not be over H in. and is for the purpose of making it easy to raise the 
form as the brickwork requires. The height of the form or drum is usually 

3 ft., so as not to make it too heavy for ease of handling. When iron steps 
are placed in the manhole, a slot can be cut into the drum 1 in. larger all around 
than the step for clearance. 

In case steps are used they are best spaced approximately 16 ins. apart; 
a width of 9 ins. is sufficient. The best form of step is that used on telephone 
poles, in which the foothold or step is bent, or dropped 1 in. below the sides, 
so as to prevent a user's foot from slipping off side wise. The ends should pro- 
ject through to the outside of the wall, and bend up 1 ot 2 ins. 

In building manholes or catch basins, two bricklayers should work together 
on account of requiring no more helpers than one mason. It is better to 
raise manholes when the bricklayers cannot work on the sewers, so as not to 
disorganize the main work of the masons; their work is to push construction 
of the sewer itself at top speed. 

Manholes on pipe sewers are best built up to the center line of the sewer as 
soon as possible after the excavation is made, so that pipe laying may proceed 
without delay. In some cases it is possible to do this ahead of pipe laying, 
which is highly advantageous, and then complete the manhole, when the 
mason is not preparing another bottom. 

The cost of such holes is shown in Table XI, in which is given average costs 
for 178 manholes. 

Table XI. — Brick Manhole Costs 

Height of Labor Cement, Materials 

Size of sewer manhole Hours Cost Brick bbls. Cost Total 

4 ft. 6 in. brick.. 5.8 9.0 $5.32 713 1.4 $9.70 $15.02 
3 ft. 6 in. brick.. 5.9 10.4 4.96 727 1.4 9.78 14.74 
3 ft. in. brick. . . 5.3 11.1 4.95 626 1.3 9.81 13.76 
2 ft. in. brick... 6.1 9.0 4.80 727 1.4 - 9.80 14.60 
1ft. 6 in. pipe... 8.8 31.1 13.60 1,262 2.6 13.50 26.80 
1ft. 3 in. pipe... 8.4 31.0 .13.75 1,141 2,4 12.81 26.56 
1ft. in. pipe... 7.9 27.9 12.05 1,100 2.2 12.10 24.15 

Ave. brick 5.7 10.2 4.93 698 1.4 9.83 14.78 

Ave. pipe 8.2 29.0 12.62 1,168 2.4 12.80 25.42 

Height of nianholes for brick sewers is measured from extrados of arch; for 
pipe sewers it is the full height of the brickwork. 

A summary of Table XI is as follows: 

Average size, 3 ft. diam.; 7 ft. 11 ins. high; 9 in. walls. 

No. brick each, 1,080, or 2.52 cu. yds. 

No. bbls. cement, 2.3. 

Volume of masonry per lin. ft 0.3 

Labor in hrs. per manhole 21 

Labor in hrs. per lin. ft. in height 2 . 65 

Labor per cu. yd. masonry hrs 8.3 

Labor cost per manhole ' $10 . 67 

Labor cost per lin. ft. manhole $ 1 . 36 

Labor cost per cu. yd. masonry $ 4 . 23 

Average rate of wages, including masons, helpers and team $ 0.51 

Table XII shows the average costs of concrete manholes. 

Table XII. — Concrete Manhole Costs 

Concrete Hand-mixed Machine-mixed 

Height 13 ft. in. 11 ft. 3 in. 

Inside diameter. 3 ft. 6 in. 3 ft. 6 in. 

Thickness of concrete 8 in. 8 in. 

Concrete per lin. ft. of height, cu. yds .37 .37 

Number of manholes 28 10 



736 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Costs Per Manhole 

Hrs. Cost Hrs. Cost 

Haul of mixer 1.0 $0.45 

Unloading sand and stone 2.2 $0 . 39 2.2 . 39 

Unloading cement 0.9 0.18 0.9 0.18 

Delivering to mixer 6.3 1.20 13.0 2.79 

Mixing concrete 4.2 0.99 14.8 3.58 

Wheeling concrete 5.2 1.20 11.7 1.95 

Spreading and tamping 3.8 0.86 3,8 0.86 

Runways 2.2 0.50 

Forms 15.9 4.16 15.9 4.16 

Total 38.5 $8.98 65.5 $14.86 

Superintendence 1.5 .97 1.5 .97 

Total 40.0 $9.95 67.0 $15.83 

Cost per foot of height 3.1 0.77 6.0 1.40 

Rate of wages per hour .... . 25 .... . 234 

Cost Per Cubic Yard of Concrete 

Haul of mixer 0.2 $0. 10 

Unloading sand and stone 0.5 $0 . 09 0.5 . 09 

Unloading cement. .. .^ 0.3 0.05 0.3 0.05 

Delivering to mixer 2.9 0.63 2.9 0.63 

Mixing concrete 2.1 0.52 2.6 0.61 

Wheeling concrete 2.5 0.60 1.9 0.43 

Spreading and tamping concrete ., . 1.0 0.23 1.0 0.23 

Runways 0.5 0.12 

Forms 3.6 0.99 3.6 0.99 

.Total.. 12.9 $3.11 13.5 $3.25 

Superintendence .5 .26 .5 .26 

Total 13.4 $3.37 14.0 $3.51 

Brick Catch Basins. — Brick catch basins are built in Chicago with a 2-in. 
plank bottom. The basins are 4 ft. internal diameter for 5 ft. 6 ins. height 
and draw in to a diameter of 2. ft. in 20 ins. of height. A 9-in. half trap is set 
with the bottom 3 ft. 6 ins. above the planking. The brick work is 8 ins. in 
thickness. 

Catch basins are best built toward the close of piece of sewer work, as usu- 
ally the soil is then somewhat drained by the sewer. 

A small gang of diggers is organized so as to keep just ahead of the masons. 
Two men are put to digging each h,ole; no sheeting need be used, as the hole is 
open for so short a time as to render caving unlikely. The sides are sloped 
just enough to prevent slides. In case of wet ground, four to six well-points 
attached to a diaphragm pump will be needed. 

As soon as bricklaying is begun, two men are put to digging for and laying 
the discharge pipes from the basins to the sewer. The work so organized can 
be cheaply and quickly built. 

The cost of basins and connections are given below: 

Catch Basin Costs 

Number on which costs are based, 212, — 4 ft. diam., 8 ft. high. 
Soil, sand. 

Labor cost, 345 hours $13.22 

Materials— 1,100 brick at $6 6. 60 

60 B.M. lumber at $10 72 

2.2 bbls. cement at $0.636 1.40 

19 in. half trap 1 . 45 

1 cover 5.25 

Superintendence 1 . 26 

Total $29.90 



SEWERS 737 

The planks for the bottom were cut out of worn-out short sheeting which 
had done full service in the sewer construction and hence were charged to the 
catch basins at a low cost. 

Catch Basin Connections 

Per ft. 

Labor, 13.1 hrs $ 4.23 

Materials — 9-in. pipe $5 . 50 1 

Cement 18 f 5.76 

♦ Jute 08 J 

5.76 

Superintendence . 50 

Cost per foot, $0.653^ $10.49 

Costs Per Foot of Main Sewer 

Brick Pipe 

Sewers Sewers 

Manholes $0. 090 $0. 19 

Catch basins 0.253 0.253 

Catch basin connections . 089 . 089 

Total $0,432 $0,532 

In sewer work the operations naturally fall under three headings, viz.: 
trenching, masonry, general labor. Trenching includes excavation, sheeting 
and bracing, pumping and backfilling. The distribution of expense of the 
various operations of construction is given in Table XIII, which is based on 
55,000 lineal feet of work. 

Table XIII. — Proportional Division of Expenses of Construction 

Concrete Brick Pipe 

Sewers Sewers Sewers 

Excavation labor 12. 1 % 20. 7 % 22. 3 % 

Sheeting and bracing labor 7.0 10.0 7.2 

Backfihing labor 4.9 3.3 6.0 

Pumping labor 5 2.3 10.0 

Total trenching labor 24.5 36.3 45.5 

Masonry labor 25.0 20.0 4.9 

Operating superintendence 4.5 5.2 4.6 

Total labor 54. 61 . 5 55. 

Materials and supplies 41.6 30 . 29 . 6 

Office expense 4.4 8.5 15.4 

Totals.... 100.0 100.0 100.0 

At the time when the invert is placed in the concrete or brick sewers, the 
work is 57 and 65 per cent, respectively, completed. 

Cost of Large Brick and Concrete Sewers in Chicago. — The following is 
taken from a paper by H. R. Abbott, before the Illinois Society of Engineers 
and Surveyors, as reprinted in Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 11, 1914. 

With the exception of very small stretches, all of the work, described in 
this paper is built in good stiff blue clay, in the Sanitary District of Chicago. 

West S9th Street Conduit. — The total length of this conduit was 2,346 ft., 
of which 1,868 ft., was plain concrete, a section of which is shown in Fig. 10, 
and 478 ft. reinforced concrete, the reinforced section being under railroad 
property. It is 12 X 14 ft. in size, of elliptical section. 

Excavation. — Excavation was started in open cut. A Bucyrus 70-ton steam 
shovel was used with a 1^ cu. yd. dipper. The shovel was mounted on five 
16 X 18-in. timbers, 30 ft. long, with two 2-in. truss rods to each timber. 
47 



738 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 




'^■3-5i''-'i^3-5p 



The top 4 ft. of trench was excavated about 3 ft. wider than the outside lines 
of the masonry, since no bracing was put in near the top of the trench. Below 
this the trench excavation was made to the exact width of the masonry, plus 
an allowance of 4 ins. for sheeting. Although a variation in and out was 
unavoidable, it did not exceed 2 ins. in either direction. The trench width 
was 15 ft. 8 ins.; average cut was 23 ft. 6 ins., making an excavation of 13.7 

cu. yds. per running foot. On ac- 
count of the deep cut, the shovej 
was equipped with a 36-ft. boom 
and a 54-ft. dipper handle. As 
there was liability of slides and 
cave-ins, the excavation was han- 
dled in two lifts. On the first run 
the shovel excavated the top 10 ft., 
using 9-ft. sheeting with one set of 
bracing placed about 6 ft. below 
the ground surface. The shovel 
dug ahead of the finished cut from 
75 to 100 ft., then backed up and 
excavated the lower 13K ft. The 
lower lift was taken out between 
steel beams, each built up of two 
10-in. I-beams with cover plates, 
50 ft. long, held in place by screw 
braces set 7 ft. ' back from each 
end. This replaces the ordinary 
wooden bracing and allows a free 
movement of the dipper in the trench for three moves or 36 ft. When a 
section is finished, the beams are carried ahead by the dipper, the wooden 
braces are replaced on the top sheeting, and another set of 9 ft. sheeting 
is placed with two sets of braces for the lower portion of the trench, the lower 
end of the sheeting being at a point where the invert curve meets the side wall. 
The lower sheeting back of the concrete was left in permanently. The bottom 
was trimmed and shaped by four or five bottom men, the material being cast 
ahead where the shovel could reach it. An iron frame or template built to 
the dimensions of the outside lines of the masonry was set up every 12 ft. as a 
guide in trimming the sides. The excavated material was loaded direct from 
the shovel on to 4-cu. yd. dump cars operating on a 3-ft, gage track. Ordi- 
narily, the upper lift made the backfill, and the lower lift was run to a spoil 
area in McKinley Park, a haul of about H mile. The sheeting was 2 X 10 
in. hemlock, the braces 8 X 8 in. and 6 X 6 in., with stringers 6 X 8 in. of 
yellow pine. 

Concrete. — The concrete mixer was mounted on timbers to span the trench. 
A No. 2 Chicago mixer, holding 25 cu. ft. of dry material, was used. Adjust- 
able spouts were used for pouring the concrete, the spout-man standing on 
braces in the trench and deflecting the concrete to any point required. The 
pouring was made in three runs, each usually being about 16 ft. long. The 
first or dish extended to 2 ft. above the bottom of the trench; the second, or 
sides, extended 2 ft. above the springing line; the third or arch completing the 
section. The invert was shaped up with a wooden template or bulkhead, 
conforming to the inside and outside lines of the masonry, on which the forms 
were placed after the concrete was set. The forms were built up of 2 X 6-in» 



Fig. 10. — Cross section of plain concrete 
portion of the new West 39th St. con- 
duit, Chicago, 111. 



SEWERS 739 

Table XIV. — Unit Cost of Constructing the Plain Concrete Section of 
THE West 39th St. Conduit — Size, 12 X 14 Ft. — Avg. Cut, 23 Ft, 6 Ins. 

Cost- 

Per 
Item lin. ft. 

Excavation, labor $ 2 . 53 

Excavation, plant 0. 64 

Backfill 0.86 

Waste disposal . 89 

Miscellaneous 0.75 

Coal 1.21 

Lumber 0.99 

Concrete masonry 10.42 

Labor 

Cement 

Sand 

Gravel 

Plant 



1/ ' ■ ■— 


Per 


cu. 


yd. 


$0 


188 





046 





143 





120 



1.315 
1.055 
0.576 
1.103 
0.084 



Total $18 . 29 $4 . 133 

Cost percentages: For material and plant, 54 per cent; for labor, 46 per cent. 

Table XV. — Construction, Force and Rates of Payment on W. 39th St. 
Conduit, to Accompany Costs in Table XIV 

Wage per 

Employee day 

1 superintendent $8.00 

1 shovel engineer 7 . 00 

3 dinkey engineers, each 3 . 60 

1 cranesman ; 4 . 50 

1 fireman 3 . 00 

3 switchmen, each 2.25 

2 flagmen, each 1 . 75 

1 coal passer 2 . 50 

3 foremen, each 4 . 50 

1 hoisting engineer 5 . 60 

4 bottom men, each 3 . 85 

50 to 60 laborers, each 2 . 50 

1 team 5.00 

1 carpenter 4 . 80 

1 machinist 3 . 50 

1 machinist's helper 2 . 50 

1 office boy 2.00 

1 material man 2 . 50 

1 watchman 2 . 50 

3 water boys, each 1 . 00 

lagging, laid on 6-in. channels, bent to shape. At the springing line, a 6 X 6- 
in. timber rested on angles bolted to the channel, being held in place by a J^^-in. 
pin running through both timber and angle. After the sides were poured 
and set, the braces were removed and the lagging placed for the crown. The 
channels for the arch were reinforced with two plates. 

No manholes were built and no lateral connections were made, but 24-in. 
tile were set in the arch at intervals for future connections. The contract 
specified a concrete composed of 1 part Portland cement, 3 parts sand, and 5 
parts crushed stone or graVel; the engineer, under the specifications, having 
the right to vary the proportions of fine and coarse aggregate, but maintain- 
ing the proportion of 1 part cement and 8 parts aggregate. Gravel proved 
very satisfactory. The mix was fairly wet, except on the crown of the arch, 
where a dry mix was necessary to prevent the concrete running. 

The average progress per day of 9 hours was 30 ft. for both shovel and mixer, 
for the plain section. This means 420 cu, yds. of excavation, with disposal in 



740 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

backfill or spoil bank. The actual cost of excavation, backfill, and spoiling can 
be seen by reference to Table XIV. The concrete averages 23^^ cu yds. per 
ft. A daily average of 75 cu. yds. was placed. The average progress per day 
on the reinforced section was 24 ft. per day, the slowing up being due to 
the time used in placing the reinforcing steel. 

On the same platform with the mixer was mounted a small boom derrick and 
hoisting engine. This facilitated the removal of stringers and braces, and 
pulled the mixer platform back and forth. The material for concrete was 
delivered to a platform laid on the ground alongside of the mixer, being 
hauled in 4-cu. yd. dump cars by dinky engines an average distance of % mile. 

Reinforced Section. — This section is of the same dimensions as the plain, 
but was reinforced to strengthen the conduit where it passed under railroad 
property. The same methods of construction were used as on the plain 
section. The reinforcing steel averaged 44 lbs. to the cubic yard of concrete. 

Backfill. — Backfill was made by the 4-yd. dump cars, track being swung 
in over the conduit as the filling progressed. Centers were left in until the 
sides were thoroughly compacted and at least 1 ft. of flUing had been placed 
over the top of the arch. Unit costs on the reinforced concrete portion of 
this sewer are given in Table XVI. 

Table XVI. — Unit Cost of Constructing the Reinforced Concrete 
Section of the W. 39th St. Conduit — Size, 12 X 14 Ft. Avg. Cut, 22 Ft. 

-Cost- 



Per Per 

Item lin. ft. cu. yd. 

Excavation, labor $ 2.43 $0. 194 

Excavation, plant 0.64 0.046 

Backfill 1.24 0.249 

Waste disposal 0.31 0.041 

Miscellaneous 2 . 26 

Coal 1.21 

Lumber . . 99 

Concrete masonry 14.85 

Labor 1.975 

Cement 1 . 055 

Sand 0.576 

Gravel. 1 . 103 

Reinforcing steel 1 . 103 

Plant 0.084 



Total $23.93 $5,896 

Cost percentages: For material and plant, 53 per cent; for labor, 47 per cent. 

South 52nd Are. Sewer (Cicero Section). — This is a three-ring brick sewer 
with a total length of 10,000 ft., of which 7,300 ft. was 7H ft. and 2,700 ft. 
was 7 ft. in diameter; 1,050 ft. of the 7>^-ft. section was in tunnel. 

With the exception of the tunnel the entire sewer was built on the line of 
an old 4 X 5-ft. wooden box sewer. The sewage flow was usually held back 
for periods of 8 to 16 hours, depending on rain fall, by a temporary gate, 
consisting of an enclosed box 3 X 3 X 12 ft., having a sliding door working 
vertically about 4 ft. from the upstream end. The old wooden box sewer was 
first uncovered at a point 600 to 1,000 ft. ahead of the steam shovel. After 
the top was removed, the gate was lowered into the old box ana packed in 
place with sand bags. The gate was operated by a lever at the ground level, 
by a night watchman, who generally closed the gate at 6 a. m. and opened it at 
7 or 8 p. m. A 45-ton Bucyrus steam shovel, equipped with a IM-eu. yd, 
dipper, excavated the trench, placing the excavated material aloii|si4e, The 



SEWERS 741 

average cut was 21 ft. made in a single cut. The existing box sewer was 
ripped out by the shovel as the trench advanced. 

Sheeting 2 X 10 ins. by 16 ft. long was used with three set of stringers and 
braces. On about 70 per cent of the work the sheeting and one set of braces 
and stringers were left in. 

During the progress of the work, several severe rainstorms occurred, causing 
considerable delay and some damage. In a portion of the work where sheeting 
had been pulled, a severe rain caused the bank to slide, which, together with 
the added weight of the spoil bank, <;aused a collapse of 130 ft. of completed 
sewer. The cost of repairs for this 130 ft. was $11.46 per ft., or 94 per cent 
of the first cost. On account of storms and the softening of the bank by storm 
and ground water shorter lengths collapsed. Because of the nearness to 
building foundations, thereafter, sheeting and one set of braces was left in 
place at an additional cost of 90 cts. per running ft. of sewer. 

On the unpaved portion of the street the excess excavation was spoiled over 
the street. On the balance of the work it was loaded directly into wagons by 
the shovel, although a small portion of the excess was handled by a small 
Thew revolving steam shovel, loading wagons from the spoil bank. 

A small amount of pointing-up proved necessary in a number of cases 
where water was passed over the brick work as soon as laid, and in a special 
case, when the breaking of the gate had flooded out the bricklayers before the 
invert could be laid complete. All material was teamed to the work, the 
average haul being H mile. Connections were made with all lateral sewers 
and existing house connections. 

The average progress per day on the 7-ft. section was 45 ft., equivalent to 
330 cu. yds. of excavation, while on the 7K-ft. section the average progress 
was 70 ft. per day, with 20 ft. cut, or 500 cu. yds. of excavation per day. 
The difference in the progress between these two sections was partly due 
to the fact that the 73'^-ft. sewer was built in a street 80 ft. wide, with 
open prairie on one side and unlimited room for work, and the 7-ft. section was 
built in a 66-ft. street with scant open space adjacent to the street. Tables 
XVII and XVIII give the unit costs on the 7-ft. and the 7-ft. 6-in. sections 
respectively. 

Table XVII. — Unit Costs op Constructing the Cicero Section of the 
So. 52ijD Ave. 7-ft. Brick Sewer — Ave. Cut, 21 Ft. 

Item 

Excavation, labor $ 2 . 22 

Excavation, plant 

Backfill, labor 

Backfill plant 

Waste d'sposal 

Pumping 

Miscellaneous 

Coal 

Lumber 

Brick masonry 

Labor , 

Teaming sand and cement 

Brick 

Cement 

Sand 



Per 


Per 


lin. ft. 


cu. yd 


$ 2.22 


$0,308 


0.28 


0.040 


0.81 


0.226 


0.14 


0.038 


1.00 


0.544 


0.19 




0.62 




0.35 




1.12 




7.60 






$2.63 




0.49 




4.08 




0.57 




0.29 


$14.33 


$ 8.06 



Total 
Cost percentages: For material and plant, 49 per cent. For labor, 51 per cent. 



742 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The average number of brick laid per day per bricklayer was 4,900 in the 
7-ft. section and 5,900 in the T^i-it. section. Backfilling was done with a 
Monaghan revolving derrick, equipped with a Page orange peel bucket, 
capacity 1 cu. yd. This is a very efficient machine for backfilling, but the 
operator should avoid dropping the load from any distance, as it is liable to 
crack the masonry, especially when working during wet weather, when the 
backfilling is saturated with water. 

T^LE XVIII. — Unit Costs of Constructing the Cicero Section of the 
South 52nd Ave. 7-ft. 6-in. Bric^k Sewer — Average Cut, 20 Ft. 



-Cost- 



Per Per 

Item lin. ft. cu. yd. 

Excavation, labor $1 . 63 $0. 226 

Excavation, plant 0. 28 0.040 

Backfill, labor 0.43 0.119 

Backfill, plant 0. 14 0.038 

Waste disposal 0.41 0.417 

Pumping 0. 15 ..... 

Miscellaneous 0.81 

Coal 0.35 

Lumber . 47 

Brick masonry •. 7 . 50 

Labor $2.10 

Teaming sand and cement . 30 

Brick 4.08 

Cement 0. 57 

Sand 0.29 



Total. $12. 17 $7.34 

Cost percentages: For materials and plant, 53 per cent. For labor, 47 per 
cent. 

Table XIX. — Construction Force and Rates of Payment on Cicero 

Section of the South 52nd Avenue 7-ft. and 7-ft. 6-in. Brick Sewers, 

To Accompany Costs in Tables XVII and XVIII 

Wage 

Employes per day 

1 superintendent $ 8. 00 

2 foremen, each 5 . 00 

1 shovel engineer 8 . 00 

1 hoisting engineer \ 5. 60 

1 cranesman 4 . 70 

1 shovel foreman : 3 . 25 

1 derrick foreman. • 2 . 75 

2 pump foremen, each 3 . 00 

1 watchman 3 . 00 

1 bricklayer 12. 00 

5 bricklayers, each 10. 00 

3 tenders, ach 3 . 75 

4 cement mixers, each ^ 3 . 00 

5 cement carriers, each 3 . 25 

4 to 8 bottom men, each 3.75 

5 bracers, each 4 . 40 

2 center men, each 3-75 

1 blacksm th 3.50 

1 blacksmith helper 3 . 00 

3 scaffold men each 2.75 

3 brick tossers, each 2 . 25 

4 brick wheelers, each 3 , 00 

6 roller men, each 2 . 80 

1 rnaterial man 3 . 00 

1 timekeeper 3 . 00 

2 Waterboys, each 1 . 00 

10 to 20 common laborers, each 2 . 00 

1 to 3 teams, each , 6.00 




SEWERS 



743 



Some special items may be worthy of mention, such as the cost of hand 
excavation in a sewer trench of this size, moving plant, etc. At the Illinois 
Central R. R., where the sewer passed under the tracks, the excavation was 
made by hand, loaded into wheelbarrows and wheeled to the edge of the right- 
of-way, at which point it was handled by the orange-peel derrick. 

The piling and timbering of the tracks was done by the railroad company at 
their own expense. This hand excavation cost $1.25 per cu. yd. 

In another case the steam shovel could not take out the bottom on account 
of the proximity of a viaduct. This earth was scaffolded out at a cost of 
$1.06 per cu. yd., being handled four times before it reached the spoil bank. 

The moving of the steam shovel a distance of 1,050 ft. across a railroad yard 
and over the tunnel section was $560, or 53. cts. per foot. This includes the 



Crown Plonk 



t* 10 Plank ',<:^^ 
Wedges -i 

w 




FlQ. 11. — Detail of timbering in place to support roof in tunnel section of S. 52nd 

Ave. sewer. 



partial dismantling of the shovel to pass under obstructions. At the start the 
shovel was taken off the railroad spur, moved >^ mile and placed on timbers 
to span the trench, at a cost of $750. 

Tunnel Section. — The tunnel section, 1,050 ft. long, extends under the 
Morton Park yard of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railway, and passes 
directly under five piers of the viaduct carrying South 52nd Ave. over the rail- 
road yard. In places there was only 12 ft. of covering over the roof of the 
tunnel. The ground was stiff blue clay, containing but one sand pocket, which 
caused some earth settlement, visible at the ground surface. There were no 
settlements whatever at the piers. The unit costs for the txmnel work are 
given in Table XX, and the gang organizations in Table XXI. 

The work was carried on by the two night shifts of miners and muckers and 
one day shift of bricklayers, working 8 hours each, or a total of 24 hours per 
day. One shaft was sunk, from which two headings were run. In Fig. 11 is 
shown the method of timbering in good stiff clay. In poor ground, the 
crutches would be made longer, with the lower end set below the spring line, 
and the 2 X 10-in. plank at the roof would be placed closer together. The ex- 



744 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



cavated material was dumped from the shaft into railroad cars and hauled 3 
miles to Western Ave. 

The method of setting up the centers for the arch after the invert is built 
and timbering removed is shown in Fig. 12. The loose brick seen inside of 
the invert support the centers, spaced 4 ft. apart; 2 X 4-in. lagging is then 
placed. The earth at the roof is supported by 2 X 4-in. props resting on the 
lagging, reinforced by a 2>^-in. iron prop extending from the floor of the 
invert to the crown plank at roof. 

The average progress for 24 hours was 123^ ft. in each heading, or 25 ft. per 
day for both headings. The average number of brick laid per 8 hours per 
bricklayer was 3,000. 






Extension 3crew 




Loose Br'ickft 
Support Center 

Fig. 12. — Tunnel section of S. 52nd. Ave. sewer showing invert built, timbering 
removed and centers set for arch. 



Table XX. — Unit Costs of Constructing the Cicero Section of the 
South 52nd Avenue 7-ft. 6-in. Brick Sewer in Tunnel 



Item 
Excavation 


Per 
lin. ft. 
$ 6 . 49 


1/ 

Per 
cu. yd. 
$2.43 


Waste disposal. . . 


2 05 


0.77 


Lumber 


0.40 




Electric power 


0.15 




Miscellaneous 


1 . 26 




Brick masonry 


9 . 35 




Labor 




$4.40 


Brick 




4.09 


Cement 




0.57 


Sand 




0.29 









Total $19.70 $9.35* 

Cost percentages: For materials and plant, 27 per cent. For labor, 73 per 

cent. 

*Note — Masonry runs 1 cu. yd. per lineal foot of sewer. 




SEWERS 745 

Table XXI. — Construction Force and Rates of Payment on 7-ft. 6-in. 
Brick Sewer in Tunnel, to Accompany Costs in Table XX 

Note. — The rates are for 8-hour shifts, and each force is for two headings, one- 
half the force working per shift being in each heading. 

(a) First Shift — 8 a. m. to 4 p. m. — Bricklaying. 

Wage 
Employee per day 

1 superintendent $10.00 

4 bricklayers, each 10. 00 

6 tenders, each 3.75 

2 assistant tenders, each 3 . 25 

2 cement m xers, each 3.25 

2 car pushers, each 2 . 50 

2 shaft tenders, each 2. 50 

1 hoisting engineer 5 . 60 

(b) Second Shift — 4 p. m. to 12 midnight — Mining. 

Wage 
Employee per day 

1 foreman $6.00 

6 miners, each 3.75 

4 muckers, each 3 . 00 

2 car pushers, each 2 . 50 

1 shaft tender 2. 75 

4 laborers, each 2 . 50 

1 hoisting engineer 5 . 60 

1 timekeeper 3 . 00 

(c) Third Shift— 12 midnight to 8 a. m. — Mining. 

Wage 
Employee per day 

1 superintendent $10. 00 

8 miners, each 3.75 

6 muckers, each 3.00 

2 car pushers, each 2 . 50 

1 shaft tender 2.75 

4 laborers, each 2 . 50 

1 hoisting engineer 5 . 60 

1 timekeeper 3 . 00 

(d) Miscellaneous. 

Wage 
Employee per day 

1 dump foreman $2. 50 

6 to 12 laborers, each ' 2.00 

1 blacksmith 3 . 50 

1 electrician 4 . 00 

1 carpenter 4 . 50 

1 carpenter's helper 3 . 00 

The average progress per day was 123^^ ft. per heading or a total of 25 ft. per 
day. 

The tables of unit costs given above are intended to cover all field operations, 
including superintendence, labor, material and plant. Overhead charges 
of the contractor are not included, such as office expenses, bonding, liability 
insurance, and discount on municipal bonds on special assessment work. 

The item of plant charge is a difficult one. For instance, take the Item of 
steam shovels. There are steam shovels in service today that are 25 years old, 
whereas others are worth only scrap value at the end of three or four years. 
Many contractors charge off the entire plant to the job. So far as I see, for 
machinery such as steam shovels, dinkies, etc., it is fair to spread the plant 
cost over a period of ten years, allowing interest at 6 per cent on first cost, 
thus making a depreciation charge of 16 per cent per year. Alterations, fit- 



746 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

ting up, freight, small tools, etc., are directly chargeable against the job, and 
should be added to the above 16 per cent on cost of machinery and similar 
equipment for total plant charges against any piece of work. 

In considering the overhead charge to be made, some figures must be taken 
in making up an estimate. This is more apt to be too small than too large. 
In Illinois, liability insurance will cost from 7>i to 11 per cent of the payroll, 
and on work described in this paper, the labor item is about 50 per cent of the 
total field cost for open cut work, and about 70 per cent for tunnel work. 
This makes a charge of SH to 8 per cent of total for insurance, to begin with. 
Office rent, telephone, cost of getting work, and other items may increase this 
to 10 or 15 per cent. Adding 15 per cent for profit, we thus have 25 to 30 per 
cent to add to the field cost. The cost per lineal foot on the various jobs on 
which cost data are given in the tables and also the field cost percentages for the 
component parts of the various jobs are given in Table XXII. With the aid 
of the data contained in the tables, reinforced by current market quotations 
on material, the author has made estimates for similar kinds of sewer work, 
in the aggregate about one-half million dollars. Such estimates agree with 
the low bid within 4H to 7 per cent. In transferring the unit costs for work 
already performed to new estimate, due consideration must be made for dif- 
ferences in the local conditions, character of the soil, increased cost of labor, 
and the availabiUty of standard types of machine to handle the work. 

Table XXII. — Cost per Lineal Foot of Large Concrete and Brick Sewers 
WITH Proportional Distribution of Field Costs 

Location — W. 39th St. conduit- 
Size. 12 X14 ft. 12 X14 ft. 

Type Plain Reinf. 

cone. cone. 

Average cut 23 ft. 6 ins. 22 ft. ins. 

Total cost per ft $18 . 29 $23 . 93 

Distribution — % 

Brick or concrete 

masonry 56 . 9 62 

Excavation 17.3 13 

Backfill 4.7 5 

Waste disposal 4.8 1 

Miscellaneous 4.1 10 

Coal 6.7 5 

Lumber 5.4 4 

Pumping 

Power .. 0.8 

Cost of Sewer Maintenance at Newton, Mass. (Engineering and Contracting, 
April 9, 1919.) — During 1918 the city engineer'sdepartment of Newton, Mass., 
cleaned and repaired 129.78 miles of sewer, the average cost per mile amount- 
ing to $75.25. The cost of flushing sewers was $21.20 per mile. 

Costs of Operation of a Sewer Cleaner with Motor Operated Cutters, — 
Engineering and Contracting, March 15, 1911, gives the following: 

The cleaner consists of a barrel provided with four runners on which it rides 
when moving through the sewer. Within the barrel is a water motor, the 
shaft of which extends out of the front end and carries a series of hook-shaped 
cutting blades. The rear end of the barrel is provided for a hose connection 
by means of which the water for operating the motor is delivered. Finally 
there are rope connections in front and rear. In operation a hose from the 
nearest hydrant is attached to the barrel and the cleaner is hauled through the 





Cicero section 


b —So. 


52nd. Ave. 






7 ft. 


7ft. 6 ins 


7 ft. 6 ins. 


Brick 


Brick 


Brick 


s. 21 ft. 


20 ft. 


Tunnel 


$14.33 


$12.17 


$19.70 


53.2 


61,5 


47.5 


17.4 


15.7 


32.9 


6.6 


4.7 




7.0 


3.4 


10.4 


4.3 


6.7 


6.4 


2.5 


2.9 




7.7 


3.9 


2.0 


1.3 


1.2 





SEWERS 



747 



sewer between manholes by windlasses as indicated by Fig. 13. As the cleaner 
advances the cutting blades operated by the motor cut and grind away the 
sediment which is carried away by the stream of waste water from the motor. 
The hose has, of course, to be long enough to reach from the hydrant down the 
first manhole and through the sewer to the second manhole. Four men 
nominally operate the cleaner, two ahead operating the second windlass to 
pull the cleaner and two at the first manhole to feed in the hose and back rope. 
As indicating the efficiency and cost of operating the cleaner we give the 
following excerpts from a report by Theodore N. Aish, Engineer in Charge of 
Comprehensive Sewer System, Kansas City, Mo., of a test run made Dec. 7, 
1910: The sewer was an 18-in. pipe sewer and the length cleaned between man- 
holes was 371 ft. At 12 :20 p. m., the crew, consisting of 4 laborers, 1 foreman 
and 1 team began the work of stringing hose to the nearest fire plug, 1,250 ft. 
distant, and getting rods through the stretch of sewer between manholes No. 




Fig. 13. — Method of using sewer cleaner. 

1 and No. 2, preparatory to running the machine through. All preparatory 
work was done, water turned on and the machine started from manhole No. 

2 at 3 p. m. A few minutes after the machine was started a length of hose 
burst, which caused delay of 12 minutes while a new length was being put in. 
The machine was taken out at manhole No. 1 at 3:42 p. m. having traversed 
the 371 feet of pipe in 42 minutes, or deducting the 12 minutes delay for repair- 
ing hose, the actual time of cleaning the sewer was 30 minutes. The hose 
was then taken up and rolled and everything cleaned and put away by 5 :30 
p. m. That this sewer was actually cleaned was shown by running a Shannon 
bucket through the sewer after the machine had gone through. In the whole 
length of this sewer only about H cu. ft. of dirt was gathered in the bucket. 
The cost of the cleaning was as follows: 



Foreman, 5 hours at S7}4 cts , $1.85 

Team, 5 hours at 50 cts 2.50 

Labor, 20 hours at 25 cts 5.00 

Total labor cost $9.35 



748 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The length of sewer cleaned being 371 ft., the cost per foot was 2.52 cts. 
Another report gives the cost of 14 days' work cleaning 7,801 ft. of sewer as 
3.15 cts. per ft., including cost of shifting machine from job to job. 

Valuation and Depreciation of the Sewers of Manhattan Borough, New York 
City. — The following data are taken from an article in Engineering News, Jan. 
8, 1914, by Otto Huf eland. 

The sewer valuation here described is part of a plan, formulated by the 
accounting officers of the City of New York, to set up a capital balance sheet 
which would show the City's assets and liabilities, both bonded and otherwise, 
offset by its property real and personal, in the same manner as that of a rail- 
railroad or industrial corporation. The value of such an accounting is not 
confined to this balance sheet, but is an obvious aid in budget making and in 
the control of the city's financial affairs. 

Among the several classes of "permanent property" owned by the city, the 
cost of which is largely represented in the outstanding bonds are the sewers, 
which in such an accounting must be entered as an asset, not at their original 
cost, but at their present value, to determine which was the object of this work. 

A committee of engineers was designated to prepare a general outline for 
the finding of values for the city's permanent property, but after much dis- 
cussion the committee confined its recommendations, so far as they relate to 
sewers, to two points and merely advised: (1) that original cost be made the 
basis of the valuation and (2) that in fixing this cost, the cost of the pavement 
should be omitted or at most that only the cost of a cheap (cobblestone) 
pavement be included. 

Brick Sewers. — In the study of the question of how much should be deducted 
for depreciation, the examination of brick sewers, due to their accessibility, 
yielded good results. The routine of the examination of these sewers con- 
sisted in cleaning off the brickwork with a short broom, tapping the same with 
a light hammer to determine solidity and testing the cement joints by scrap- 
ing with a chisel. In addition, measurements of height and width were taken 
about every fifty feet. The bricks of the invert at and below the fiow line 
were examined for wear. This last test yielded no result except in a single 
instance where a sewer about forty years old and with an exceedingly rapid 
flow showed a very slight rounding of the exposed face of the brick at the 
joints. 

A study of the reports of these examinations disclosed that the following 
defects were noticeable: 

1. Cement partly out at water line. 

2. Cement partly out above water line. 

3. Depressed arch and sewer slightly spread. 

4. Large open joints. 

5. Loose brick. 

* 6. Bond of brickwork broken. 

7. Distorted sides, uneven bottom, joints out of line. 

These seven defects show the progressive deterioration of brick sewers in 
the order in which they occur under the conditions existing here (and probably 
everywhere else). They are, of course, not sharply defined, and, passing from 
one step into another and coupled with the difficulty under which sewer exami- 
nations are made, cannot be determined with as much accuracy even as would 
be possible in an exposed structure. 



SEWERS 749 

Table XXIII 

Examined by G G 

Date of construction 1868 1869 

Location 46th St. 2nd to Ave. A, 62-66 Sts. 

Lexington Ave. 

Length in ft 928 1120 

Size 4' X 2'8" 3'0" arc 

Good condition, 

Cement out at flow line, 2 x x 

Cement out above flow line 6 .x x 

Depressed arch and sewer spread, 12 x x 

Large open joints, 25 x x 

Loose brick, 47 

Bond of brickwork broken, 72 

Distorted sides and joints out of line. Un- 
even bottom, 100 

Total or average 45 45 

Table XXIII shows the allowances deducted to determine the depreciation 
of brick sewers. 

In the table the value of each of the defects, as shown by Fig. 4, was noted 
and the sum of these was taken as showing the total deterioration of the sewer. 
For example a sewer with "large open joints" was rated at 45 (2 + 6 + 12 + 
25) if all the preceding stages of deterioration were found, but if, for instance 
the examination disclosed no "depressed arch and sewer spread," valued at 
12, the rating would be 33 (2 + 6 + 25). 

Figs. 14 and 15 were prepared from the data prepared from the inspectors' 
reports. 

Pipe Sewers. — No wear of the pipe, due to age, is noticeable, and all the 
deterioration found was due (1) to settlement and (2) to a tendency of the 
pipe to break at and above the center, due perhaps to the load imposed on 
the top or even to some form of disintegration due to this weight. Nearly 
all of the fractures are on the upper half of the pipe and occur more often 
in the larger sizes. The sizes used in Manhattan Borough were 12, 15 and 
18 in. diameter and these breaks occurred so often in the largest size that its 
use was discontinued in 1887. It occurred less in the 15-in. pipe and still less 
in the 12-in. 

About 2>^ miles of various sizes of pipe sewers were examined by " cand- 
ling," or by fastening a lighted candle to a caliper and slowly pushing this 
through the sewer from manhole to manhole by means of rods, while the 
interior thus lighted up was examined by observers stationed at the manholes. 
The result was unsatisfactory, and furnished insufficient data to be used alone 
in determining a value. 

It was therefore necessary to find some other means before determination 
could be made. The only data of value, in addition to the little supplied 
by the examination just described, were those obtained from the experience 
gained in renewing and repairing such sewers or in inserting spurs for house 
connections. In this the writer had the benefit of the knowledge of the men 
who had been in charge of this work for some twenty-five years, and from that 
and the examinations described, as well as a great many others made under his 
supervision, the writer formulated the curves shown in Fig. 16. 

Due to the varying strength of the three sizes used, three curves were 
plotted, the 18-in. curve ending at 1887 when the use of such pipe was discon- 
tinued. It will be noticed that a rapid decrease in value is shown in sewers 
built before 1887. This is due to the construction above described. These 



750 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



curves can be used like those for brick sewers, so that values can be directly" 
read off. 



NOIiVD3«d3a JO aOVXN3Dy3d 



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> Earth Excavation and Backfilling, — In using any of these diagrams, it 
must be remembered that the deterioration is confined to the structure itself 



^^^^ 



SEWERS 



751 



(the pipe and brickwork) and when this has reached a stage where repairs are 
no longer economical the sewer will have to be rebuilt. This will involve 
excavation and refilling as well as repaving. The last item has been fixed at 
the beginning of this statement, but the two preceding ones are important 
factors in the cost of replacement and consequently in the present value of the 
sewer. 

When such excavation, at the time of original construction, was in earth, 
the original cost may fairly be used as a basis in the present valuation, because 
the same quantity of work would have to be done to replace the sewer, 



B^ 


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DATE OF CONSTRUCTION 

Fig. 16. — Diagram for estimating depreciation of vitrified pipe sewers due to 
age, Manhattan Borough, New York City. 



if the subsequent subsurface structures are omitted from consideration. If, 
however, the whole or part of the original excavation was in rock, the cost of 
the reconstruction would be considerably reduced below the original amount, 
due to its previous removal. 

For these reasons I have considered the cost of rock excavation an undepre- 
ciated asset and used it as a part of the present value of the sewer. It has 
been our custom to allow one day's working time for the contractor for every 
10 or 12 cu. yd. of rock to be excavated. Such an allowance involved one 
day's pay ($4) for the inspector as well as increased attention on the part of 
the engineer in charge and his party in visiting the work and measuring and 
computing the rock, which may be estimated at $1 per day. Added to the 



752 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

inspector's pay this made $5 for every 10 or 12 yd. of rock excavated, or from 
40 to 50c. per cu. yd. 

If the cost of earth excavation and refilling be assumed at from 40 to 50c. 
per cu. yd. it will be offset by the " over-head ' ' charges for rock. For example, 
if the bid for rock excavation is $4 per cu. yd., the " overhead" charges of 50c. 
will bring the actual cost to $4.50. If the earth excavation costs 50c. per 
cu. yd. the difference in cost between the two kinds will be $4, the price bid for 
rock. If, therefore, in determining the value of a sewer when rock excavation 
was necessary, the bid price of rock is deducted, the remainder will be the cost 
of that sewer in earth at the present cost of excavation. The cost of the sewer 
in earth excavation found as above described has been used as a basis of valua- 
tion in such cases. 

It is important to call attention to the fact that the present value of the 
sewers, etc., given in the report, is based upon the assumption that in any 
changes of the sewerage system, the new sewers would be rebuilt in the same 
location, and that any such reconstruction involving a change of location 
would leave the present system without any value whatever. 

The tabulations accompanying the report, covering 73 pages, 12 X 13 in. 
in size, give the kind, size, length in feet, number of manholes, cost per 
foot, and total cost, as well as value per foot and total value for each size of 
sewer, together with the cost and value of the catch basins and manholes. 

A series of about 7000 reference cards, 5 X 8 in., was prepared, one for each 
block of street front in the borough, on which, beside a sketch of the block, 
was noted all the data mentioned in the foregoing paragraph. 

The original computation sheets, from which all this work was copied, in 
addition to the data already mentioned, contained the date of construction, 
percentage of depreciation and the contract price and the amount of rock 
excavation. "Where no rock was excavated the contract price of the sewer 
was used to compute the value. Where rock was found the cost of rock 
excavation per foot of sewer without depreciation was added to the value of 
the sewer found as above and the sum was assumed to be the value in such 
cases. This resulted in a wide variation in the values of the same size of sewer, 
but it comes nearer the true value than any other method found by the writer, 

The following grand summary of the valuation is taken from the report: 

Recapitulation of Classified Summary of Sewers 

Cost, including 

Kind of sewer Feet Manholes manholes Value 

Brick 1,757,4143^ 16,917 $16,779,932 $13,532,099 

Wood 26,249 168 394,034 334,948 

Pipe 767,6113-^ 7,298 5,782,485 4,112,076 

2,551,275 24,383 $22,956,451 $17,979,123 

. 6172 Catch basins 923 , 875 685 , 798 



$22,880,326 $18,664,921 

24 , 383 Manholes $ 842 , 500 $633 , 304 

The foregoing summary includes 125 various sizes of brick sewers, 17 sizes 
of pipe sewers and 23 sizes of wooden sewers, a total of 165 with all kinds of 
manholes and perhaps 25 varieties of catch basins. 

The work of preparing the report, including the cards, extended over a 
period of about ten months and involved a total expenditure of $6053. It 
could probably be kept up to date at an annual expense of about $500. 



CHAPTER XII 
SEWAGE TREATMENT 

Sewage Treatment Plants are structural combinations of such types of 
work as excavation, concrete construction, vitrified or cast iron pipe, hauling, 
etc. Unit costs for these different kinds of work are given in the various 
chapters of this volume and may be readily found by referring to the index. 

In this chapter are given many general costs given in such terms as: Cost 
per capita, cost per million gals, cost per acre, etc. There are also given 
certain specific construction and operating costs. 

For costs of pumps and pumping the reader is referred to Gillette and Dana's 
"Mechanical and Electrical Cost Data." 

Cost of Sewage Treatment Plants in Illinois. — Table I herewith gives cost 
data pertaining to 19 sewage treatment plants of various types in the state of 
Illinois. These data, from the report of the Committee on Sewerage and Se- 
wage Disposal of the Illinois Society of Engineers, are published in Engineering 
and Contracting, Feb. 23, 1916. 

The Committee believes that in general too little money has been spent on 
sewage disposal plants in Illinois. Consequently, many of them are not of 
sufficient capacity properly to do the work required of them. The result is 
that some of the plants have not sufficiently relieved the conditions for which 
they were built. 



Table I. — Cost Data on 19 Illinois Sewage Tkeatment Plants 



Estimated 
tributary 

City population 

Moline 5,000 

La Grange 5,300 

Barrington 1 , 000 

North Chicago 3 , 500 

Lake Forest 3,000 

Ft. Sheridan 1,000 

Great Lakes 800 

Morton Grove 1 , 200 

Sandwich 2,500 

Downers Grove 2 , 000 

Galva No. 1 800 

Galva No. 2 1,200 

Woodstock 4,350 

Harvard 3,000 

Arhngton Hgts 3 , 000 

Aledo 2,000 

Geneva 2,400 

Toulon 2,000 

Pana 4,000 

48 



Cost of 
— construction — 
Per 

Type of plant Total capita 
Pump station, Imhofif tanks, 

disinfection $10,700 $ 2. 14 

Pump station, settling tank, 

sprinkling filter 40 , 000 

Imhoff tanks and sand filter. 6,000 

Septic tank and filters 8 , 300 

Septic tank and filters 8 , 575 

Septic tank, sprinkling and 

sand filters 45,990 

Septic tank and sprinkling 

filters 35,940 

Imhoff tank and sludge bed. . 12,815 

Imhoff tank and sand filters. 10,915 

Septic tank and sand filters . . 7 , 980 

Septic tank and trickling filter 3 , 700 

Imhoff tank, trickling filters. 4,700 

Septic tank, sand filters 10,874 

Septic tank, sand filters 11 ,980 

Septic tank, sand filters 11,950 

Septic tank, trickling filters.. 4,500 

Imhoff tank, Fox River. ..... 6 , 500 

Imhoff tank, trickling filters. 7,790 

Imhoff tank, trickling filters. 31,000 

753 



7.56 
6 00 
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2.86 

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44.80 

10.70 

4.36 

3.99 



62 
3.92 
2.50 
3.99 
3.98 
2.25 
2.70 
3.89 
7.75 



754 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The Committee believes, further, that the engineer"should be the first to 
advise as to the proper size and capacity of plants, and that he should make his 
cost estimate sufficiently high to cover a plant of reasonable size and proper 
loadings to do the work for which it was built. 

The members of the Committee were Samuel A. Greely, Chairman; Wlnfred 
D. Gerber and Frank M. Connolly. 

Cost of Sewage Treatment Plants in Ohio. — Tables II, III, and IV are, 
given in an article published in Engineering and Contracting, Dec. 13, 1911, 
by R. Winthrop Pratt, formally chief Engineer Ohio State Board of Health. 

Cost of Disinfection of Sewage with Hypochlorite. — The following matter 
is taken from an abstract of the 1912 annual report of the Mass. State Board of 
Health pubUshed in Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 29, 1913. 

Three separate counts of bacteria — i. e., total colonies on agar plates incu- 
bated four days at room temperature and total and red colonies on litmus 
lactose agar plates incubated 24 hours at body temperature — ^have been 
made on all samples. It has been found that waters in Massachusetts suitable 
for drinking usually contain less than 100 bacteria per c.c. determined at room 
temperature, and that the total number of bacteria developing on litmus 
lactose agar at body temperature is usually less than 10 per c. c, and the 
number of red colonies on such plates is usually less than 5 per c. c. This we 
have called the "drinking water" or " 100 — 10 — 5" standard. For purposes 
of comparison two other standards containing, respectively, 10 and 100 times 
as many bacteria as the drinking water standard, and designated the " 1,000 — 
100 — 50" and the "10,000 — 1.000 — 500" standards, have been assumed. 
These latter correspond approximately to the upper and lower limits of bac- 
terial counts on river waters receiving more or less pollution. 

Effect of Time of Storage Upon Efficiency of Hypochlorite Disinfection. — 
In the laboratory experiments, analyses of all samples were made at intervals of 
1, 2, 4, 6 and 24 hours after the disinfectant was added, and in the experiments 
in which the entire volume of settled sewage applied to Filter No. 248 was 
treated daily with hypochlorites. Many series of hourly samples were col- 
lected of the disinfected sewage as it flowed upon the filter. While there is 
some disagreement in the results of the various experiments, it is possible 
to determine approximately the relative amounts of disinfectant which would 
be required to yield similar results with different storage periods. In all cases 
the greater portion of the work of disinfection occurred during the first hour, 
after which the elimination of bacteria continued more slowly for some houri^. 
This is especially noticeable in those cases where relatively small amounts 
of disinfectants were used. A general average of all the results shows the 
effect of storage to be about as follows: with 2 hours' storage about 84 per 
cent as much hypochlorite was required to produce the same result as with a 
storage of 1 hour; with 4 hours' storage about 82 per cent as much hypochlorite 
was required; with 6 hours' storage about 77 per cent as much hypochlorite 
was required, and with 24 hours' storage about 61 per cent as much hypo- 
chlorite was required to produce the same result as with a storage of one hour. 

Cost of Hypochlorite Disinfection. — Commercial bleaching powder or calcium 
hypochlorite may be obtained packed in sealed drums holding 700 to 800 lbs. 
each, with a guaranteed strength of 36 to 38 per cent available chlorine, also 
in smaller drums of 25 to 100 lbs. each, but then bleach of the same strength 
costs about 1 to 2 cts. more per pound. Commercial bleach losses strength 
rapidly up to a certain point when exposed to the air, and broken bulk pur- 
chases, or drum packages whose contents are not used at once after opening, 



SEWAGE TREATMENT 



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SEWAGE TREATMENT 757 

Table IV. — Operating Expenses at Five Ohio Municipal Sewage Treat- 
ment Plants 

Operating expenses — 1907 ■ — — 

Operating cost 

per capita ^ 

I "^ 

=1 A W) 

§a §1 li 

Ashland $ 302 $ 393 $0.13 $0.13 $3.20 

Geneva.... 600 700 0.58 0.58 10.60 

Lakewood 229 284 0.04 0.05 1.55 

Mansfield 2,800 5,260 0.44 0.38 14.40 

Marion 932 1,224 0.10 0.12 5.15 

*Interest charges on cost of plants excluded. 

will be found to contain less available chlorine. Analyses of a number of 
samples of broken bulk bleaching powder at the experiment station show that 
in many cases the strength may be less than 25 per cent available chlorine. 
The cost of this disinfectant, therefore, depends largely upon the daily amount 
of hypochlorites required, the extremely large disinfecting plant having the 
advantage of low price on bleach of guaranteed strength, the full strength of 
which would be available through immediate use of the contents of the large 
drums shortly after they were opened. The plant treating a small volume of 
sewage daily would pay a higher price for smaller packages, or if buying in 
larger lots to obtain low first cost, would find the ultimate cost increased by 
loss of strength which the contents of these larger packages would suffer during 
the period before they were consumed. For the large plant, where large 
volumes of sewage were to be treated daily, the disinfection costs might be 
reduced somewhat by the use of sodium hypochlorite manufactured at the 
plant. Sodium hypochlorite is readily prepared by electrolysis of solutions 
of common salt. As it exists only in solutions its use has been limited owing 
to difficulty of transportation. As a disinfectant it is fully as efficient as 
bleaching powder, and where common salt can be cheaply obtained and the 
cost of electric power is low there is no reason why the installation of an electro- 
lytic plant should not help to reduce disinfection costs when a large amount of 
disinfectant is required. For the small disinfection plant, however, the use 
of commercial bleaching powder would probably be the cheapest in the end. 
Another factor which enters into the cost of disinfection is the standard of 
quality required in the effluent from the disinfecting plant. 

Assuming a disinfectant containing 333-^ per cent available chlorine at a 
cost of 2 cts. per pound, the treatment of a sewage with 0.1 part per 100,000 
available chlorine would require 25 lbs. of disinfectant at a cost for chemicals 
of 50 cts. per 1,000,000 gals. On this basis the cost of disinfecting the various 
kinds of sewage and sewage effluents to definite prescribed bacterial contents 
would be about as follows: 

To produce complete sterilization the cost would be well over $19 per 1,000,- 
000 gals, for sewages and the effluents from contact and trickling filters, and 
would vary from $1 .50 to over $19 for effluents from sand filters. 

To produce a bacterial quality which would conform to the drinking water, 
or 100-10-5 standard, the cost would vary from $3.75 to over $19 per 1,000,000 



758 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

gal. for raw sewage and effluents from trickling filters; from $7.50 to over $19 
per 1,000,000 gals, for settled sewage, from $15 to $19 per 1,000,000 gals, for 
strained sewage and contact filter effluents; would be over $19 for septic sewage, 
and would vary between $1.75 and $9.50 per 1,000,000 gals, for the effluents 
from sand filters which were not originally of that quality. 

To produce a bacterial quality to correspond to the 1,000-100-50 standard, 
or one which would be about equal to that of the better class of streams or 
rivers which are not seriously polluted, the cost would be from $1.75 to $5.60 
per 1,000,000 gals, for raw sewage; from $1.75 to $13 for settled sewage, about 
$3.75 for strained sewage; between $3.75 and $5.60 for septic sewage; 
from $1.75 to $5.60 for effluents from contact filters, and from $1.75 to $3.75 
for effluents from trickling filters. The cost of disinfecting sand filter effluents 
to produce this quality would not be over $1.75 per 1,000,000 gals., judging 
from the experimental results. 

If it was desired to reduce the bacterial content only to a point where they 
would approximately correspond with the more polluted rivers, or say within 
the 10,000-1,000-500 standard, the costs would be from $1,75 to $5.60 per 
1,000,000 gals, for raw sewages and effluents from contact filters, between 
$1.75 and $7.50 for settled sewages, from $1.75 to $3.75 for septic sewage and 
effluents from trickling fflters, and about $1.75 per 1,000,000 gals, for strained 
sewage. 

These cost estimates are for chemicals only and do not include operating and 
sinking fund charges. 

The Economics of Sewage Filters. Types of Sewage Filters. — Sewage 
fflters may be divided broadly into three classes: 

(1) Intermittent sand fflters or their equivalent. These consist of a 
body of sand or fairly pervious material of other kinds. The sewage is dis- 
tributed over the surface of this porous material, and at the bottom the filtered 
sewage is collected in underdrains. In order to get the benefit of oxidation in 
the pores of the sand bed, the application of the sewage to the fflter is inter- 
mittent, with periods of rest and aeration. 

(2) The second type is the so-called "contact" fflter. This consists of a 
body of practically any thickness of stone or equivalent material, such as 
large-sized gravel, pieces of porcelain, brickbats, cinders, or almost any coarse- 
sized granular material. The sewage is applied to such a filter either from 
the bottom or from the top, so as to fill the bed. The sewage is allowed to 
stand in this filter bed for a given time. It is then discharged and the empty 
bed is allowed to stand for a period. 

(3) The third type is the so-called "sprinkling" filter. This consists of a . 
body of stone of a minimum depth of 5 ft., on which the sewage is sprinkled 
or sprayed and spread by nozzles and distributed in small quantities so that the 
sewage trickles down over the stones and is collected at the bottom. 

All three types of filters effect the purification of the sewage in the same way. 
Through the action of the bacteria present in the filter bed the sewage is to 
some extent oxidized and the organic matter is broken up. Unstable forms 
of matter are changed into more stable forms. While the exact form of action 
is unknown, it is believed that the three types of filters act in the same way, 
and the difference is a mechanical one of form of application, rather than one 
of principle of action. The following article is a reprint publishedin Engi- 
neering and Contracting, Oct. 14, 1914, of a paper by George W. Fuller, 
presented before the annual convention of the American Society of Municipal 
Improvements. 



SEWAGE TREATMENT 759 

Performance of Filters, — The output Of a filter of any type, measured at any 
suitable purification unit, is largely a question of local conditions. It de- 
pends upon the nature of the sewage, the nature and fineness or coarseness 
of the filtering material, the method of application of the sewage to the filtering 
material, temperature, atmospheric conditions, and many other factors. The 
intermittent sand filter is best used when it is desired to have a very high degree 
of purification. The other types, the contact filters and sprinkling filters, are 
used for a rather lesser degree of purification. It is to be understood that the 
rate of application of the sewage to the various types of filters must be properly 
proportioned to the ability of these filters to take care of the sewage. By using 
a suitable rate under suitable conditions any type of filter can be made to give 
any degree of organic purification that may be desired. 

Rate of Application of Settled Sewage to Filters. — The question of the rate 
of application of sewage to a sand filter is largely tied up with the question of 
preliminary treatment in the way of tankage or screens. The following 
tabulation, quoted from Mr. Fuller's book, "Sewage Disposal," gives for 
several cities in Massachusetts the population whose sewage can be treated 
per acre of filter bed, and the time of detention in preliminary sedimentation 
tanks, storage wells, pump wells, or other means of storage. These figures are 
not to be taken to represent present conditions. 

Period of Population 

detention, per acre 

hours of filter 

Andcver ; 1^-3 950 

Brockton 12 1 , 160 

Clinton 12 425 

Framingham 12 375 

Gardner (old) IH 1,310 

Gardner (new) IH 2 , 000 

Pittsfield 12 605 

Stockbridge 8 220 

Worcester IH 1 . 390 

Average of all 6.7 937 

The Baltimore Sewerage Commission in 1906 estimated that, using a sand 
filter with 3 ft. of clean sand over the gravel, an allowance of 150,000 gals, of 
6-hour settled sewage per acre in 24 hours, corresponding approximately to 
1,200 people per acre, would be a proper rate. 

Data for contact filters are relatively scant from American practice, and 
while many English data are available, the differences, owing to the differ- 
ence in the strength of the sewage, makes such data rather dangerous as a 
basis of comparison. 

A series of experiments in Columbus, Ohio, indicated that 5-ft. deep stone 
filters, on the contaet principle, could safely be operated at an average rate of 
600,000 to 700,000 gals, per acre per day. Reducing this to a 4-ft. depth will 
give about 500,000 gals, per acre per day, which, on the basis of 100 gals, per 
capita per day, would give a loading of approximately 5,000 people per acre 
of stone bed. 

A series of tests made at Lawrence on contact beds of various depths from 
24 ins. up to 18 ft. showed an average output of some 700,000 gals, per acre per 
day for a depth of stone on an average about 5^ ft. This is equivalent to an 
output of about 135,000 gals, per acre for each foot of depth of stone, or, 
for a 4-ft. depth of bed again, is equal to about 500,000 gals, per acre per day, 
or say a loading of about 5,000 people to the acre. 



760 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The contact filter installation at Plainfield, N. J., with 3.6 acres of stone 
bed 4>^ ft. deep, gave in 1910 an output on an average of 1,700,000 gals, of 
sewage per day. On the basis of an allowance of 100 gals, per capita per day, 
this will correspond with a 4-ft. bed, to about 4,200 people per acre of filter. 
For sprinkling filters much more satisfactory data can be had. Sprinkling 
filters have been used very extensively in this country of recent years and 
their ratings can be fixed with a good deal more dependence than in the case 
with contact filters. A list of a number of plants or projected plants giving the 
depths of the stone bed of a sprinkling filter and the loading in population per 
acre follows : 

Depth of stone Population per 
in feet acre of bed 

Atlanta 6 20,000 

Reading 5 18,000 

Columbus 5 18,000 

Baltimore 9 20,000 

Montclair 7H 15,000 

Philadelphia. 6 20,000 

Fitchburg ". 10 20,000 

Mount Vernon 8 24,000 

The average of all these shows a 7-ft. deep bed and an average loading of 
19,400 population to the acre. 

Not considering special conditions and just taking fair figures, we may safely 
state the following: 

Intermittent sand filters, 3-ft. bed of sand, loading 1,000 population per acre. 
Contract filters, 4-ft. depth of stone, loading 5,000 population per acre. 
Sprinkling filters, 7-ft. depth of stone, loading 19,000 population per acre. 

The rates of loading, then, for these thre6 types of filters, are in the ratio 
1, 5, and 9. 

Cost of Sewage Filters. — Costs of construction are so much affected by local 
conditions, such as the amount of excavation necessary, the cost of various 
classes of materials, the distance from which various classes of materials must 
be obtained, details of local construction conditions, such as competition, 
class of work required, and others, that comparative costs for different locali- 
ties are only to be used with great discretion, and individual cost and even 
averages are only a guide to comparative costs in various places. Having 
this limitation in mind, we will examine in a rough way the cost of various 
types of sewage filters on the per capita basis. 

The average cost of the nine Massachusetts intermittent sand filters cited 
above is $3,260 per acre, as reported in the Massachusetts State Board of 
Health Report of 1903. This gives a cost per capita connected to the filters 
of $3.50. 

The 1906 Baltimore Sewerage Commission estimates the cost per acre of 
filters at $6,350, these filters being suitable for a connected population of 
1 ,200 per acre. This corresponds to a per capita cost of $5.30. 

The cost of contact filters, varying, of course, with the degree of the fineness 
of the design, may be taken, for filters equipped with suitable convenient 
appurtenances, at $30,000 per acre for a 4-ft. deep bed. This corresponds with 
a loading of 5,000 population per acre to a per capita cost of $6. 

For sprinkling filters 7 ft. deep the cost will be about $45,000 per acre. On 
the basis of a loading of 19,000 population per acre, the cost per capita will be 
$2.37. 



SEWAGE TREATMENT 761 

When considering the relatively low cost of the Massachusetts sand filters 
compared with the estimate made of the Baltimore sand filters, it is to be 
borne in mind that the conditions in Massachussetts for the construction of 
sand filters were unusually favorable and do not represent average conditions 
through the country. In most places the costs would approximate more 
nearly those estimated for Baltimore. 

Taken in a broad way, sprinkling filters are a far more economical installa- 
tion in the matter of first cost. Intermittent sand filters and contact filters 
do not stand far apart in this particular. 

Relative Costs of Different Depths. — There is not very much known about 
the relative advantages of filters of shallow or deep construction. The choice 
of depth is usually made for entirely different reasons from those of obtaining 
the most economical construction to obtain the desired amount of purifica- 
tion. Very few tests of a comparative kind have been made to give convincing 
information, and the interpretation of the tests has not been uniform. In 
some places the conclusion has been made to make filters, say, 10 ft., at other 
places 6 ft., and some study is worth while to determine what, if any, difference 
there is in the cost of such construction at different depths, and which would 
appear to be the better. It is to be assumed in such comparisons that suffi- 
cient head would be available in any case for the greatest depth to be consid- 
ered and that pumping would not be necessitated by building filters of the 
greater depth. 

For intermittent sand filters questions of depth do not arise. The filters 
are generally made as shallow as is consistent with getting proper results and 
sand beds are not usually made more than 4 or 5 ft. deep as a maximum. 
Shallower beds, even, will give about the same output as the deeper beds, and 
beds are made deep only so that sand may be removed for cleaning without 
removing the sand for a considerable period . 

With contact filters it is recognized that from the nature of the action of the 
contact filters, where the amount of air that is drawn in between fillings of 
sewage is practically equal to the volume of the sewage, and where surface 
clogging cannot be a serious factor and may even be no factor at all, each 
unit of volume of the stone forming the filter, say each cubic yard, will give 
the same output of sewage purification, no matter what may be the depth of 
the filter. 

From this it follows that it is economical to build a sewage filter on the con- 
tact principle as deep as local conditions of construction will permit, and the 
limitation of depth which it is economical to use is therefore made by the 
factors of earth excavation or fill and the possible head available without 
pumping. 

When it comes to sprinkling filters, the problem becomes a little more 
complicated. The English experience, as recited in the Report of the Royal 
Commission, seems to indicate that the output per unit of volume of sprinkling 
filters is the same, no matter what the depth. Our experience in work in this 
country does not wholly corroborate this information. Our best knowledge 
seems to indicate that the output per unit of volume of sprinkling filters is 
somewhat less for deep filters than for shallow filters. For such conditions, 
with a relatively decreasing efficiency of the stone of the filter beds for greater 
depths and at the same time a relatively decreasing cost per unit volume of the 
stone for deep beds, there must come some point \vhere the greatest output per 
unit of cost will be obtained. 

The Report of the Baltimore Sewerage Commission for 1911 gives some 



762 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

information obtained from tests made in Baltimore as to the relative effi- 
ciency of various depths of broken stone of sizes of 1 to 2-in. stone, which is 
the one most commonly used. Figures obtained from that source are as 
follows: 

Depth of bed- 

6 ft. 9 ft. 12 ft. 

Relative stability 79 87 89 

Per cent reduction of oxygen consumed 56 70 72 

Giving equal weight to the relative stability and per cent reduction of 
oxygen consumed, we get the following: 

Depth of bed 

6 ft. 9 ft. 12 ft. 

Relative stability 1 1.2 1 . 23 

Per cent reduction of oxygen consumed 1 1 . 25 1 . 28 

Average of the two 1 1 . 22 1 . 25 

Relative depths 1 1 . 33 2 . 00 

Relative value of stone per cubic yard 1 „ 92 .63 

Assuming this depth varies at a uniform rate from one end of the curve to 
the other, we get the following for the relative value of stone per cubic yard 

Depth of bed in feet 6 7 8 9 10 12 

Relative value of stone per cubic yard. 1.0 . 97 . 94 092 0.82 . 63 

To get comparative figures, then, between the 6, 8 and 10-ft. beds the cost 
figures 'for the 8-ft. beds must be divided by 94, and the cost for the 10-ft. 
beds by 0.82, putting them all on the basis of the 6-ft. beds. 

For comparative cost a number of factors such as excavation, etc., are 
naturally omitted, as they are not affected in all places the same way by the 
depth of the filter. Comparing, then, only those particular costs which are 
affected per unit of output by the depth of the filter, we get the following: 

Per effective 

— cu. yd, depths — 

6 ft. 7 ft. 8 ft. 

Floor — Take at 40 cts. per cu. yd. for a 6-ft. bed $0,40 $0.35 $0.32 

Tile — Take 11 cts. per sq. ft. for any depth 49 .44 .40 

Walls — Assume cost 17 cts. per cu. yd. for 6-ft. depth 17 .17 .18 

Galleries and Collectors — Assume for 6-ft. depth 25 cts. per 

cu. yd. 25 .22 .20 

Distribution — Assume 50 cts. per cu. yd. for 6-ft. depth also, 

as costs theoretically vary only according to quantity 

delivered, they must be same for all effective depths per 

cu. yd 50 50 .50 

Stone — Assume $1.50 per cu. yd 1 , 50 1 55 1 . 60 



Total $3.31 $3.23 $3.20 

Outside factors will depend on quantity only and not on depth. 

It appears, then, that there is some slight saving of cost, which, on the 
figures given in the above tabulation, amount to about 3 per cent in favor of 
the 8-ft. deep bed as compared with the 6-ft. deep bed. On the other hand, it 
is to be recognized that a deep bed will give a good deal more trouble witl^. 
pooling and freezing than a shallow bed, and the advantages in favor of a 
shallow bed due to this lesser amount of pooling will be considerably more than 
this 3 per cent difference in cost. Taking everything into account, the writer 
believes that a sprinkling filter of not less than 6 ft. and not more than 7 ft. 
in depth will in the greater number of cases prove the most economical to use. 



SEWAGE TREATMENT 



763 



Cost of Constructing and Operating Trickling Filters. — The following Is 
given in Metcalf and Eddy's "American Sewerage Practice." 

Capacity of Trickling Filters. — The capacity of triclcling filters is dependent 
upon the strength and character of the applied sewage as well as upon the size 
and depth of filtering medium. The Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal 
in its Fifth Report estimated the capacity of coarse filters at approximately 100 
to 200 U. S. gal. per day per cubic yard of filtering material, which is equivalent 
to nearly 1,000,000 to 2,000,000 gal. per acre per day on a bed 6 ft. deep. The 
maximum limit set by the Royal Commission might be considered a safe 
estimate for ordinary domestic sewage in the United States, but for industrial 
wastes or sewage containing unusual amounts of such wastes much lower rates 
may be necessary. 

Fuller has stated that a fair average loading for a filter 7 ft. deep is 19,000 
population per acre. {Proc. Am. Soc. Mun. Imp., 1914.) Trickling filters in 
the United States have been designed generally for between 2000 and 4000 
persons per acre per foot in depth. The authors believe that the former is a 
safe estimate for treating settled domestic sewage by trickling filters 5 to 10 ft. 
deep composed of broken stone between 1 and 2 in. in size. 

Relative Merits of Trickling Filters and Contact Beds. — At Worcester, Mass., 
where large quantities of sulphate of iron are present in the sewage, it was 
concluded that four times as much settled sewage could be treated with satis- 
factory results by trickling filters as by contact beds and that at least 3 con- 
tacts would be required to produce as high nitrification by contact beds as by 
trickling filters. 



Table V. 



-Cost of Construction of Certain Trickling Filters Built or 
Projected in the United States 



Area, 

Place acres 

Reading, Pa (a) 1.0 



Cost 
Depth per 

of Cost cu. yd. 

stone, per of 

feet acre filter 

6.3-7.0 $37,500 $3.50 



Remarks 
Cost of second unit 
constructed, includ- 
ing dosing equipment 
and secondary sedi- 
mentation tank. 

24,040 2.81 Exclusive of conduits 
and engineering. 

31,700 2.89 Exclusive of engi- 
neering. 

32 ,632 4 . 50 Exclusive of conduits, 
roof and engineering. 

59 ,650 3 . 70 Exclusive of engi- 
neering. 

45,000 3.98+ Including office and 
laboratory , excluding 
engineering. 

50 , 750 3.14 Complete. 

50,700 3.49 Exclusive of engi- 
neering. 

45 ,000 3 . 72 Including foundations 
and dosing apparatus 
but excluding engi- 
neering. Allowance 
for foundations 
$7000. 
(a) Actual cost. 

(6) Estimated cost based on quantities from design and contract prices. 
(c) Estimated cost. 



Columbus, 0. (a) 10.0 5.3 

Washington, Pa. (6)... 1.38 6.8 

Gloversyille, N. Y. (6). 3 . 07 4.5 

Fitchburg, Mass. (6). . 2.0 10.0 

Chicago, 111. (c) 7.0 

Paterson, N. J. (c) 10.0 

Baltimore, Md. (c).... 12.0 9.0 

East Orange, N. J. (c) 7.5 



764 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

With filters of coarse material not subject to disintegration, the evidence 
seems to indicate that they will be self -cleansing if properly operated, whereas 
contact beds usually clog periodically. Hence the cost of treatment by 
trickling filters is usually much less than that by contact beds. 

The effluent from the trickling filter is ordinarily more highly nitrified than 
the effluent from contact beds and after secondary sedimentation is more 
uniform in quality than contact bed effluent. 

The trickling filter is better adapted for variations in rates of flow than is the 
contact bed. 

The chief advantages in the use of contact beds rather than trickling filters 
are the relatively low head required, the somewhat simpler method of dosing, 
minimizing foul odors and avoiding a fly nuisance. 

Table VI. — Itemized Cost of Sewage Disposal Plant, 
Gloveesville N. Y. 

Total cost Unit cost 

Screen chamber substructure $ 445. 27 

Screen chamber house (total exterior 

volume, 1,350 cu. ft.). 535. 00 $0. 40 per cubic foot. 

Primary settling tanks (total capacity both 

tanks, 537,000 gal.) 15,761. 45 26. 10 per 1,000 gal. 

Dosing tank (total capacity, 8,800 gal.)... 1,403.52 160.00 per 1,000 gal. 
TrickHng filters (3.07 acres, area of stone). 106,560. 48 34,700 per acre 
Secondary settling tanks (total capacity 

both tanks, 242,000 gal.) 9,292. 31 38. 40 per 1,000 gal. 

Sludge beds (2.63 acres effective sand area). 9,097. 23 2,450 per acre 
Sand filter beds (2.72 acres effective sand 

area) 24,716. 77 9,090 per acre 

Sludge pump well (total capacity, 16,230 

gal.) 1,232. 61 75. 90 per 1,000 gal. 

Sludge pump house (total exterior volume, 

1,880 cu. ft.) 535. 00 0. 39 per cubic foot 

Sludge pumping machinery 460. 00 

Conduits and pipe lines (sewage, effluent, 

sludge, water) 11,758. 85 

Grading, drives, walks, trees, cleaning up, 

etc 3,800. 78 

Creek deepening and straightening 1,396. 30 

Miscellaneous 57. 99 

Extras, claims, incidentals, delays and 

damages 1,700. 00 



Total cost $188,753. 56 

On basis of 3,000,000 gal. of sewage treated daily, $62,900 per 1,000,000 gal. 

Cost of Construction. — The actual or estimated costs of various trickling 
filters built or projected in the United States are shown in Table V. They 
vary from $24,000 to $60,000 per acre and from $2.81 to $4.50 per effective 
cubic yard of filter. Fuller gives the average cost of a trickling filter 7 ft. 
deep as $45,000 per acre, or $2.37 per capita, based on a population of 19,000 
served per acre. (Proc. Am. Soc. Mun. Imp., 1914.) The actual cost of the 
10-ft. Fitchburg trickhng filter was $58,847 per acre exclusive of excavation, 
or $2.94 per capita, based on a population of 20,000 per acre of filter. (Hart- 
well, Jour. Bos. Soc. C. E., vol. ii, 1915, page 221.) 

The relation which the cost of trickling filters bears to the costs of the other 
parts of a trickling filter plant will vary according to the design, as indicated 
in Tables VI and VII, showing the actual itemized costs of construction at 
Gloversville, N. Y., and Fitchburg, Mass. The roof system at GloversvlUe 
Increased the cost of the trickling filter by approxmately $13,336, or $4445 



SEWAGE TREATMENT 765 

per acre. Of this total, $4406 was for columns, $4550 for beams and $4380 
for lumber, etc. 

Table VII. — Itemized Cost of Different Features of Sewage Disposal 
Plant, Fitchburg, Mass. 

(Sewage Disposal Commission, Ninth Semi-Annual Report, 1914, page 7) 

Total cost Cost per capita 
(approximate) (approximate) 

Venturi meter and chamber $ 2 , 942 . 25 $0. 053 

Imhoff tanks 56,122.53 1.02 

Sludge beds 3,054.81 0.055 

Dosing tank and apparatus 10, 661 .52 0. 19 

Trickling filters 136,545.53 3.41 

Pipe lines 9,668.27 0. 17 

Overflow chamber 901.93 0.016 

Secondary tanks 8,969.62 0.16 

Pump house and pump 2,007.64 0.036 

EflSuent channel. 1,328.91 0.024 

Roadways 10,710. 57 0. 19 

River improvement 5, 122. 67 0. 093 

Bonus paid contractor 5,000. 00 0. 091 

Additional work to be done 10,000. 00 est. 0. 18 

Engineering and inspecting 30,000.00 est. 0.54 

Total (approximate) $293 , 036. 25 $6. 22 

Cost of Operation. — There appear to be few data of the cost of operation 
of the trickling filters in the United States. In most cases where costs are kept, 
no attempt has been made to divide the charges among the different parts of 
the plant. 

At Columbus, Ohio, the operation of the entire treatment plant, exclusive 
of pumping station, for 1913 cost $8286.60; or approximately $2.40 per 1,000,- 
000 gal. of sewage treated during 222 days of the year. (Rept. Div. of Sewage 
Disposal, 1913.) C. B. Hoover, Chemist in charge, informed the authors 
that the proportionate cost of operating the different parts of the plant was, 
approximately, preliminary tanks 4 per cent. ; trickling filters, 6 per cent. ; final 
sedimentation tanks, 90 per cent. The comparatively high cost of operating 
the secondary tanks was probably due to the difficulty of sludge disposal. 
The sludge from the preliminary tanks was pumped into the river during high 
stream flow. Hoover has furnished the subdivision of the average cost of 
operation of the Columbus plant per 1,000,000 gal. of sewage treated, given 
in Table VIII. The "actual cost" is the total annual expenditure for each 
of the items divided by the millions of gallons treated, while the "cost for 
time in service" is the expenditure for each of the items during the 222 days 
of operation divided by the millions of gallons treated. 

Table VIII.— Cost of Operation of Sewage Treatment Plant at Columbus, 
Ohio, per 1,000,000 Gal. Treated 

^_ 6 

s += 

.2 ^ a ^ ■ 

.2 =3—' o 2 « -rt o 

E 11 .-m -si i» „ 

Actual cost $0.45 $0.32 $0.92 $0.47 $0.43 $2.59 

Cost for time in service. . . 0.29 0.21 0.42 0.32 0.30 1.54 
1 Includes transportation, heat, repairs, printing, supplies, light and telephone 
service. 



im HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

At Reading, Pa., the net expenditure for maintenance and operation of the 
sewage pumping and disposal works for 1912 was $15,470.24, equivalent to 
$9.13 per 1,000,000 gal. of sewage treated. (Rept. City Engineer, 1912.) 
City Engineer Ulrich advised the authors that the cost of operation of the 
disposal plant alone for that year was $52 15.10, which is equivalent to $3.08 
per 1,000,000 gal. treated. E. Sherman Chase, formerly chemist in charge, 
stated that the labor in connection with the trickling filters was performed by 
three men working in 8-hour shifts, who act as watchmen, collect samples for 
analysis and care for the laboratory and grounds. These men are paid $2 
per day, so that the labor cost is a little over $1 per 1,000,000 gal. sewage 
filtered. (Engineering News, August 22, 1912.) 

Calvin W. Hendrick, Chief Engineer of the Sewerage Commission of Balti- 
more, stated that the cost of operation of the Baltimore sewage treatment 
plant, with 12 acres of trickling filters, when working up to its capacity, will 
probably be between $1.50 and $2 per 1,000,000 gal. The organization at 
this plant Mr. Hendrick gave as follows: 1 division engineer, who also super- 
vises construction work; 1 mechanical engineer; 1 chemist and bacteriologist; 
1 assistant chemist; 3 operating engineers; 1 relief engineer and 4 oilers for the 
power plant; 1 machinist; 1 carpenter; 1 foreman for laborers; and 12 to 20 
laborers. 

The organization at the Pennypack Creek disposal works, Philadelphia, 
Pa., designed to treat 2,000,000 gal. daily, was stated by George S. Webster, 
Chief Engineer of the Bureau of Surveys, as follows: The assistant engineer 
of the Sewage Disposal Division has supervision of the operation of the plant, 
which requires only a small part of his time, and an assistant has immediate 
charge of maintenance, supplies and records. The force at the plant consists 
of an operator on duty every day, having immediate charge of the operation, 
sampling, etc., 4 assistant operators working 8 hours a day, 6 days a week, a 
watchman for night duty, and a laborer for day duty, such as handling sludge, 
caring for lawns, shrubbery, etc. The analytical work is done partly at the 
Bureau of Water laboratory nearby and partly at the Bureau of Surveys 
Laboratory at the City Hall. 

The costs of operating different parts of the plant at Gloversville, N. Y. 
have been very carefully kept under the direction of H. J, Hanmer, City 
. Engineer. The itemized cost for 1913 and 1914 is given in Table IX. The 
cost of operating the trickling filters alone constitutes roughly 15 to 25 per 
cent, of the total for the entire plant. The cost of removing and replacing the 
roof and sides of the building in which the filter is housed during winter con- 
stitutes a substantial part of the trickling filter maintenance charges. The 
remainder is occasioned by nozzle clogging. About 60 nozzles, or approxi- 
mately 10 per cent, of those in use, are cleaned each day. 

The cost of operation of trickling filter plants, per 1,000,000 gal. of sewage 
treated, other conditions being equal, will decrease with increasing size of 
plant. ' Estimates made by the authors in connection with the joint disposal 
of sewage from several municipalities in New Jersey ranged from $5.19 per 
1,000,000 gal. for an estimated flow of 4,400,000 gal. daily to $2.92 for 14,300,- 
000 gal. E. J. Fort, Chief Engineer of Sewers of Brooklyn, estimated the 
cost, including interest and depreciation of sinking fund, at $13.81 per 1,000,- 
000 gal. with a flow of 5,000,000 gal. daily, $11.41 for a rate of 10,000 gal., 
$9.76 for 20,000,000 gal., and $9.50 for 30,000,000 gal. 

Thomas Pealer, Borough Engineer of Indiana, Pa., furnished the following 
information concerning the sewage disposal plant at Indiana, Pa., comprising 




SEWAGE TREATMENT 767 

screen chamber, septic tanks and a trickling filter 220 X 100 X 5K ft. deep, 
of }i to 3>^-in. broken stone, with dosing tank and fixed nozzles. It serves 
8000 persons and treats 500,000 to 1,000,000 gal. daily of domestic sewage 
from separate sewers. This plant cost $40,000 and is operated by 1 man at a 
cost of $750 per annum. 

Table IX. — Cost of Operation of Sewage Treatment Works, Glovers- 

VILLE, N. Y. 

1913 1914 

Supervision by city engineer $ 600. 00 

Operation of screens, etc $ 223. 37 574. 00 

Sludge pumping: 

Labor and repairs 226. 00 297. 00 

Electric power. 318. 34 214. 05 

Maintenance of trickling filters: 

Nozzles 897.28 395.00 

Removing and replacing covering 278. 25 359. 00 

Maintenance of sludge beds 1,312. 46 1,235. 00 

Cleaning troughs of secondary tanks 35. 50 19. 63 

Maintenance of sand filters 440. 33 315, 00 

Maintenance of grounds 399. 97 163. 00 

Miscellaneous work 169. 87 365. 00 

Chloride of Hme and other supplies 835. 96 664. 27 

Telephone 42. 00 

Cleaning and repairing east primary settling tank (un- 
usual item) 709. 00 

Total cost for year $5,137. 33 $5,951. 95 

Cost per 1,000,000 gal. treated, average flow 2,750,000 

gal. daily... 5.16 . 5.92 

Cost per capita based on estimated population 0. 24 0. 27 

Estimated population 21,600 21,800 

The plant at Chambersburg, Pa., as described by Frank H. Clutz, Borough 
Engineer, consists of Imhoff tanks, a trickling filter 160 X 125 X 7 ft. deep, 
of 1^^ to 3K-in. limestone, with dosing tank and fixed nozzles, and secondary 
sedimentation tanks. The entire plant cost $46,595.25, exclusive of land, the 
cost of the trickling filter alone being estimated at $18,500. This plant cares 
for the sewage from about 5400 persons of the town population of about 13,500, 
and the average flow of sewage treated, including ground water, is about 
1,400,000 gal. per day. Two men are regularly employed, one during the 
day and one at night, and occasional assistance is required. The cost of 
operation, maintenance and improvements for 1914 was $4302.54. 

The sewage of the State Hospital for the Insane, Norristown, Pa., Oscar L. 
Schwartz, Steward, is treated by a coarse screen, sedimentation tank, trickling 
filter 100 X 173 X 6H ft. deep, of IK to 3>i-in. limestone, with dosing tank 
and fixed nozzles, and final sedimentation tanks. The number of persons 
at the hospital is 3500 and the quantity of sewage treated is 575,000 gal. per 
day. Two men are employed at this plant and the annual cost of operation 
Is estimated at $1290. 

The sewage disposal plant of the State Hospital for the Insane at Warren, 
Pa., according to Albright & Mebus, consists of an Imhoff tank, a trickling 
filter 95 X 99>^ X 7H ft. average depth, of stone 2 to SHin. in size, with 
dosing tank and fixed nozzles, and a final sedimentation tank. It serves about 
1800 persons and treats about 270,000 gal. per day. The cost of con- 
struction was $12,800 or $59,000 per acre. One man is employed about 6 
hours each day in caring for this plant. 

The trickling filter plant at the United States Naval Training Station, 
Great Lakes, 111., according to Lieut. J. B. Earle, Public Works Officer, con- 



768 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

sists of preliminary septic tanks and roughing filters and 2 trickling filters, each 
20 X 60 X 7 ft. 4-in. deep, of >^ to ^^-in. stone, dosed by splash-plate distribu- 
tors. The plant serves 900 people and treats 300,000 gal. of sewage per day. 
The cost of construction of the filters was $35,939.50 and the annual cost of 
operation is estimated at $300. 

Dr. L. Rosenburg, Superintendent of the Montefiore Home County Sani- 
tarium, Bedford Hills, N. Y., reports that the sewage disposal plant at this 
institution, accommodating 245 persons, consists of septic tanks, 3 small 
trickling filters of 2-in. stone with 1 nozzle each, and a settling tank for the 
effluent. This plant cost $10,000 and the cost of operation is stated to be 
negligible, although the engineer visits the plant each day. 

Cost of Intermittent Sand Filtration. — The following is given in Metcalf 
and Eddy's "American Sewerage Practice." 

Where a deposit of free sand or sand and gravel is available in place, it 
may be used for intermittent filtration by simply grading the surface to receive 
the sewage. Loam, subsoil and silt are not desirable as filtering media on 
account of their tendency to hold water by capillarity, preventing successful 
aeration of the bed, except when very low rates of filtration are used, such as 
those employed in broad irrigation. Clay and cementitious sands or other 
comparatively impervious materials are useless for filters. 

The removal of loam and subsoil is necessary if any considerable quantity 
of sewage is to be purified upon beds of a given area. Relative expense will 
probably determine the extent to which it is desirable to remove the subsoil. 
Where there are trees, organic matter will be found around their roots at a 
considerably greater depth than where there are no trees, and care must be 
exercised to remove this in grubbing out tree roots. Similarly, in gravelly 
soils containing many large stones, fine sandy material may be found surround- 
ing the stones. Therefore, beds built in such material are not likely to be so 
homogeneous as those built in ground made up of more uniform material. 

The limit for excavation may be determined in several ways: first, by color; 
second, by loss of weight on ignition, due to the volatilization of the organic 
matter; third, by taking a small portion of the sand in a glass of water, shaking 
thoroughly, and permitting it to subside, the amount of organic matter and 
fine sand found upon the top of the sand, when the material has settled, 
furnishing a ready guide as to the relative content of objectionable matter. 

Uniformity of Material Desirable. — Stratification, or the presence in an 
otherwise uniform and satisfactory material of sand of different sizes or of 
cementitious character, is objectionable. When sewage is run onto a bed of 
uniform material, the suspended matter is arrested upon or near the surface, 
the water gradually passing through the bed at a comparatively uniform rate 
without any tendency to clog except at the surface. If the material is strati- 
fied, with the coarser sand on top, the bed is likely to become clogged by a 
film of organic matter on the surface of the fine sand below. This may be 
caused in part by the passage of very fine suspended matter through the coarser 
sand and its retention upon the surface of the fine stratum, and also probably 
by the formation of an organic growth there, due to difference between the 
quantities of oxygen and water contained in the coarse and fine sands. If 
the finer material is on top, while there will be no tendency for the fine 
suspended matter to form a clogging film on the surface of the coarser 
sand, there may be an accumulation of oxide of iron there due to 
the difference in the quantities of oxygen present in the two strata. A 
precipitation of oxide of iron may take place throughout the stratum of 




SEWAGE TREATMENT 769 

coarse material, and If this sand is underlaid with a stratum of fine sand, 
a film of oxide of iron will form upon the surface of the finer material. An 
interstratified layer of fine material may act as an air seal, due to capillary 
action, and thus prevent the satisfactory aeration of the lower portion of 
the bed. 

Cost of Construction, — ^The cost of constructing filter beds will usually be 
found to lie between $2500 and $5000 per acre, although in some favored 
localities this cost may not exceed $1000. If the beds have to be built 
wholly artificially the cost may reach $10,000 per acre, if the sand has to 
be hauled a considerable distance. 

Cost of Operation and Maintenance, — This COSt will be found to lie ordi- 
narily between $100 and $150 per acre, the cost per 1,000,000 gal. of sewage 
filtered being about $10, as will be seen from Table X. 

Table X. — Average Annual Cost of Filtration Areas in Four 
Massachusetts Cities 
(Compiled from Annual Reports) • 





TJ 


S 


t, 02 


?r>. 


a -2 




.2 
1 








Cost 

Cost 
gal. 

Cost 
capi 


Brockton 


... 1896-10 


34 , 500- 


21.48- 


0.501- 


$178 $13.50 $0.10 






56,900 


35.77 


1.297 




Clinton 


... 1900-10 


13, Too- 


23.5- 


0.625- 


110 9.26 0.20 






ls, 100 


25.0 


0.829 




Concord 


... 1901-10 


5,600- 
6,400 


3.3 


0.273- 
0.264 


108 3.33 0.06 


Worcester 1 


... 1904-10 


129,500- 


3.3- 


0.273- 


290 10.37 






146 , 000 


74.3 


4.718 




1 As only part of the sewage is treated by intermittent filtration, no satis- 


factory figures of the cost per 


capita can 


be given 







Cost of Operating Contact Beds. — The following is given in Metcalf and 
Eddy's "American Sewerage Practice.'* Probably the best figures on the 
cost of operation in America are those obtained at Plainfield, N. J., stated 
by Fuller (in his "Sewage Disposal") to be as given in Table XI. 

Table XI. — Cost of Operation of Plainfield Sewage Disposal Plant 

Item 1907 1908 1909 1910 

Manager-chemist, consulting engineers $1325.50 $1818.46 $1677.67 

Night operator $ 540 .00 

Laboratory 41.69 247.87 147.18 80.72 

Tools and supplies 23.02 103.45 32.63 8.28 

Labor 50.59 53.70 

Water guarantee 73 . 20 73 . 20 73 . 20 

Telephone 43.99 25.08 28.58 23.05 

Care of contact beds 1180.53 1189.26 885.09 918.68 

Care of septic tanks, including empty- 
ing and disposal of sludge 662 . 25 603 . 50 252 . 89 269 . 17 

Grading and weeding banks 104 .22 

Screen attendance 193.14 298.30 312.23 

Farming 236. 15 

Total $2955.64 

Farm products receipts 248 .65 



Total cost of maintenance $2706.99 $3814.70 $3536.33 $3289.80 

Improvement of contact beds 2032.87 935.36 

Repair of septic tanks 101.14 151.89 1011.15 



770 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

In 1910 the number of connections was 3746; assuming 5 persons per con- 
nection, there would be a total of 18,730 persons. The flow amounted to 
1,800,000 gal. per day, making the cost $5 per 1,000,000 gal. or $0.18 per capita 
per year. There are 8 primary and 8 secondary beds with a total area of 3.6 
acres. 

At Mansfield, Ohio (Report Ohio State Board of Health, 1908), the costs 
of operation during 1906 and 1907 were $5644 and $5260 respectively, and 
included removal of sludge from the septic tanks. Furthermore, about one- 
half of the cost was for coal used in pumping. These figures made the per 
capita cost $0.47 and $0.44 respectively. 

At Manchester, England, very complete cost accounts have been kept. 
In the 1907 report of the Rivers Department is given a table showing the 
actual cost of a selected area of 6 acres from the starting of the beds until the 
filtering material was taken out : 

Average number fillings. 2 , 690 

Gallons (U. S.) of septic tank effluent 

dealt with by the 6 acres 4,610,000,000 

Total maintenance cost $4 , 085 

Total renewal cost ($0,403'^ per cubic 

yard) $13,700 

Maintenance cost $1.05 per 1,000,000 U. S. gal. filtered. 

Renewal cost $3. 57 per 1 , 000, 000 U. S. gal. filtered. 

Actuating valves ... $0.30 per 1,000,000 U. S. gal. filtered. 

Total working cost $4.92 per 1 ,000,000 U. S. gal. filtered. 

Cost of Preparing and Placing Ashes or Cinders for Filtering Material in 
Contact Beds. — E. G. Bradbury gives the following in Engineering and Con- 
tracting, Aug. 31, 1910. 

Filtering material is one of the largest cost items in every sewage disposal 
plant, in which filtration is made a part of the process of purification. Local 
conditions naturally control the selection of the material to be used. Sand 
is frequently so expensive as to be almost out of the question, especially in 
view of the fact that its exclusive use requires much greater area and conse- 
quently larger quantity of material than if a coarser material and one of the 
high rate types of filter be installed. 

For contact filters no material is more satisfactory or economical than a 
good grade of ashes or cinders, those produced by locomotives being particu- 
larly good. These are largely either of a vitrified or coky nature and therefore 
less liable to disintegration than the softer ash produced by some industrial 
plants. An excellent ash is produced by many iron and steel mills and 
furnaces. 

This material can frequently be purchased from the railroads and can always 
be found in quantity in large cities, or those having important industrial 
plants. In Ohio the market price ranges from practically nothing up to $3 
per car at the place of production, and the railroad companies will often 
furnish round house cinders for the price of hauling, provided they are not 
using the product for filling along their lines. 

During the fall of 1901 the writer was employed as resident engmeer in 
charge of the disposal plant at Mansfield, Ohio, where IH acres of contact 
filters were filled to a depth of 4.75 ft. with crushed and screened locomotive 
cinders, the work being done by day labor and all apparatus and material 
purchased directly by the city. The figures given below are therefore actual 
costs in real money and not approximations. 



SEWAGE TREATMENT 771 

The filter beds are laid out in the form of a circle about 280 ft. in diameter, 
divided into five beds by radial embankments. The crushing and screening 
plant was erected close to the outer edge of the circle, and a siding was run 
alongside the crusher; there was, therefore, no hauling of the raw material 
and the average haul for the finished product was about 160 ft. 

The plant for preparing the material consisted of a coke crusher or sizer, 
in which the cinders pass between two rolls with corrugated faces, removable 
in segments, a chain and bucket elevator to raise the crushed material to the 
screen, and the jigling screen, known to the trade as the Columbian Separator. 
Power was furnished by a traction engine hired by the day, and the whole 
apparatus housed and provided with bins and chutes, for economical handling 
of the cinders. This outfit, which was furnished by the Jeffrey Mfg. Co. of 
Columbus, Ohio, proved in every way suited to the requirements. The 
shaking screen is the only one which can successfully remove the dust and 
flake, as the material is usually moist and requires a hard jolting to separate 
the particles. The screen stands at an angle of 45*^ and has a movement as 
recalled by the writer of about 2 ins. at a rate of about 150 per minute. A 
wire screen cloth of 3 meshes to the in. removed all dust of less than }4 in. 
diameter, and practically none of greater size, the whole plant producing a 
beautifully clean material from H to ^ in. in dimension. 

The cinders were received in fiat bottomed coal cars with side boards 
containing an average of about 30 cu. yds. They were shoveled from the 
cars onto a platform, beneath which the crusher was set, with its hopper on a 
level with the fioor. The siding was extended beyond the plant a sufficient 
distance to hold 10 cars and on a grade which allowed the cars to be placed at 
the platform by gravity after a train was set by the switch engine. The 
product of the screen, which was set about 40 ft. above the crusher, fell into 
bins, from which the filter material could be drawn by chutes into wagons or 
into a small car, while the dust was drawn into the emptied flat cars and 
hauled away by the railroad free of charge. 

A strip around the outside of the beds was first filled by wagons to a sufa- 
cient width to lay a movable track on the cinders, and the remainder was 
handled by means of the small car, which held about l}4 cu. yds., dumped 
from the side, and was run by hand by two men on the track referred to. 

Roundhouse cinders were purchased direct from the Pennsylvania R. R. at 
a price of $8 per car. The weight per cubic yard is from 1,200 to 1,300 lbs., 
439 cars, or about 12,970 cu. yds. of the raw material were required to produce 
the 9,579 cu. yds. of coarse screenings used, showing a loss of 26 per cent. 
This is slightly better than can be counted on as the cinders were of excep- 
tional quality. It is not safe to figure on more than 65 per cent, of the raw 
material. 

The total cost, including crushing and screening plant, foreman and all 
expense of every kind was as follows: 

Cost of Outfit: 

Machinery $ 850. 00 

Lumber 222 . 63 

Labor on bin 87 . 30 

Side track (labor only) 208 . 10 

Awning 5.80 

Total $1,373.83 

Repairs, new parts, etc 281 . 34 

, Cost of Material: 

438 cars of cinders at $8 3 , 512 . 00 



772 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cost of Operation: 

Labor $2,573.42 

Coal 80.00 

Use of engine 101 . 25 

Oil 34.43 

Insurance 14 . 00 

Total $2,803.10 

Total cost $7,970.27 

Per cubic yard 0.832 

The cost per cubic yard of finished material was as follows: 

Per 

cu. yd. 
Crushing and screening plant, bins etc. (applicable only to similar 

quantities) $0. 144 

Repairs, etc 0. 029 

Cinders . 336 

Handling 0.293 

$0,832 
The last item can be subdivided as follows: 

Total Per cu. yd. 

Labor unloading cars $ 462. 27 $0. 048 

Labor at crusher and placing cinders 2,111. 15 0. 220 

Power 215.68 0.023 

Insurance 14 . 00 

The cost of placing in filters by means of the small cars was about $0.02 per 
cubic yard. 

The price paid for labor varied from $1.50 to $1.75 per day averaging prob- 
ably $1.60. The foreman received $2.50 per day and the engine man $3. 
The entire job was handled carefully and close attention to business is neces- 
sary to duplicate the results. 

Cost of Sewage Treatment Works at Washington, Penn. — Donald M. 
Belcher gives the following information in Engineering News, Apr. 11, 1912. 

The sewage treatment works for Washington, Penn., were built in 1907-8. 

The plant consists of septic tanks, sprinkling filters and settling basins and 
has a capacity of 3,000,000 gal. of sewage per 24 hours. It is located about 
three miles below Washington, on the Chartiers Creek, near Arden Station. 

Screen Chamber. — The sewage first enters the screen chamber, which is 
situated on the opposite side of the creek from the rest of the purification 
works. This chamber is open and divided into two sections, each of which 
may be shut off by stop planks. The sewage passes through two screens, the 
first having openings of H in. and the second openings of H in. 

Suction Conduit. — The sewage passes under the creek, through a 16-in. cast- 
iron inverted siphon, and flows, by gravity, to the pumping station, in a con- 
duit consisting of 20-in. vitrified pipe laid in concrete. 

Pumping Station. — The building is of pressed brick with sandstone trim- 
mings, resting on concrete foundation walls, which form the lower portion of 
the station, in which the machinery is located. The roof is of slate carried by 
steel trusses. 

Under pumping machinery is included one 25-hp. and two 15-hp. Gardner 
gas engines, one 8-in. and three 5-in. Brooks centrifugal pumps and all piping, 
valves and appurtenances in the pump pit. The gas engines Are of horizontal, 
single-cylinder, two-cycle type and are fitted with hot tube ignition and com- 
pressed-air starting devices. The 5-in. and one 8-in. sewage pumps have a 




SEWAGE TREATMENT 773 

Table XII. — Unit Prices, Sewage-Purification Works, Washington, Penn. 

Quantity Unit price 

Excavation 14,730 cu. yd. $ 0.28 

Concrete, roofs, 1:2:4 353 cu. yd. 11.00 

reinforced walls and walls having a mini- 
mum dimension of 12 in. or less, 1:2:4. 1,280 cu. yd. 7.40 
heavy walls and foundations, 1:2^:5H« 1,517 cu. yd. 7.00 

floors, 1:23^:53^ 1,412 cu. yd. 6.00 

Ransome twisted steel reinforcement 30 . 5 tons 45 , 00 

Cast iron pipe 56 . 5 tons 50 . 00 

Special castings, bell and spigot 6.1 tons • 8^. 00 

Special castings, flanged 8.8 tons 105 . 00 

Broken stone filtering material, local 13,730 cu. yd. 1.20 

Broken stone filtering material shipped in 1 , 135 cu. yd. 1 . 60 

Table XIII. — Costs of Various Parts of the Sewage-Purification Works, 
Washington, Penn. 



Land 


17 acres 
826 cu. ft. 

80 lin. ft. 
257 lin. ft. 

22 , 300 cu. ft. 
25 , 200 cu. ft. 

385 lin. ft. 

10.5 ft. 
1,204 cu. yd. 
16.5 tons 

630 cu. ft. 
190 lin. ft. 
1 . 5 acres 
1 . 5 ft. 
454 cu. yd. 
56 , 700 cu. ft. 

14,865 cu. yd. 

164 cu. yd. 

165 lin. ft. 

1 . 5 acres 
416 lin. ft. 
165 lin. ft. 
202 lin. ft. 

430 lin. ft. 


$ 830 
1.179 


$ 14,000 


Screen chamber 


323 


Sucti9n conduit. 16-in. c. i. siphon 

20-in. suction line. . . . 


2,009 






Pumping station, 28 X 50 ft. 

Building, substructure 

Building, superstructure 


2,908 
5,184 


8,092 


Machinery, engines and pumps 

Machinery, water supply 


4,827 
3,823 


8,650 


14-in. c. i. force main 

Septic tanks, 800,000 gal. 

Earthwork, average cut 

Concrete , 

Steel reinforcement. . . 


1.379 

9,087 

743 

2,700 


1,070 


Valves, pipes, etc 


13 , 909 


Dosing chamber 

20-in. c. i. conduit to filters 


1,341 
3,636 
8,376 
9,578 
8,806 
18,324 
238 


382 
765 


Sprinkling filters 




Earth work, ^average cut 

Concrete walls 




Flushing galleries 

Distributing system 




Collecting system 




Filtering material 

Miscellaneous 


50,299 


Settling basin, 160,000 gal. 

Earthwork 

Concrete 

Valves, pipes, etc. 


500 

1,099 

293 


1,892 


18-in. outfall conduit. 


762 
652 
289 
148 


314 


Sludge disposal 

Drying area 




18-in. drain from septic tanks 

10-in. drain from settling basin 

6-in. c. i. force main 


1,851 


4-in. c. i. water main 

Miscellaneous 




227 
1.045 


Total cost (exclusive of engineering) 
Engineering, 10. 1 % 


$104,828 
10 , 594 






Total cost 


$115,422 



774 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table XIV.- 



-Unit Costs of Stbuctures Composing Sewage-Purification 
Works, Washington, Penn. 



Capacity 
Pumping station buildin«: 

Substructure " 22,300 cu. ft. 

Superstructure 25,200 cu. ft. 

Total 47,500 cu. ft. 

Septic tanks 800,000 gal. 

Sprinkling filters 1,5 acres 

Settling basin. . 160,000 gal. 

Screen chamber 3,000,000 

Suction conduit 

Pumping station : gallons 

Force main 

Purification plant: per 

Septic tanks. . 

Dosing chamber. 

Conduit to filters 24 hours 

Sprinkling filters 

Settling basin 

Outfall... 

Sludge disposal 

Water main 

Miscellaneous 

Total purification plant 

Total purification works (ex- 
cept land and engineering). 

Total purification works (in- 
cluding land and engi- 
neering) 



Unit price 



$0. 


13 


per cu. ft. 


0. 


21 


per cu. ft. 


0. 


17 


per cu. ft. 


$17,380 


per 


1,000,000 gal 


$33 , 530 per acre 


11 , 820 


per 


1 , 000 , 000 gal 


$ 108 




Per 


670 






5 , 580 




1,000,000 


357 




gallons 


4,636 






127 






255 




per 


16,766 






630 




24 hours 


105 






617 






76 






314 






$23,526 




30,276 







38,474 



combined maximum rated capacity of 5,040,000 gal. per 24 hours, against a 
head of 20 ft., and the 5-in. sludge pump has a maximum rated capacity of 
1,080,000 gal. per 24 hours, against a 7-ft. head. 

The water supply, to furnish water for cooling the gas engines and for flush- 
ing purposes, is obtained from two wells which were driven near the station. 
The water is lifted from these wells by compressed air into a suction well, of 
16,500 gal. capacity, just outside of the station, and pumped from this into a 
concrete storage tank, situated on rising ground about 175 ft. from the 
station. This tank has a capacity of 4000 gal. and is 13 ft. above the gas 
engines. 

Under this item is included the cost of driUing two wells (125 ft. deep) ; 
a 20-hp. Gardner gas engine; a Gould triplex pump of 150 gal. per min. 
capacity; a Hall air compressor having a capacity of 50 cu. ft. of air per min., 
against 50 lb. pressure; an air receiver, 2 ft. in diameter by 8 ft. long; air 
piping to the wells; concrete suction well and storage tank; 4-in. cast-iron 
pipe line between the station and the storage tank and the necessary valves, 
piping and appurtenances in the station. 

Septic Tanks. — The sewage is lifted approximately 20 ft. through a 14-in. 
cast-iron main, into the septic tanks. Four compartments are formed, by 
reinforced-concrete dividing walls, each being 25 X 100 ft. in plan and 11 ft. 
deep, and they are covered by a 4-in. flat reinforced-concrete roof, carried on 
beams and piers. Adjacent to the tanks is a small uncovered dosing chamber 
in which is a float operating a butterfly valve which automatically controls the 
flow of sewage from the septic tanks to the filters. 

From the dosing chamber the sewage flows, by gravity, through a 20-in. 
cast-iron pipe line to the sprinkling filters. 



SEWAGE TREATMENT 775 

Sprinkling Filters. — The filters are four in number, each being 100 X 150 ft. 
in plan, and are surrounded by concrete walls on all sides. Along both sides of 
each filter are covered galleries, 4 ft. wide and 6 ft. high, and into these 
extend the ends of the tile underdrains. A 4-in. cast-iron water main runs the 
length of each gallery to provide for flushing. 

The main distributors consist of 15-in. vitrified pipe embedded in the walls 
of the central gallery and the lateral distributors are 5-in. vitrified pipe carried 
in the top of small concrete walls. 

Five-inch half-tile, laid on a 4-in. concrete floor, form the lateral collectors. 
The main collectors, which are built of concrete, run the length of each filter 
and empty into the effluent conduit, which is formed by vitrified pipe em- 
bedded in the walls. 

The broken-stone filtering material, except the upper 6 in. , was taken from 
a local quarry and was a low-grade limestone, very close grained and hard, but 
liable to crumble when exposed directly to snow and ice. For this reason, a 
better grade of limestone, from Ohio, was used for the upper 6 in. Two sizes 
of stone were used, the larger being 2^ to 4 in. and the smaller 1 to 23-^ in. 
The average depth was 6 ft. 10 in. 

Settling Basin. — This is an open basin, with concrete walls and floor, di- 
vided into two parts for purposes of cleaning. The sewage passes out of the 
basin over a weir and flows by gravity through an 18-in. vitrified pipe, to the 
creek. There is a flap gate at the end of the pipe protected by a concrete 
headwall. 

Sludge Disposal. — An area of about one and one-half acres was graded and 
underdrained to provide a drying area for the sludge. 

The sludge from the septic tanks flows to the disposal area by gravity 
through an 18-in. vitrified pipe line. The sludge from the settling basins 
flows through a 10-in. vitrified pipe, laid in concrete, to the pumping station 
and is pumped from there through a 6-in. cast-iron force main to the drying 
area. 

Unit Prices. — In Table XII are given the unit prices of the principal items. 

Stone for the concrete was taken from a quarry located about 1000 ft. from 
the plant. The sand was Ohio River sand and was mixed with the crusher 
dust in equal parts. 

Costs. — The costs of all the structures are given in Table XIII. These 
costs are the total costs of the work to the Borough of Washington and not the 
actual cost to the contractors. In apportioning the costs to the different 
structures, all pipes, valves, etc., inside of the outside neat lines of each struc- 
ture, were considered to belong to that structure. 

Unit Costs. — In Table XIV are given the unit costs of some of the structures, 
based on their capacities. 

It is estimated that the present purification works will treat the sewage 
from a population of about 40,000 and the per capita costs, in the following 
table, are based on this figure. 

Cost of Cost per 
construction capita 
Pumping station and works preparatory to purifi- 
cation plant $20,251 $0.51 

Purification plant 70,577 1 . 76 

Total purification works (exclusive of land and 

engineering) , 90 , 828 2 . 27 

Total (including land and engineering) 115,422 2.89 



776 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cost of Earthwork, Concrete, Filter Media and Drains at the Montezuma, 
Iowa, Sewage Treatment Plant. — The following data are given in Municipal 
Journal and Public Works, Oct. 18, 1919. 

The town contains a population of about 1,500 and the plant was designed 
for 2,000, assumed as the population twenty-five years hence. The plant 
consists of an Imhoff tank, siphon chamber, two intermittent sand filters and a 
sludge bed. 

The tank is of the circular type, with an area of gas vent 23.6 per cent of the 
whole superficial area of the tank. This is a larger area than is found in 
most plants, but in view of the trouble that has been caused by too small vents 
and the extreme freshness of the sewage, liberal allowance for both scum and 
sludge were thought desirable. 

The sludge storage capacity up to within three inches of the bottom of the 
inverted V beam forming the overlap for the vents is about 1.67 cubic feet per 
capita on a basis of 2,000 future population, and up to the slots is about 
1.88 cubic feet per capita. 

On the basis of 100 gallons per capita per day (which allows for ground water 
infiltration) with uniform flow throughout the 24 hours, the settling period in 
the tank would be 2.42 hours while 1200 population is connected with the 
sewers, and 1.45 hours when 2,000 are connected; while if all the sewage be 
assumed to reach the plant in 18 hours, the settling period would be 1.82 hours 
and 1.09 hours respectively. 

One important and rather new feature provided in this tank, is an 8 in. 
drain just below the sludge outlet. The flow line of this drain is such that the 
sewage may readily be drawn below the slots in case it becomes necessary to 
work upon the walls of the settling chamber. It has been found in actual 
operation of Imhoff tanks in towns of the size of Montezuma, that not infre- 
quently the sedimentation chamber i& allowed to become completely sludged 
up and thus transformed into a small septic tank. In order to clean out the 
sedimentation chamber, it has been found necessary to lower the sewage 
below the slots and then force the sludge down through the slots, carefully 
squegeeing the walls and sloping aprons. 

Prof. Dunlap of Iowa State University (the designer of the plant) gives the 
cost of the plant on the basis of $4.00 for labor per day of ten hours until late 
fall, after which the same was paid for eight hours; and teams at $7.00 per day 
of the same length. The length of haul from the railroad siding to the plant 
was 1.3 miles, over a fair road with no upgrades. Superintendence, overhead 
and profit are not included. 

Earth Work 

Estimated Cost per 

Type cu. yds. cu. yd. 

Filter beds Slip work 1060 $0. 47 

Siphon chamber H slip and }4 hand 187 0. 78 

Imhoff tank Hand before banks caved 408 0. 82 

Imhoff tank After cave-ins with bracing 408 2. 70 

Sodding berms of filter beds, $0,203^ per sq. yd. 



SEWAGE TREATMENT 



777 



Cost of 1:2:4 Concrete, per Cubic Yard 



Cement, at 6.4 sacks per cu. yd. f. o. b. Montezuma 

($2.28 per bbl.) 

Hauling by team — to barn, 8^^c., to job, 9c 

Sand, 0.45 cu. yd. at $2.65 

Gravel, 0.90 cu. yd. at $3.59 

Steel reinforcement 

Setting forms and reinforcement 

Mixing and pouring; heating sand, gravel and water. 



In 

Cylindrical 

Walls of 

Imhoff Tank 

3.65 
0.18 
1.19 
3.23 
1.49 
2.93 
1.98 



Total cost per cubic yard in place . 



$14.65 



In Siphon 
Chamber 
Includes 
only walls 
and' foot- 
ings; roof 
and floor 
omitted 

$ 3.65 
0.18 
1.19 
3.23 
1.59 
2.18 
1.65 



$13.67 



Cost of Filter Sand and Gravel, per Ton 

Filter 
sand 

Cost f. o. b. sand company $0. 35 

Freight 0. 90 

Unloading from cars (rnostly box cars) 0.063 

Hauling by team 1.3 miles 0.39 

Unloading from wagons . 022 

Leveling and spreading 0, 131 

Total cost per ton in place $1 . 86 

Total cost per cu. yd $2.78 

Total amount required for two beds 1390 cu. yd. 

Total required for sludge bed 21 cu. yd. 



Filter 
gravel 
$1.25 
0.90 
0.095 
0.39 
0.022 



$2.66 
$3.59 
194 cu. yd. 
32 cu. yd. 



Cost of 6 In. Vitrified Farm Drain Tile in Filter Beds 

Cost of tile per ft. f. o. b. Montezuma $0. 08 

Hauling by team 1.3 miles . 005 

Trenching 0.039 

Laying 0.01 

Graveling at $2.66 per ton and spreading at $0.04 per ft 0, 44 



Total cost per ft. of trench $0. 574 



Laying 15-in. Vitrified Pipe- Sewer Main, 1425 Ft. in Length 

Cost of pipe per ft. f . o. b. Montezuma $0.65 

Hauling by team 1.3 miles 0, 033 

Trenching, including back-filling 0. 376 

Laying, including mortar 0. 077 

Total cost per ft. of trench $1 . 14 

Cost of taking up old 15-in. sewer and back-filling per ft $0,246 

Cost Estimates for Intercepting Sewer and Treatment Plant at Detroit, 
Mich. — Engineering and Contracting, July 9, 1919, gives the following: 

Extensive studies of costs and methods of treatment of Detroit sewage 
have been made in connection with the recent Report of the Consulting 
Sanitary Engineer on the Pollution of Boundary Waters, One project rec- 
ommended the immediate construction of two low level intercepting sewers 
discharging through pumps to two separate treatment plants. 

The treatment plant consists of Imhoff tanks, including inflowing and 
outflowing channels; grit chambers; sludge drying beds; disinfection plant. 

Imhofif tanks were proportioned on the basis of a sedimentation period of 



778 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

two hours, when the rate of flow equals 125 per cent of the average rate of flow, 
and storage room for sludge of 2 cubic feet per tributary person. The estimate 
for grit chambers, bar screens, etc., was made by making an allowance of 5 ct. 
per tributary person, this figure having been arrived at from a review of pub- 
lished information regarding existing plants. The area of sludge drying beds 
required was based on a load of six persons per square foot of net drying bed 
area. 

The total estimated cost of the treatment works for treating 162.7 M. G. D. 
from a population of 950,000 is $2,077,200. The cost per million gallons for 
the different elements is as follows: 

Imhoff tanks $ 8 , 568 

Sludge beds 971 

Screens and grit chamber 292 

Disinfection 600 

Covering ventilation and parking 2 , 336 

Total estimated cost per M. G. D $12,767 

Cost of Sewage Treatment Works at Dallas, Texas. — The Engineering 
News Record, July 5, 1917, gives the following data: 

The disposal works built at this time consist of a grit chamber, 12 Imhoff 
tanks, a sludge-drying bed and a discharge conduit. The grit chamber is 
100 ft. long and is divided into three parallel sections. Its cross-section is 
such that, combined with the hydraulics of the channel leading to the tanks, 
the velocity of the sewage in the chamber varies but slightly, despite a con- 
siderable variation in the sewage flow. 

The channels leading to the Imhoff tanks were designed for a maximum flow 
of 22,000,000 gal. daily, and it was expected that the present average sewage 
flow would be about 1 1,000,000 gal. daily. During the past year, however, the 
city water-supply has been completely metered and the water consumption 
thereby reduced 50%. This has affected the sewage flow, so that only 
5,500,000 gal. daily reaches the disposal works. 

Tanks' One-Way Flow 

The Imhoff tanks are of the rectangular horizontal-flow type and have a 
combined capacity in the settling chamber of 1,312,000 gal. and a sludge- 
storage capacity of 440,000 gal. The settling chamber of each tank is 45 X 33 
ft. in plan, and the sludge chamber is 29 X 19 ft. The tanks are 33 ft. deep. 
The sewage is divided into 12 parts, each part flowing through one tank. 
There is but one sludge compartment to each tank, and therefore no provision 
is made for reversing the sewage flow. Devices for agitating the sewage with 
fresh water are provided. Sludge is to be withdrawn through 8-in. pipes 
leading to a central open sludge channel and thence through a 12-in. pipe by 
gravity to the sludge bed. The slopes of the bottoms of the sedimentation 
chambers are 1.36 on 1. The flattest slope in the sludge chamber is 1 on 2.25. 

The sludge bed is 141 X 145 ft. in plan. It has 14 in. of graded sand and 
gravel underdrained by 3-in. vitrified pipe laid with open joints 4 ft. c. to c. 
Sludge is distributed over the bed through seven concrete channels, each 
carrying a track on which run small dump-cars used to remove the dried 
sludge. 

Clarified sewage from the tanks unites, at a central point and passes over a 
weir into the discharge conduit and thence to the river. A continuous auto- 



SEWAGE TREATMENT 779 

matlc record of the sewage flow is kept. The discharge conduit consists of 
300 ft. of 24-in. pipe and 2042 ft. of 36 X 48-in. inonolithic concrete sewer. 

The complete plans call also for six acres of sprinkling filter followed by 
secondary settling tanks of the Imhoff type, but funds for this work were not 
available, as the city's bond limit (at the time of issuing the sewage-disposal 
bonds) limited the amount of the issue. The plant as constructed is built 
with provision made for the addition of the final treatment. 

The cost of the work was as follows: 

Grit chamber $ 2 , 030 

Influent channel 547 

Imhoff tanks. 68,647 

Sludge bed 17,957 

Water supply and buildings 4 , 435 

Miscellaneous 2 , 269 

Total $95,885 

Activated-Sludge Plant at Escanaba, Mich. — Engineering Record, Feb. 
10, 1917, publishes the following : 

The 1,000,000-gal. activated-sludge plant built at Escanaba, Mich., is located 
at the south end of the city, at the outlet of a new 3 >^ -mile trunk sewer and 
about 2 miles from the outlet of the old trunk sewer. The new trunk serves 
a district which is not as yet very thoroughly settled except at the extreme 
north end, and will provide a flow for the next few years not to exceed 300,000 
gal. per day. The old sewer, which has practically all the connections it will 
ever have, serves about 10,000 persons using 100 gal of water per day. Plans 
and estimates have been made for a pumping station and force main to con- 
■ nect the old system with the disposal plant. 

Daily Capacity 1,000,000 Gallons. — The general layout consists of two long 
rectangular aerating tanks with a longitudinal vertical baffle, so that the 
inlet and outlet are at the same end, the end adjoining the two settling tanks. 
The total capacity of the aerating tanks is 220,000 gal. ; and as one-half of the 
total flow occurs in nine hours, a four-hour aeration period will give a daily 
capacity of nearly 1,000,000 gal. 

The total capacity, of the two settling tanks is 86,000 gal., which will give, 
with the corresponding four-hour aeration period, 93 minutes for the sedimen- 
tation period. By decreasing the aeration period to three hours the sedimenta- 
tion period will be 70 minutes and the capacity of the plant will be 1,300,000 
gal. per day. 

Filtros plates having an area of 360 sq. ft. are used in the ridge and valley 
aeration tank, which has an area of 30,000 sq. ft. Thus the diffusion ratio is 
1 to 8 3. 

Air is distributed to the base of the plates from a Taylor spiral-riveted, 
galvanized-steel header, diminishing in size from 8 in. to 6 in. and then to 4 in. 
The drops from the header are 4-in. Byers galvanized wrought-iron pipe. 
The blower house is located at the opposite end of the aerating tanks from the 
settling tanks, and inserted in the main is a Venturi meter with U-tube mono - 
meter. Two Connersville blowers will furnish the air. The rated capacities 
are 1200 and 2400 cu. ft. per minute, and the motors driving them are 40 and 
75-hp. General Electric 2200-volt motors. 

Four 6-in. drain pipes, laid lengthwise of the aerating tanks, have 4-in. 
openings at each casting. They are connected with a 6-in. Fairbanks-Morse 
centrifugal pump located in a pump pit under the blower-house floor. 



780 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Sludge will be removed from the settling tanks by Harris nozzles through 
8-in. cast-iron pipes back into aerating tanks, or to the sludge tank in the press 
house, where it may be further aerated from a 1-in. wrought pipe grid with 
perforations in the pipes 1 in. apart. From the sludge tank the sludge will be 
pumped by a 3-in. motor-driven centrifugal pump into a 6 X 9-in. Worthlng- 
ton filter press. The cakes will be wheeled to a small shed adjacent and 
stored on racks until disposed of. The supernatant water in the sludge tank 



Sludge Pump- 
, — , Trunk Sewer. 



«^U 



^Bypass 




h>- 



Sluo/ge Shrage House 



-f==^ ^Shc/ge Tank 
%^S^Gale House 



Drain Pum^ 




Settling Tanks 



Fig. 1. — Aerating tanks are simple longitudinal basins with single baffle. 

will be drawn off by a perforated steel pipe on a flexible elbow, discharging 
into the drain sump at the blower house. 

Excavate Coffer Hydraulically. — High ground-water level was at El. 103, 
making a head of about 24 ft. for the contractor to work against in getting in 
the points of the settling tanks. Excavation down to water, (6 ft.) was carried 
out by team and scraper. 

A concrete cofferdam, 24 X 44 ft. in inside dimensions and 5 ft. deep, was 
then built around the site of the settling tanks. 




S//03.S- 




Blower Hou5e\ 



El. 105.5^ 



Drain Pump 
^ Pit 



■6"5lol fullwldlh ofsetflmg tank 
inlet from aerailngi lank proviclin(^ 
semi verl/cal flow in sef fling ianks 



Costings S'c.foc. 
6 Filfros Phies each 



-Longitudinal section shows connection between settling and aeration 
tanks. 

A 4-in. Morris centrifugal pump, driven by an 8-hp. Novo gas engine, was 
placed on the cross-bracinj:. A sump midway between the points of the 
settling tanks was dug by hand and the pump started. The discharge side 
had a tee next to the pump, one outlet of which led to the spoil bank and the 
other to a IK-in. nozzle on a fire hose. When the water in the sump had been 
pulled down deep enough, the nozzle was turned on and the sand washed 
from under the wall into the sump. In this way the first 5-tt. section was low- 



SEWAGE TREATMENT 781 

ered its full length. Then a 7>^-ft. section was added to it, and after a week's 
curing pumping was resumed, using this time a 25-hp. motor instead of the gas 
engine. The cofferdam was sunk as before until the bottom edge reached EL 
81.5, when it was a simple matter to place forms and concrete in the dry. 
The material was uniformly a medium coarse sand. Water from the excava- 
tion for the aerating tanks was led to the cofferdam pump, so that one pump 
took care of practically all the water. 

The total cost of the plant, including the press, blowers, motors, and pumps, 
is $38,750. 

Activated-Sludge at San Marcos, Tex. — Henry E, Elrod gives the following 
in Engineering News, Feb. 8, 1917, 

In regular daily service in San Marcos, Tex., there is a practical and highly 
satisfactory activated-sludge sewage-disposal plant having a capacity for 
treating 150,000 gal. of domestic sewage per 24 hr. The plant was designed 
and built by Ashley F. Wilson, engineer-manager for the San Marcos Utilities 
Co., and has been in operation since about Sept. 1, 1916. 

The plant consists of an aeration tank 16 ft. wide by 40 ft. long and about 
83^ ft. deep from the flow line of the sewage to the top of the filtros plates. 
The tank is divided into four channels by longitudinal concrete baffles, each 
channel having a row of filtros plates 12 in. square at the apex of inverted 
pyramids down its center. The filtros plates are spaced 3 ft. c. to c, there 
being 52 plates all told. The opposite end of each channel is open, thus allow- 
ing the sewage to flow in series from the inlet at the left to the outlet at the 
right. The outlet opens into the settling tank, which is 10 ft. wide by 25 ft. 
long and 25 ft. deep, the walls having a vertical batter of 1 to 2. 

Aeration is accomplished by means of a 6 X 10 in. Connersville blower 
of the Boston type, having a rated capacity for 260 cu. ft. of free air per minute 
under 5 lb. pressure. It is actuated by an electric motor requiring an average 
of 4 kw. of current. The sludge lift is operated by air from this blower. 

When the plant was first put into operation, the distribution of air through 
the filtros plates was uniform and satisfactory. Later, however, some of the 
plates showed signs of erratic action. Upon investigation it was found that 
one corner of one plate had been cut out by the action of the air and the other 
plates had become choked to such an extent that their usefulness was destroyed. 
As each plate failed, a small pipe with its lower end open and the upper end 
connected to an air line was substituted with satisfactory results. 

The total cost of the completed plant, in round figures, was $3500, which 
sum included the lowering of the bottom of the settling tank after the plant had 
been in operation for a short time. The plant is near the city, but it produces 
no offense whatever. The operation of the plant is simple — it requires but a 
few minutes' attention each morning. 

Activated-Sludge Power Costs. — Gustav J. Requardt gives the following 
in Engineering News, Jan. 14, 1917: 

Given the amount of air delivered by a blower (requiring a definite amount 
of power for operation) , the ratio of air to sewage necessary for the degree of 
treatment desired and the unit cost of power, it is a simple calculation to find 
the power cost for sewage treatment by the activated-sludge method. When 
many calculations are to be made at one time, the writer has found that much 
work may be eliminated by the construction and use of a set of curves in 
which all factors are considered to vary within limits suited to average 
conditions. 

The curves herewith presented, are from data from Only one manufacturer 



782 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



of air blowers (the Connersville Blower Co.) but it is a simple matter to plot 
on the same sheet the values as given for the several other makes of air blowers 
and compressors. 

Construction of Diagrams. — Fig. 1 is made by plotting as abscissas the power 
necessary to drive the machine, and as ordinates the corresponding free air 
delivered, there being separate curves for various air pressures. Plotting 
thus the information taken from the catalogs of the various makers, a quick 
comparison of efficiencies may be made. 

Fig. 2 is made up from Fig. 1. The ordinates remain the same (free air 
delivered) while the abscissas are obtained by dividing the power by the 




5 10 15 20 £5 30 35 40 45 
Kilowa-H-s 




Fig. 3. 
Figs. 3 and 4. — Power required to deliver free air. 



4 5 e 

Kilowatts per too Cu.Ft. 
Free Air per Minu+e 
Fig. 4. 



corresponding volume of free air in units of 100 cu. ft. For example: At 5 lb. 
per sq. in. pressure a 22-kw. machine will deliver 900 cu. ft. of free air per 
minute; therefore, 2.4 kw. of power is required per 100 cu. ft. of free air per 
minute in a machine capable of delivering air at the rate of 900 cu. ft. per min. 
It is to be noticed that in the type of blower taken as an illustration for these 
curves the efficiencies but slightly increase as the machines become larger. 

Fig. 3 is made by plotting as ordinates the kilowatts per 100 cu. ft. of free air 
per minute, and as abscissas the kilowatt-hours per million gallons of sewage, 
the radiating solid lines giving the various proportions of volumes of free air 
in cubic feet to volumes of sewage in gallons. The same radiating lines also 
give relations between sewage flow and volume of free air required for treat- 
ment. The relations between kilowatt-hours per million gallons of sewage 
treated and cost of power per million gallons are also plotted on this sheet, the 
radiating dotted lines representing the various unit costs of power. 

The method of proportioning air supply to sewage flow, volume for 



SEWAGE TREATMENT 



783 



volume, Is far simpler, in the writer's mind, than any other method. Some 
engineers prefer to state the volume of air supply to the area of tank surface 
per unit of time. This brings the dimensions of the sewage tank or container 
and the length of time of air treatment into the problem, where these elements 
do not belong; they can be much better handled in the actual design of the 
plant. It is well to remember, then, in using the curves, that volume of air 
supply is proportional to volume of sewage treated, irrespective of the size or 
shape of tank or of the length of time of air agitation and treatment. 

How to Use the Curves. — To illustrate how the curves are to be used, let us 
assume that the sewage of a city is to be treated by the activated-sludge method 
and that the cost of power is required. Assume that experiments on the 
sewage have shown that the necessary purification is obtained by applying 1 
cu. ft. of free air per gallon of sewage ; that the proper depth of tank requires air 




^ 



Fig. 5.- 



100 



800 i 900 i 1000 



200 i 300 1400 500 j 600 j 700; , ^ _ 

• ; Cubic Fee+ Free* Air!perMInu+e : i I j : 

100 200 300 400 500 600 700.800 900 1000 IIOO 1200 1300 MOO 1500 1600 

Kiiowa-H- -Hours per Million Gallons' 

-Relation between sewage flow, air and power required in activated- 
sludge plants. 
1,000,000 gal. per day = 694 gal. per min. 



to be delivered at a pressure of 5 lb. per sq. in. ; that current in the locality 
in question costs %c. per kw.-hr. The sewage flow may be assumed at 1,000,- 
000 gal. per day. It is to be noted here that, for larger flows, a straight-hne 
relation holds between sewage flow and air required and that the air can be 
supplied by any number of blowers or compressors. Larger problems can 
thus be split down to smaller units and each solved separately. 

With the elements above assumed having been determined, we are now 
ready to make use of the curves. Enter Fig. 3 at the ordinate for 1,000,000 
gal. sewage flow per day and note where this ordinate strikes the radiating 
solid line for 1 cu. ft. air to 1 gal. liquid, the abscissa at this point reading 694 
cu. ft. free air per minute. This determines the size or capacity of air blower 



784 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

required. Now enter Fig. 2 at the ordinate for, say, 700 cu. ft. of free air per 
minute and note where it strikes the line for 5 lb. per sq. in., the abscissa 
at this point reading 2.4 kw., of power per 100 cu. ft. of free air per minute. 
Again using Fig. 3, note where the ordinate for 2.4 kw. per 100 cu. ft. air per 
minute strikes the radiating solid line for 1 cu. ft. air to 1 gal. liquid. The 
abscissa at this point reads 400 kw.-hr. per million gallons of sewage treated. 
Reading upward along this abscissa, note where it strikes the radiating dotted 
line for Kc. per kw.-hr. The ordinate at this point, toward the right-hand 
margin, reads $3.50 cost of power per million gallons of sewage treated, which 
Is the result desired. 

In the example given above, no recognition has been taken of the fluctuation 
of sewage flow as it reaches the plant. To apply to each gallon of sewage its 
proper volume of air, a detention chamber can be utilized so that the raw 
sewage may be passed into the agitation compartment of the activated-sludge 
tank at a uniform rate ; or the capacity of the air-blower units can be figured 
upon the maximum or peak flows with the idea that separate units are to be 
shut down, one by one, as the sewage flow decreases. 

Comparative Cost of Construction and Operation of Activated Sludge and 
ImhofiE Tank -Trickling Filtering Processes of Sewage Treatment. — An inter- 
esting comparison between Imhoff trickling filter and activated sludge methods 
of sewage treatment was given by Harrison P. Eddy of Metcalf & Eddy, Con- 
sulting Engineers, in a paper presented before the Western Society of 
Engineers. The discussion was based on studies of treatment plants designed 
to fulfill the same conditions. The figures for the trickling filter plant were 
based on the design and cost of the plant at Fitchburg, Mass., with such modi- 
fications as were necessary to reduce the costs to units suitable for comparison. 
The design of the activated sludge plant was based upon experience gained 
from several experimental installations operated by Mr. Eddy during the past 
year and from data from Milwaukee and other reports. The average quantity 
of sewage was assumed to be 100 gal. per capita per day, equivalent to 5,500,000 
gal. per 24 hours, and the detention period in Imhoff and humus tanks 
was based upon a daytime flow of 125 per cent on the average. The Fitch- 
burg, Mass., plant has been in successful operation since October, 1914. The 
structural features of this plant were very fully described in the June 25, 1913, 
issue of Engineering and Contracting. The only material modification made 
in the Fitchburg design to aid in Mr. Eddy's comparison was to increase the 
sizes of the trickling filters and dosing tanks to serve a population of 55,000 
instead of 40,000 persons. Mr. Eddy's paper is printed in the December 
Journal of the Western Society of Engineers, from which the following matter 
is given in Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 14, 1917. 

The plant for the activated sludge process was designed as far as possible to 
meet the same conditions as those for which the trickling filter plant was built. 
The same type of structures has been used where applicable, and an effort 
was made in every way to make the two plants strictly comparable, both being 
designed to serve 55,000 persons. 

The grit chamber, screens and venturi meter equipment are included with- 
out change in the activated sludge plant, the requirements being the same in 
each case. 

The sewage aeration tanks were designed to operate on the continuous flow 
plan. The tanks were rectangular in plan, each unit being 30 ft. wide by 90 ft. 
long inside, of a type similar to the Imhoff tanks in the trickling filter plant. 
Compressed air was supplied to the tanks through a piping system leading to a 



SEWAGE TREATMENT 785 

series of filtros blocks located in the bottom of the tank. Each tank unit was 
divided by means of thin partition walls into four longitudinal channels 7 ft. 
2 in, wide. Provision was made for a depth of 10 ft. of liquid above the top 
of the filtros blocks. It was intended to operate two tank units in series and 
five double tank units in parallel ; that is, the sewage will enter one tank, pass 
longitudinally back and forth through the four channels in that tank, then 
to the second tank and back and forth longitudinally through the four channels 
of that tank to the point of discharge, making a total distance traveled of 
about 700 ft. Sufficient tank capacity was provided for an average period of 
aeration of 43^ hours, with sludge capacity amounting to 25 per cent of the 
total tank capacity. Under these conditions the average horizontal velocity 
would be about 2.6 ft. per minute. The ratio of total tank floor surface to 
area of aerating system was 8.5 to 1, which is the basis of the present Milwau- 
kee tanks. The indications are, however, that this ratio should be reduced so 
as to provide a somewhat larger area for air diffusion. 

For the purpose of aeration and agitation it was assumed that the volume 
of air to be supplied will average 1.75 cu. ft. per gallon of sewage treated. 

The quantity of air required to aerate the average quantity of sewage at 
the rate of 1.75 cu. ft. per gallon treated, will be 6.680 cu. ft. per minute. An 
increase in rate of sewage flow to 150 per cent of the average will frequently 
occur and the air compressing plant must be able at all times to meet this 
requirement. In addition, provision must be made for emergencies of various 
kinds. For this service four units of electric motor-driven, positive pressure 
blowers, were provided, each capable of furnishing about 3,200 cu. ft. of free 
air per minute at a pressure of about 5 lb. per square inch. The motors must 
be of the variable speed type, in order that the quantity of air may be varied 
according to the requirements. Two additional blowers of the same type and 
size were provided to furnish air for the sludge aeration tanks. 

On account of the small pores in the diffusing system, whether filtros blocks, 
wooden blocks or other means are employed, it is essential that the air fur- 
nished shall be clean; that is, free from dust, oil or other foreign substances. 
One of the best methods of obtaining clean air is to pass it through an air 
washer before going to .the compressor. Such apparatus is a standard com- 
mercial product and operates satisfactorily. 

The estimates provided for two air flow meters of the General Electric Co. 
type, similar to those in use at the Milwaukee plant. One of these meters 
was intended to measure the quantity of air supplied to the sewage aeration 
tanks, and the other the air supplied to the sludge aeration tanks. In a large 
plant it may be advisable to install additional meters to measure the quantity 
of air supplied to air lifts, but in the comparison no allowance was made for 
such additional apparatus. 

A building will be required to house the several air compressor units amount- 
ing, in this particular case, to six large positive pressure blower units and two 
small reciprocating units for operating the air lifts. This building may also 
house the air washer, air meters, transformers and other equipment. 

The estimates included six sedimentation tanks. Each was of the vertical 
flow type, cylindrical in form with inverted conical hopper bottom terminating 
In a deep well 4 ft. in diameter, similar to the tanks at Milwaukee. The tanks 
provided for sedimentation for a period of }i hour, on the continuous flow 
plan, with space for sludge amounting to 25 per cent of the total tank capacity. 
The totardepth of water and sludge, in the central well, was 35 ft. The tanks 
at Milwaukee were constructed with hopper bottoms on a slope of 1 to 1, but 
50 



786 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

experience has proven that steeper slopes are necessary if the sludge is to slide 
easily into the central well. These tanks were so designed that the sewage 
and sludge will enter the tank at the center, flow downward and under the 
edge of the distributing cylinder, thence upward and out through collecting 
weirs arranged around the circumference of the tank. Each of the central 
sludge wells will be provided with an air lift to raise the sludge from the sedi- 
mentation tanks to the sludge aeration tanks, or into the influent of the sewage 
aeration tanks. 

Two units of sludge aeration tanks were provided of a type similar to the 
sewage aeration tanks, but differing in that the partition walls were made 
heavy enough to withstand water pressure, thereby making each channel 
a separate sub-unit. The general dimensions of channels were the same as in 
the sewage aeration tanks; that is, 7 ft. 2 in. wide and 90 ft. long, provision 
being made for a depth of 10 ft. The total capacity of sludge aeration tanks 
provided is 328,000 gal. which is equivalent to 0.8 cu. ft. per capita, or about 
60,000 gal. per million gallons of operating capacity. 

It was planned to provide one air lift in a well to serve the eight sub-units 
of sludge aeration tanks, and a similar lift for each of the sedimentation tanks. 

It was estimated that the activated sludge process will produce about 4,500 
gal. of sludge per million gallons of sewage. Doubtless this quantity will 
vary considerably under different conditions. It is largely dependent upon 
the proportion of water contained in the sludge. For the average quantity of 
sewage for which this plant was designed, 5,500,000 gal. per 24 hours, the 
quantity of sludge produced daily will be 24,750 gal. For the purposes of 
this comparison it was assumed that the sludge wUl be dried on sand drying 
beds from which it can be removed to a dump. 

It is recognized that important experimental work is being done to develop 
suitable dewatering and drying processes that will make it economically pos- 
sible to dry the sludge to 10 per cent moisture and thus make it saleable as a 
low-grade fertilizer or as fertilizer base. 

For the purpose of estimates it was assumed that the sludge drying beds 
can be dosed an average of 15 times per year to a depth of 12 in., thus requiring 
a total net area of sludge beds of 80,500 sq. ft. To this should be added a 
sufficient area to care for sludge during the winter months (Dec. 15 to March 
15) and to allow for drawing of water collecting on the surface of the sludge. 
To provide for these contingencies the area should be increased 50 per cent to 
120,750 sq. ft., equivalent to 2.76 acres net ar6a, or 2.2 sq. ft. per capita. If 
sludge bed units of the same size and type as those for the trickling filter plant, 
are used, there will be required 77 such units, or about 7 times the area required 
for the trickling filter process. These sludge beds were suitably underdrained 
and provided with a system of narrow gage tracks and cars for removing the 
sludge to the sludge dump whence it can be carried to a point of disposal. 

Cost of Construction. — The cost of the trickling filter plant was based on the 
unit costs of construction of the trickling filter plant at Fitchburg, Mass., 
which was built by contract, bids being received in May, 1913. Cost figures 
obtained in this way are more nearly representative of normal conditions than 
if based on the high cost of construction prevailing at the present time. As 
far as possible the same unit costs of construction have been applied to the 
estimates of the activated sludge plant, that the two estimates may be 
comparable. 

The estimated cost of the trickling filter plant is given in Table XV. In 
addition to the main features, a number of items are included which go to make 



SEWAGE TREATMENT 



787 



Table XV.—- Estimated Cost of Imhoff Tank-Trickling Filter Plant 

Cost excl. Unit cost, excl. 

eng'g and eng'g and 

adminis administration 

tration. Per Per 

Total capita M. G. D. 

Grit and chamber screen $ 10,000 $0. 18 $ 1,818 

Venturi meter chamber 3 , 000 . 05 545 

Imhoff tanks, incl. air hfts for sludge 64 , 500 1.17 1 1 , 720 

Air compression equipment 800 .01 145 

Sludge beds including underdrains 4 , 800 . 09 873 

Trickling filters 10 ft. deep (2.75 acres) 188 , 500 3 . 43 34 , 300 

Dosing tanks and apparatus 16,600 .30 3,020 

Secondary settUng tanks. 9 , 000 .16 1 , 637 

Sludge pumping equipment and building 2 , 000 . 04 364 

Conduits and pipe lines, incl. overflow 10,600 . 19 1,925 

Effluent channel 1 , 300 .02 236 

Roadways 9,100 .17 1,655 

Laboratory building and equipment 15 , 200 .28 2 , 762 

Grounds, trees, planting, etc 1 ,700 .03 309 

Miscellaneous work, 4 % of total, excl. land 13,300 .24 2,420 

Land 25,000 .45 4,550 

Total . $375,400 $6.81 $68,279 

Add 15 % for engineering and administration. . . 56,310 1.04 10,221 

Grand total $431,710 $7.85 $78,500 

For 55,000 persons = $7.85 per capita. 

For 5,500,000 gal. per day = $78,500 per m. g. d. 

up the complete plant. It should be noted that the amount included for cost 
of land, includes not only the land required for the treatment plant, but a total 
area of about 117 acres, sufficient not only for all purposes of sewage treatment 
but also more than sufficient to properly isolate the plant. Under miscellane- 
ous work are included such items as extension of the water supply, electric 
lighting system, and other features of minor importance not covered by the 
principal items. It is expected that for a plant of this character administra- 
tion charges may easily amount to 3 per cent and engineering to 12 per. cent, 
making a total of 15 per cent to be added for these items. The total estimate 
of the Imhoff tank — trickling filter plant for a city of 55,000 population, is 
$431,710. This is equivalent to $7.85 per capita, or $78,500 per million gallons 
per day for the assumed flow of 5,500,000 gal. 

The estimated cost of the activated sludge plant is given in Table XVI. 
In addition to the features already described, it will be noted that several items 
have been included to make the plant complete. As stated in the case of the 
trickling filter plant, the item of $25,000 for land includes about 117 acres. It 
may not ultimately prove necessary to isolate the activated sludge plant, in 
which case a credit in favor of this plant should be made on account of the 
small area of land required. In this case, as in the other, 15 per cent has been 
added to cover the cost of administration and engineering charges. It will 
be seen that the total cost of the activated sludge plant is $313,880, which for a 
population of 55,000 persons is equivalent to $5.71 per capita, and $57,100 per 
million gallons per day. 

Cost of Operation. — An estimate has been made of the cost of operation of 
the trickling filter plant, based principally on the experience at Fitchburg, for 
the years 1915 and 1916. From data furnished by David A. Hartwell, Chief 
Engineer, deductions have been made for certain expenditures pertaining to 
construction rather than operation. The items for 1916 (with estimates for 
November, the last month of the fiscal year) are shown in Table XVII, from 



788 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Table XVI. — Estimated Cost of Activated Sludge Plant 

Cost excl. Unit cost, excl. 

eng'g and eng'g and 

adminis- administration 

tration. Per Per 

Total capita M. G. D. 

Grit chamber and screen $ 10 , 000 $0.18 % 1 , 818 

Venturi meter and chamber 3 , 000 . 05 546 

Sewage aeration tanks 78,100 1.42 14,200 

Sludge aefation tanks, incl. air lifts 17 , 500 .32 3 , 180 

Sedimentation tanks, incl. air lifts 8 , 300 .15 1 , 510 

Air compressing equipment 22,600 .41 4, 110 

Air meters — 2 700 .01 127 

Air washer — 1 600 .01 109 

Powerhouse 29,700 .54 5,400 

Sludge beds, incl. underdrains 31,400 .57 5,710 

Conduits, pipe lines and overflow 10,000 . 18 1,818 

Effluent drain 1 , 300 .02 236 

Roadways 8,300 .15 1,510 

Laboratory building and equipment 15 , 200 .28 2 , 760 

Grounds, trees, planting, etc 1 , 700 . 03 309 

Miscellaneous work, 4 % of total, excl. land. ... 9 , 540 . 17 1 ,735 

Land 25,000 .45 4,540 

Total $272 , 940 $4 . 94 $49 . 618 

Add 15 % for eng'g and administration 40,940 .77 7,482 

Grand total $313,880 $5.71 $57,100 

For 55,000 persons = $5.71 per capita. 

For 5,500,000 gal. per day = $57,100 per m. g. d. 

Table XVII. — Estimated Annual Cost of Operation of Fitchburg, Mass., 
Imhoff Tank-Trickling Filter Plant for the Year 1916 

General, including administration $ 1 , 800 

Laboratory 1 , 700 

Grit chamber 900 

Imhoff tanks 1 , 700 

TrickUng filters 1 , 100 

Secondary tanks 900 

Sludge beds 800 

Care of grounds 1 , 250 

Miscellaneous 1 , 100 

Total.. $11,250 

3 m. g. d. = 1,095 m. g. treated = $10.28 per m.g. 
32,500 persons = $0.35 per capita. 

which it appears that the total cost of operation has been $11,250, which Is 
equivalent to $10.28 per million gallons treated, averaging 3,000,000 gal. 
daily, or 35 ct. per capita, on a basis of 32,500 persons actually connected. The 
total population in 1915 was about 39,656. 

Similar figures for the Gloversville trickling filter plant show the following 
costs of operation per million gallons of sewage treated : 

Annual cost of operation 

Per M. G. treated Per capita 

1913 $5.16 $0.24 

1914 5.92 .27 

1915 5.72 .26 

It should be stated here that these expenditures are limited to the barest 
necessities. No chemical supervision nor other refinements, which can be 
avoided, are included. 

The estimate of annual operation cost of the hypothetical Imhoff tank- 
trickling filter plant to serve a population of 55,000 is given in Table XVIII. 



SEWAGE TREATMENT 789 

Tabls XVIII. — Estimated Annual Cost of Operation of Typical Imhoff 
Tank-Trickling Filter Plant 

General, including administration $ 2 , 200 

Laboratory 1 , 700 

Grit chamber 1 , 650 

Imhoff tanks 3,120 

Trickling filters 2 , 020 

Secondary tanks 1 , 650 

Sludge beds 1 , 470 

Care of grounds 1 , 250 

Miscellaneous .• 2 , 020 

Total $17,080 

5.5 g. d. = 2,005 m. g. treated = $8.50 per m. g. 
55,000 persons = $0.31 per capita. 

Table XIX.— Estimated Annual Cost of Operation of Typical Activated 

Sludge Plant 
Item Annual cost 

General, including administration $ 2 , 200 

Laboratory 1 , 700 

Grit chamber 1 , 650 

Tank Treatment — 

1 engineer foreman at $4 per 8-hr. day, 312 days $1 ,248 

3 engineers at $4 3 , 744 

4 laborers at $2.50. 3, 120 

Repairs • 1,278 9,390 

Sludge Drawing and Disposal 

Foreman part time $ 375 

2 laborers at $2.50, 312 days each 1 , 560 

1 team at $6, 312 days 1,872 

Supplies and repairs 603 4 ,410 

Electric power at Ic per kw. h 17 , 040 

Care of grounds 1 , 250 

Miscellaneous 2 , 500 

Total $40,140 

5.5 m. g. d. = 2,005 m. g. treated = $20.00 per m. g. 
55,000 persons = $0.73 per capita. 

The estimated annual cost of operation of the activated sludge plant is 
shown in Table XIX. Nearly half of the annual operating cost is for electric 
power, required for compressing the air. It was estimated that in addition 
to the air required for sewage aeration one-fifth as much would be required for 
sludge re-aeration and for operating the air-lift pumps. The- total annual 
cost of operation amounts to $40,140, which is equivalent to $20 per million 
gallons treated, or 73 ct. per capita, based on 55,000 persons. 

The item for power is estimated on the assumption that it can be obtained at 
1 ct. per kw. h. For many places this is a low price, while for others it is high. 
Surely it is low enough for use in computing the cost of power in most places 
upon a project which is to be operated for a generation in the future. 

Comparison of Costs. — For the final comparison of costs the interest and 
depreciation have been computed for both plants, and the total annual cost, 
made up of operating expenses and interest and depreciation, has been capital- 
ized at 4 per cent and added to the construction cost (Table XX). The result 
is decidedly in favor of the Imhoff tank-trickling filter plant, in spite of the 
fact that the estimates of operation of the activated sludge plant have been 
kept low, probably lower than is justified, that there might be no danger of 



790 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

inflating this cost to the disadvantage of the new process. To eliminate this 
difference it will be necessary to decrease the operating expenses of the 
activated sludge treatment by about $11,000, or to decrease them a portion of 
this amount and in addition thereto to decrease the construction cost 
materially. 

Table XX. — Comparison of Costs of Imhoff Tank-Trickling Filter 
Plant and Activated Sludge Plant 

Trickling Activated 

filter sludge 

Item plant plant 

Operating expenses $ 17, 080 $ 40 , 140 

Interest and depreciation * 26 , 760 19 , 780 

Total annual cost of treatment $ 43 , 480 $ 59 , 920 

Total annual cost of operation per m. g .' , . 21 . 84 29 . 85 

Total annual cost of operation per capita . 80 1 . 09 

Expenses capitalized at 4 % $1 , 096 ,000 $1 , 498 , 000 

Construction cost 431 ,710 313,880 

Total $1,527,710 $1,811,880 

Difference 284 , 170 

*Interest at 4 % — Depreciation — Sinking fund at 23^ %. \ 

A reduction in the price of power from 1 ct. to 0.6 ct. per kw. h., the price 
at which it is estimated power can be purchased at Milwaukee, would effect an 
annual saving of $6,816. For a plant only large enough for 55,000 persons it is 
doubtful if power below 1 ct. per kw. h. can be procured in many places. 

It is not unlikely that improvements in the methods of diffusion and of hold- 
ing the air for a longer time in contact with the sewage may result in a decrease 
in the quantity of air required. This would result in a decrease in cost. 

At the present time much attention is being given to methods of converting 
the sludge into marketable fertilizer. There is reasonable agreement among 
investigators that activated sludge contains a greater proportion of fertilizing 
ingredients than the sludges obtained from most other processes of sewage 
treatment. If the sludge can be converted into commercially dry powder con- 
taining only 10 per cent moisture, there is good evidence of a market for it at 
a moderate price. 

If the cost of preparation and sale of sludge should be no more than the 
return from such sales, the reduction in the foregoing estimates of operation 
and construction would be $5,030 and $66,000, respectively. If this process 
should be even more successful and a net profit of $2 per ton or say $1 per 
million gallons should be derived, the saving thus effected would amount to — 

Profit on sludge $2 , 007 . 50 

Cost of sludge disposal as per previous estimate 5,030.00 

Interest and depreciation on sludge beds 2 , 270. 00 

Total $9 , 307 . 50 

In addition to this annual saving there would be also the saving in invest- 
ment cost of $36,000. 

Even this profit and saving would not be enough to reduce the cost of the 
activated sludge process to that of the Imhoff tank-trickling filter process, 
but the net profit of $1 per million gallons may be substantially exceeded. 
In any event, this subject should receive, as indeed it is receiving, most careful 
investigation. 



SEWAGE TREATMENT 



791 



It may be argued that greater economy will be possible in the large plants 
than in the typical plant designed to serve 55,000 persons. This is midoubt- 
edly true, but it is also true of the trickling filter plant. The proportionate 
saving in the cost of the activated sludge plant, however, may be somewhat 
greater. 

Further development, particularly in the direction of reducing the quantity 
of air required, and improving means of distribution, may result in a reduc- 
tion of construction cost. It seems more probable, however, that the cost 
of construction will be increased, and in any event there should be no reduction 
in construction cost at a sacrifice in efficiency. 

In spite of the fact that it appears to be somewhat more expensive than 
other processes, the activated sludge treatment should not be rejected on the 
ground of cost without giving full consideration to its advantages. It may 
be that as an oxidizing process it will always be more expensive than the trick- 
ling filter, but it may have advantages more important than this disadvantage. 

Advantages and Disadvantages of the Two Processes. — If it is assumed that 
the sludge from the activated sludge process is to be dried and disposed of by 
means of sludge beds, the total area of land used for the activated sludge plant 
will not differ greatly from that actually used for the trickling filter plant. 

The areas utilized for several trickling filter plants, including a reasonable 
allowance for walks, drives and general purposes, are shown in Table XXI. 



Table XXI 

Area Average 

of land depth of 

required Area of stone in 

for plant, trickling trickling 

Location of plant acres filters filters 

Fitchburg, Mass 11.8 2. 07 10' 3" 

Schenectady, N. Y.* 19.0 6.1 4' 7^" 

Gloversville, N. Y 13.5 3.07 4' 7H'' 

Typical trickling filter plant, estimated ...... 11.8 2.75 10' 3" 

*Original design; only one-half plant built. 



The estimated area required for the typical activated sludge plant is 10 
acres, or nearly 2 acres less than that required for the typical trickling filter 
plant. If some other form of sludge disposal were used, the area would be 
materially reduced. In the second annual report of the Milwaukee Sewerage 
Commission, it is stated that the ground area required for the Milwaukee 
activated sludge plant is 0.4 acre. This plant is capable of treating 1,620,000 
gal. of sewage per day, but the area given makes no provision for sludge dis- 
posal and practically nothing for walks, drives and other features to be expected 
in an ordinary, complete plant. As already stated, the activated sludge plant 
may have some advantage in not requiring as much land for isolation as the 
trickling filter plant. The corresponding reduction in cost would be to the 
advantage of the former. 

One of the important advantages of the activated sludge process is the small 
loss of head required for the passage of the sewage through the plant. The 
resulting saving in cost of sewerage works such as pumping stations and long 
outfall or intercepting sewers, may be sufficient to make the adoption of the 
activated sludge process imperative. The amount of head lost in several 
trickhng filter plants is shown in Table XXII. 



792 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Table XXII. — Head Lost in Teickling Filter Plants 

Head lost, 
Location of plant ft. 

Columbus, O 25 . 34 

Fitchburg, Mass 25.40* 

Gloversville, N. Y 21 . 40 

Schenectady, N. Y. (original design) 13 . 70 

Schenectady, N. Y. (actual construction) 14 . 65 

Washington, Pa 16. 50 

Philadelphia, Pa 25.25 

Atlanta, Ga., Peachtree Creek Works 20.00 

*Actual is 42.1 due to topography. 

From this table it will be seen that the head required for a trickling filter 
plant varies from 14 ft. to a little over 25 ft. The Milwaukee 1.62 m. g. 
plant requires 0.3 ft. between the inlet to the sewage aeration tanks and the 
outlet of the sedimentation tank. In addition to this some loss should be added 
for the grit chamber and screens, but in any event, a total loss of 1 to 2 ft. 
would appear to be ample. 

There is some sentiment hostile to an Imhoff tank-trickling filter plant 
because of the fear of the dissemination of objectionable odors. That objec- 
tionable odors are noticeable in the immediate vicinity of such plants cannot 
.be denied. On the other hand, there is good evidence that they are not 
noticeable except very close to the treatment plants. 

The activated sludge plant appears to have some advantage in this direc- 
tion. Odors may be noticeable in the immediate vicinity of the aeration tanks, 
and it is possible that objectionable odors may be given off from some portions 
of the sludge drying and handling process, whatever it may ultimately be. 
It is probable, however, that the danger from this source will be less than from 
the Imhoff tank-trickling filter plant. 

The moth flies, so prevalent at certain seasons of the year, are quite objec- 
tionable close to the filters, although they are rarely found more than a few 
hundred feet away from them. While this cause of annoyance may be kept 
under reasonable control, it is doubtful if it can be wholly eliminated. The 
activated sludge plant does not seem to be a suitable breeding ground for these 
pests and therefore has an advantage over the filter. 

There is no doubt that the activated sludge process is capable of producing 
a more highly oxidized effluent than the trickling filter, as ordinarily built 
and operated, that it will eliminate a much greater proportion of bacteria, 
and that in appearance its effluent will be decidedly superior to that of the filter. 
This is a marked advantage under certain circumstances, but these facts alone 
should not be allowed to control in the adoption of a more expensive process 
when the accomplishments of the trickling filter answer all purposes. 

A disadvantage of the activated sludge process in the minds of many who 
have studied it is its apparent complexity and need for careful and skillful 
supervision. While it has been contended by some that this process is exceed- 
ingly simple and one which can be operated by a workman of ordinary intelli- 
gence, the consensus of opinion appears to be to the contrary. The author's 
experience in operating several small experimental plants, leads him to feel 
that of all processes of sewage treatment in practical use in this country today 
this is by far the most difficult to operate and that it will require the skill 
of a well-trained engineer or chemist to insure continued satisfactory results 
with it. 



SEWAGE TREATMENT 793 

At the present time it appears that the Imhoff tank-trickUng filter process is 
a less expensive means of oxidizing the organic matter of sewage and industrial 
wastes than the activated sludge process, where oxidation alone is considered. 
If the areas of land required for isolation, the loss of head in the plant, the 
danger of objectionable odors and of the fly annoyance, and other disdvantages 
of the trickling filter process are of marked importance in any specific case the 
balance may be decidedly in favor of the activated sludge process, even in its 
present state of development. 

Cost of Sludge Removal at Columbus, O. (Engineering and Contracting, 
July 10, 1918). — During 1917, 2,164 cu. yd. of sludge was removed from sewage 
treatment works of Columbus, O., at an average cost of 29^^ ct. per cubic yard, 
distributed as follows; 

Labor $0,278 

Gasoline 016 

All other expenses 001 

Total $0. 295 

The mean cost of labor was 33.1 ct. per hour, and the labor hours per cubic 
yard were 0.83. The average length of haul was 750 ft. 

Cost of Pressing Sewage Sludge. — ^A comprehensive discussion of the prac- 
tice of dewatering sewage sludge by filter pressing was presented by Kenneth 
Allen, Engineer of Sewage Disposal for the Board of Estimate and Apportion- 
ment of New York City, in Vol. 1 of the Transactions of the American Society 
of Municipal Improvements. That portion of the paper relating to sludge 
pressing, as reprinted in Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 13,1918, follows: 

Plate Type of Sludge Presses. — There are several forms of filter presses. 
That most commonly used consists of a series of parallel plates from 30 to 54 
in. square and with depressed surfaces, so that when the rims are in contact 
they enclose a series of cells from ^i in. to 2 in. thick. The plates are usually 
of cast iron from 2 in. to 3 in. thick at the rim and where in contact are 
machined so as to form a true and tight joint. The depressed surfaces are 
either grooved vertically, in concentric circles and radially, or else in two direc- 
tions at right angles to each other forming numerous little pyramids, in order 
to facilitate drainage. Each plate has a 6-in. hole in the center through which 
the sludge flows by gravity from a tank or is pumped into a series of cells. The 
pipe to the press is usually 8 in. in size. 

Between each pair of plates there are placed two pieces of cloth with holes 4 
in. to 6 in. in diameter in the center, opposite the holes in the plates. The two 
cloths on the opposite sides of each plate are then sewed or clamped together 
at the hole to prevent the sludge from entering and escaping between. 

A modification of this is the "frame plate" used in Germany, in which a 
series of plates of uniform thickness, i.e., with plain faces except in the drain- 
age grooves, alternate with frames. The grooves in the plates lead to drainage 
ducts below and a sieve is placed over each face. The cloth is then folded over 
each plate and clamped by the adjacent frame. The sludge enters by a con- 
tinuous duct near the upper edge of the plates and frames. 

The plates, usually 50 to 100 in number, are held together tight by tie rods 
passing through their upper corners or lugs projecting therefrom. A head 
casting at one end and a follower at the other hold the plates between, while 
the sludge is subjected to a pressure of from 50 to 120 lb. per square inch. 
This pressure may be derived directly from the air receiver or it may be applied 
after the press is filled by means of a screw operated by hand or motor. 



794 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

As the pressure continues, the drainage Uquor, which is putrescible and offen- 
sive, flows through a >^-in. hole in the bottom of the plates to a drain pipe 
by which it is carried back to the sedimentation tank to be again treated with 
the sewage. Pressure is maintained until the drainage is insignificant, which 
may be anywhere from 15 minutes to 1>^ hours, although at Oberschoene- 
weide, in order to secure a firm cake from lignite sludge, and elsewhere with 
greasy sludge, it has been necessary to maintain the pressure for 12 hours or 
more. 

One of the most important sludge pressing plants is that at Leeds, where 
about 900 tons of cake (containing 317 tons dry solids) are produced in a week 
of 53 working hours. 

The sewage amounts to 21,000,000 U. S. gallons per day, of which 4,600,000 
are industrial waste. After passing a screen and a grit chamber, it is dosed 
with 10 to 100 p. p.m. of lime and the sludge is pumped by Tangye pumps to 
three sludge tanks of 360 tons capacity, milk of lime being introduced in the 
pump section, 33^ tons per tank. The limed sludge, 90 per cent moisture, is 
then settled for 12 to 18 hours and the supernatant water drawn off. This 
usually amounts to from 8 to 12 per cent of the volume. Two pairs of rams 
6 ft. in diameter by 12 ft. deep force the concentrated material under a pressure 
of 100 lb. per square inch to the presses, each feeding four of the eight installed, 
but this is increased to a final squeeze of about 1,700 lb. per square inch by 
hydraulic thrust blocks. 

Each press has 64 cells 52 in. by 52 in. by IK in. in size, and therefore pro- 
duces about 5 tons per run. The cake drops to bogies below holding 50 cu. ft. 
each and drawn by a locomotive. Eight laborers attend to the presses and 
four to the bogies. 

At Glasgow the Damarnock plant consists of 18 presses of 41 cells each. 
The air pressure is 100 lb. 150 tons of cake, 66 per cent moisture, have been 
produced in five runs per day, equivalent to 2% tons or SH cu. yd. per 1,000,- 
000 gal. of sewage. The moisture is reduced from 90 to 66 per cent by the 
process. 

The plant at Worcester, Mass., consists of 4 Bushnell presses of 125 39-in. 
circular plates each. Sludge is pumped into the presses by two triplex pumps 
having 6-in. bronze ball valves. Between the pumps and the presses there is a 
1,130-gal. equalizing tank supplied with compressed air as a cushion at the top 
and irom the bottom of which a 10-in. main with 6-in. branches feeds the 
presses. The follower or rear end plate of the press carries a 10-in. hydraulic 
ram with a 48-in. travel which brings the plates into close contact so as to 
prevent leakage, and the sludge is then pumped in under a pressure of 80 lb. 
per square inch. The cake produced is 36 in. in diameter and ^ in. thick. 
On falling from the cloths it is carried by a conveyor to a car holding 3 cu. yd., 
run to a trestle and dumped. Four sludge cars and two motor cars are pro- 
vided. Each press will produce, with 8 fillings, 16 cu. yd. of cake per day. 

In 1916 u daily average of 37,600 gal. of sludge, 93.74 per cent moisture, 
produced 36.1 tons of cake, 72.8 per cent moisture, containing 1.23 tons of 
solids per 1,000,000 gal. of sewage. The cost of pressing was $7.05 per 1,000,- 
000 gal. of sewage, or $5.71 per ton of solids. 

At Providence there are 18 presses of from 43 to 54 plates each. These 
are filled with sludge under a pressure of 60 lb. per square inch. The cake, 
36 in. square and l}4 in. thick, amounts to 64 tons per day. 

At Spandau the sludge from a population of 80,000 is forced from cylindrical 
Bteel receivers under a pressure of 33 lb. per square inch to the 8 presses. The 



I 



SEWAGE TREATMENT 795 

plates and frames are 3.6 ft. square and made of wood. Each plate has 2 
inlet slots near the top and vertical drainage grooves leading to drainage ducts 
in the bottom. 

After filling, the presses are subjected to an increased pressure by a hand 
pump and the sludge is left under a pressure of from 60 to 75 lb. per square 
inch for 20 hours. The cake is then IK in. to IK in. thick and contains 60 
per cent moisture. On opening up each press the sludge drops into 4 tip cars 
for removal. It is then either sold at 4.6 ct. per cubic yard (1913) or air-dried 
and used for fuel. It has no appreciable odor. 

At York, England, where the grease makes the sludge particularly difficult 
to press, milk of lime is flushed into the press in advance of the sludge, which 
has already received its dose. 

Another plan when dealing with such sludge is to heat the presses by inject- 
ing steam and, as at Bradford, heating also the sludge itself in advance. The 
grease then passes off in large part with the drainage liquor. 

It is stated that the cake here contains but 27 or 28 per cent moisture. The 
power required for pressing is given by Kershaw as from 7 to 133'^ b.h.p. per 
ton (8 to 15 b.h.p. per long ton) of cake pressed per hour, depending on the 
size of the plant and the moisture and other characteristics of the sludge. 

The cloths are a little more than twice the size of the plates over which 
they are folded. They are made of jute, duck«or other fabric; at Worcester 
of 11 oz. duck 40 in. wide. Their life varies greatly, depending on the sludge, 
the pressure to which they are subjected, whether they are cleaned periodically, 
etc., but is usually rather brief from rotting. Eisner states that the life of 
(probably jute) cloths may be as much as 4 weeks if first treated with a tar 
composition. At Spandau they were said to last from 1 to 2 months; at Wor- 
cester, according to Metcalf and Eddy, 6 to 9 weeks is regarded as reasonable 
when operating at the rate of 12 cleanings per day of 10 hours. Stated 
another way, 2.44 sq. yd. of duck are required per ton of dry solids. 

A septic sludge or one containing particles of lime — especially if left un- 
slaked — or particles of rust from the plates shortens the life of the cloths. 
Probably for the last reason wood has been used for plates in Germany instead 
of iron. 

At Leeds it was decided, after trying different cloths, to adopt 54-in. 3-ply 
twist twilled jute sacking, 30 oz. per yard. Experiments were then made to 
increase the durability of the cloths, first by shrinking and then by treating 
with different oils. The best results were secured by oiling an 8-in. strip 
around the edge of each cloth, around the center hole and where the bosses 
on the plates meet with " Golden-Bloomless " mineral oil costing 23.7 ct. per 
gallon or " Black Oil," a crude petroleum costing 10 ct. per U. S. gallon. The 
effect of oiling seems to be to render the material more elastic and so prevent its 
rupture under strain. One gallon sufficed for 5 cloths, increasing their 
average life from 156 to 200 pressings. The saving effected is shown by the 
following statement: 

Cost of press- 
ing per ton 
(2,000 lb.) 
Price per yd. of cake 

Year ending March 31, 1913 21.5 ct. 39.8 ct. 

Year ending March 31, 1915 28. 6 ct. 36. 5 ct. 

It is estimated that about $1,450 is thus saved annually. 

After drainage is complete the pressure is released, the plates are separated 
and the sludge falls or is scraped off the cloths onto a conveyor or into a tip 



796 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

car, by which it is removed for disposal. This operation takes from 10 to 30 
minutes or more. The entire operation of filling, pressing and emptying 
ordinarily takes from 45 minutes to 2 hours. 

Sludge Cake. — In practice precipitated sludge is reduced to cake having 
about 20 per cent its original weight and containing from 50 to 70 per cent 
moisture. The moisture is not uniform in the cake, being greatest near the 
point where admitted to the press. The weight of this cake is about 8^ tons 
per 1,000,000 gal. of sewage (Rideal). The cakes run from an inch or less 
in thickness to 1>^ or 2 in. if greasy and well dosed with lime. On breaking 
it up the weight per cubic yard is reduced to about 1,350 lb. when the voids 
are found to be about 40 per cent. By air-drying under cover this weight 
may be further reduced by about 50 per cent. 

Analyses of sludge cake as produced at Chorley and Dorking, England, are 
given in the Fifth Report of the Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal. 
The sewage in each case is domestic. At Chorley, with combined sewage, 9 
grains per Imp. gal. of alumino ferric is used for precipitation, and at Dorking, 
which is partially sewered on the separate system, 5 grains per Imp. gal. of 
lime. The cake as delivered contains about 50 per cent moisture, but the 
samples analyzed were dried at 110° C. 

Chorley Dorking 

Grit 25.30 6.84 

Oxides of iron and aluminum 9. 37 3. 46 

Lime 10.32 23.16 

Phosphoric acid 0. 98 0. 66 

Nitrogen (total) 1. 28 0. 89 

At Leeds in the year 1913-14 the average composition of the cake was as 
follows : 

Per cent. 

Water 60. 1 

Volatile matter 16. 7 

Nitrogen, 5.9 per cent 

Total grease, 6.3 per cent. 
Mineral residue 23. 2 

Calcium phos., .94 per cent. 

100.0 

The solids from the sewage normally comprised 35.3 per cent of the cake. 

The average of 4 analyses of commercially dried (10 per cent moisture) 
activated sludge, with especial reference to their fertilizing value, are given by 
William R. Copeland as follows: 

Per cent. 

Nitrogen as ammonia 4 . 68 

Available phosphoric acid 0. 57 

Cost of Pressing Sludge. — The cost of pressing is given by the Royal Com- 
mission on Sewage Disposal for two typical groups of towns : 

Group I — For towns of 30,000 persons or more employing chemical precipi- 
tation followed by sedimentation or sedimentation alone and where no special 
addition of lime is required on account of industrial waste. Sludges under 
such conditions will require lime equivalent to from 2 to 4 per cent of the . 
weight of the pressed cake. 

Group II — For towns of less than 30,000 persons and for those where, 
because the sludge is greasy or derived from septic tanks, it is necessary to add 
lime equivalent to from 5 to 20 per cent of the weight of the pressed cake 



w 

Tne mois 



SEWAGE TREATMENT 797 



he moisture in each cake is assumed to be 90 per cent in the wet sludge and 
55 per celit in the pressed cake. 

Cost of Pressing Sludge 

In ct. per ton of 2,000 lb. 

Wet Sludge — Group I Group II 

Operation 9.6-12.0 14.5-24.4 

Operation and fixed charges 13. 2-15. 6 18. 1-28. 

Pressed Cake — 

Operation 43. 5-54. 4 65. 2-109 

Operation and fixed charges 59. 7-70. 6 81. 4-125 

Moore and Silcock give the cost of pressing in England at from 32.6 ct. to 
54.4 ct. per ton of cake; Eisner at $4.50 per 1,000,000 gal. of sewage. Accord- 
ing to Schiele the cost of producing 1 ton of cake from 5.8 cu. yd. of wet sludge, 
including fixed charges, varies from 41K ct. to $1.28, and averages 85 cts. 

In a list of 18 British cities Metcalf and Eddy find the cost of pressing to 
vary from 6 to 43 ct. per ton of wet sludge or from 27 to 93 ct. per ton of cake. 

At the Dalmarnock Works at Glasgow 171,476 tons of crude sludge were 
pressed to 291,045 tons of cake in the year ending May 31, 1916, at a cost of 
$2.16 per 1,000,000 gal. of sewage, or 67 ct. per ton of cake. 

At the Knostrop works at Leeds in the year ending March 31, 1915, 42,321 
tons of cake, 60 per cent moisture, were produced at a cost of $15,480, exclu- 
sive of interest and amortization, and $6,681 for disposal or, for pressing, per 
ton of cake, 36.7 ct.; per ton dry solids, $1.03. 

For German conditions, Reichle and Thiesing mention from 63 M to 85 ct. 
as fair limits (before the war) . 

Estimates based on foreign practice cannot of course be applied directly 
to American conditions. The following is the distribution of cost based upon 
figures estimated for Wimbeldon by Santo -Crimp : 

Per cent 

Wages 36. 

Lime 40.0 

Coal 9.6 

Cloths 12. 8 

Oil, etc 1.6 



1903 


- Providence * 

1910 1916 


$2.44 
2 27 
0.67 


$4.06 $2.78 
2.54 3.38 
0.721/2 0.941/^ 



Total 100. 

American cost data are practically limited to experience at Worcester and 
Providence, data for which are as follows: 

Worcester 

Range 1899 co 1912 

Per mil. gal. sewage $3. 85 to $6. 76 

Per ton of dry solids 3. 39 to 4. 64 

Per ton of cake 0.91 to 1.37 

* Costs include disposal. 

The above figures are in general based upon precipitated sludge. Owing 
to the greater amount of lime required it will cost perhaps a third more to 
press fresh or septic settled sludge. 

Disposal of Cake. — The cake may sometimes be disposed of for a nominal 
sum, say, 10 to 25 ct. per ton, to farmers, but if there is no demand for it, it 
njay be used for filling at about an equal cost. When deposited in .depths up 
to 12 ft. in water-soaked land near Leeds it was observed to shrink about 33 
per cent in two years and to generate more or less heat. 

While there is more or less odor in the press house this does not carry far, 
and if kept under cover it is quite inoffensive. Fresh cake kept moist by rain, 



798 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

especially if the weather is warm, will give off a certain amount of odor, but, 
if first air-dried to 20 or 30 per cent moisture, objectionable odors are usually 
prevented. 

An advantage in lignite sludge, besides being inodorous, is that it can be 
utilized by burning under the boiler, and experiments by W. L. Stevenson at 
Philadlephia show that by the addition of a small amount of combustible 
material to ordinary air-dried sludge from plain sedimentation there will 
be obtained a material having a moderate value as fuel. 

The foregoing remarks have been confined to the plate type of press, often 
spoken of as the "Johnson" filter press, this having been almost universally 
used for the pressing of sewage sludge heretofore. There are, however, 
several other more recent types which deserve mention. 

The Kelley Filter Press. — The Kelley Filter Press consists of a steel frame 
supporting a cylindrical "press shell" at one end and a carriage for inserting 
into and withdrawing from the other end a series of longitudinal filter leaves. 
Each leaf consists of a horizontal pipe above connected to a similar pipe below 
by a mesh of double crimped No. 0. 105 gage wire. This wire mesh enters a slot 
in each pipe for the removal of the filtrate, to which it is strongly 
riveted or welded. A bag of extra heavy twill or duck is drawn over each leaf 
and the end sewed up by hand, forming the filtering medium. The leaves are 
uniformly spaced, but of different heights, depending on their position with 
reference to the press shell. 

At each end of the filter carriage are plates for supporting the leaves, one of 
these providing the head of the press shell when the leaves are inserted. By 
means of a groove in the head plate corresponding to an annular projection 
on the end of the shell, which are forced together on a gasket and held by 
special locking mechanism, all leakage during operation is prevented. 

In operation the carriage and leaves are inserted in the shell and the head is 
locked. The shell is then filled with sludge by a pipe, while the air is released 
by an overflow valve at the top. This, it is claimed, takes but about four 
minutes. When filled the overfiow valve is closed and about 40 lb. pressure 
applied to the sludge pipe. The cake forms on the surface of the bags as the 
filtrate passes through and is carried off by the frame pipes and drains. 

After the cake is built up the sludge supply is shut off and compressed air 
admitted from above, displacing the remaining wet sludge and aiding in 
drying the cake. This is then removed from the bags by shaking, by loosening 
with a wooden spade, or by compressed air introduced through the drainage 
pipes. 

The following data are taken from a circular of the manufacturer: 

Size of shell 30'' X 72" 40" X 108" 48" X 120" 

Capacity of shell — 

Cu. ft 32 75 120 

Gal 240 560 900 

Number of leaves 4-9 6-8 6-10 

Filter area, sq. ft 60-130 180-250 260-450 

* Weight of cake V/2 in. thick 667 1 , 333 3 , 333 

* Average weight of cake in tons per 

24 hours 3^3-6^^ \Z\i-2^yz 331/3-66% 

* Assuming weight of cake 66% lb. per cu. ft. 

The economies claimed for this press are due to the small amount of labor 
required, lack of wear on filter cloths and the avoidance of breakage of plates. 

The Sweetland Filter Press. — This consists of a number of parallel circular 
leaves consisting of a heavy wire screen hung from a casting above. Each 




SEWAGE TREATMENT 799 

leaf has an outlet nipple at the top connecting with a drainage duct in the 
above casting, is bound by a stiff U-shaped frame on the edge and covered with 
suitable canvas. The entire series of leaves is enclosed in two semi-cylindrical 
castings, the lower of which can be swung to one side on a hinge. 

The sludge is forced in through a channel in the bottom of the lower casting 
and flows up between the leaves and as the filtrate passes through the canvas 
and out through the drainage duct the solids form a cake on each side of 
every leaf. When the process of filtering becomes slow, compressed air is 
introduced, blowing the wet sludge in the bottom of the cylinder back into 
the storage tank and drying the cakes. The lower casting is then swung to 
one side and the dewatered sludge drops out, aided by reversing the air pres- 
sure through the leaves. This back pressure serves as well to keep the filter 
surfaces clean. The operation of dumping is claimed by the manufacturer 
to occupy but from 8 to 20 minutes. 

In a press of this kind used by R. W. Pratt at the Cleveland Sewage Testing 
Station the leaves were 2 ft. in diameter. The average moisture in the wet 
sludge was about 86 per cent and that of the cake between 62 and 76 per cent. 
Mr. Pratt mentions the importance of keeping the cakes from adhering to 
each other by providing sufficient clearance. Where the leaves were even as 
much as 3 in. between centers no cake was obtained with less than 70 per 
cent moisture, and it was concluded that there should be a clearance of not 
less than 3 in. nor more than 4>^ in. Pressures of from 30 to 35 lb. were 
sufficient except for short periods at the end of the run when as much as 50 lb. 
were sometimes used. As to the time required the best results were with a half 
hour for forming the cake, ^i hour for drying or 13^ hours for the entire run. 

These tests were mostly with Imhoff sludge, but as there is no exposure of 
the sludge to the air, Mr. Pratt is of the opinion that " in large installations the 
Sweetland press could be operated without odors or nuisance" with ordinary 
sludge. 

Results of Pressing Imhoff Sludge 
Condensed from Table 61, Report Sewage Testing Station, Cleveland, 1914 

Number of leaves 16 16 14 14 

Spacing center to center V/o'' 3'' 3" 4i/i" 

Number of runs averaged 4 7 2 4 

Time in hours: 

Pressing 94* 1.15 1.65t .50 

Drying I21/2 .36 . 58t .75 

Total 1.51 1.25 

Specific gravity of raw sludge 1.05 1.06 1.11 1.07*t 

Per cent moisture: 

Raw sludge 89 86 82 86 

Cake * 68 72 75 64 

Pressure — lb. per sq. in 53*t 43 43 42 

Lb. cake per run 242*t 314 139 90 

* Average from 2 runs, f Result from 1 run. *t Average from 3 runs. 

The Worthington Filter Press. — The Worthington or "Berrigan" press has 
been tried out in particular at Milwaukee in connection with activated sludge. 

The sludge is placed in each of a number of unbleached muslin bags inclosed 
in a bag of special fine canvas. The bags are hung vertically between two 
plates, which, being drawn together by means of a toggle joint, squeeze the 
superfluous water from the sludge and through the bags. As the pressure 
continues, the motion, which is automatically controlled, decreases, but the 
pressure may be increased very greatly. 



800 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTTON COST 

The plates are grooved and faced with wire to facilitate drainage. In size 
they are manufactured 36 in. by 48 in., 72 in. by 108 in., and 96 in. by 120 in. 

The Milwaukee experiments were made with a 72-in. by 108-in. press with 
10 bags. The sludge, 98 per cent or 99 per cent of water, is first concentrated 
to 96 or 97 per cent. The best way to accomplish this, whether by decanting 
the supernatant water after settling from 1 to 3 hours or scraping or sucking 
up the deposited sludge, remains to be settled. It is a material factor in the 
economy of operation, as every per cent reduction means a large saving in the 
volume of sludge to be handled and consequently in the cost of the plant. 

The concentrated sludge is fed into the bags without any addition of lime 
and then subjected to a pressure gradually increasing to about 60 lb. per square 
inch. After draining the pressure is released, the bags are lifted out and 
emptied by gravity. They keep fairly clean in this way, but, if sludge adheres 
to the surface, it is removed by a jet of steam. 

The Milwaukee machine will produce from about 2,000,000 gal. of sewage 
a ton of cake 1 in. thick per run, which, by further drying to 10 per cent mois- 
ture, will yield about 1,000 lb. in a condition, after grinding, to be used as 
fertilizer, for which it is said to be particularly well adapted. The tim 
required is about 5 hours per operation, so that the above press will produce 
some 5 tons of cake per 24 hours of 75 per cent moisture. 

One laborer, according to Mr. T. C. Hatton, Chief Engineer of the Mil- 
waukee Sewerage Commission, can attend to 5 presses, so that the cost of 
attendance is low, and as to the power required, the designer, Mr. Berrigan, 
claims that a 15-h.p. motor will suffice for 5 machines. 

The following conclusions Were based upon the Milwaukee experiments with 
activated sludge: "Sludge can be dewatered satisfactorily from 96 per cent 
to 75 per cent moisture by either a plate press or pressure press without the 
addition of lime or other base. 

" The filter bags used in the presses must be cleansed frequently to maintain 
efficiency. This can be done by soaking in a bath of dilute caustic soda 
and hot water. 

" Sludge after pressing can be stored in a building without creating offensive 
odors more than 50 ft. away, and can be easily handled." 

After drying (to 10 per cent) this sludge contains from 4.5 to 5 per cent 
of ammonia, for which there is ample market as a fertilizer. 

The cost of a press such as has been described complete is stated to be 
about $4,000, exclusive of overhead charges, to which should be added $800 
for an accumulator, or $500 for a pump of capacity to serve 20 presses. 

An estimate of the cost of operation is given by Mr. Hatton in the Rei)ort of 
the Commission for 1916, as follows, based upon a plant capable of handling 
the sludge from 100,000,000 gal. daily of sewage: 



Labor (3 shifts of 8 hours) 

Bags (cleaning and upkeep) 

Power 

Contingencies ^ 

Overhead charges, 10 per cent of cost 

Total $3.46 

or, since 1,000,000 gal. daily of sewage produces ^ ton of cake, the cost of 
pressing is about $1.73 per 1,000,000 gal. of sewage. . 



Per ton of 


cake 




$1 


36 




64 




09 




16 


1 


21 



SEWAGE TREATMENT 801 

According to Mr. G. W. Fuller, the cost is about $3 per ton of dry solids, 
or $2.70 per ton with 10 per cent moisture. 

Estimated Cost of Pressing Activated Sludge. — In the Stockyards District» 
Chicago, by Langdon Pearse and W. D. Richardson. Based on 96 tons of dry 
material per day. Cost per dry ton. 

Supplies: 

Duck at $1.75 per lin. yd., 120 in. wide $1. 37 

Miscellaneous 24 

$1.61 

Labor $1. 13 

Power 3.24 h.p., equals 2.42 kw.-hr. at 0.7 ct. per hr ,41 

1.54 

Operating expenses $3. 15 

Fixed charges 2 . 57 

Grand total $5. 72 

While this press has been shown to be well adapted to the dewatering of 
activated sludge, Mr. Berrigan claims that it will also be found satisfactory 
with plain settled or septic sludges without the addition of lime, but the writer 
is not aware that this has been conclusively demonstrated as yet. 

Conclusion. — Dewatering sewage sludge by filter pressing with the plate 
type of press has been brought to a point where its efficacy and cost can be 
closely predicted. With fresh settled or precipitated sludge and the addition 
of from 0.5 to 3 per cent of lime and a pressure of 70 or 80 lb. per square inch 
a firm, satisfactory cake can be produced. 

Cost of Flushing Sewers. — The following data are taken from an article 
published in Engineering and Contracting, April 24, 1912. 

Methods and Apparatus for Flushing Sewers. — Flushing consists of admitting 
a sudden rush of water at a high velocity into the sewer. This can be secured 
by collecting water in a manhole or tank and then suddenly admitting it to 
the sewer by (a) opening a valve, (b) removing a plug, etc., or (c) breaking an 
air seal or lock in a siphon. Filling and discharging the tank may be done 
automatically, semi-automatically, or by hand. 

In the case of very large sewers, the sewage itself may be used instead of 
water from an outside source. Here a plug or gate is put in the outlet and 
the incoming sewage allowed to dam up in the bottom of the tank or manhole. 
When a small head has been accumulated it is allowed to flow down the sewer. 
This method of flushing has several drawbacks, (a) The unsanitary character 
of the work, (b) the high cost of labor, (c) the time required for the sewage 
to accumulate, and (d) since the head can be built up it is limited by the grade . 
of the inlet sewer, a low flushing velocity. As a result flushing with accumu- 
lated sewage is only employed on mains of large size. 

Hand Flushing. — In flushing by hand, several methods of filling can be used : 
(1) By means of a water cart; (2) by a hose connection to a hydrant; (3) by a 
permanent connection from the water main. 

A stopper is placed in the outlet of the manhole or tank and if it is not a dead 
end of a sewer a stopper is also placed in the inlet. 

When the tank or manhole has been filled by the water from the cart, from 
the connection to the hydrant or water main, it is shut off, the plug or similar 
contrivance removed from the sewer and the water allowed to flush it out. 

Automatic and Semi- Automatic Flushing. — In flushing by means of auto- 
matic apparatus, water is fed to the tank by a service pipe fftted with an 
appliance for regulating the rate of feed, and discharged by some form of 
siphon, which flushes when the water has reached a predetermined level in the 
51 



802 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

tank. The operation of the siphon is entirely automatic. The water may- 
be fed to the tank in a continuous stream of such volume that the tank fills 
and discharges entirely automatically at predetermined intervals of 24 to 48 
hours, etc., or else the water may be fed only when desired so that flushing 
occurs at any frequency whatever. In the first case a regulator controls the 
feed to the desired rate, and in the second case, this regulator is replaced by a 
cut-off device designed to permit the filling only when opened by pulling a 
chain. The flush then follows automatically, and at the same time the feed 
is automatically cut off. As the name implies with automatic flush tanks 
no labor at all is required. With the use of the cut-off valve to permit semi- 
automatic flushing, labor is necessary but it is merely that of pulling a chain 
from the outside of the tank by means of a hook passed through the manhole 
cover. 

Cost of Flushing. — Three items go to make up the cost of sewer flushing 
(1) Cost of water; (2) cost of labor; (3) fixed charges against the apparatus. 

Items 1 and 2 are independent of the frequency of flushing, that is, whether 
flushing is performed once a day or once a month, the cost per flush for water 
and for labor are practically the same. This is not true of item 3. The flxed 
charges on the apparatus include interest on the money invested and sinking 
fund. The charge per flush, therefore, is governed by the frequency with 
which flushing is performed, the interest on sewer bonds and local conditions. 

Assume a case where water costs 3 cents per 1,000 gals., and that the amount 
of flushing water required is 333 gals., so that the cost per flush for water is 
one cent. This is an extremely low cost for water. This figure can be as- 
sumed here, however, as the same cost will be taken in each method of flushing. 
Where the apparatus used for flushing wastes water, as for instance, where 
poorly operating automatic tanks discharge 2 or 3, or more, times a day, where 
once every 2 or 3 days would be sufficient, the money value of the water 
wasted will add up to a large amount in a year. 

Flushing With Water Cart. — Two men with a water cart can flush about 20 
tanks per day and the cost for labor is as follows : 

2 men at $2.00 $4. 00. 

2 horses and cart at S-OO 4. 00 

Total per day $8. 00 

Labor per flush 40 cts. 

Water per flush 01 ct. 

Total 41 cts. 

To this must be added the fixed charges against the apparatus used for 
flushing. As we are only making a comparative study and a tank or manhole 
of masonry of concrete is required in all the methods considered, we can elimi- 
nate charges on that investment. The charges against the investment on water 
carts is included in the cost for horse and cart, which is considered as rental. 

Hose Connection. — Using this method the labor to handle about 20 tanks 
would be: 

2 men at $2.00 $4. 00 

1 horse, hose and cart at $2.00 2. 00 

Total per day $6. 00 

Total labor per flush 30 cts. 

Water per flush 01 ct. 

Total cost per flush . . , 31 cts. 



SEWAGE TREATMENT 803 

Flushing Manhole. — The number of flushing manholes or tanks with hand 
flap valves that may be operated in a day, depends largely on their distance 
from one another, on the time required to fill them and on the rapidity with 
which the attendant removes and replaces manhole covers, etc. A special 
report on the time taken to operate flushing manholes in a large city in the 
south shows that one man flushed 44 tanks in one day. 

Assume as an average, that one man with a horse and wagon can attend 
about 40 tanks daily. In many cases a horse and wagon might not be used, 
the attendant walking or riding bicycle from tank to tank. However, as it 
will be assumed that a horse and wagon are also employed with the semi- 
automatic tank in the analysis following, it is consistent to set down that 
Item here. The cost per flush would then be made up of the following items: 

1 man $2. 00 

1 horse and wagon 2. 00 



Total labor per day $4. 00 

Cost for labor per flush 10 cts. 

Cost for water 01 ct. 



Cost per flush exclusive of fixed charges 11 cts. 

To this must be added the fixed charges on the investment for the water 
connection and the lift valve. Assuming $15 as the first cost for the water 
connection and flap valve, the fixed charges at 10 per cent = $1.50 per year. 
The fixed charge per flush depends upon the frequency of flushing. We will 
first consider a frequency of 365 flushes per year. The cost per flush for vari- 
ous frequencies from 1 to 365 times per yeai is given by Table XXIII. 

Table XXIII. — Cost of Flushing in Cents Per Flush, when Flushing 
AT Frequencies from 1 to 365 Times a Year 









Cost per 


Cost per 




Number of 






flush with 


flush with 


Cost per 


flushes per 


Hand 




flushing 


hose con- 


flush with 


year 


operated * 


Automatic * 


manhole 


nections 


cart 




cents 


cents . 


cents 


cents 


cents 


1 


303.00 




261.0 


31.0 


41.0 


25 


15.00 




17.0 


31.0 


41.0 


50 


9.00 




14.0 


31.0 


41.0 


100 


6.00 




12.5 


31.0 


41.0 


150 


5.00 




12.00 


31.0 


41.0 


200 


4.50 


2.50 


11.75 


31.0 


41.0 


250 


4.20 


2.20 


11.60 


31.0 


41.0 


300 


4.00 


2.00 


11.50 


31.0 


41.0 


365 


3.82 


1.82 


11.41 


31.0 


41.0 



* Cost per flush with semi-automatic tank 



$1 50 
For flushing 365 times a year the fixed charge is = -w^n = .41 cents and 

the complete cost is as follows: 

Labor per flush 10. 00 cts. 

Water per flush 1 . 00 cts. 

Fixed charges 41 cts. 



Total cost per flush (flushing 365 times per year) 11. 41 cts. 

Automatic Flush Tanks. — With this method, the cost of water per flush is 
as before, one cent. The cost for labor is zero. The fixed charges on .the 
flushing siphon are dependent upon its first cost, the life of the apparatus and 
the value of money. The investment for an automatic siphon and regulator 



804 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

as installed would be about $30. Setting down yearly fixed charges at 10 per 
cent as before, we have the fixed charge per tank as $3.00 and for fiushing 365 
times per year, .82 cents per flush. The total cost per flush is then: 

Labor * 00 cts. 

Water 1 . 00 cts. 

Fixed charges 82 cts. 

1 . 82 cts. 

Table XXIV summarizes the cost of various methods of flushing at a fre- 
quency of 365 times a year. 

Table XXIV. — Cost of Flushing, in Cents Per Flush, at a Frequency op 
365 Times a Year 

Fixed charges 
per flush, 
Water cost 365 flushes Labor cost Total cost 
per flush, per year, per flush, per flush, 

Method of flushing cents cents cents cents 

Water cart 1 40.0 41.0 

Hose connection 1 30. 31.0 

Flushing manhole 1 .41 10.0 11.41 

Automatic flush tank 1 -82 0. 1. 82 

* For the purpose of comparison fixed charges against the masonry tank or 
manhole can be neglected and with the flushing manhole and automatic tank, 
10 per cent of the cost of the apparatus are set down for interest sinking fund and 
maintenance. 

Semi- Automatic Flush Tanks. — We have now to consider the cases where 
flushing is required less frequently, once or twice a week or less. Under these 
circumstances, the semi-automatic tank is the most economical method of 
flushing. Furthermore, this type of tank can be used when desired, as a full 
automatic tank, flushing at frequent periods or less frequently, the only labor 
required for flushing in this manner being the pulling of a chain from the 
outside of the manhole. 

The cost for water is again, one cent per flush. As to labor — a man with a 
horse and buggy, costing in all $4 per day, can pull the chain and set off 200 
tanks which would be only five times as many flushes as was assumed with the 
ordinary flushing manhole. This would make the cost for labor per flush 2 
cents. The number of semi-automatic tanks that can be operated in a day 
by one man, are dependent, as was the case with the flushing manhole, on 
the distance between tanks and the time consumed in operating the tank itself. 
With the semi-automatic tank, the time required to pull up the chain is but 
a fraction of a minute, as contrasted to the time required to remove a manhole 
cover, turn on the water, wait till the tank fills, open the flap valve and dis- 
charge the tank and replace the cover, as is the case with flushing manholes. 

To the cost of 2 cents per flush for labor, must be added as before the fixed 
charges against the apparatus. The first cost of the semi-automatic tank over 
and above the first cost of masonry may be set down, as was the case with the 
automatic tank, at $30 at 10 per cent, so that the fixed charge is $3 per year. 
The fixed charges per flush depend upon the number of times per year the 
tanks are operated. If set off only once, it will be $3 and adding in the cost of 
the labor and water, the total cost will be 303 cents. If it is set off 52 times 
a year, the fixed charges will be 5.77 cents and adding water and labor, the 
total cost will be 8.77. 



SEWAGE TREATMENT 



805 



In the first column of Table XXIII is set down the number of times per year 
flushing is performed. Corresponding to these frequencies, are set down the 
various costs per flush. The second column gives the cost with a semi- 
automatic tank ; when flushing less frequency than 200 times a year the tank 
is hand operated and at frequencies greater than 200, the tank is operated 
either automatically or by hand, the cost by both methods being given. The 
cost with flushing manhole and other methods is also given. 

Under practically all conditions either the full automatic or semi-automatic 
ank is the mo^ economical means of sewer flushing. These flgures of course 




Fig. 6. — Method of cleaning catchbasin with auto-eductor. 



are subject to market price of labor in any particular locality. They indicate, 
however, that where flushing is to be performed more than 15 to 20 times and 
less frequently than 200 times a year, the semi-automatic tank is the most 
economical apparatus to use. For flushing at intervals of every 48 or 24 hours 
or more frequently the full automatic tank is adaptable, and is the most 
economical. 

Cost of Cleaning Sewer Catchbasins with an Auto-Eductor. — ^A catchbasin 
cleaning machine working on the hydraulic ejector principle has been employed 
with excellent success in a number of cities. This machine was invented by 
George W. Otterson, a mining engineer. It is known as the auto-eductor. 
It consists essentially of a pump and suction device attached to a Kelly 



806 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Springfield motor truck. The suction device is a 4-in. telescopic pipe con- 
nected at its lower end with a 3-in. pipe leading from the discharge of a 4-in. 
American centrifugal pump. A 1-in. nozzle from the 3-in. pipe is led into the 
4-in. pipe and turned upward, thus throwing the stream of water at high veloc- 
ity through a contracted throat, creating a vacuum and causing suction. The 
pump is driven from a power take-off on the driving shaft of the truck. The 
inlet valve on the pump suction is attached to an opening in the bottom of the 
truck body. This truck body is a water-tight steel box equipped with baffle 
plates so arranged as to hasten the settling of solid matter in the refuse taken 
from the catchbasin. 

In beginning operations, the body is partly filled with water. The tele- 
scopic pipe is lowered until it rests on the deposits in the basin and the pump is 
started, drawing water from the truck body and discharging it through the 
1-in. nozzle at 40 lb. to 50 lb. pressure into the large pipe. The refuse is 
carried up the 4-in. pipe and discharged into the truck. The solid matter 
settles and the -water comes back through the inlet valve to the pump. 

Cost Data on Catchbasin Cleaning with the Auto-Eductor. — The sewer clean- 
ing division of the Bureau of Sewers of Chicago began using this machine in 
1917. The following figures compiled from reports on file in the Bureau of 
Sewers show the cost of operating one machine for August, September and 
October: 

I^abor — 

1 chauffeur, 3 months, at $115 $ 345. 00 

1 laborer in charge of auto crew, 2 months, at $3.60 per day 176. 78 

1 laborer in charge of auto crew, 1 month, at $4.60 per day 112. 95 

1 laborer, 3 months, at $3.30 per day 243. 08 

Total labor $ 877. 81 

Materials, Depreciation, Etc. — 

Repairs, gasoline, oil, etc $ 308. 08 

Interest at 4 per cent on $7,000 (cost of eductor) 70. 00 

Depreciation at 10 ct. per mile for 1,380 miles 138. 00 

Total materials, etc $ 516. 08 

Grand total 1 , 393. 89 

The average cost per catchbasin cleaned was $1,299; the average cost per 
cubic yard material removed was 79 cts. The average cost of cleaning catch- 
basins by hand methods during the past 4 years has been $3.24 each. 

During three months the machine cleaned 1,073 sewer catchbasins. The 
total mileage of streets traversed was 1,073 and the total yardage of material 
removed from catchbasins was 1,763 cu. yd. The machine had a 5-yd.body 
mounted on a 5-ton truck body. 

The city of Louisville, Ky., began cleaning its catchbasins with an auto- 
eductor early last year. During the period from Jan. 17 to Dec. 31, 1917, the 
machine was in operation 265 days. In this time it cleaned 5,388 basins, at 
a total cost of $4,573 or 84.8 ct. per basin. The total cost figure is made up of 
$3,327 for wages of driver and two laborers, gasoline, oil, etc., and $1,246 for 
depreciation at the rate of 20 per cent per annum. The average cost of 
cleaning the basins in 1916 by hand methods was $3.40 per basin. 

Cost of Cleaning Catchbasins at Cambridge, Mass. — Cost data on clean- 
ing catchbasins by the Sewer Department of Cambridge, Mass., are given 



SEWAGE TREATMENT 807 

in the 1916 annual report of L. M. Hastings, City Engineer. The figures, 
covering the period 1905-1916 inclusive, are reprinted in Engineering and 
Contracting, as follows: 

Quantity Cost 

No. of Loads 

C. B. Total per Total Per Per 

Date cleaned loads C. B. cu. yd. Total C. B. cu. yd. 

1905 2,169 5,213 2.40 3,909 $6,089 2.80 1.55 

1906 2,340 5,609 2.82 4,206 6,050 2.58 1.44 

1907 1,948 4,704 2.40 3,528 5,070 2.60 1.44 

1908-9* 2,742 5,906 2.15 4,429 8,090 2.95 1.82 

1909-10..... 1,874 4,157 2.22 3,118 6,732 3.32 2.16. 

1910-11 1,672 4,181 2.50 3,135 6,225 3.72 1.98 

1911-12t 1,466 3,676 2.51 2,775 6,344 4.33 2.30 

1912-13 1,438 3,463 2.41 2,598 5,656 -3.93 2.18 

1913-14 1,479 3,802 2.58 2,851 6,223 4.21 2.18 

1914-15$ 1,335 3,862 2.89 2,896 7,559 5.66 2.61 

1915-16 1,128 3,247 2.88 2,436 7,309 6.48 3.00 

* Sixteen months, t September 1911, pay of cleaners increased to $2.25 per 
day. % October 14, 1914, pay of cleaners increased to $2.50 per day. 



Cost of Catchbasin Cleaning With Orange Peel Bucket and Truck. — 
A special catchbasin cleaning outfit, consisting of a small orange peel bucket 
and a 33'^-ton truck, with steel body and power dump hoist, has been in service 
at Cambridge, Mass., for the past 6 months. The excavating and loading of 
the material from the basins is done with the orange peel, the bucket being 
opened and shut by a piston and cylinder attached to its head, which is oper- 
ated by compressed air at a pressure of about 100 lb. per square inch. In the 
January Journal of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers, L. M. Hastings 
gives the costs on catchbasin cleaning in 1908 with the new outfit and with 
teams; from which Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 12, 1919, quotes the 
following: 

By Orange Peel and Auto Truck 

Four trips at 3 cu. yd. X 5 60 cu. yd. 

Saturday, 2 X 3 X 1 6 cu. yd. 

66 cu. yd. weekly, 
or 11 cu. yd. daily average. 

Chauffeur, at $4 $ 4.00 

2 laborers, at $3.25 6. 50 

Gasoline, 7 gal., at 25 ct 1 . 75 

Oil .20 

Grease .15 

$12. 60 per day 

Tires $ 250. 00 

Repairs 300. 00 

Depreciation, $6,000 at 20 per cent 1 , 200. 00 

Interest on investment, $6,000 at 4 per cent. . . . 240. 00 

Yearly overhead costs $1 , 990. 00 

Yearly overhead costs $1 , 990. 00 

> = 7.96 

Assuming 250 working days 250 

Cost per day $20. 56 

20.56 4- 11 = $1.87 per cu. yd. 



808 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

By Horse Carts 

5 to 6 loads daily average 5y2 loads, 1 1/6 cu. yd. per load. 

1.16 X 5. 5 loads X 5 days 32.0 cu. yd. 

1. 16 X 5. 5 loads X }^i day Saturday 3. 2 cu. yd. 

35.2 cu. yd. weekly 
or 5.86 cu. yd. daily average. 

Labor, 4 men, at $3.25 $ 13.00 

2 horses, at $1.50 3 . 00 

$16. 00 per day 

Interest, $575 X 2, at 4 per cent $ 46. 00 

Depreciation, $575 X 2, at 15 per cent 172. 50 

Yearly overhead $ 218. 50 

$ = .87 

Working days 250 

Cost per day $16. 87 

$16.87 -T- 5.86 = $2.88 per cu. yd. 




CHAPTER XIII 
GARBAGE DISPOSAL 

Cost of Collecting, Hauling and Transporting Municipal Refuse. — A very 
important element in the collection, haul, transfer and transportation of 
refuse materials is the cost. Many local factors enter into the cost element, 
and unless these are considered and understood, the cost data are misleading. 
Standard forms for recording cost data of refuse collection are not used exten- 
sively, so that the data presented should not be taken without qualification. 
Samuel A. Greeley in a paper before the 1914 annual convention of the 
American Society of Municipal Improvements, gave methods of analyzing 
the cost of the various parts of the service, and the following matter is taken 
from a reprint of this paper published in Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 
21, 1914. 

Elements of Cost. — The elements of the cost .of each part of the collection 
service can be segregated and studied advantageously by the following 
method. The unit quantities used in the computations were assumed for 
certain local conditions and will not necessarily apply everywhere. They are 
presented here to illustrate the method of analysis. 

Loading. — The cost of loading will vary with the character of the material, 
the district served, the season of the year, the unit cost for labor in each 
locality and other local conditions. The method of analysis for loading 
garbage follows: 

a. Number of people per house or per collection made 10 

b. Number of minutes required to make one collection or to give service 

to ten people 1 

c. Interval of days between collections 2 

d. Capacity of garbage wagons in tons 2 

e. Quantity of garbage produced in tons per 1,000 population per day ... 0. 273 

f . Quantity of garbage after two days' interval between collections, tons 

per 1,000 population per day 0. 546 

g. To make collections from 1,000 people requires 100 collections, taking 

100 minutes' time, 
h. Time in minutes required to load a wagon with two tons of garbage in 

2 

accordance with the date above equals „ _ .„ X 100 367 

O.o4o 

i. The time required for loading is thus 6.1 hours. If the cost of the 
team, wagon and collector be taken at 75 cts. per hour, the cost for 
loading one 2-ton wagon will be $4.57 and the cost per ton for load- 
ing garbage ($2.28) 2.28 

The analysis can be applied to the loading of ashes, rubbish, mixed refuse 
or any refuse material, if the proper unit quantities and basic data be first 
determined. The cost per ton for loading other refuse materials in accordance 
with assumed data will be as follows: 

Cost of load- 
Materials ing per ton 

Ashes $0,415 

Rubbish 2. 62 

Mixed refuse 0. 56 

809 



810 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Motor Trucks. — The cost of loading a motor truck can be studied in a 
similar way. The cost of operation will be greater per hour and the rate of 
loading will have to be increased proportionately to make the cost comparable 
with loading a team drawn wagon. The cost of haul by motor truck will be 
less. 

The use of motor trucks in refuse collection service will increase. A rela- 
tively high loading cost can be reduced by limiting the motor truck to trans- 
portation after the loading of the wagons by the so-called traction and trailer 
system now being tried on a large scale in New York City and used in quite a 
number of European cities. 

Hauling. — The refuse material loaded in the collection wagon must be 
hauled to the transfer station or place for final disposal. This will be done by 
horse-drawn vehicle or by motor. The length of haul will be from the point of 
last collection to the place of final delivery. This distance or haul must be 
covered twice for each complete load. 

The cost of haul will depend on the rate of travel, the weight of the load and 
the cost of the team and the driver, or motor and mechanic. The cost of 
team haul may be analyzed as follows: 

Assumed: Per hour 

Rates of travel, miles 3.0 

Cost of outfit $0. 75 

Cost per mile of travel .• 0. 25 

Cost per mile of haul . 50 

Cost per ton-mile haul with a 2-ton load 0. 25 

The cost of haul by gasoline or motor truck may be analyzed as follows: 

Assumed: Per hour 

Rate of travel, miles 6.0 

Cost of outfit $2. 40 

Cost per mile of travel 0. 40 

Cost per mile of haul 0. 80 

Cost per ton-mile haul with a 5-ton load 0.16 

The rate of travel will vary considerably from different sections of a large 
city, being slower through streets congested with a large volume of traffic. 
In such districts, collection work should be done at night or during the early 
morning hours. 

Transfer Stations. — The operation of transfer stations should also be con- 
sidered as a part of the cost of transportation. A transfer station to handle 
600 cu. yds. a day, or 375 tons, may cost, depending upon type of building and 
local conditions, about $50,000, including land in a fairly well-built up section. 

The annual cost of operation may be estimated as follows: 

Interest at 5 per cent $ 2 , 500 

Depreciation of plant 1 , 250 

Labor: 

1 foreman 1 , 200 

4 laborers 3, 600 

Repairs and supplies 2.500 

Total $10,800 

This is equivalent to a cost of 9.4 cts. per ton. 

Cost of Transportation. — The cost of transportation of refuse from the trans- 
fer station to the place of final disposal depends upon the method used. The 
cost for several methods is discussed below. 

Trolley Transportation. — Assume a typical transfer station receiving 600 
cu. yds. of refuse material per day. Assume trains to be made up of one motor 



I 



GARBAGE DISPOSAL 811 

car which carries no load and two trailers. Assume each trailer to have a 
capacity of 25 cu. yds. To move 600 cu. yds. 24 trailer loads are required. If 
the place of disposal be so located that each train can make two trips a day, 
six trains will be required. Assume that three motors can handle the six 
trains. The daily cost of operation will then be: 

Per day 

Motor cost, three at $25 $ 75. 00 

Trailers, twelve at $6 72. 00 

Total $147.00 

If the 600 cu. yds. of refuse weigh 375 tons, the cost of trolley transportation 
will be 40 cts. per ton. 

Barge Transportation. — A good, serviceable tug will cost about $30,000 and 
deck scows about $7,000 apiece. The annual cost of operating a fleet may be 
as follows : 

Annual cost of tug: 

Interest at 5 per cent $ 1 , 500 

Depreciation on 15-year life 1 ,389 

Labor: 

Captain $2 , 100 

Engineer 1 , 800 

Fireman 1 , 000 

Deck hands - 1 , 800 6 , 700 

Repairs 2 , 500 

Fuel 3 , 500 

SuppUes 1 , 000 

Insurance 200 

Total $16,789 

Annual cost of barge: 

Interest at 5 per cent $ 350 

Depreciation 324 

Deck hands 1 , 800 

$2,474 
Assume that 1 tug serves 4 barges 9 , 896 

Total annual cost of fleet $26, 685 

If each barge makes one trip per day, carrying 100 tons of refuse, the cost per 
ton amounts to 22 cts. 

In like manner the elements of cost can be determined for other methods of 
transportation. 

Steam Railroad Transportation. — The cost of transportation by steam rail- 
roads depends principally upon the switching charges. These will range from 
$5 to $15 per car. A car will hold about 40 tons of garbage, so that the switch- 
ing charge will average about 20 cts. per ton. 

Available Collection Costs. — Actual cost data should be studied to check the 
costs estimated above, but these are not available for a large number of cities. 
The costs for collection service are generally recorded to include both loading 
and hauling in one figure, while costs of transportation are frequently given 
separately. The cost data for some cities in which the itemized cost of col- 
lection is available have been summarized in Table I. 

Chicago Data. — Jacobs and Senfield have made a careful analysis of the cost 
of collecting garbage, and ashes, and rubbish in Chicago. These data are 
compiled in excellent detail and accuracy. The average cost for the five 
years— 1908 to 1912— are given in Table II. 



812 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



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GARBAGE DISPOSAL 813 

Table II, — Average Cost op Refuse Collection, Loading and Hauling, 
AT Chicago, III. 

Cost per ton of Cost per cu. yd., 

Year garbage ashes and rubbish 

1908 $3.78 $0.56 

1909 3.76 0.57 

1910 3.43 0.59 

1911 3.19 0.62 

1912 3.20 • 0.60 

If. ashes and rubbish together weigh 1,000 lbs. per cubic yard, the cost of 
collection per ton amounts to $1.20. 

IMPROVED METHODS FOR RECORDING COST DATA 

The value of unit cost data for loading, hauhng, transferring and transport- 
ing refuse materials should be realized by city ofiBcials. Accurate records 
should be kept and published in similar forms in different cities, so that com- 
parisons can be made and a check secured on the efficiency of the local work 

Cost of Motor Truck Operation for Refuse Collection. — In connection with 
a study of refuse collection at Rochester, N. Y., the Rochester Bureau of 
Municipal Research, Inc., of which James W. Routh is Director, collected a 
considerable amount of data on the use of motor trucks in municipal service. 
These data ^re given in a report issued recently by the Bureau, from which the 
matter following is abstracted in Engineering and Contracting, July 2, 1919. 

In 1914 a 5-ton truck equipped with a specially designed 10-yd. collection 
body was given a trial in house to house collection of garbage and ashes on a 
3-mile haul in the Borough of the Bronx, New York City. It was given a 
further trial in hauling garbage from relay stations in the outlying sections of 
the Borough. On the 3-mile haul in making house-to-house collections the 
truck did not prove as economical as the 1-horse carts generally used But 
in hauling from relay stations on the longer haul the truck showed a consider- 
able saving over horse-drawn carts. The haul for this work was approxi- 
mately 7 miles. The truck made four round trips for a total of 54.2 miles and 
hauled 27.6 tons of garbage as against about 1^ trips made in the same length 
of time by a 1-horse cart hauling approximately 1}4 tons (Ho tons per load). 
On the shorter haul the cart made three round trips per day for a total distance 
of 18 miles, including house-to-house collections and hauled 5.4 tons; the 
truck made five round trips for a total distance of 32.7 miles and hauled 23 85 
tons. 

The poorer showing of the truck on house-to-house collection was attri- 
buted to the time spent in loading. Although four helpers were provided the 
time so spent represented more than one-half the total time. The time spent 
in traveling to and from the dump was only one-fifth the total time. On relay 
work, however, the loading time was only 35 per cent of the total time. 

The 1-horse cart outfit cost $4.32 per day. The total daily cost of operating 
the truck was $13.70, distributed as follows: 

Item 

Gasoline 

Oil 

Truck depreciation (cost $5,000, life 5 years) 

Interest on investment at 6 per cent 

Repairs, labor, materials, tires, grease and miscellaneous . 

Garaging , 

Driver's pay 



Total 


Per cent 


cost 


of total 


$ 2.41 


17.6 


0.75 


5.4 


2.78 


20.3 


0.83 


6.1 


4.07 


29.7 


0.30 


2.2 


2.56 


18.7 



Total $13.70 100.0 



814 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The New York Department of Street Cleaning has used large tractor- 
trailer motor propelled collection units to some extent. These are giant 
outfits hauling 25 cu. yd. of refuse per load. Collections of ashes, rubbish 
and garbage are made simultaneously, but in separate compartments. The 
average haul is about 13^ miles. Special equipment is provided for unloading 
the refuse onto scows. The principal factor tending to produce economy 
from the collection standpoint is the fact that all refuse is dumped at a common 
point of disposal. For this reason all refuse may be collected at one time by 
providing separate refuse compartments on the collection vehicles. 

In Philadelphia a part of the collection equipment has been motorized. 
Five-ton trucks equipped with 12-yd. bodies have proven economical in 
the collection of ashes and rubbish from sections where the haul to the dump 
averages 6 miles. 

In a report by the Efficiency Division of the Chicago Civil Service Commis- 
sion made public in July, 1915, it is stated that after a thorough study of the 
question of motorizing Chicago's collection equipment the continued use of 
horses in garbage collection was found to be justified. The report states that 
the data assembled for gas and electric trucks warrant their adoption only for 
hauling after horse-drawn carts have made the house-to-house collection. 
These figures are based on a $5.50 daily wage per team. If the cost of 
teaming were increased to $6 per day, it is stated that there would be a slight 
saving by using motor equipment, but this would not be sufficient to warrant 
the change at least for some time to come. The report states that the haul in 
Chicago varies from 13^ to 5 miles. As between the gasoline and electric 
trucks, the latter were found to be the more economical. The haul below 
which a 3-ton electric truck would not be economical when measured against 
a $5.50 team was found to be 1.8 miles. Against a $6 team it was 0.8 mile. 
Three-ton gasoline trucks were found to be not as economical as either a 
$5.50 or $6 team. 

The fixed and mileage charges for gasoline and electric trucks were as 
follows: 

Total cost 

Item Gasoline Electric 

First cost of 3-ton truck or tractor $4 , 000. 00 $ 4 , 000 

Fixed charges: 

Fixed charges on investment per year at 

4 per cent. 160.00 160.00 

Garage 300. 00 300. 00 

Insurance (fire and liabiUty) 190. 00 183. 00 

State Ucense 4. 00 4. 00 

Driver 960. 00 960. 00 

Obsolescence, 5 per cent 200. 00 200. 00 

Contingencies (interest on operating stores, general 

superintendence, etc.), 2 per cent 80. 00 80. 00 

Total fixed charges per year $1,894.00 $1,887.00 

Total fixed charges per day 0^ year) 6.31 6.29 

Variable expenses per mile: 

Depreciation $ 0. 0573 $ 0. 0340 

Tires • 0600 . 0600 

Maintenance and repairs . 0300 . 0300 

Lubrication (oil and grease) . 0050 . 0050 

Energy (gasoline 13^-^ ct. per gal., electricity -hi d. 

per kw. hour) 0344 . 0050 

Total variable expense per mile $ 0. 1767 $ 0. 1340 



GARBAGE DISPOSAL 815 

The cost for hauling with horses was given as follows: 

-Teams costing- 



Item $5.50 per day $6.00 per day 

Fixed charges for equipment $0. 021 $0. 021 

Horses and driver 5. 500 6. 000 

Wagon depreciation, Ufe 22,000 miles 0. 084 0. 084 

Maintenance and repairs at 5 per cent 0. 021 0. 021 



Total daily expense $5. 626 $6. 126 

In Los Angeles motor trucks are used in the collection of all non-combustible 
refuse. Two 23'^-ton trucks are used to haul garbage from the outlying 
districts where the haul averages 8 miles or more. One driver and two helpers 
compose the crew and two loads are collected daily. For the remainder of the 
city on the shorter hauls teams are still used. The cost of garbage collection 
with motor trucks on the long hauls is given as $2.76 per ton. On the shorter 
hauls the cost is $2 per ton using teams. 

A certain firm in Rochester employing both horses and motor trucks in 
lumber and building material deliveries states that the economical low limit 
of haul for motor trucks is found to be 2 >^ miles. 

The average cost of truck operation by this firm for the last three years has 
been $11.20 to $12.30 per day. (This includes the cost of two 3-ton and 2- 
ton trucks.) Items included are fuel, lubricants, tires, repairs, license fee, 
liability insurance, garaging, drivers' wages and depreciation. Drivers were 
paid $17 to $19 per week. Twenty per cent was allowed for depreciation. 

C. V. Montgomery, who has charge of a large fleet of motor trucks on paving 
work in Philadelphia, in a statement appearing in the Engineering News of 
Jan. 11, 1917, places the cost of operating a 5-ton truck 50 miles per day at 
$17.91. Fixed charges amount to $5.39 per day or 30 per cent of the total. 
This cost evidently apphes to 1916 conditions. The distribution is as follows: 

Per cent 
of total 
Fixed charges Per day cost per day 

Depreciation* ($4,100 first cost — $400 scrap 

value/ 1,200 days) $0.46 2.6 

Insurance (liability, fire, collision) .58 3.2 

License fee .10 0.6 

Truck foreman (supervising 3 trucks) 1 . 25 7.0 

Driver 3.00 16.7 

Total fixed charges $5.39 30. 1 

Per day Per cent 

at 50- total cost 

Variable charges Per mile truck-miles per day 
Depreciation* ($4,100 first cost — $400 

scrap value/15,000 miles) $0. 0629 $ 3. 14 17 . 6 

Gasohne at 25 ct. (3 miles per gal.) 0833 4. 17 23 . 3 

Lubricating oil (64 miles per gal.) . 0055 0. 27 1.5 

Tires 0386 1.94 10.8 

Repairs . 0600 3. 00 16. 7 

Total variable charges $0. 2503 $12. 52 69. 9 

Fixed charges (at 50 miles per day) . . 0. 1078 5. 39 

Total cost per mile $0. 3581 

Total cost per day $17.91 100.0 

* About 15 per cent of first cost depreciates with passage of time, while about 
85 per cent is proportional directly to mileage run. 



816 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The cost of operating a 5-ton truck used in the delivery of sand and gravel 
on the Pacific Coast during a 5-months' period in 1917 was approximately 
$13.40 per day. This includes all charges. Capacity loads were hauled an 
average distance of 6.1 miles over roads of various kinds, equally divided 
between gravel and dirt, with many hills, some of them steep. The average 
distance traveled daily was about 60 miles. The costs were distributed 
as follows: 

Per cent 

Item Total cost of total 

Fuel $ 303. 25 18. 1 

Oil and grease 69 . 79 4.2 

Tires 154.93 9.3 

Repairs and parts 21 . 06 1.3 

Wages 508.75 30.4 

Interest at 6 per cent 218. 78 13. 1 

Depreciation at 20 per cent 394. 66 23. 6 

Total $1,671.22 100.0 

The cost of hauling paving materials in Detroit with a 5-ton truck during 
1917 was $14.85 per day, including all costs. The truck hauled an aggregate 
of 35 tons in seven trips, the average haul being 4>^ miles. 

The cost of operating a 33'^-ton truck under average service conditions on 
the roads of Southern California over a considerable period of time was found 
to be $9 per day. This includes all cost of upkeep, supplies, depreciation, 
wages of drivers, etc. The first cost of the truck was placed at $3,500 and 
its life at 10 years, assuming that the truck traveled 25 miles per day. Gaso- 
line was purchased at 16 cts per gallon and the driver's salary was $960 per 
year. Roads were good and operating conditions generally very favorable. 
Itemized costs (for the estimated life of 10 years) follows: 

Cost per Per cent 
Item Total cost day of total 

Insurance $ 1 ,350 $0. 45 5. 

License and taxes 380 .13 1.4 

Interest at 6 per cent 2 , 100 .70 7.8 

Depreciation 3,500 1. 17 12. 9 

Administration 415 .14 1.5 

Storage 960 .32 3.5 

Gasoline at 16 ct. per gallon 2,400 .80 8.9 

Oil, grease, waste 750 .25 2.8 

Tires (less first cost) 2 , 345 .78 8.7 

Driver's salary 9 , 600 3. 20 35. 5 

Maintenance 3,250 1.08 12.0 

Total for life of truck $27 , 050 $9. 02 100. 

The first cost of a truck with a collection body would be somewhat higher 
than is here given. As a matter of fact, the city of Rochester awarded a 
contract to the Selden Motor Vehicle Co. in December, 1917, for two 3K-ton 
trucks each equipped with a special 6-yd. collection body at $5,031 each. 
Other costs also have increased proportionately since the above estimate was 
made. It is believed, however, that a competent driver could be employed at 
less than $960. It should be possible to employ a truck driver at $900 annu- 
ally if he were given permanent employment. Also interest rates on the invest- 
ment should not amount to more than 5 per cent. The life of a truck used in 
house-to-house collection work would probably not be as long as in other 
work due to frequent starting, stopping and generally hard usage. A life of 
5 years with a daily average mileage of 25 miles would seem to be a fair esti- 



GARBAGE DISPOSAL 



817 



mate for the useful service derived from the truck. At the end of that time 
the estimated scrap value would be $500. With these data the following esti- 
mate is made of the daily cost of operating a truck in ash collection. 

Estimated Daily Cost of Operation of a S^^^-ton Motor Truck in Refuse 

Collection 

Total daily Per cent 

cost of total 
Fixed charges: 

Depreciation: First cost, $5,031.35, life 5 years, 

scrap value $500 $0. 45 3.5 

Insurance (liability $120, fire $45 per year) .55 4.3 

Storage .30 2.4 

Driver ($900 per year) 3. 00 23. 6 

Interest (5 per cent annually) .84 6. 6 

Overhead supervision (same organization as for city 

stables .40 3.2 

Total fixed charges $5. 54 43. 6 

Per day Per cent 

Variable charges: Per mile at 25 miles of total 
Depreciation: First cost $5,031.35, life 

5 years, scrap value $500 $0. 1027 $ 2. 57 20. 2 

Gasoline at 22 ct. gal. (3 miles per 

gallon).. 0733 1.83 14.4 

Lubricants (oil, grease, waste) .0100 .25 2. 

Tires.. 0500 1.25 9.9 

Repairs and sundries . 0500 1 . 25 9.9 

Total variable charges $0. 2860 $7.15 56. 4 

Total fixed charges at 25 mile per day .2216 5. 54 43 . 6 

Total daily cost of operation $0. 5076 • $12. 69 100. 

It is assumed that a certain small amount of depreciation is due directly 
to the passage of time. In the estimate, therefore, 15 per cent of the total 
depreciation is included as a fixed charge and distributed over 1,500 days, the 
estimated useful life of the truck. The remaining 85 per cent depreciation 
is assumed as being directly proportional to the mileage run. Operated 25 
miles per day with a life of 1,500 days' service, the total distance that the 
truck would travel would be 37,500 miles. The estimated depreciation for the 
life of the truck on this basis is 23.7 per cent of the total daily cost of operation. 
This is rather a big allowance for depreciation, but when the nature of the 
work is considered it is not high in comparison to depreciation of trucks used 
in straight commercial hauling work. A truck used in house to-house collec- 
tion work must be started and stopped many times in the course of each load- 
ting. The motor must be kept in constant motion because each stop is of 
short duration. On account of the many starts and stops also the truck must 
of necessity cover a considerable distance each day at a speed much slower 
than its economical speed of operation. Combined with all of these factors 
the truck must be operated continuously in the presence of grit and cinders 
from ashes and dust from street dirt. For these reasons not only is deprecia- 
tion sure to be high, but the unit cost of fuel, lubrication, tires and repairs is 
also bound to be more than similar costs under normal commercial operating 
conditions. 

Cost of Collection and Removal of City Wastes in Chicago. — The following 
data, from a report by the Efficiency Division of the Chicago Civil Service 
Commission for the removal of garbage, ashes, refuse and other wastes for the 
year 1914, were pubUshed in Engineering and Contracting, Dec. 3, 1913. 
52 



818 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



During 1912 about 1,400,000 cu. yds. of rubbish were collected and hauled 
to dumps at an average cost of 60 cts. per cu. yd. During the same year 
about 119,000 tons of garbage were collected and removed at an average cost 
of $3.20 per ton. 

Dead Animals. — Dead animals are removed and disposed of in Chicago by 
contract. A contract of this character was awarded in August, 1912, and was 
for a period of five years, for which the city is paid an annual rate of $25. The 
contract provides that the contractor shall remove within twelve hours all 
dead animals from streets, alleys and the river, and dispose of them at least 
three miles outside the city limits. 

An estimate of the number and weight of dead animals removed and dis- 
posed of each year in the city is given herewith, as follows: 

Total number of dead horses, average weight 1,300 lbs 9,253 

Total number of dead dogs, average weight 25 lbs , 20,782 

Total number of dead cats, average weight 5 lbs 3 , 603 

Total number of other animals, including cows, goats, sheep, rabbits, etc., 

average weight 100 lbs 448 

Grand total number of dead animals removed 34 , 086 

Total estimated weight of all dead animals removed, 12,611,265 lbs., or 6,305 tons 

Quantity of Garbage and Rubbish.— The house collection is made by wagons 
equipped with covered steel tanks having a capacity of about 23^^ tons of 



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600 

550 

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750 450 

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Jan Feb- Man Apr May June Jufy Aug. Sept Oct. Nov. Dec 

Fia. 1. — Curves showing daily variation in tonnage of garbage in Chicago for 
the years 1911, 1912 and 1913. 

garbage. The wagons and tanks are owned by the city, while the teams are 
hired from contractors on a per diem basis. Each ward is divided into garbage 
districts and collections are made from each district according to the density 
and character of population and district. The wagons are taken to the load- 
ing stations from which the tanks are transported to the place of final 
disposition. 

The curves shown in Figs. 1 and 2 indicate the variation in the amounts of 
garbage and rubbish collected and the problems which must be met in order 
efficiently to handle this work. These curves indicate that the minimum 
quantity of garbage is reached during the winter months, and the maximum 



GARBAGE DISPOSAL 



819 



quantity during the summer months, especially during the month of Septem- 
ber. This necessitates that the organization maintained be flexible and easily 
adapted to the ever-changing conditions. Analysis of the garbage collections 
made in this city for the past five years indicates that the quantity to be col- 
lected from the several districts for different years is not a constant figure, 
depending upon the local conditions such as change of character of population, 
growth of residence, business or manufacturing property. 

Field study of the average time required by drivers to collect a load of 
garbage indicates that it takes about 3 hours and 55 minutes to collect a full 
load of garbage in summer and 4 hours and 45 minutes to collect a full load 
of garbage in the winter months. These units have been taken as standards 

7000 

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|V1^^^. 


^r^ 


r\AV\A 


'^JHV 
















.W" 








*'\ 


^^1., 












n 












Vv 


rVsA^\>^ 


^/VVv^n/^ 


AV^vV\1 


^V*^"^ 


vVv 


\\i 






} 










1911.. 












1 1 1 1 1 


.1 1 t 1 1 


.1 1 M 1 


t M I f 


M 1 .1 .1- 






■ 1 n 1 1 


.i..i.,i.i,i, 


1 .1 M i 


mil 


ElNGfi. 
CONTG 



5 16 25 5 

Jan 



15 25 5 15 25 5 15 25 5 15 25 5 15 25 5 15 25 5 15 25 5 15 25 5 15 25 5 15 25 5 15 25 

Feb. Mar Apr May June Jultj Aug. Sept Oct No\^. Dec 



Fig. 2. — Curves showing daily variation in yardage of rubbish for 1911 and 
1912 in Chicago. 

and represent service which can be secured and maintained by every efficient 
teamster in the city. The average rate of haul has been found to be approxi- 
mately 2.7 miles per hour. Tables III and IV give data on the production 
and unit cost of collecting, hauling and disposing of wastes in 1912. 



Table III. — Data on Production of Municipal Refuse in Chicago During 

1912 

Production 

Minimum month 

Maximum month 

Total for year 1 

Total team days 

Total number of loads 

Average loads per team-day 

Total average time per load 

Average haul in miles 



Ashes and 




rubbish 


Garbage 


68,023* 


6,256t 


166,007* 


14,960- 


1,399.716* 


119,176 ■ 


131,475 


54,152.5 


271,760 


56,048 


2.06 


1.04 


3.91 


7.75 


2.9 


3.4 



*Cu. yds. 
tTons. 

The larger number of collectors collect one load per day and the remaining 
time over the 3 hours and 55 minutes is spent in going to and from the loading 



820 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Table IV. — Data on the Cost of Collecting, Hauling, Dumping and 
Disposal of Ashes, Rubbish and Garbage in Chicago in 1912 
(Cost Exclusive Of Overhead Charges) 
Collection — 

Average time: 

Ashes and rubbish 1.3 

Garbage 4.8 

Per cent of total time: 

Ashes and rubbish 33.7 

Garbage 62 . 9 

Cost: 

Ashes and rubbish $334 , 970 

Garbage $267 , 800 

Average cost per cu. yd.: 

Ashes and rubbish .24 

Garbage 2.24 

Haul- 
Average time: 

Ashes and rubbish 2.2 

Garbage 2.5 

Per cent of total time: 

Ashes and rubbish 56 . 

Garbage 32.0 

Cost: 

Ashes and rubbish $421 , 350 

Garbage $ 97 , 157 

Average cost per cu. yd. : - 

Ashes and rubbish ' .30 

Garbage* 0.81 

Average cost per yard mile: 

Ashes and rubbish .05 

Garbage* .12 

Dumping — 

Average time: 

Ashes and rubbish 0.4 

Garbage . 4 

Per cent of total time: 

Ashes and rubbish 10.4 

Garbage 5.2 

Cost: 

Ashes and rubbish $ 74 , 352 

Garbage $ 15,462 

Average cost per cu. yd.: 

Ashes and rubbish .05 

Garbage* .13 

Total cost — 

Ashes and rubbish $830, 680 

Garbage $380,353 

Total average cost per cu. yd.: 

Ashes and rubbish .59 

Garbage* 3.19 

(Cost Including Overhead Charges) 
Collection — 
Cost: 

Ashes and rubbish $352, 194 

Garbage $290 , 648 

Average cost per cu. yd.: 

Ashes and rubbish .27 

Garbage* 2.44 

Haul- 
Cost: 

Ashes and rubbish $476 , 875 

Garbage $154,823 

Average cost per cu. yd.: 

Ashes and rubbish .33 

Garbage* 1.30 

Average cost per yard mile: 

Ashes and rubbish -05 

Garbage* .10 



GARBAGE DISPOSAL 821 

Dumping and disposal — 
Cost: 

Ashes and rubbish $133 , 829 

Garbage $ 64 , 807 

Average cost per cu. yd.: 

Ashes and rubbish .09 

Garbage* .54 

Total cost — 

Ashes and rubbish $962 , 898 

Garbage $510,278 

Total average cost per cu. yd.: 

Ashes and rubbish .69 

Garbage* 4 . 29 

Note. — *The unit cost for garbage collection, hauling and disposal is the ton. 
Cost exclusive of overhead charges is based upon the ward expenditures as 
shown by the City Controller's annual report for 1912. The cost of collection 
includes all labor charges for the service, and the cost of team hire for the time 
spent collecting. The cost of haul includes the cost of team hire for the time 
spent hauHng. 

The length of haul shown is the distance one way to the place of disposal. 
Average rate of travel assumed at 2.7 miles per hour. The cost of dumping 
is based upon the average period taken, viz.: 25 minutes per load. 

Overhead charges include the cost of depreciation of equipment, rental, super- 
intendence and operation of dumps and loading stations. Overhead charges 
have been prorated between collection, haul and disposal on percentage basis. 
Cost of operation of loading stations charged against haul. Cost of operation of 
dumps and disposal charged against dumping and disposal. 

station or disposal plant, or in waiting at the loading station. It has been 
found that practically 75 per cent of the teams at the present time complete 
their collection and haul and return to the starting point within six or seven 
hours, and the remaining part of the eight-hour day is not devoted to any 
productive work. Under the present system of ward distribution it is not 
possible to arrange for long and short hauls, which would take care of the time 
lost. The present condition can be remedied with profit and increased service 
by the provision of new tanks 6 or 8 ins. higher than those now in use. These 
new boxes should be obtained as the old tanks are used up. 

The 5 cu. yd. rubbish box used in this city is sufficient to hold all that a team 
can economically and conveniently haul through the unpaved alleys during 
the winter months. However, the material to be removed during the summer 
months is of light, combustible nature and a team can, under normal 
conditions, conveniently draw at least 9 cu. yds. As indicated above, the 
principal cost of rubbish disposal is the collection and haul; the greatest econ- 
omy will, therefore, result when a team can collect the maximum possible 
quantity in one load. Wagons designed with lower bodies will allow of larger 
loads. At the same time the height required to raise the pail to empty the 
rubbish is reduced, with the result that the efficiency of labor will be greatly 
increased. Provision whereby sideboards can be hinged to the ordinary rub- 
bish box will adapt the box to a 5 cu. yd. load during the winter months and 
to larger loads during the summer season. 

Economic Methods of Waste Disposal for Cities of Different Sized Popula- 
tions. — In his report made to the mayor and city council of Davenport, Iowa, 
John W. Alvord gave the following diagram (Fig. 3) showing the relative 
availability of various methods of disposal of city wastes under average 
economic conditions for cities of different sized populations. 

It must be remembered that the reduction process is applicable to garbage 
alone. The cremation process is applicable to garbage mixed with some fuel, 
while incineration is applicable to and requires the collection of all of the 



822 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 




GARBAGE DISPOSAL 



823 



municipal wastes in order to destroy the same by combustion with success. 
There is, therefore, a fundamental difference between these methods which 
should not be lost sight of. 

Cost of Garbage Disposal by Incineration, Reduction and Feeding to 
Swine. — Important facts concerning garbage disposal methods and costs in 
various cities are given in a report prepared by the Springfield Bureau of Mu- 
nicipal Research of Springfield, Mass. The following main features of the 
report regarding the various methods of disposing of garbage are taken from 
Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 12, 1917. 



INCINERATION 

Fuel Used in Incineration. — By incineration is meant the disposal of garbage 
by burning. The fuel may be only the garbage and other refuse, or it may be 
coal, wood or other fuel, depending upon the proportion and character of the 
refuse to be burned. The classes of refuse disposed of in incinerators and the 
amount of fuel required were as follows in 1915 for the cities named: 

Av. amount burned per day 



I 



City 


Gar- 
bage, 
tons 


Ashes, 
tons 


Rub- 
bish, 
tons 


Other 
mat'l 


Amount fuel 
used per year 
Amt. Cost 


San Francisco, Cal. — 

Garbage, rubbish, ashes, 
manure 


229 


49 


188 


I 






Cairo, 111.— 

Garbage 


24 








360* 


$ 720 


Fort Wayne, Ind.— 

Garbage, small animals 


33.47 








1,027* 


2,824 


Paterson, N. J. — 

Ashes, garbage, rubbish 


23 








2 


108 


Trenton, N. J. — 

Anything combustible 


50 








250* 


750 


Wilmington, N. C. — 

Garbage, rubbish, dead 
animals 


3 




37 




J 




Portland, Ore.— 

Garbage, manure, rubbish. . . 


123 




19 


. . .* 


5 




Erie, Pa. — 

Garbage, rubbish 


248 






7 


724* 


1,865 


Richmond, Va. — 

Garbage, combustible 
matter 2 (plants): 

Spokane, Wash. — 

Garbage, rubbish, manure. . . 


35 
35 

9.71 




5 
. 5 

4.13 


... 10 


290* 
594* 

14417 


1,000 
2,050 

720 


Wheeling, W. Va.— 

Garbage 


20 








11 


1,200 


London, Ont. — 

Garbage, ashes 

Montreal, Que . 


20-50 
116 

19.2 


12 
. . . 14 




_ 15 


.... 13 
_ Id 




Moose Jaw, Sask. — 

Garbage, manure 





^ *Tons. ^Manure 31 tons. H8 cd. wd. ^6 tons and 44 cords. ^Manure 
43^ tons. ^None. ^Includes rubbish, 'gmall animals, ^gniall animals. 
•Small animals. i^Manure and small animals 0.72 tons. ii25 million cu. ft. 
gas. i^Ashes dumped in winter, burned rest of year. i-^None. i^Includes all 
refuse. i^Manure, etc., 22.5 tons. i^None. i^Cds. 



824 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Thus, 9 out of the 14 cities hsted use other fuel in addition to the garbage 
and other refuse. 

Cost of Construction. — The cost of construction varies, according to one 
report from $600 to $1,000 per ton capacity. The Worcester Commission 
reports that "the cost per ton daily capacity varies from $230 to $1,000, the 
average being between $600 and $700." The cost in a number of cities was 
as follows : 



City Designer or builder 

Berkeley, Cal. Sterling 

Oaliland, Cal Decarie 

Fort Wayne, Ind Dixon 

South Bend, Ind Dixon 

Terre Haute, Ind 

Covington, Ky 

Grand Rapids, Mich. , . .Angle Imp. No. 3.. . 

Duhith, Minn Decarie 

Minneapolis, Minn 

Paterson, N. J Destructor Co 

Wilmington, N. C. . . . . . Decarie. 

Portland, Ore Smith 

Allentown, Pa Dixon 

Erie, Pa Morse-Boulger 

Richmond, Va., No. 1. . . Decarie 

Richmond, Va., No. 2.. . Morse-Boulger 

Spokane, Wash Decarie 

Wheeling, W. Va Decarie. 

Milwaukee, Wis 

London, Ont Heenan & Froude.. . 

Montreal, Que Thackeray 

Moose Jaw, Sask Heenan & Froude.. . 

Average for 22 plants $ 600 







Con- 






struction 




Con- 


cost per 


Capacity, 


struction 


ton 


tons 


cost 


capacity 


50 


$61,500 


$1,230 


100 


60,000 


600 


40 


15,000 


375 


25 


6,800 


272 


50-75 


15,000 


200 


100 


25,000 


250 


100 


14 , 656 


147 


25 


35,000 


1,400 


150 


50,000 


333 


60 


80,000 


1,333 


40 


35 , 000 


875 


150 


99,900 


660 


25-30 


14,700 


490 


100 


27.000 


270 


50 


40,000 


800 


50 


12,000 


240 


120 


90,000 


750 


50 


35 , 000 


700 


300 


210,000 


700 


50 


39,750 


795 


150 


41,000 


273 


50 


31,811 


636 



Cost of Operation. — The reports of charges for operation and maintenance 
were given for the following cities: 

Sup- 
plies, 

except 
fuel Fuel 

$ 325 $2,824 



City Total 

Ft. Wayne, Ind $ 7 , 150 

Paterson, N. J 9 , 527 

Portland, Ore 15,383 

Erie, Pa 5,835 

Richmond, Va., No. 1 3 , 700 

Richmond, Va., No. 2 5,050 

Spokane, Wash 3,930 

Wheeling, W. Va 5 , 690 

London, Ont 10,596 

Montreal, Que 23 , 445 

Moose Jaw, Sask 14, 106 

Milwaukee, Wis 68,892 

Minneapolis, Minn 43 , 000 * 

* Approximately. 



1 



Sal- Re- 
aries pairs 
$ 3,680 $ 157 
7 , 060 1 , 849 
13,805 
3,880 
2,250 
3,000 
3,165 
3,540 
9,096 



Re- 
new- 
als 

$183 



330 

40 

350 



200 



510 

248 

50 

100 



108 



45 
800 
600 



150 
900 



1,665 
1,000 
2,050 
720 
1,200 



11,951 2,174 



The Ohio State Board of Health reported the following costs including 
interest, depreciation, maintenance and repair charges, for the cities named for 
a period of years: 



GARBAGE DISPOSAL 825 

Per ton 

Canton.... $1.95 to $2.50 

Marion 2.00 to 2.66 

Steuben ville 1 , 00 to 1 . 84 

Zanesville 2 . 58 

J. W. Turrentine, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, reports the aver- 
age net cost of incineration per ton for a number of cities as $2.11. 

Venable gives the operation expenses as about 50 cts. per ton of kitchen 
garbage destroyed and nothing to $1.00 per ton for maintenance. 

From the facts available it appears that the lowest probable cost of disposal 
of garbage by incineration is $1.59 per ton. 

Revenue from Incinerator.^— ThSi products of the disposal of garbage in 
destructors are steam and clinker. The following are the earnings of incinerat- 
ing plants reported from Milwaukee and Minneapolis: 

City Amount Use 

Milwaukee $10,000 Operates puniping station. 

Minneapolis 27,000 Heats buildings, lights buildings 

and streets. 

As to the utilization of the heat from incinerators for the development of 
power, the Chicago Waste Commission states that it has not been easy to 
work out an economical arrangement for the use of steam from incinerating 
plants because of the infrequency with which the period of need of steam by 
a plant will coincide with the period of operation of the incinerator. It is 
difficult to have the incinerator produce steam power during the hours that 
it is needed by the plant that is to use it, and vice versa. The installation 
should be so arranged that this source of power may be used to supplement 
other sources of power. This is done in Montreal, where the refuse destructor 
is used in connection with a municipal electric light plant. The destructor 
is operated only at night when additional power is required by the light plant 
because of the lighting load then in demand. 

Minneapolis uses the steam generated to light and heat its hospital and 
workhouse buildings, and to light 31 miles of streets. 

Savannah is reported as saving 96 per cent of the coal fuel formerly used at 
the pumping station, now providing the power from the destructor and using 
the clinker in road building. 

Sanitary Aspects. — Incineration of garbage is sanitary and where properly 
conducted, permits of the disposal of garbage without odors. Thus, of the 
13 cities disposing of their garbage by incineration, 12 reported no odors and 
one made no report. This freedom from odor and other insanitary features 
makes it possible to locate incinerating plants in the central part of a city and 
decrease the length and cost of haul. Since different kinds of refuse can be 
disposed of at the same time, they can all be collected at the same time and 
thus save the added expense of separate collections. 

Reduction 

Sanitary Aspects. — In theory reduction plants should be operated in a sani- 
tary manner, without creating a nuisance and without carrying offensive 
odors. In practice they are not so operated. 



826 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

In the New York State report the following replies were obtained from citiea 
disposing of garbage by reduction to the question as to whether odors came 
from their plants: 

No New Bedford. 

Yes Schenectady-Pittsburgh. • 

Slight Columbus-Dayton. 

Occasionally St. Louis-Bridgeport. 

. Very little Utica-Cleveland. 

At times Syracuse. 

Much San Francisco. 

Some Springfield. 

40 miles away Washington, 

No reply New York, Rochester, Cincinnati, Detroit, Baltimore, 

Boston, Newark, Indianapolis. 

Thus, of the 21 cities, 8 did not report as to odors, 10 reported the presence 
of odors to a greater or less degree, 1 did not state whether there were odors 
or not but did state that the disposal plant was 40 miles away from the city, 
and 1 city reported no odors though officials from the city of Springfield 
visited the plant of this city and noted the odors coming from it. Four of the 
cities named above operate their own plants and all of -them report odors. 
Thus, the fact of private or public ownership and operation does not appear to 
affect the nuisance. 

That it is the expectation that reduction plants will cause offense and 
complaints is evident from the location of the plants with respect to the city, 
as follows: 

Distance of plant 
from center of 
Name of city city 

Berkeley, Cal 3 miles 

Washington, D. C 40 miles 

Cleveland, Ohio. 8 miles 

Columbus, Ohio 4K miles 

Dayton, Ohio About 6 miles 

Cost of Construction. — The cost of construction of reduction plants in cities 
for which the information is available was as follows: 

Capacity, 
tons in 
City 24 hours 

Los Angeles, Cal 300 

Chicago, 111 800 

St. Louis, Mo 400 

Cleveland, Ohio. . 20-25 

Schenectady, N. Y 200 

Colijmbus, Ohio 160 

Dayton, Ohio 50 

According to the New York State report the cost of construction varied from 
$1,500 to $3,000 per daily ton capacity. 

The average cost of construction per daily ton capacity Is $287 for these 
cities, excepting Schenectady, where the cost was reported to be $4,400. 

Cost of Operation. — One authority. Parsons, places the cost of reduction 
at $1.80 to $2.00 per ton of garbage; Turrentine at $2. 41 ; the New York State 



Cost of 


Cost 


construction 


per 


and extensions 


ton 


$100,000 


$ 333 


725 , 000 


906 


300,000 


750 


110,000 


4,400 


272 , 000 


1,360 


236,000 


1,475 


55,000 


1,100 



Receipts 


Profit 


$ 88,564 


$40,140 


224,725 


71,641 


41,200 


10,262 



GARBAGE DISPOSAL 827 

report at $1.50 to $2.50. In Columbus, Ohio, the cost per ton of garbage was 
as follows for the years indicated: 

Year Cost Year . Cost 

1911 $1,852 1914 $1,589 

1912 2 . 050 1915 1 . 940 

1913 . 1.910 1916 2.215 

In Dayton, the cost per ton was $1.89 in 1916. Under normal conditions 
it would appear that the minimum cost of reduction per ton of garbage should 
be placed at $2.00 

Revenue from Reduction. — Adequate data concerning receipts and expendi- 
tures of reduction plants are available for three cities only: 

City Expenditures 

Columbus $ 48,423 

Cleveland 153 , 084 

Dayton 30,938 

The city of Cleveland reports a profit of $1,493^ per ton of garbage. The 
profit for Cokimbus in 1916 was $1,836 per ton, while that from Dayton's 
new plant is $0.63. The annual profit per ton of garbage in Columbus for 
each of the last six years was: 

Year Profit per ton Total profit 

1911 $1.50 $26,239 

1912 1.24 23,224 

1913 : .83 17,239 

1914 1.225 26,501 

1915 .477 10,910 

1916 1.836 40,140 

Those in charge of the Columbus plant have estimated their annual interest 
and depreciation charge at 6.92 per cent or $21,271. To get a true idea of the 
relation between revenue and cost of reduction, these items should be taken 
into account. 



Year Profit charges Net profit Loss 

1911 

1912 

1913 17,239 21,271 $4,032 

1914 

1915 10,910 21,271 10,361 

1916. 





Interest 






and depre- 






ciation 




Profit 


charges 


Net profit 


$ 26,239 


$ 21,271 


$ 4,967 


23 , 224 


21,271 


1,963 


17,239 


21,271 




26,501 


21,271 


5,229 


10,910 


21,271 




40 , 140 


21,271 


18,069 



Total $144,236 $127,631 $16,625 

It is assumed that the depreciation charges were the same for each year 
since data are not available showing when additions may have been made. 
The charge of $21,271 was as of 1914 and so does not include additions made 
since then. So that the inclusion of depreciation and interest charges for 
items not purchased in the early years should very nearly be counterbalanced 
by the omission of items purchased after 1914. The net profit for the six 
years is $16,625, an average of $2,771 per year. 



828 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



The revenue of Cleveland per ton of garbage was given as $4,695, that of 
Columbus as $4,051 and that of Dayton, $2,522. Without doubt the amounts 
for Cleveland and Columbus are large because of the prevailing high prices. 
The revenue from Dayton is small probably because the plant has recently 
begun operations. It will be long, however, before prices drop to their former 
amounts. 

Reduction in Columbus, Ohio. — Because the Columbus plant has been so 
successful, the following data have been taken from the annual report of the 
disposal plant: 



Actual Cost of Operation 
For the year- 



1915 

Supervision $ 5 , 201 

Clerk hire 

Foremen 

Foremen included in supervision of 
1915. 

Firemen 2 , 638 

Operators 4 , 592 

Ordinary labor 11 , 223 

OflSice supplies 

Fuel 7,021 

Clothing 

Mechanical suppUes 1 , 212 

Motor vehicle 

Chemical supplies 2 , 485 

Other supplies 

Traveling expense 

Telephone and telegraph 

Advertising 

Insurance 

Taxes and rent 

Light and power 1 , 364 

Other service 298 

Maintenance buildings 

Maintenance railway tracks 

Maintenance equip. , labor 2 , 455 

Maintenance equip., material 4,589 

Maintenance motor vehicle 

Other maintenance 

Office expenses 316 

Transportation 501 

Miscellaneous • • • . 550 



1916 
3,000 
656 
2,349 



2,970 

4,248 

13,123 

122 

9,145 

60 

795 

256 

3,063 

493 

3 

71 

16 

197 

55 

1,686 

312 

3 

10 

2,059 

3,555 

161 

4 



-Per ton garbage- 

1915 1916 

$0,227 $0,137 

.030 

107 



.115 
.200 
.490 

'!366 

*;653 

";i68 



.060 
.013 



.107 
.201 



.014 
.022 
.024 



.136 
.194 
.600 
.007 
.418 
.003 
.036 
.012 
.140 
.023 
.000 
.003 
.001 
.009 
.003 
.077 
.014 
.000 
.001 
.094 
.163 
.007 
.000 



Total ...$44,453 $48,423 $1,940 $2,215 



Actual Production 

(Receipts corrected from inventories) 

For the year Per ton garbage 

1915 1916 1915 1916 

Grease (lbs.) 1,014.572 1,344.789 44.28 61.52 

Tankage (lbs.) 4,596.140 4,506.640 200.62 206.14 

Hides (No.) 220 156 

Grease (value) $38 , 048 . 57 $69 , 451 . 53 $ 1 . 661 $ 3 . 177 

Tankage (value) 16,081.86 17,672.12 .702 .808 

Hides (value) 1,233.56 1,440.42 .054 .066 

$55,363.99 $88,564.07 $2,417 $4,051 




GARBAGE DISPOSAL 820 



Items 

Buildings — 

Reduction building, green gar- 
den building, gasoline storage, 
office and one-half of stable. . . . 
Percolator building 

Brick chimney 

Digestors, roller presses, grease 
separating and storage tanks, 
hot well, screw press, liquor 
storage tank. , 36 , 615 

Receiving hoppers, jet condensers. . . 

Dryers and equipment 

Evaporators 

Boilers and stokers 

Conveyors and elevators 

Percolator, vaporizing tanks, con- 
denser. 

Gasoline storage tanks 

Reinforced concrete condenser tank . 

Motors and switchboard 

Boiler feed pumps 

Steel boiler flue 

Open feed water heater 

Water supply pump 

Air displacement pumping equip- 
ment 

Pipe lines 

Oil storage tanks 

Railroad track scales 

Railroad track trestles 

Miscellaneous new equipment pur- 
chased from operating fund: 

In 1911 

1912 

1913 

1914 



Total and averages $204 , 309 

Engineering and miscellaneous. 







Annual 






Est. Hfe, 


per cent 


Value, 


Cost 


yrs. 


deprec. 


1914 


$ 71,177 


50 


2 


$ 64,771 


10,218 


50 


2 


9,605 


4,600 


30 


SH 


3,910 


36,615 


15 


QH 


25,631 


1,000 


10 


10 


550 


12,650 


15 


6% 


8,855 


9,400 


8 


123^^ 


4,112 


7,615 


12 


8K 


4,759 


12,556 


15 


6% 


8,789 


6,030 


12 


.SH 


4,522 


1,045 


20 


^5 


888 


946 


20 


5 


927 


2,903 


30 


SH 


2,467 


574 


20 


5 


444 


373 


12 


SH 


233 


944 


12 


SH 


500 


1,317 


* 


* 


300 


4,046 


* 


* 


1,000 


5,852 


20 


5 


4,535 


172 


15 


eVs 


120 


987 


20 


5 


764 


5,182 


20 


5 


4.024 


4,516 


15 


6^3 


3,462 


1,426 


15 


6% 


1,189 


734 


15 


QH 


660 


1,416 


15 
19H 


m 


1,368 


$204,309 


$158,484 


32,571 




4.98 


25,265 


$236,880 


$183,749 



* Not used any more. Value based on what could be secured for them if sold 
as second-hand machinery. 

Annual charge for depreciation at 4.98 per cent $11 ,796 

Annual charges for interest on bonds at 4 per cent 9 , 475 



Total fixed charges at 8.98 per cent $21 ,271 

Municipal vs. Private Operation of Reduction Plants. — The majority of reduc- 
tion plants are owned and operated privately and dispose of garbage under 
contract with the city. The arrangement in 22 cities was as follows in 1906: 

Private Municipal — 

New York Rochester Schenectady 

Syracuse Utica Columbus 

Cincinnati Detroit Cleveland 

Washington St. Louis Dayton 

Baltimore Bridgeport Chicago 

Pittsburgh Boston 

New Bedford Newark 

San Francisco Los Angeles 
Indianapolis 



830 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Only two cities that dispose of their garbage under contract with a concern 
employing the reduction method report any revenue in return for the privilege. 
These cities are Los Angeles and New York. The reduction company in 
Los Angeles pays the city $0.51 per ton. New York receives $112,500 a year. 
It is to be noted that Los Angeles also reports that it received $1.00 per ton 
from farmers for garbage delivered for feeding to hogs. 

Feeding to Swine 

Cities Using This Method. — According to the New York report, 34 out of 
112 cities were employing this method in 1915. According to the Municipal 
Journal the following cities of from 100,000 to 300,000 population employ the 
methods named: 

Feeding to pigs Albany, Cambridge, Denver, Grand Rapids 

Hartford, Providence. 
Reduction. .....; Bridgeport, Columbus, Dayton, Indianapolis, 

Rochester. 

Incineration Portland, Ore.; Reading, Trenton, Paterson. 

Dumping at sea Oakland, Cal. 

Turning Garbage Over to Private Pig Farms. — A city may turn its garbage 
over to f armers^-f or nothing or for a remuneration — to feed to pigs, or it may 
operate its own pig farm. The majority of cities feeding their garbage to 
pigs do so under the former arrangement. A few cities, including Worcester, 
Taunton, Brockton and New Haven, operate their own hog farms. 

Revenue from Turning Garbage Over to Private Farms. — Many cities not only 
dispose of their garbage at no cost by the use of this method but also make it 
the source of a large amount of revenue. The following receipts are reported 
for the cities named : 

Grand Rapids, Mich 45 ct. per ton $ 4 , 450 

Denver, Colo Gets its collection and disposal for 

nothing 

Cambridge, Mass 70 ct. per cd. ft 17,382 

Colorado Springs, Colo Gets its collection and disposal for 

nothing, and 1 , 440 

Salem, Mass * 2,651 

Somerville, Mass 50 ct. per cd. ft 

Lawrence, Mass $1 . 25 per- load t 8 , 865 

Lowell, Mass $1.25 per load 5,405 

St. Paul, Minn 80 ct. per ton 

Los Angeles, Cal $1 per ton 

Springfield, Mass Average per year, 1907-1911 .... 4,262 

* $13,255 in 3 yrs. t Estimated. 

Many cities receive no revenue from garbage so disposed of. Thus, the 
revenue from this method of disposal varies from nothing in many cities to 
$17,400 in Cambridge. However, Denver, with a population of 265,000, 
has its 21,600 tons of garbage collected as well as disposed of by a hog growers' 
association; and Colorado Springs has its garbage collected and disposed of by 
hog growers and receives in addition $1,440. Assuming that the cost of 
collection in these cities was $0.30 per capita, which was two-thirds the per 
capita cost .of collection reported in 1915 by 59 cities, the city of Denver 
saved $64,500 in 1916 and Colorado Springs saved $9,600 plus the $1,440 
actually received. 

Feeding Garbage on Municipal Hog Farms. — Worcester, Brockton and New 
Haven are among the cities that operate farms where they feed city garbage to 
pigs. 



GARBAGE DISPOSAL 831 

New Haven reports that during 1916 the department of streets fed to pigs 
the garbage collected from 52,100 of the population. $16,000 was received 
from the sale of pork. 

Brockton paid $29,952 for the collection of its garbage and the operation 
of its pig farm. It received $15,761 from the sale of swine and of garbage. 
Thus, it both collected and disposed of its garbage at a cost to the city of 
$7,191. 

Prom Dec. 1, 1916, to May 31, 1917, the city of Worcester has disposed of 
its garbage at an approximate cost of $7,500 and has received over $21,000. 
These figures were given by the superintendent in charge of the hog farm. 
He also estimated that during the year beginning Dec. 1, 1916, the city will 
spend $15,000 on account of the pig farm and receive $50,000 from the sale 
of products, thus making a profit of $35,000 on the disposal of garbage. 

Initial Investment. — The probable cost of establishing today a piggery 
similar to that at Worcester was given as follows by Dr. Frederick Bonnett, 
Jr., of the Worcester Polytechnic Institute: 

Stock $ 49 . 700 

Buildings 60 , 000 

$109,700 

This means that an investment of $5,485 per daily ton would be required to 
establish the plant capable of disposing of a daily production of 20 tons This 
does not include the cost of land which should run from $5,000 to $10,000. 

S. A. Greeley, a sanitary engineer. Of Chicago, 111., submitted in 1916 the 
following estimate of cost of establishing a hog farm to handle an average daily 
production of 50 tons: 

Pigs . $ 25 , 000 

Buildings and other structures 110, 000 

Engineering and contingencies 25 , 000 

Land 30 , 000 

$ 190,000 

Cost of Operation. — The cost of operation per year was estimated as follows 
for Worcester: 

Labor $ 5,760 

Grain and bedding 2 , 640 

Medicine and disinfectants 5 , 040 

Miscellaneous 1 , 000 

Administration -. 2 , 500 

Total $15,000 

At this rate to dispose of an average of 20 tons per day or 7,300 tons per 
year, the cost per ton of garbage would be $2.65. The cost reported by 
Greeley was at the rate of $1.98 per ton. 

Revenue from Feeding. -^The revenue from the Worcester Pig Farm is esti- 
mated at $50,000 for 1916. This is at the rate of $6.85 per ton of garbage. 

Greeley estimated the yearly revenue from a 60-ton per day plant at $80,- 
000 . This would make the revenue pe^ year per ton of garbage $3.65. 

The revenue at Worcester is estimated on the basis of present prices; that 
by Greeley on prices last year. A fair estimate should be $3.75 per ton. 

Operation of Garbage Piggery at Grand Rapids, Mich. — The following 
.abstract, of a paper read before the 1912 convention of the Michigan Health 



832 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Officers by T. M. Koon, M. D., a member of the State Board of Health, was 
pubhshed in Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 18, 1912. 

After the garbage is collected and loaded on cars by the city, the contractor 
ships the garbage to his farm. The farm, which contains about 100 acres, 
is located about three miles out of the city, and lies adjacent to the Pere 
Marquette Railway. The soil is sandy and well drained. There are about 
40 buildings on the farm, including the farm house, horse barn, office building, 
boiler room, garbage kitchen, employes' restaurant, feeding houses, and far- 
rowing houses. 

The boiler room is 34 X 36 ft. in plan. The garbage kitchen adjoins the 
boiler room and is 64 X 40 ft. in plan. There are three cooking pans in this 
kitchen 24 ft. long, 6 ft. wide and 3 ft. deep, and three cooking pans 30 ft. long, 
6 ft. wide, and 4 ft. deep. This kitchen is devoted to cooking garbage and 
meal for feeding the hogs. The garbage from the entire city is not sufficient 
to feed the 7,000 to 9,000 hogs kept here, so $1,000 worth of corn is fed each 
week. The next building is the restaurant where the 20 employes are fed. 
There are three farrowing houses, each 336 ft. long by 30 ft. wide. These 
buildings have cement floors and troughs, water throughout and are steam 
heated. These houses shelter 1,200 brood sows, each having a separate stall; 
40 sows bring forth a litter of pigs each week, over 10,000 being born each 
year. There is another building 234 ft. long by 56 ft. wide. There are over 
100 breeding pens with a yard for each. There are two buildings 100 ft. 
long by 20 ft. wide. They have cement floors and troughs. These building 
are called the restaurants. Here the hogs are fed cooked corn meal while 
being fattened for market. A small railroad runs throughout the grounds and 
buildings to carry the garbage and corn meal to the swine. The granary, 
numerous yards and ranges and the reservoirs for storing water to supply the 
bufldings, complete the piggery. Everything is well kept and orderly. Here 
all the garbage from the city of Grand Rapids is disposed of. From this place 
200 hogs are shipped to market each week. Over 10,000 fattened hogs are 
turned out each year. The value of this output is about $135,000 a year. 

It has been only a few years that so many hogs could be kept safely on 
account of the liability of the herd becoming infected with cholera and 
destroyed. Therefore this method of garbage disposal was very hazardous as 
a money making undertaking. Now that it is possible to im^munize against 
hog cholera, this danger is obviated. All of the pigs at this place are immun- 
ized while nursing, so there is no danger of the herd being destroyed with hog 
cholera. 

More recent information in regard to the disposal of the garbage of Grand 
Rapids was given in the Conference of the Federal Food Administration held 
in Chicago, Dec. 7, 1917. The following is given in a report of the conference 
published in Engineering News-Record, Dec. 27, 1917. 

The garbage of Grand Rapids is collected and loaded on cars by the city. 
Alvah H. Brown ships it every day 27 miles to his 80-acre farm in an isolated 
section, located on sandy soil. He pays 45cts. per ton for freight and 25cts. to 
the city. He feeds inside a long building, on concrete platforms, onto which 
garbage is dumped directly from the cars. Glass from electric-light bulbs are 
the worst "foreign" matter in garbage. Sheep and cattle have also been fed 
garbage in winter, but not in summer. Corn silage is fed on Sundays and a 
cheap "fire sale" grain is usually part of the bill of fare. 

Mr. Brown believes that hogs could be fed. without nuisance in a building 
within the city limits if proper attention were given to ventilation. One ton 



GARBAGE DISPOSAL 833 

will feed 100 pigs. He employs 12 men to care for 6,000 hogs. Hotel garbage 
is worth ten times as much as household garbage, in his estimation. Cooking 
is not desirable, as it reduces the garbage to a slop in which the pig gets no 
chance to discard grapefruit and things which do not agree with his digestion. 
All feeders agreed that cooking is a mistake for household garbage. For 
hotel wastes, rich in recoverable fats, it is practical. Mr. Brown gets daily 
600 lb. of bones worth Ic. a pound. In October 1,015 tons of garbage were 
fed. 

Operation of Garbage Piggery at Worcester, Mass. — The following data 
are from an article by Prof. Frederic Bonnet, Jr. of "Worcester Polytechnic 
Institute, published in Engineering News-Record, Aug. 30, 1917. 

Worcester is one of the old and well established cities of New England with 
a population of about 175,000. It is an industrial city with many diversified 
industries but with no unusual characteristics. Its foreign population, 
according to the census 1910, is only 33.5%. 

In 1872 (population 44,000) the superintendent of the municipal poor farm 
began sending a wagon into the city now and then to collect enough garbage 
to feed the pigs. The work developed with the growth of the city until today 
about 70 % of the garbage of Worcester (20 to 30 tons per day) is taken to the 
Home Farm and fed to 2,000 to 3,000 pigs. The garbage disposal has developed 
and continued along this one line for a longer time than has usually been the 
case in American municipalities. There has been a striking absence of unwise 
and unsuccessful experiment. 

The Home Farm proper consists of 376 acres owned by the city. In addition, 
the city leases a farm of 220 acres, at a rental of $1,500 a year. The farm is 
located in the northeastern part of the city. To get to it, the garbage teams 
coming from the center of the city have to pass over a ridge about 140 ft. high. 

The city is divided into 21 districts from which the garbage is collected 
twice a week without charge to the householders or business men. There is 
also a special collection for the fish offal and rotten eggs from markets and 
commission houses, which collection is made daily in special cans with tight- 
fitting covers. These cans are provided by the dealers. Since this material 
is not fed to swine but is buried, as described later, no revenue is derived from 
it and it is a direct tax on the scavenger department of $1,760 per year. 

Hitherto, most of the hotel, restaurant and hospital garbage was privately 
collected, but owing to the recent falling off of the quantity and quality of the 
garbage, more of this is gradually being collected by the city. Some private 
collectors also obtain the privilege of collecting in certain outlying districts. 
All such collectors must first obtain a license from the Board of Health, and 
this is only given by the board after consultation with the superintendent of 
the Home Farm, who includes in his duties the supervision of the scavenger 
department, the sole purpose of which department is the collection and 
disposal of the garbage collected by the city. The arrangement with private 
collectors has not been wholly satisfactory. 

For the city collectors, one load is considered a day's work. Each collector 
unloads his wagon and washes it. He also beds down his horses and curries 
them. The feeding is not done by the collectors but by a farm employee 
especially assigned to this task. 

The teams leave the Home Farm at 7 a. m. and have on an average a 13- 
mile haul daily (max. 18; min. 10). It requires from 2 to 4 hours to make 
a load. Owing to the fact that Worcester has practically no alleys the average 
time per house collection is 1.65 minutes (max. 3.9; min. 0.4). 
53 



834 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Of 2,276 hogs sold to a packing house only 11 were condemned by the United 
Stated Government meat inspectors, an average of only 0.48%, which is 
much lower than on hogs shipped in from the West to the same packing 
company. 

Operation of Garbage Piggery. — The following description of the operation 
applies to Worcester's garbage-disposal plant as now operated under the 
able direction of Thomas Home, superintendent, who has aided the writer in 
the preparation of this paper. The garbage as it comes to the farm is neither 
washed nor steamed. Washing is uneconomical because so much valuable 
food material is washed away and wasted ; it is unnecessary since no material 
advantage is gained thereby. Cooking or steaming the garbage has been 
found by experience to be bad since the garbage is thereby made more acid 
than it ordinarily is and substances are incorporated in the food which are 
harmful to the hog and which would not be eaten in the raw garbage. A hog 
is more capable of picking over and culling garbage than any man or machine 
can be. 

Pigs are kept with the sow in individual -pena until they are six weeks old, 
although the pigs begin to eat garbage when about three weeks old. Boars 
are castrated when about five weeks old and are then left with the mother 
another week. The pigs remain in pens until they are about 6 months old 
and are fed from troughs. They then weigh about 75 to 100 lb. 

Inoculation Against Cholera. — The entire stock is treated by the so-called 
double-treatment method (virus and serum) . Pigs 5 to 6 weeks old are inocu- 
lated with serum only. This treatment carried them for about 7 weeks when, 
at a weight of about 40 to 50 lb., they are given the double treatment, virus 
and serum. State veterinarians under the State Bureau of Animal Industry 
do this work free of charge, the department merely paying for the serum and 
virus used and for the necessary help. The cost of treatment depends upon 
the size of the animal since more serum is used the larger it is. 

The serum costs l^cts. per c.c. and about 20 c.c. are used for a 40 to 50-lb. 
hog, live weight, so that the total cost of treatment exclusive of help is therefore 
about 70cts. per pig. The place for injection (between the hind legs) is scrub- 
bed with soap and water containing lysol or similar disinfectant and swabbed 
with tincture of iodine after puncture. Not one hog in 500 is lost and there 
is no trouble from ulcer formation if the inoculation is properly done. One 
veterinary with five helpers can treat 250 pigs of 40- to 50-lb. weight in a day. 

To prevent itch the hogs are all sprayed about once in six weeks with a mix- 
ture of 3 parts of kerosene and 1 part of turpentine. 

Out-of-Door Feeding Platforms. — After six months the pigs which have grown 
to shoats are turned into hog lots (100 pigs to about 3 acres) with out-of-door 
feeding platforms made in 8 X 8-ft. sections of 2-in. plank. These are 
mounted on skids and have a half round timber on two sides to prevent the 
garbage from being pushed off. The cost per section was $7, with farm labor. 
Several sections are placed end to end and when the ground around the plat- 
forms becomes fouled the sections are skidded to another location and the 
ground at the former location plowed up. By this means the garbage trampled 
into the ground is kept from decaying and producing foul odors. The plat- 
forms are shovel cleaned daily and the material removed is composted or buried. 
The hogs are kept for about 15 months, when they are sold. They then 
weigh 250 to 300 lb. The last lot sold (May, 1917) brought 16.35c. per lb. 
on the hoof or 21c. per lb. dressed. 

The sows are bred by turning about 300 of them into the same lot with 




GARBAGE DISPOSAL 835 

"about 30 boars for about five weeks. This makes it possible to control the 
farrowing so that there may be a sufficient number of pens. The first lot 
of brood sows are put with the boars from about Oct. 20, until Dec. 1. This 
brings the farrowing at the end of January, February and early March. After 
a month or six weeks a second lot of sows are bred and so on. During farrow- 
ing and sometimes during inoculation a little grain and middlings are fed. 
Boars are rarely kept more than two years and only prolific sows that are good 
mothers are kept for repeated breeding. 

Old and New Pig Houses and Other Buildings. — Up to 1914, there were 12 
pig houses scattered about the farm. Seven of these old piggeries are shelter 
sheds for outside hogs and have been torn down or are being used for other 
purposes. At present there are four pig houses in use, the dimensions of which 
are given in Table V, and two shelter houses. To provide additional pens for 
late spring farrowing 100 small portable take-down colony houses have been 
built at a cost of $20 each. These have proven excellent. 

The floors of all piggeries are of concrete. At one end of each pen there is a 
slightly raised wooden platform for bedding to keep the pigs warm and dry. 

Piggery No. 1 is the only one which is steam heated and is used for early 
farrowing. It is a well-built house erected about 25 year3 ago at an approxi- 
mate cost of $4,000. 

Piggeries Nos. 5 and 6 are identical in construction and were built about 15 
years ago at a cost of about $3,000 each. 

Piggery No. 11 is the newest, having been built in 1913 at a cost of $3,000. 

Table V. — Principal Dimensions of Garbage Piggeries at Worcester 

Home Farm 

1 right Heft 11 right llleft 

Piggery no. wing wing 5 6 wing wing 
Inside dimens., ft.: 

Length 180 190 241.0 241.0 100.0 106.0 

Width 19 25 30. 30. 20. 20. 

Walk width, ft. : 

Side 6 5.5 5.5 

Center...' 5 5.0 5.0 

Pens: 

Number 30 76 80.0 80.0 15.0 16.0 

Width, ft 6 5 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 

Length, ft 12 10 12.5 12.5 13.5 13.5 

Height,ft.* 8 8 

No. windowst 30 38 40.0 40.0 24.0 24.0 

No. doorst 3 2 2.0 2.0 7.0 7.0 

Partitions between pens Wood Wood Wire Wire Wire Wire 

& 
wire 
* Height to ceiling, t 3 X 3 ft. J 4 X 6 ft. 

The pens are cleaned out daily. The cleanings, which consist of pig manure, 
urine, uneaten garbage and soiled bedding are carted away to the compost 
heap, which is inclosed by concrete walls. The cleanings, when not properly 
handled, may give trouble from odor. The commission already mentioned 
experimented with this material and found that when composted in layers 
with an equal volume of dry top soil, the rotten manure odor was wholly 
destroyed and only a slight musty odor remained after 10 days. The cleanings 
are quite wet and unless spread alternately in fairly thin layers with dry soil 
it takes a much longer time to mineralize the odor-giving substances. Objec- 
tionable odors may be carried a considerable distance when uncomposted 



836 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

material is spread on the ground as fertilizer, while the composted material 
is unobjectionable. 

Since the bad odors are probably highly nitrogenous, composting by retaining 
these substances and mineralizing them would tend to increase the fertilizing 
value of the manure. About five cords of cleanings are produced daily (1,500 
to 1,600 cords per year) and have a value of about $4 a cord as fertilizer at 
the farm. The Home Farm has never bought fertihzer in any material 
quantity for its farm land or truck garden and the scavenger department has 
never been credited with the value of the pig manure from the piggeries. 
There are two caretakers in each piggery except No. 11, which has one. 
One caretaker can care for about 250 to 300 pigs a day — ^feed them, bed them, 
and clean out the pens. 

Out-Door Hogs Improve The Farm. — The out-door hogs are utilized in clean- 
ing off the scrub from waste land and improving it. They chew and rip off 
the bark of practically all deciduous trees and thus kill them but coniferous 
trees are not touched. After chewing and stripping the bark they burrow 
around the roots, chew this bark and uproot the smaller stumps. In a 
remarkably short time (about two seasons) the scrub disappears and only 
the larger stumps must be pulled out before plowing is possible. Most of 
the cleared land of the Home Farm has thus been cleared and made into a 
very productive farm. Hog growers claim and it has been the experience at 
Worcester that such scrub acts somewhat as a tonic for the hogs and keeps 
them in good condition. 

Tables VI and VII give the cost of collection and disposal for one year. 
Table VIII shows the operating cost and income of the scavenger depart- 
ment over a number of years. Including the years 1902 and 1910, which 
showed a clear profit over and above the cost of collection, the average net 
cost of disposal per year for 19 years was $10, 169, or $0,074 per capita per year. 
From Tables VI and VII it will also be seen that the total cost of collection 
and disposal per year is $60,435. About 1,500 swine are sold each year and 
with the present price of pork will bring about $40 each or a total of $60,000. 
This will just about pay for the cost of collection and disposal. Table IX 
gives the estimated first cost of building and stocking a 20- to 30-ton garbage 
piggery. 

Table VI. — Yearly Cost of Garbage Collection at Worcester, Including 
Capital Charges 

1 Foreman, $45 per month . $ 540 

1 Fish offal collector, $42 per month 504 

1 Inspector, $2.50 per day (not found) 780 

21 Collectors, $37 per month 9 , 324 

6 Helpers, $35 per month : 2,520 

29 Men's board and lodging, 52 weeks, $5.60 8,445 

44 Horses' board, $27 per month 14 , 256 

$36,368 
Interest on investment: 

2 Horses and wagons, $800 each $ 40 

Depreciation on teams, 10 % 80 

Horseshoeing 50 

Wagon repairs 76 

Veterinary, hardware, etc 32 

Total for 1 team $278 

For 22 teams $ 6, 116 

Total cost. $42 , 785 



GARBAGE DISPOSAL 837 

Table VII. — Cost of Garbage Disposal per Year at Worcfster, Including 

Capital Charges 
7 pig caretakers ] 

2 manure men \ @ $37 per mouth $ 4 , 440 

1 compost man J 

Additional occasional help 1 , 320 

Grain and bedding .' 2 , 640 

Medicine (serum, virus, disinfectants) 3 , 040 

Time of superintendent, farm foreman, office* 2 , 560 

Miscellaneous — light, heat, water* 1 ,000 

Interest on investment, 5 %, buildings, $13,000 650 

tStock 2000 hogs, @ $20, $40,000 2,000 

Total . $17 , 650 

*Estimated. fEstimated that 2,000 hogs are a necessary minimum for 20 
tons daily capacity. 

In September, 1915, when the farm was restocked after the hoof-and-mouth 
disease, 1,200 shoats of an average weight under 20 lb., 100 sows and 5 boars 
were purchased for $7,700. All the garbage collected was not consumed by this 
herd and additional stock was purchased, which brought up the total stock pur- 
chased to about $10,000. 

From September, 1915, to January, 1917, $16,000 worth of pork was sold, 
and from Jan. 1 to June, 1917, $21,000 worth of pork was sold. There is on hand 
at the present time stock valued at $50,200. 

Table VIII. — Yearly Quantities of Garbage Collected, Number of Pigs 
AND Financial Results at Worcester, 1898 to 1916 

Garbage No. of Financial summaries for each year 

collected Pigs 

per day, on Nov. Total 

cubic 30 of expendi- Total Net Net 

yards each tures receipts cost profit 
Year year 

1898 $14,804.34 $ 7,674.02 $ 7,130.32 

1899 17,109.00 10,641.52 6,467.48 

1900 52.8 17,715.21 11,947.91 5,767.30 

1901 52.8 18,935.86 13,933.03 5,002.8^ 

1902 52.8 18,765.03 18,766.99 $ 1.96 

1903 52.8 18,140.57 11,941.55 6,199.02 

1904 57.5 22,326.02 7,327.00 14,999.02 

1905 57.5 20,515.83 12,539.20 7,976.63 

1906 57.5 23,525.49 19,321.00 4,204.49 

1907 2,850 30,491.93 24,830.71 5,661.22 

1908 34,475.73 24,321.22 10,154.51 '. . 

1909 37,737.79 29,257.25 8,480.54 

1910 37,039.68 43.224.25 4,184.57 

1911 1,388 41,021.74 25,579.58 15,542.16 

1912 2,057 45,750.28 22,863.27 22,887.01 

1913 2,167 53,109.10 38,376.11 14,732.09 

1914 2,502 53,325.62 38,838.67 14,486.95 

1915 52.5 1,300 55,718.43 39,994.36 15,724.07 

1916, 57,680.03 16,692.99 40,987.04 

* Note. — Hoof-and-mouth disease. For 5 months in 1915 the garbage was 
buried. Farm restocked late in 1915 and early in 1916. 

Table IX. — Estimated Cost of Garbage Piggery with Capacity of 20 to 
30 Tons a Day 
Based on conditions existing at Worcester, Mass. Land not included. 
Four buildings with a pen capacity of about 300 pens, 6 X 12 ft., in- 
cluding small heating plant for one house, water-supply, drainage, 
platforms and fencing , $30 , 000 

3 horses, wagons and sleds for disposal work. 1 ,500 

Stock on hand June, 1917: 

1 , 100 swine @ $30 . $33 , 000 

100 sows @ $25 2 , 500 

800 shoats (50-100 lb.) @ $12 9 , 600 

900 pigs @ $5 4 , 500 

30 boars @ $20 600 50,200 

Total $81 ,700 



838 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The feeding method is very plastic and no part of the plant is idle or running 
below capacity part of the year. When the quantity of garbage becomes less 
hogs are sold off, and as the quantity increases, the herd increases to take care 
of it. In winter there are about 2,000 swine on the farm and in summer 
3,500. About 100 to 150 pigs, depending upon size, will consume one ton of 
garbage per day. 

Experience has shown that feeding garbage to hogs is the most economical 
and satisfactory method of disposal at Worcester and that it can be done in a 
sanitary manner without appreciable odor if given intelligent care. 

At the conference on the subject of wastes disposal held in Chicago, Dec. 
7, 1917 by the Federal Food Administration, Thomas Home gave the 1917 
figures of operation for the year ended Nov. 30 as follows: 

There was sold $51,800 worth of pork raised on 6,501.4 tons of garbage. 
The cost (after collection) at the farm was $2.30 per ton, leaving a net pork 
value of $5.66 per ton for the garbage delivered at the farm. Mr. Home 
values the equipment at $67,000, itemized as of Nov. 30, as follows: 40 acres 
land, at $100, $4,000; buildings and platforms, $20,000; 2,096 hogs, $42,000; 
miscellaneous, $1,000. 

Cost and Operating Data of High-Temperature Refuse Incinerators. — The 
following data are given by Samuel A. Greely in an article published in 
Engineering News, Aug. 26, 1909. 

Cost of Incinerators. — The data presented in Tables X and XI are taken 
from a paper by J. T. Fetherston, read before the American Society of Civil 
Engineers, December, 1907; from the "Minutes of Evidence," Vol. 5, 1908, 
of the Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal, and from " Refuse Disposal and 
Power Production," by W. Francis Goodrich. The individual results differ 
widely and show how local conditions affect the cost of construction. There 
may be codditions for which a top-charged plant is the more economical. 
In general, however, the results point to the fact that the top-charged in^ 
cinerators cost about 10% more than bottom-charged incinerators. 

A mechanical-charging device fitted to a top-fed plant is an added element 
of cost. The incinerator at Newcastle, fitted with the Horsfall tub-feed, cost 
about $48,000, and has a rated capacity of 67 tons; which gives a cost per ton 
of about $715. At Greenock, the incinerator, with Horsfall tub-feed, cost 
$95,000, and has a rated capacity of 120 tons, giving a cost per ton of $790. 
The cost of the mechanically-charged plant at Leeds was only $375 per ton; 
but this plant was built adjacent to an old hand-charged incinerator where it 
was possible to use the flues, boilers and chimney of the old plant. Mr. 
George Watson, of the Horsfall Co., figures roughly on $17,000 as the cost per 
cell of a tub-fed incinerator. This, on a basis of 26 tons per cell per day, as 
at Leeds, gives a cost per ton of about $650. These figures indicate that a 
mechanically-charged incinerator may cost in the neighborhood Of $650 to 
$700 per ton under conditions which would require an expenditure of about 
$550 per ton for the hand-fired bottom-charged plants. This difference, at 
5% annual interest and 310 working days per year, reduces to about 2 cts. per 
ton. The figures given for the cost of construction are for the whole plant. 
Including cells, building, chimney, runway, crane and hopper; but do not 
Include land or any adjacent electric plants, sewage-pumping stations, etc. 

Operation. — Data showing the force required to operate the different types 
of plants and the cost of repairs have been obtained and are presented in 
Tables XII and XIII, which follow. Table XII, hand-charged incinera- 
tors, gives the tons of refuse which can be handled per man per hour. All of 



GARBAGE DISPOSAL 



839 



Table X. — Average Cost of Construction of Bottom-Charged 
Incinerators 

Rated 
capacity, 

tons of Cost 

.2,000 lbs. Per 

Plant per day Total ton Authority 

Aldershot. 50 $ 5,800 $ 116 Goodrich 

Burslem 33 18 , 950 574 Fetherston 

East Ham 67 61 ,700 920 Goodrich 

Eccles 53.5 22,000 412 Goodrich 

Epsom 53.5 22,100 412 Goodrich 

Fulham 135 82 , 124 610 Fetherston 

Heywood *. 27 24 , 300 900 Goodrich 

Hyde 80 34 , 000 425 Goodrich 

Ilkey 22.5 7,020 312 Fetherston 

Kettering 28 • 25,480 910 Fetherston 

Kings Norton 100 73 , 500 735 Fetherston 

Lytham 27 11 ,700 434 Goodrich 

Manchester 33 12,700 385 Goodrich 

Radclifife 40 16 , 000 400 Goodrich 

Rathmines 67 35 , 200 525 Fetherston 

Salisbury 30 14 , 600 485 Goodrich 

Seattle 60 36 , 000 600 Morse 

Sheerness 26 17 , 150 635 Fetherston 

Swansea. 71 53 , 900 756 Fetherston 

Taunton 60 19 , 500 325 Goodrich 

Vancouver 48 35 , 000 730 Author 

Watford 53.5 33,000 618 Goodrich 

West New Brighton 60 about 1 ,000 Nutting 

Weymouth 53.5 . 19,500 365 Goodrich 

Worthing 28 21 ,450 765 Fetherston 

Wrexham 53.5 11,324 211 Fetherston 

Average $ 568» 



Table XL — Average Cost of Construction of Top-Charged Incinerators 

Rated 
capacity, 

tons of Cost 

2,000 lbs. Per 

Plant per day Total ton Authority 

Accrington 60 $ 60 , 000 $ 670 Goodrich 

Belfast 134 49 , 000 366 Fetherston 

Brentford 60 40 , 000 670 Goodrich 

Bristol 120 60 , 000 500 Goodrich 

Bromley 50 23 , 900 478 Fetherston 

Burton on Trent 28 23 , 000 820 Fetherston 

Dalmarnock, Scotland 84 66,700 794 Goodrich 

Eastbourne 75 33 , 000 442 Goodrich 

Leamington 75 30, 500 405 Goodrich 

Leyton 100 43 , 160 430 Goodrich 

Llandudno, Wales 28 27 , 980 990 Fetherston 

Ruchill, Scotland 89 100 , 220 1 , 130 Fetherston 

Saltley 95 52 , 000 547 Fetherston 

Shoreditch 112 100 , 500 900 Fetherston 

Southwick 62 45 , 000 725 Goodrich 

Stafford 50 19 , 500 390 Goodrich 

St. Pancreas 160 102,900 644 Fetherston 

Stockton on Teas 22. 5 15, 000 670 Fetherston 

Walthamstow 112 49,000 438 Fetherston 

Wandsworth 78 24 , 500 315 Fetherston 

Westminster Boro 80 50, 180 630 Fetherston 

Winchester 20 12,400 620 Goodrich 

Average $ 615 



840 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Table XII. — ^Labor Required in the Operation of Hand-Charged 
Incinerators 

■ Top charged No. of Tons of 

or bottom- men per 2,000 lbs. Tons per 

Plant charged shift burned man-hr. 

Accrington top 5 40 . 34 

Saltley top 3 60 0. 83 

Seattle bottom 4 60 0. 63 

Vancouver bottom 2 50 1 . 00 

Watford bottom 2 30 . 63 

Westmount top 3 30 0.42 

Wood Green bottom 2 35 0. 73 

Zurich top 10 160 0.67 

Table XIII. — Labor Required in the Operation of Mechanically-Charged 

Incinerators 

Tons of 2,000 

No. of men lbs. burned Tons per 

Plant per shift per day man-hour 

Greenock 4 110 1.14 

Hamburg experimental plant 2 60 1 . 25 

Kiel 8 125 0.65 

Leeds 2 53.5 1.12 

Newcastle 3 60 0.83 

Wiesbaden 5 110 0.90 

Average . 98 

the hand-fired plants are grouped together and averaged for comparison with 
the mechanically-charged plants. There is no great difference in this respect 
between the hand-fired bottom charged plants and the hand -fired top-charged 
plants. 

Actual quantities of refuse burned, instead of rated capacities, are used in 
reducing the results to a man-hour basis. 

Omitting Accrington, which has a close, poorly ventilated clinkering room 
where clinkering is hot and heavy work, and Westmount, where the plant is 
working considerably below the rated capacity, the average output in tons per 
man-hour is 0.75. Including all the plants the average is 0.66 ton per 
man-hour. 

Mr. Fetherston sums up his study of 27 plants, only one of which was 
mechanically charged by saying "each man employed would handle 0.88 
short ton per hour. At an easy rate of working there should be no trouble 
in destroying 0.75 ton per man per hour." 

These tables indicate that with a mechanical charging device about }4 of 
a ton more per man per hour can be handled than without it. Assuming 
25 cts. an hour for labor, this difference amounts to 5 cts. per ton in favor of 
the mechanically-charged incinerators. For plants fitted with the Horsfall 
tub-feed this may be slightly greater. 

The cost of repairs for incinerators varies considerably from year to year and 
no very definite results can be expected. The mechanically-charged plants 
have most of them been built within the last two years and there are very 
few data on cost of repairs. The plants were grouped in Tables XIV and 
XV according to whether they are bottom-charged or top-charged, because top 
charging in general is harder on the grate and hearth and because the top- 
charged plants are more nearly analogous to the mechanically-charged plants. 
The costs given in the tables are taken from the testimony of Mr. W. F. 
Goodrich before the Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal, from Mr. Fethers- 
ton's paper, or were furnished by Mr. H. Norman Leaske, of Manchester, 



GARBAGE DISPOSAL 841 

England. A few of them were taken from English pamphlets on refuse 
incineration. 

•On a basis of 310 working days in a year, these average results reduce to 
about 0.5-ct. per ton for repairs for the bottom-charged plants and 2.5 cts. 
per ton for hand-fired top-charged plants, a balance of 2 cts. per ton in favor 
of the bottom-charged incinerator. 

For the mechanically-charged plant at Leeds, now in its fifth year and 
burning 53.5 tons per day, the repairs for the year 1908 amounted to $90, or 
about $1.68 per ton per year, which is equivalent to 0.54 cts. per ton of refuse 
burned. 

Table XIV. — Approximate Cost of Repairs for Bottom-Charged 
Incinerators 

Tons of 2,000 

lbs. burned. Cost of repairs per year 

Plant per day Total Per ton 

Aldershot 13 $ 0. 90 $0 . 07 

Birmingham 37 40. 00 1 .08 

Burslem 40 7.00 .17 

Gosport . . 33 243 . 00 7 . 38 

Grays 12 25.00 2.08 

Hereford 12 21 . 00 1 . 75 

Levenshulme. 50 8 . 00 .16 

Lytham 13 5 . 00 .38 

Manchester 60 122 . 50 2 . 05 

Radcliflfe... 39 85.00 2.18 

Sheerness 14 14.00 1.00 

Watford 30 50.00 1.67 

Weymouth 20 8 . 40 .42 

Worthing 21 32.00 1.52 

Wrexham 33 21.00 .64 

Average $1 . 50 

Table XV. — Approximate Cost of Repairs for Top-Charged Incinerators 

Refuse 

burned, tons 

of 2,000 lbs. Cost of repairs per year 

Plant daily Total Per ton 

Belfast 90 $490.00 $5.45 

Bolton 50 68 . 00 1 . 36 

Cambridge 29 290.00 10.00 

Fulham 118 14.80 12.50 

Hackney 142 22 . 50 15 . 80 

Leamington 39 73 . 00 1 . 87 

Rotherham 56 315.00 5.62 

Royton..... 16 146.00 9.15 

Southampton 45 340.00 7.55 

Average $ 7 . 90 

Mr. Greeley gave tables showing that the annual saving in coal, due to the 
use of steam generated from incinerators is greater in the bottom-charged 
than in the top-charged type, the average saving being 31.1 cts. for the bottom- 
charged and 15.5 cts. for the top-charged incinerators for each ton of refuse 
burned. This saving will depend upon a number of conditions among which 
are the use made of the steam generated and the quality of the refuse burned. 

Tables XVI and XVII indicate the extent to which the useful heat energy 
returned is influenced by the method of charging. 

Mr. W. F. Goodrich, in his book entitled " Refuse Disposal and Power Pro- 
duction," presents a table showing the number of electrical units generated 
per ton of refuse destroyed at twenty combined electricity and destructor 



842 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

works. If the top-charged and bottom-charged plants listed in these tables 
be averaged separately, the results would show an output of 30 kw.-hrs. per 
short ton for the top-charged incinerators as against 40 kw.-hrs. per short 
ton for the bottom-charged incinerators. 

These results have been bettered considerably in more recent installations. 
Tests made on the top-charged plants at Bradford and Hackney and on the 
mechanically-charged plant at Greenock developed 60, 50, and 80 kw.-hrs. 
per short ton of refuse burned respectively, the average being 63.3 kw.-hrs. 
per ton. The bottom-charged incinerators at Stoke-upon-Trent, Woolwich, 
Preston, and St. Albans developed, on tests, 97, 90, 90, and 92 kw.-hrs. per 
ton respectively, the average being about 92 kw.-hrs. 

Table XVI. — Evaporative Results Obtained in Tests of Hand-Fired, 
Top-Charged Incinerators 

Pounds of 
water evaporated 

Date of per pound of refuse 

Plant erection from and at 212° F. 

Accrington 1900 1.39 

Ashton on Lyne 1901 .78 

Birmingham (Montague St.) 1879 1 . 56 

Bradford (Humerton St.) 1898 1 . 25 

Bury 1901 .94 

Canterbury •. 1899 1 . 54 

Fleetwood 1900 ' 1 . 19 

Fulham 1901 1 . 30 

Hackney 1902 1 . 42 

Llandudno 1898 . 86 

St. Helens 1899 1 . 54 

Shoreditch 1897 .96 

Saltley 1.82 

West Hartlepool 1901 1 . 25 

Wandsworth 1897 1 . 24 

Westmount 1899 1.36 

Average 1 . 27 

Table XVII. — Evaporative Results Obtained in Tests of Bottom- 
Charged Incinerators 

Pounds of 
water evaporated 

Date of per lb. of refuse 
Plants. erection from and at 212° F. 

Ayer 1903 1 . 58 

Burnley 1902 2.00 

Burslem 1889 2. 16 

Darwen 1899 1.48 

Eccles 1904 1.35 

Grays 1901 1 . 22 

Gloucester 1902 1 . 74 

Kings Norton 2 . 63 

Hereford 1897 1 . 67 

Lancaster 1901 1 . 63 

Mansfield 1903 1 . 80 

Nelson 1900 1.77 

Northampton 1903 1 . 32 

Preston 1903 1.70 

Rathmines .... 1 . 78 

Rochdale 1894 1.81 

Salesbury 1902 1.23 

Seattle 1907 1. 

Watford 1903 1 . 56 

West New Brighton 1908 1.32 

Average 1 . 67 



GARBAGE DISPOSAL 843 

Mr. Greeley summarized the various points as follows : 

1. Cleanliness: Mechanical charging offers the greatest opportunity for 
cleanliness, within and about the plant, of any type of incinerator and causes 
no more nuisance to the community. 

2. Construction: A mechanically-charged incinerator, other things being 
equal, will cost about $125 per ton of rated capacity more than a bottom- 
charged incinerator. This is equivalent to a difference of about 2 cts. per ton 
of refuse burned. 

3. Operation: By using a mechanical-charging device, about one-fifth 
of a ton of refuse per man-hour can be handled more than with hand firing in 
bottom-charged incinerators. This is equivalent to about 5 cts. per ton of 
refuse burned. A mechanically-charged plant may cost from 1. to 2 cts. more 
per ton for repairs than the bottom-charged plant. 

4. Value of Output: There is little difference in the value of the clinker 
from the different types of incinerators. The useful heat energy from the 
hand-fired bottom-charged plants is worth from 13 to 15 cts. per ton of refuse 
burned more than the useful heat energy from mechanically-charged 
incinerators. 

Within the range of capacities of the plants investigated (say up to 100 
tons daily capacity) and in communities where steam has a distinct value, the 
evidence presented indicates that hand-fired bottom-charged incinerators are 
the most economical type. In communities where steam raising is not of 
prime importance, or where power cannot be readily marketed, mechanical 
charging has many advantages. Some of these cannot be expressed in terms 
of money value. Thus for each community, the controlling factors must be 
determined and the type of incinerator best adapted to these conditions must 
be selected. 

Cost of Collecting and Incinerating Garbage at Racine, Wis. — The following 
information is taken from an abstract, published in Engineering and Contract- 
ing, Sept. 15, 1915, of a paper before the Wisconsin League of Municipalities 
by P. H. Connolly. 

The plans and specifications together with the use of all patent rights in 
connection therewith for the 40 ton plant cost $1,000. 

The site for the incinerator was purchased by the city in April, 1912 for the 
sum of $2,800. It is a strip of land 57 ft. wide and 240 ft. long This site 
is almost the geographical center of the city at the present time On October 
28, 1912, the contract for the construction of the plant was awarded the sum 
of $21,000. 

Description of Plant. — The plant consists of an absolutely fireproof building, 
two stories in height. The foundations and the lower story are of reinforced 
concrete and the upper story is of brick. The floors are reinforced concrete, 
the rolling doors and the window frames and sashes are of steel and the roof is 
of tile on steel purlins. The building is 40 ft. square. The entire upper floor 
is used for a dumping floor, except a small space in one corner which 
is used for an office. The incinerator is on the lower floor and consists of two 
units with a nominal capacity of 20 tons, each, in 10 hours. The stack is 
of radial brick and is 150 ft. in height. It is lined with fire brick for its entire 
height. 

Each unit consists of two grates, two drying hearths, two storage bins, two 
emergency hoppers, a combustion chamber and a dust pit. Each furnace 
is also equipped with a hot water heater and a steel tank for storing the hot 
water, which is used for washing the wagons, steel baskets, floors, etc. 



844 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Dampers are arranged so that the heat can be turned onto the hot water boilers 
or direct into the stack. The storage bins are connected with the sewer and 
all wet garbage is dumped into them. These storage bins are equipped with 
mechanical stokers, operated by electric motors and the garbage is fed onto 
the drying hearths as needed. All dead animals and dry combustible refuse 
is dumped into the emergency hoppers. 

The plant was completed and accepted by the city on Dec. 20,1913. For 
some time previous to this the city had been burning all garbage that was 
hauled to the plant but the city did not install its system of collection until 
Jan. 7, 1914. 

Garbage Collection System. — The collection system at the start was an experi- 
ment. We did not know the amount of garbage we would have to collect nor 
the humber of men, horses and wagons it would require. The council on 
July 15, 1913, passed an ordinance regulating the collection of garbage and 
placed the same under the jurisdiction of the Board of Public Works. This 
ordinance provides that the garbage shall be collected in the business districts, 
three times a week during the month of June, July, August and September and 
twice a week during the balance of the year; and in the residence districts 
twice a week during June, July, August and September and once a week the 
balance of the year. 

On Jan. 9, 1914, we started collecting with three one-horse wagons, with the 
driver alone on the wagons. We found that we could not cover the city, as 
provided in the ordinance, with this force, so on January 20 we put a helper on 
each wagon. This force was sufficient until May 8, when an additional wagon 
with driver and helper was put on. Previous to May 18 but one furnace had 
been in use, but at this time we found it necessary to run both furnaces, so an 
additional fireman was put on. 

On June 1, 1914, we started to carry out the provisions of the city ordinance 
for a tri-weekly collection in the business districts and twice a week in the 
residence districts, so two more wagons were started, making six wagons with 
12 men collecting and two firemen and the superintendent at the plant, which 
is the same force that we have at the present time (August, 1915). These 
men worked nine hours per day. We found that during the months of July, 
August and September, the amount of garbage increased so much that it was 
necessary to work the men 12 hours instead of nine. After September, the 
amount of garbage collected began to decrease and the men were placed again 
on their regular time and during the winter months some of the wagons were 
taken off for a portion of a week and only one furnace was used. The men are 
now working 11 hours per day. Each wagon is making from 5 to 7 loads per 
day, according to the district the wagon serves. 

The city is divided into collection districts and each wagon has certain 
districts to take care of. The wagons are steel bodied, steel covered dump 
wagons, with a capacity of 37 cu. ft. The wagons and horses are owned by 
the city, the barn for the horses being located in the rear of the plant. The 
cost of collection and disposal is borne by the city at large, provision 
therefor being made in the annual budget. 

When we first began operating the plant, we were handicapped by the fact 
that we had no scales to weigh garbage, coal, etc., as it was brought to the 
plant. The city council authorized the Board of Public Works to install a 
modern 10-ton scale and on Aug. 13, 1914, we started weighing every pound 
of garbage that was brought to the plant, also all coal, hay, feed, etc. 



GARBAGE DISPOSAL 845 

Quantitative and Cost Data. — From Aug. 13. 1914, to Aug. 13, 1915, there 
was brought to the plant and disposed of 3,392 tons of garbage, an average of 
practically 11 tons per day. There was used to incinerate this garbage 
807,639 lbs. of soft coal screenings or practically 235 lbs. of coal per ton of 
garbage consumed. 

From Jan. 1, 1914, to Jan. 1, 1915, there was practically 2,900 tons of gar- 
bage collected and disposed of, the total cost of which was $10,775.63, being 
$7,009.44 for collecting and $3,766.19 for incineration, or $2.42 per ton for 
collection and $1 29 per ton for incineration. 

The amount of coal consumed per ton of garbage greatly exceeds the guar- 
antee, which provided for 150 lbs. of coal per ton of garbage But this guar- 
antee was given on the condition that 500 lbs. of coal for each furnace be 
allowed before the test was started, to heat the furnace to the proper tempera- 
ture. If we figured this 500 lbs. to each furnace or 1,000 lbs. for both furnaces, 
for the 309 days on which we collected garbage, it would mean 309,000 lbs. 
of coal which, if deducted from the total, would make the amount of coal 
consumed per ton of garbage about equal to the guaranteed amount. 

In figuring the cost of collection I have included all expenses of every kina 
in connection with the collection and the same is true in connection with the 
cost of incineration with the exception of two items, viz., the interest on the 
investment and depreciation. The amount appropriated for garbage disposal 
for the year 1914 was $9,360 and the total cost was $10,775.63, leaving a 
deficit of $1,415.63, which was taken from the general fund of the city. The 
amount appropriated for 1915 is $11,000, and judging from the expenses thus 
far I think we will have a small credit balance in the fund at the end of the 
year. However, for the year 1916 I am afraid that the cost of garbage disposal 
will be nearly double what it will be this year, as then we will be operating 
under an 8-hour work day law with time and one-half for all overtime. The 
wages now paid are as follows: 

Grade Weekly wage 

Superintendent $21 .00 

Fireman .. 15.00 

Assistant fireman . 14 . 00 

Head teamster 15 . 00 

Teamsters and helpers 13 . 00 



The city collects garbage only. The clause in the ordinance defining gar- 
bage is as follows: 

Garbage shall be held to include all refuse, animal, fruit and vegetable matter, 
and tin cans used for the storage of said animal, fruit or vegetable matter, also 
all rags, paper and other combustible refuse, and it shall be deemed unlawful to 
place in the garbage cans any ashes, earth, waste or other materials of a different 
nature whatsoever. 



Annual Operating Record of Refuse Disposal of Palo Alto, Calif. — The 
following statement from the annual report of the Board of Public Works, 
Palo Alto, Calif., giving the operating record for the year 1916-17 is given in 
Engineering News- Record, March 7, 1918. 



846 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Operations of Palo Alto Refuse Destructor 

Receipts from refuse collection $6,879. 95 

Penalties. 18.50 

Sundry material, etc., sold to city departments 190. 00 

Miscellaneous receipts 159 . 80 



Destructor plant wages $1 ,909. 65 

Power 89.04 

Maintenance 15.99 $2,014.68 



$7,248.25 



Refuse collectors' wages 3 , 778 . 63 

Repairs 3 . 00 3 , 781 . 73 



Salaries 480 . 55 

Printing and stationery 119 . 00 599. 55 



Bond interest 823 . 09 

Depreciation 700. 13 $7,919.08 

Net loss $ 670.83 

Remarks : 

Number of furnace grates in incinerator 2 

Total grate area (sq. ft.) 33 

Weight of refuse burned (tons) 2 , Oil . 61 

Weight of residual clinker, ash, etc. (tons) 400. 18 

Percentage of residue. 19 . 9 

Average amount of refuse burned per hr. (tons) 0.75 

Average amount of refuse burned per sq. ft. of grate area per hr. (lb.) 45 
Total weight of water fed to boiler (lb.), not including water for clean- 
ing and blowing down boilers 779 , 539 

Water evaporated per lb. of refuse (140 lb. per sq. in. boiler working 

pressure) 0.19 

Horses cremated, 8; dogs cremated, 28; cows cremated, 1. 

Average water per ton of refuse, lb 1 , 088 

Average combustible matter per ton of refuse, lb 512 

Average non-combustible matter per ton of refuse, lb 399 

The Palo Alto destructor is of the Dundon high-temperature type. It has a 
nominal daily capacity of 30 tons of mixed refuse and cost about $18,000. 
The population of Palo Alto is estimated at 5,900. 

Cost of Operating Destructor with Steam Utilization, at Savannah, Ga, — 
The following matter is taken from an abstract (Engineering News, Feb. 11, 
1915) of a paper by E. R. Conant read before the American Society of Mun- 
icipal Improvements, Boston, Mass, Oct., 1914. 

The population of Savannah, about 80,000, is some 60% white and 40% 
colored. From Mar. 23 to Oct. 1, a total of 18,033 tons of refuse was collected, 
including household, hotel and restaurant garbage and rubbish, paper and 
rubbish from stores, material from street receptacles, and some household 
ashes. The mean daily collection varied from 54 tons in March to about 
100 tons in July. The average cost of collection was $2.29, including labor, 
care of stock, repairs to carts and harnesses and the purchase of small appli- 
ances for use in collection work. At the height of the watermelon and canta- 
loupe season, the percentage of garbage, by weight, was about 55%. During- 
the remainder of the year, the percentage of garbage varies from 40 to 45%. 
In winter the ashes collected do not amount to more than 10% of the total 
collection, if that. Early in 1913, E. R. Conant, Chief Engineer of Savannah, 
recommended to the city council that a high-temperature furnace or destructor 
be installed. This the council decided to do. General specifications were 
prepared and bids secured. In July, 1913, the council awarded to the 



GARBAGE DISPOSAL 847 

Destructor Co. of New York City, a contract for a 130-ton incinerator of 
the Heenan (British) type. The final cost of the plant was $126,271, about 
$970 per ton of rated capacity. The plant was accepted by the city and 
final payment was made in October, 1914. 

General Description of Destructor. — The destructor was located near the city 
water-works pumping station — 60 ft. between building walls, with 140 ft. 
from the destructor boilers to the main steam header in the pumping station. 

The main features of the plant are: A 260-yd. refuse-storage pit, 11 X 32 
ft. in plan and 20 ft. deep, into which the refuse is dumped from the collecting 
wagons; an electric traveling crane and hoisting grab bucket, for lifting the 
refuse from the pit and carrying it to and dumping it into the refuse containers, 
located over the destructor cells; two 65-ton destructor units, each having four 
trough-grate cells about 28-in. wide on the bottom, 34 in. wide on top, 16 in. 
deep and 8 ft. long; two 200-hp. Wickes water-tube boilers; a Foster preheater; 
a cylindrical centrifugal fan for supplying forced draft; a radial-brick stack 
150 ft. high and 6% ft. in diameter at the top; hydraulically operated 
clinkering devices, which discharge into clinker carts of special design; a steam 
turbo-generator for supplying electric current for works light and power 
purposes; various recording instruments; a wagon scale for weighing the 
incoming refuse; and a building to house the whole. 

The cells have a burning area of 20 sq. ft. over each grate. The refuse 
containers over the cells have a capacity of about 1 cu. yd. each and are closed 
by horizontally sliding doors, in two parts, hydraulically operated. Stoking 
is done through a supplementary door, which makes it unnecessary to open 
the large clinkering door. 

The clinker is pulled out by means of a hydraulic winch, attached to a plate 
which forms " an upturned hoe placed on the bottom of the grate before the 
first charge of refuse is deposited in the cell." The sides of the grate diverge 
slightly from the rear to the stoking door. A clinkering operation is performed 
in three to four minutes. Usually the clinker is drawn once for each six 
charges of refuse. The average time burning a charge is 20 min. 

During July and August, about 10% of cinders from manufacturing plants 
were added to offset the excessive moisture in the refuse due to the melon 
season. 

With the destruction of 60 to 75 tons of refuse per day, which comprised 
the collection in 1914, only one unit was operated, so as to supply steam to the 
piunping station continuously. The plant is. operated in three shifts. 

Operating Costs under Working Conditions, Mar. ^4 to Sept. 30, 1914- — 
During a period of just over six months, 14,364 tons of refuse were burned at 
a total cost of $8,988, including $428 for a weighman and $370 for a laborer at 
the pit, supervising the dumping of cars. This gives an average cost of 62>^c., 
but in comparing this with the guaranteed cost of 40.4cts., it must be remem- 
bered that the guaranteed price was based on the plant working at full 
capacity. Deducting the value of fuel saved at the pumping station, the 
net cost was 41.6 cts., per ton. 

With dry refuse the clinker varies from 20 to 25% of the refuse, but during 
July and August it runs from 25 to 30%. 

About $3,000, or $500 per month, was saved in fuel from Mar. 24 to Sept. 30. 
Changes at the plant, it is expected, will raise this saving to $600 per month. 
Operated at full capacity, it is estimated that the fuel saving would be $1000 
per month. It may be added that the pumping-station equipment consists 
of two 10,000,000-gal. Holly-Gaskell duplex compound pumping engines and 



848 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



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two cross-compound air compressors, all of which are operated condensing. 

The destructor-plant steam 
pressure is carried up to 150 
lb. with 100° superheat. As 
the steam pressure for the 
pumps is only 90 lb., a re- 
ducing valve is used be- 
tween the destructor and the 
pumps. 

Comparative Operating 
Costs of the Chicago and 
Cleveland Reduction Plants. 
— The following is taken 
from an abstract in En- 
gineering and Contracting, 
May 11, 1921, of a report of 
Major I. S. Osborn upon the 
means of increasing the effi- 
ciency and economy of the 
Chicago reduction plant. 

The reason for using Cleve- 
land was that the total ton- 
nage reduced annually com- 
pares more closely with that 
of Chicago than the total 
reduced by any other city. 
Furthermore, the Cleveland 
plant was the first to be 
municipally operated, and 
has been so used for the past 
16 years. Thus the results 
achieved have undergone the 
test of time more fully than 
any other municipally oper- 
ated plant. The data avail- 
able are therefore, more 
representative than that of 
any other city, as to what 
can be accomplished by 
municipal management and 
methods. 

Although the "Digester" 
^ process, whereby the garbage 
o is first cooked before drying, 
is not used in Chicago, yet 
the equipment used by Cleve- 
land for drying and extracting 
is very similar. This differ- 
ence of method, however, 
does not appreciably affect 
the basis for comparing 
results. 



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T-l ,H ,-H f-H ,-1 (M 



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GARBAGE DISPOSAL 849 

Comparison of Labor Distribution of Cleveland Municipal Plant with That of 
Chicago, — Although during the past year the quantity of garbage disposed of 
by Cleveland was within 12,000 tons of that handled by Chicago; and although 
the rate of wages paid in Cleveland was higher than in Chicago except in the 
case of mechanics; the payroll in Cleveland, nevertheless, was less than half. 
The following comparison of the organization of the employes in the two plants 
illustrates, in one way, why the Chicago plant is not as economically operated: 

Cleveland Chicago 

68,645 Tons garbage reduced in 1920 80,132 

Superintendence 
1 Superintendent. 1 Foreman in charge. 

Office 
1 Clerk and stenographer. 1 Head clerk. 

1 Bookkeeper. 1 Principal clerk. 

1 Laboratory assistant in city chem- 1 Senior clerk, 
ical laboratory. 1 Senior clerk. 

1 Junior clerk. 

2 Junior stenographers. 
Note. — Bookkeeper keeps books for 1 Senior sanitary chemist. 

both collection and disposal. 1 Assistant chemist on payroll as 

garbage handler. 
1 Janitress, G. H. payroll. 
1 Office assistant, G. H. payroll. 
1 Office boy, G. H. payroll. 
Foremen 

1 Assistant general foreman. 
1 Foreman garbage plant. 
3 General foremen — one for each 2 Foremen garbage handlers, 
shift. 1 Foreman mill house. 

1 Assistant foreman mill house. 
1 Foreman extractor plant (1 shift) or 
(3 shifts). 
Engineers 

1 Second assistant operating engineer. 
3 Engineers (1 for each shift) power 2 Third assistant operating engineers, 
plant (electric power generated). 9 Junior operating engineers. 

1 Hoisting engineer (electric power 
purchased). 
Power House 
3 Firemen. 4 Firemen. 

3 Coal passers. 14 Garbage handlers used in handling 

coal and ashes (day shift). 

1 Ash handler. 5 Garbage handlers (2nd shift). 

4 Garbage handlers (3rd shift). 
Mechanics 

2 Machinists. 8 Machinists. 

3 Machinist helpers. 2 Steamfitters. 

2 Steamfitters. 1 Steamfitter helper. 

1 Steamfitter helper. 2 Carpenters. 

1 Carpenter. 1 Blacksmith. 

1 Carpenter helper. 1 Blacksmith helper. 

1 Electrician. 6 Electricians (3 used on cranes) 

Operators 
11 Equipment operators for dryers, 10 Equipment operators for dryers,* 
digesters and extractors. extractors, etc. 

Watchmen 
None. 2 Watchmen in addition to garbage 

handlers carried as watchmen. 
Labor or Garbage Handlers 
13 Receiving building. 28 Receiving building. 

21 Dryers and digesters. 22 Dryers. 

6 Extractor plant. 10 Extractor plant. 

6 Mill house. 39 Mill house and finishing dryers. 

7 Utility. 22 Utihty. 

92 Total number employes on payroll 213 

54 



850 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Cost of Garbage Collection and Reduction at Cleveland, O. — The cost of 
collecting and reducing garbage in 1917 at Cleveland, O., increased materially, 
according to the 1917 report of F. L. Stockberger, Engineer of Reduction. 

The amount of garbage collected and reduced during 1917 was 56,121 tons, 
which is a decrease of 4,596 tons in comparison with the year 1916. The 
amount of finished material produced from this garbage was 3,071,022 lb. of 
grease and 6,241 tons of tankage. This is a decrease of 796 tons of tankage 
and of 748,303 lb. of grease. The decrease, states the report, was caused by 
the decrease in the quantity of green garbage collected, the high price of all 
foodstuffs and by the conservation movement which was in vogue during the 
greater part of the year. 

The cost of collection was as follows: 



Amount 
Supervision : 

Labor — collecting $157 ,071 



Labor — shoeing . 
Supplies : 

Shoeing 

Office 

Fuel, light and power 

Feed 

Barn 

Motor vehicle 

Mechanical 

Cleaning and toilet 

Other miscellaneous 

Miscellaneous Expense: 

Transportation — employes . 

Telephone and telegraph . . . 

Team hire 

Insurance 

Taxes 

Rented land 

Damages 

Freight 9n garbage 

Other miscellaneous ....... 



4,164 

1,501 

146 

1,529 

25,330 

777 

2,468 

133 

33 

147 



Per ton 

green 

garbage 

$2.7988 
.0742 

.0267 
.0026 
.0272 
.4514 
.0138 
.0438 
.0024 
.0006 
.0025 



169 

1 

736 

199 

1,919 

3 

12,393 

12 



.003 

'loisi 

.0035 
.0342 
.0001 
.2208 
.0002 



Total operating cost $208,741 $3. 7189 



Maintenance: 

Cars and wagons — labor 

Cars and wagons — material 

Harness — labor 

Harness — inaterial 

Buildings—material 

Office furniture and fixtures 

Machinery, tools and implements. 

Motor vehicles 

Other miscellaneous equipment. . . 



3,398 

3,326 

1,249 

1,608 

1,820 

2 

299 

839 

2,765 



% 15 309 

Total collection cost ' 225 ',850 

Loss on horses 1,211 

Depreciation 8 , 973 



$0.0605 
.0593 
.0223 
.0286 
.0324 

";6653 
.015 
.0493 

$0.2727 

4.0243 

.0216 

.1599 



Entire cost, including depreciation $236,035 $4.2068 



• CHAPTER XIV 

STREET SPRINKLING, CLEANING AND SNOW REMOVAL 

Further data on the costs of street sprinkling and cleaning are given in 
Gillette's "Handbook of Cost Data," pages 457 to 474. 

Time Studies and Factors and Standards for Street Cleaning in Chicago. — 
Time studies were made during 1912-13 in Chicago to determine the efifective- 
ness of street cleaning methods and the efficiency of street cleaners and team- 
sters. These studies were conducted by the efficiency division of the Civil 
Service Commission and have been used to compute factors and standards by 
which appropriations can be attested. They present a number of facts which 
are of more than local interest and the following matter is taken from an ab- 
stract in Engineering and Contracting, Nov. 19, 1913, of the commission's 
report. 

General Conclusions. — Analysis of the time records disclosed that a propor- 
tion of the street cleaners had no notion of how to perform their duties with 
minimum waste of time and energy. It was ascertained that there are at least 
38 distinct motions which a cleaner makes in street cleaning work. Gf these 
some were found unproductive, resulting in loss of time and energy. As an 
example, the practice of hitting the broom on the pavement at the end of each 
stroke was found unnecessary. By bringing the brush down forcibly at the 
beginning of each stroke the same result is attained and the labor reduced at 
least 15 per cent. It was also disclosed that wheeling push carts in to alleys 
or to other temporary dumping places consumed 20 per cent of the cleaners* 
time. The time lost by cleaners in dodging vehicular traffic was found not to 
exceed 8 per cent in streets of dense traffic and not to exceed 2 per cent in 
outlying business streets. It was disclosed that unnecessary sweeping was 
done on light traffic asphalt pavements. After the morning cleaning, three- 
fourths of the area to be covered during the remainder of the day does not 
require thorough cleaning. The time studies showed that street laborers in 
gangs did not work as efficiently as single laborers each having his individual 
assignment ; time is lost in conversation and by the pace being set to accommo- 
date the poorest laborer. Generally, the time studies showed that street 
cleaning is handicapped by lack of control, instruction and supervision and 
lack of incentive due to non-recognition of ability and efficiency. 

From the time studies of 1912-1913, a perfect standard of work was com- 
puted; they also showed that able street cleaners working regularly and under 
instructions in proper methods were able to do more than the attainable stand- 
ard which was set at 85 per cent of the perfect standard. Under employment 
conditions as they exist at present it was felt that the attainable standard of 85 
per cent could not be expected, and so for 1914 computations are based on a 
standard of 74.4 per cent. 

Standards and Factors. — The conditions and factor which control the 
amount and frequency of cleaning of any pavements, other conditions being 
the same, may be summarized as follows: 

(1) Density of horse-drawn vehicles and other traffic; (2) width of streets; 
(3) character of district and population; (4) location of streets: (5) proximity 
to unpaved streets and alleys; (6) location of public buildings, parks, etc. 
(7) kind and condition of pavements. 

851 



852 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

As a result of the study, it has been definitely .determined that the density 
of horse traffic, which is the total niunber of horses passing through a given 
street divided by the width of the street, is the principal factor which deter- 
mines the number and frequency of cleaning which one street should be given. 
The experiments made to determine what relation the yardage of dirt col- 
lected in any street had to the number of cleanings indicates that this factor 
is not definite, but is a direct function of all the other factors above noted. 

As the traffic conditions on a street determine to a great extent the number 
and frequency of cleanings which should be provided, in order that the service 
be always distributed uniformly and equitably, it will be necessary that traffic 
census be made regularly each year in the different streets of the city. Traffic 
census taken at regular intervals each year will show any changes in the char- 
acter of the districts and the necessary changes in cleaning service. 

From the studies made the street cleaning constants given in Table I were 
determined. 

Upon the above factors the number of cleanings per week which any street 
having permanently improved pavement will receive is expressed by the 
equation: , 

E 

N= ~ — 
CW 

where N = number of cleanings per week. 

E = total number of horse-drawn vehicles per 8-hour day. 
W — width of roadway in feet. 
C = constant of cleaning. 

In the case of streets where investigation gives data of traffic of vehicles 
and pedestrians and restricted roadway due to standing vehicles and general 
special considerations which necessitate the modification of the value of the 
constant C in the above equation the schedule should be arranged so that the 
cleaning service is in accordance with requirements and standard maintained. 

For residence and street railway streets, or streets on which churches, 
schools, hospitals, playgrounds and general public institutions are located, the 
application of the constants (Table I) to traffic conditions might give results 
below the necessary minimum. In such cases the formula is used, but the 
minimum number of cleanings for streets having these characteristics has 
been determined by a separate basis, as shown further in Table I. 

Table I. Street Cleaning Constants 

Wards— Av. res. Av. bus 

Inlying 2.1 2.6 

Outlying 2.5 2.8 

Minimum Cleanings per Week on Hard Pavements 

Cleanings 
per week 

Inlying wards 3.0 

Outlying wards 1.0 

Minimum Cleanings per Week on Car Track Streets 

Head way Head way Head way 
up to 3 min. 3 to 10 min. 10 min. or 

more 

Inlying wards 6 5 4 

Outlying wards 6 3 3 



STREET SPRINKLING AND CLEANING 853 

Minimum Cleanings per Week on Streets Having Public Buildings, Etc. 





Churches 




Schools 


Hospitals, parks, public 
institutions 


L... 
M.. 

S... 
L 


= Large. M 


...6 L... 
... 3 M.. 

... 2 S... 
= Medium. 


"S '= Sm'ali.'" 


..6 L 6 

.. 5 M 4 

..4 S 2 





Condition of 


^avement 


pavement 


Asphalt 


Good 


Asphalt 


Good 


Asphalt 


Good 


Asphalt 


Fair 


Asphalt 


Poor 


Creosote blk. 


Good 


Brick 


Good 


Brick 


Fair 


Brick 


Poor 


Granite 


Good 


Granite 


Fair 


Granite 


Poor 



In cases where the streets or alleys surrounding the foregoing are unim- 
proved, the minimum number of cleanings has been increased by one- twelfth 
of the number of cleanings calculated for the improved pavements. 

From an analysis of the time studies of the work of street cleaners, definite 
data have been secured upon which is based the relative difficulty of cleaning 
the different kinds of pavements with varying physical conditions. The 
standards and equivalent areas which it is assumed can be cleaned by one 
man in one eight-hour day follow: 

Equivalent 

Standards sq. yds. 

100 per cent average perfect standard . 34 , 000 

85 per cent attainable standard 28,900 

74.4 per cent of attainable standard 

assumed for 1914 21 ,500 

90 per cent of good asphalt 19,300 

80 per cent of good asphalt 17 , 200 

Good asphalt 21,500 

Good asphalt ^ 1.35 16,000 

63 per cent of good brick 10,000 

50 per cent of good brick 8 , 000 

Good asphalt -^ 1.60 13,400 

75 per cent of good granite 10 , 000 

60 per cent of good granite 8 , 000 

Analysis of the data also indicates that the presence of car tracks in a street 
increases the difficulty of cleaning the street, and that under similar conditions, 
the street car right of way is approximately 15 per cent harder to clean than 
the pavements outside of the car tracks. In instances where the pavement 
of the right of way has been found to be different from the pavement of the 
balance of street, the area of the right of way has been increased by 15 per 
cent and the paving factors applied. 

In cases where alleys are paved with improved pavements and where condi- 
tions exist similar to those on streets, the same standards and equivalents as 
given for the cleaning of streets having similar factors are used, the resulting 
number of cleanings per week being divided by six. In some instances, 
the number of cleanings per week that an alley would receive, based upon 
traffic conditions alone, would give absurd results, and therefore a minimum 
of two cleanings each week has been fixed for all improved alleys in the city 
with the exception that the improved alleys in business sections which receive 
a minimum of six cleanings per week. 

Experimental work in connection with the cleaning of improved alleys has 
demonstrated that the traffic on alleys does not control the number of clean- 
ings to be given, that there is practically no difference in the time required to 
clean the various kinds of pavements in alleys and that a reasonable eight- 
hour day's work for an average laborer is eight blocks or approximately one 
mile of improved alleys. 



854 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The oiling of macadam streets during the past few years has had an excellent 
effect upon the surface of these streets. The surface of many has become sufla- 
ciently smooth to require more cleaning than could heretofore be given to the 
plain macadam streets. Analysis of the standard of work which one man can 
perform on oiled macadam streets indicates that the rate of cleaning 1}4 
miles of oiled macadam in an eight-hour day can be reasonably expected of 
any man, and this standard has been assumed in the preparation of estimates 
for the 1914 appropriations. The number of cleanings which are to be given 
to these oiled macadam streets is as follows: 

Cleanings 
per week 

Inlying wards 3 

Intermediate wards 2 

Outlying wards 1 

The number of cleanings which it has been assumed will be given to the plain 
macadam and cedar block streets exclusive of country roads is as follows: 

Inlying wards 6 times during the cleaning season, or approxi- 
mately 1 cleaning per month 

Intermediate wards 4 cleanings per year 

Outlying wards 3 cleanings per year 

Analysis of the records of the cost of cleaning the macadam and cedar 
block pavements has shown the following relationship between the total cost 
of cleaning such pavements and the cost of the spring cleaning of the same 
pavements, which is shown under Spring Cleaning. In wards where the 
macadam and cedar block pavements are cleaned three times per year, 
the total cost of cleaning these pavements is approximately twice the cost of 
the spring cleaning. In wards where the macadam and cedar block pave- 
ments are cleaned four times per year, the total cost of cleaning these pave- 
ments is approximately 2>^ times the cost of the spring cleaning. In those 
wards where the macadam and cedar block pavements are cleaned six times 
during the cleaning season, the total cost of cleaning of these pavements is 
approximately four times the cost of the spring cleanup. 

A general spring cleaning is provided for all streets of the city which do not 
receive attention during the winter months. The heavy dirt which is washed 
from the center of the street and which accumulates in the gutters during 
the winter season is piled up and removed from the street before the regular 
block cleaning work is begun. 

Study has been made of a number of different methods which are used in the 
removing of the dirt in the spring cleaning. The unit costs of such work 
indicate that the assignment of one man to a definite length of street or the 
assignment of a small gang of not exceeding three men to definite lengths of 
street are most effective and economical. Where a gang of three men is 
assigned to this work, team work is developed by the use of one man in remov- 
ing the dirt from the roadway and one man each for the gutters. On the 
granite and brick pavements considerable more brooming is necessary on the 
roadway. The granite and brick pavements and the cedar block pavements 
require that the dirt be scraped from the center of the street to the gutters 
before piling of the dirt in the gutters can be commenced. 

It has been found that the rate of spring cleaning of the center of streets 
varies with the conditions of the pavement and that the rate of piling dirt in 
the gutters is practically independent of the condition of the improved pave- 






STREET SPRINKLING AND CLEANING 855 

merits, but varies directly with the traffic. In providing the spring cleaning 
for improved pavements, standards have been determined which are based 
on the rates in Table II. 

Table II. — Center Cleaning Rates 

Outside 

Car track, sq. car track, sq. 

Class of pavement — yds. per day yds. per day 

Good asphalt 16 , 500 18 , 500 

Fair asphalt 12 , 900 14 , 800 

Poor asphalt 9 , 200 11 , 100 

Good brick 4,400 5,550 

Fair brick 3,340 3,700 

Poor brick 1,850 2,960 

Good granite 4,400 5,550 

Fair granite 3,340 3,700 

Poor granite 1,850 2,200 

Cobblestone 1 ,470 

Single Gutter Rate in Miles per Day 

Times cleaned Poor brick and 

per week Asphalt Good brick granite of all kinds 

2 1.8 miles 1 . 4 miles 1 . 4 miles 

3 1.4 miles 1 . 1 miles . 7 miles 
6 0.7 miles 0.5 miles 0.3 miles 
9 0.3 miles 0.2 miles 

12 0.2 miles 0.2 miles 

In preparing the estimate of the cost of spring cleaning of the macadam and 
cedar block streets, it has been assumed that where the average traffic per 
eight-hour day is less than 400 vehicles the street has been termed a light 
traffic street and where the traffic per eight-hour day exceeds 400 vehicles the 
street has been termed a heavy traffic street. On this basis it has been found 
that the unit cost of spring cleaning the macadam and cedar block streets of 
different physical conditions is as follows: 

First-class condition, Fair condition, cost Poor condition, cost 
cost for cleaning 100 for cleaning 100 for cleaning 100 

lin. ft. lin. ft. hn. ft. 

Traffic Traffic Traffic 

Heavy Light Heavy . Light Heavy Light 

$1.18 $0.90 $1.97 $1.46 $2.25 $1.69 

Cost of Street Cleaning at Philadelphia. — Engineering and Contracting, 
Sept. 5, 1917, publishes the following interesting data on street cleaning costs 
at Philadelphia, contained in the 1916 annual report of the Bureau of High- 
ways. Special block tests on various types of pavements were made with 
machine brooms, the average costs being as follows: 

Per 1,000 sq. 
yd., cts. 

Granite block 24 ; 6 

Brick 19. 3 

Wood block 16.6 

Sheet asphalt 15.9 

Average per all classes 22 . 6 

The dirt removed per 1,000 sq. yd. of pavement was 0.158 cu. yd. ; 98 gal. of 
water were used per 1,000 sq. yd. cleaned. On the regular work the average 
cost of street cleaning with machine brooms, based on the district reports, 
was 28.2 ct. per 1,000 sq. yd. 



850 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



The unit costs per 1,000 sq. yd. of street cleaning by other methods were as 
follows: 



-B. 



District, 

1-A. 

1- 

2. 

3... 

4-A. 

4-B. 

5... 

6... 



number 



Squeegee 


Flushing, 


flushing, 


Blockmen, 


Average 


Average 


average 


average 


average 


from 


from 


from 


from 


from 


block 


district 


district 


district 


district 


tests 


reports 


reports 


reports 


reports 


$0,131 


$0,223 






$0,083 


.174 


.204 








.081 


.130 


.196 




156 




.179 


.118 


.094 




157 


$0,474 


.282 


.176 


.126 




174 




.216 


.115 


.115 








.140 


.218 


.192 




148 




.111 


.137 


.182 




150 




.174 



Average $0,148 $0,156 $0,157 $0,474 $0,152 

The squeegee used 240 gal. of water per 1,000 sq. yd. cleaned and the flusher 
used 522 gal. The amount of dirt per 1,000 sq. yd. removed by the squeegee 
was 0.031 cu. yd. the blockmen removed 0.051 cu. yd. per 1,000 sq. yd. 

The squeegees were used on sheet asphalt and wood block streets only. 

Flusher dirt was removed by blockmen. 

The cost of labor and equipment per day was assumed as follows: 



Superintendent $4 . 00 

Foreman 2 . 50 

Gangmen 1.75 

Blockmen 1 . 50 

Dumjjmen 1 . 50 

Machine broom 5 . 50 



Squeegee $ 6 . 00 

Auto flusher 15.00 

Dirt- 
Wagon 5.00 

Cart 3 . 50 

Sprinkler 5.00 



Street Cleaning Costs at Houston, Texas. — Engineering and Contracting, 
Sept. 5, 1917, gives the following data taken from the 1916 annual report of 
the Street and Bridge Commissioner of Houston, Tex. 

Street Sprinkling. — The motor sprinkling covered 250 blocks twice daily 
and 57 blocks four times daily. The total yardage sprinkled each day was 
1,083,000 sq. yd. In 1916 the motor sprinkler was in operation for 262 days. 
The total yardage sprinkled was 283,746,000 sq. yd. and the total cost was: 



Chauffeur 

Gasoline 

Lubricants 

Repairs and renewals. 



Per day 
$3.00 

1.80 
.50 

4.20 



Total, 

262 days 

$1,080 

372 

131 

1,255 



Total. 



$9.50 



$2,838 



This gives a cost of approximately 1 ct. per 1,000 sq. yd. of street surface 
sprinkled. 

About 1,632,000 sq. yd. of street surface were sprinkled each day by mule- 
drawn sprinklers. Six of these outfits were in use at a daily cost of $25, made 
up of the following items: 

6 drivers $12. 00 

12 mules , 12.00 

Renewals ' 1 . 00 



Total $25.00 



STREET SPRINKLING AND CLEANING 857 

The team outfits sprinkled 350 blocks twice daily and 97 blocks four times 
daily, and were operated for 300 days, making the total area of street sprinkled 
in this way 489,600,000 sq. yd. The cost was as follows: 

300 days operation $7 , 500 

66 days idle mules 780 

Total. . $8,280 

This makes the cost per 1,000 sq. yd. 1.75 ct. 

Street Sweeping. — The street sweeping was carried out with mule-drawn 
sweepers, truck-drawn sweepers and combination sprinkler-sweepers. The 
unit costs by each of these methods were as follows: 

Per 1,000 sq. 
yd., ct. 

Mule-drawn sweepers 12}^^ 

Truck-drawn sweepers 123^ 

Combination sprinkler-sweeper 6^i 

In all 177,000 sq. yd. of street surface were swept daily by three mule- 
drawn sweepers preceded by one team sprinkler. These outfits operated 
294 days in 1916, during which time 52,000,000 sq. yd. of street were swept. 
The cost of the work was: 

Total Total, 

per day 294 days 

4 men $8 . 00 $2 , 352 

8 mules 8.00 2,352 

Brooms, renewals and repairs 2 . 20 740 

H foreman 1 . 50 490 

Total $5,934 

8 mules, idle 72 days 506 

Total $6,440 

The trucks, each trailing one sweeper and preceded by a motor sprinkler, 
cleaned 300,000 sq. yd. of street surface daily. These outfits operated 270 
days at a daily cost of — 

2 chauffeurs $ 7 . 00 

Gasoline 3 . 60 

Lubricants 1 . 00 

Repairs and renewals 4 . 00 

Broom repairs and renewals 4 . 35 

2 men riding brooms 4 . 00 

K foreman 1 . 50 

$25.45 
Motor sprinkler ahead 9 . 50 

Total $34.95 

The two combination sprinkler sweepers covered 161,000 sq. yd. of street 
surface each day and were operated for 294 days in 1916. The cost was as 
follows: 

Total Total 
per day 294 days 

2 men $4.00 $1,176 

4 mules , 4.00 1,176 

Broom renewals and repairs 1 . 70 288 

Total $9 . 70 $2 , 852 

4 mules, idle 72 days ; 288 

Total $3 , 140 



858 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

White Wings and Pick Up. — In the business district a force consisting of 
13 men and a foreman cleaned 222,000 sq. yd. of street surface daily except 
on Sunday, when they cleaned about one-half this amount. The total cost 
was as follows : 

Men, $185.90 weekly , $10, 126 

Supplies 500 

Total $10 , 626 

About 47,645,000 sq. yd. were cleaned in the year, making the cost 22^^ ct. 
per 1,000 sq. yd. 

The force employed on pick-up work on the business streets consisted of the 
following : 

Per day 

6 men $12.00 

6 mules • 6.00 

Renewals and repairs 1 . 00 

Total $19.00 

This gang picked up sweepings last year from 20,878,000 sq. yd. street 
surface at a cost of S3H ct. per 1,000 sq. yd. surface. It removed 6,184 cu. yd. 
sweepings at a cost of $1.10 per cubic yard. 

General pick-up work was handled by an. outfit consisting of two trucks, 
two chauffeurs, 10 men and foreman; also six mule teams, 12 men and foreman. 

Daily cost operating two trucks — 

Two chauffeurs $ 7 . 00 

Gasoline 3.60 

Lubricants 1 . 00 

Depreciation, renewals and repairs 4 . 00 

Foreman 3 . 00 

Ten men 20 . 00 

Total $38.60 

Picking up daily sweeping from 128,700 sq. yd. street surface. Removing 
20 cu. yd. sweepings. 

Operating cost working 270 days last year picking up sweepings: 

Two chauffeurs $ 2,160.00 

Gasoline 972 . 00 

Lubricants 362.00 

Renewals and repairs 1 , 080 . 00 

Foreman . 936.00 

Ten men 5,400.00 

Total $10,910.00 

Picked up last year (270 days) sweepings from 34,750,000 sq. yd. street 
surface at a cost of Sl^i ct. per 1,000 sq. yd. Removing 5,700 cu. yd. sweep- 
ings at a cost of $1.91 per cubic yard. 

Daily cost of six-team pick-up equipment — 

12 men $24.00 

12 mules 12 . 00 

Foreman 2 . 50 

Repairs and renewals . 2 . 00 

Total daily $40.50 

Picking up sweepings from 185,900 sq. yd. street surface. Removing 45 
cu. yd. sweepings. 



STREET SPRINKLING AND CLEANING 859 

Team pick-up equipment cost last year, operating 294 days — 

12 men $ 7,056.00 

12 mules 3,528.00 

12 mules, idle 72 davs 864.00 

Foreman 810.00 

Repairs and renewals 600 . 00 

Total last year $12,858.00 

Street Cleaning Practice in Cities of From 50,000 to 100,000 Population. — 
The following notes, taken from Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 20, 1911. 
were given by the officials of the various cities. 

Table III. — Summary of General Practice in Machine Cleaning 

CJ -T^O . JDflCi'^S«3 

City -53 g.S^ |-. .SS ^11 a^ 

ii III l§ll^s|i^|i|si 

Altoona, Pa 2 68i 6 4 22 

Bayonne, N. J 1 95 , 0003 31,^ 10 4* 3* 

Charleston, S. C 1 465 , 000^ 12 5 5 

Dallas, Texas 1 1« 2« 

Des Moines, la 2 98 , 000 2 3 3 

East St. Louis, 111 2 4 8 4 

Fort Worth Tex 1 1 1 

Hoboken, N. J 1 63,347 4 12 5 5 

Houston, Tex 4 75,200 1}4 5H . .^ 

Huntington, W. Va 2 82,400 2^ 4 4^ 28 

Jacksonville, Fla 2 2}i . . » . . » 

Oklahoma City, Okla 3 1 1 

Springfield, Mass 2 50,000 2 2 1 

Troy, N. Y 310 30,000 411 2i3 . . i3 ..11 

* Altoona, Pa. and Huntington, W. Va. have 10-hr. day, all others have 8-hr. 
day. 

1 68 blocks for one sweeper; 85 blocks for two sweepers. 2 2-yd. dump wagons. 
3 On bitulithic; on Belgian block about one-fifth less. * Three carts with one 
additional man to help load. ^ Per week; includes granite blocks and cobbles. 
" The night force of 4 men, 8 teams and 1 foreman handles the sweepings 
' Double teams with w" gons ^ Large drop bottom dump wagons, 2 men to 
each wagon. ^ Sweepings picked up by regular garbage carts in niorning, 
45 carts being engaged for 13^ to 2 hours taking up sweepings of entire area 
swept. 10 3 to 5 sweepers. ^^ 4 miles for gang. 12 2 men follow gang of 3 
machines. i3 Sweepings gathered into cans by patrolman on his beat and 
removed by teams that gather house refuse. 

As to the comparative costs one city reported that the cost of sweeping by 
machine and by hand was about the same, while 12 cities reported that machine 
sweeping was not more expensive than hand sweeping. At Charleston, S. C, 
the cost of sweeping with horse sweeper and gang was placed at 74 cts. per 
10,000 sq. ft. This cost does not include new equipment but does include 
removal of sweepings. 

Patrol System. — ^Practically all of the 21 cities, reported, employ the patrol 
system in cleaning the streets by hand sweeping. At Altoona, Pa., the patrol 



860 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

system Is used on 51 blocks of streets, the area covered by one man being 
eight blocks. The patrolman uses a broom and a scraper to lift the sweepings 
into patrol carts. 

At Bayonne, N. J., one man generally covers a given section but sometimes 
two men are used, depending on character of section. One man covers about 
10,000 sq. yds. in residential sections in the working day. For cleaning up the 
dirt the patrol sweepers use brooms with can and carriers. Hand pickup 
machines with a revolving drum have been used by the patrol sweepers at 
Bayonne with fair results. 

At Charleston, S. C, five patrols cover about 36,800 sq. yds. of brick pave- 
ment per day. For gathering up the dirt the patrol sweeper uses a scraper on 
asphalt pavements, a hand pickup machine on brick, and a broom and push 
cart on granite block pavement. The results obtained with the hand pickup 
machine are reported to be very satisfactory. Five of these machines each 
day cover 36,800 sq. yds. of brick pavement, and the report states that the 
streets are swept cleaner with the machine than by hand. The cost of the 
cleaning with the hand pickup is about 27 cts. per 10,000 sq. ft. 

At Dallas, Tex., a day force of 46 "white wings" is employed to cover all 
paved streets of the city. The men are assigned to districts the size of which 
depends on the traffic. In connection with the day force 16 one-horse carts 
are employed. Each cart takes about five loads of sweepings per day. The 
average area covered by each patrol sweeper is 6 or 8 blocks. Both brooms 
and scrapers are used for gathering up the dirt. 

Des Moines, la., has a "white wing" service in the business district, each 
man being assigned about three blocks or 1,200 lin. ft. of street. The patrol 
sweeper uses broom and scraper to gather up the dirt. 

At Harrisburg, Pa., the crew engaged in hand sweeping consists of 110 
sweepers, three foremen and 11 horses and carts. The total length of streets 
covered by this gang per day is 43.28 miles. Each sweeper is assigned a section, 
depending in sizes upon the amount of travel. For gathering up the dirt, the 
sweeper uses a broom in the business section, and a broom or scraper or both 
in residence sections. 

Hoboken, N. J., uses the patrol system on every street not swept by machine. 
About 18 men are employed in the 18 districts. The men are equipped with, 
push carts and can and clean the district once a day. The average area of a 
district is 14,700 sq. yds. For gathering up the dirt brooms are used on wood 
block and Belgian block pavement; on asphalt scraper and broom are used. 

Houston, Tex., employs hand sweeping only in the business district, the 
work being done during the daytime. The patrol system is employed, each 
man being assigned four blocks or 1,200 ft. of 60-ft. street. A broom and 
scoop is used to gather up the dirt into can carriers. 

At Huntington, W. Va., the patrol gang; consisting of seven men, covers 
8,500 ft. of 53-ft. street per working day. A scraper is used to gather up the 
dirt. 

Jacksonville, Fla., employs hand sweeping only on the principal business 
streets, about 36 blocks being covered in this way. Each patrol sweeper has 
four or five blocks to cover. Hand push brooms are used to gather up the 
dirt. 

At Lawrence, Mass., the hand sweeping is done by 33 patrol sweepers, each 
man covering an area of about 1,100 sq. yds. Three single teams and nine 
men are employed in taking care of the sweepings. For gathering up the dirt 
the patrol sweeper uses a broom with scraper back. 



STREET SPRINKLING AND CLEANING 801 

New Bedford, Mass., employs both the gang and patrol systems in hand 
sweeping. The gangs are composed of from six to ten men, each gang being 
given a district. The area covered by a patrol sweeper is from 6,000 to 10,000 
sq. yds. Brooms are used for gathering up the dirt. 

At Portland, Me., the area covered by a patrol sweeper Is 700 sq. yds. 
Brooms are used for gathering up the dirt. 

At St. Joseph, Mo., 100 blocks of streets are cleaned by hand sweeping, the 
patrol system being employed. Each patrol sweeper covers about five blocks 
and uses both broom and scraper in gathering up the dirt, 

Springfield, Mass., employs both gang and patrol systems in its hand sweep- 
ing. The city is divided into four sections, six men and two single teams being 
assigned to each section. This is for the macadam and gravel streets. The 
cleaning is done with brooms and hoes. Horse sweepers are also used in 
cleaning the macadamized streets. About two miles of streets are covered in 
a working day ; about H mile is covered per man. Brooms and short-handled 
shovels are used to gather up the dirt. 

At Troy, N. Y., a patrol sweeper is assigned from 3,000 to 4,500 sq. yds. 
according to traffic. They use both broom and scraper for gathering up the 
dirt. This city has tried the hand pickup machine with revolving drum. 
The machine gave satisfactory service but was not used on large enough scale 
to get any figures as to costs, etc. It was found, however, that the machine 
takes off the fine dust better than brooms. 

Hand Sweeping by Gang System. — Of the 21 cities reporting. East St. Louis, 
111., and Fort Worth, Tex., appear to be the only cities employing the gang 
system alone in hand sweeping. East St. Louis employs hand sweeping on 
only the down town streets, the area covered in a working day being about 
two miles. The sweeper uses broom and scraper to gather up the dirt. At 
Fort Worth, Tex., hand sweeping is employed on the two principal streets and 
on the cross streets between these two. Hand sweeping is used in the daytime 
and the streets are washed at night. In the hand sweeping the men are 
worked in gangs of three, one man on each side of the street and one cart man. 
The gang begins at one end of street one day and doubles back if they have 
time. The next day the gang begins at the other end and doubles back. 
Each gang covers 64 blocks (200 ft. to block) of 60-ft. street, or 768,000 sq. ft. 
per day. A large pan and small broom are used for gathering up the dirt. 

Flushing With Hose. — Of the 21 cities six reported that they fiushed their 
streets with hose. At Altoona, Pa., this work is done by a gang of six men, 
covering about 10 blocks per day. Six 50-ft. lengths of fire hose with l^-in. 
nozzle are used in the work. 

Flushing by Machine. — At Fort Worth, Tex. , a flushing machine is being used 
to clean a brick-paved street. This pavement is in bad shape, being full of 
holes and depressions, and the street will soon be repaved. On the street the 
machine in a working day covers 10 blocks, each block being 200 ft. long and 
60 ft. wide. Six tanks (600 gals, to the tank) of water to the block are used for 
cleaning this street. In the work one man cleans up after the machine, scrap- 
ing gutter, and one team is used to haul off the dirt. The cost of cleaning this 
10 blocks of street averages as follows: 

1 team at $ 3.75 

1 laborer at 2 . 00 

1 team at 3 . 50 

36,600 gals, water at $3 per 1,000 10. 80 

Total $20.05 



862 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

This makes the cost per 1,000 sq. yds. about $1.51. Regarding the success 
obtained with the machine the report states that it is "rather unwieldy to 
handle but does the work." 

At Reading, Pa., 18 to 20 blocks are flushed every night in the week ejtcept 
Sunday. Flushing machines, 600 gals, capacity, are used. About 1,600 
gals, of water are used per block. The material is flushed into the gutter and 
is swept up by regular cleaners in that section in the morning. 

Machine flushing is also employed at Troy, N. Y., the area covered per hour 
by one of the flushers being 3,500 sq. yds. The machines have proved very 
satisfactory. At Troy all dirt from these machines is taken care of by the 
patrol sweepers. 

At Springfield, Mass., the squeegee is used for cleaning smooth-surface pave- 
ments. The success obtained at Springfield with the machine is reported to 
be very good, and much better than the old method of hand flushing. The 
squeegee is used at night with the best results. The patrol sweepers take care 
of the dirt swept up by the machine. 

Fort Worth, Tex., at present has two squeegees in operation and will soon 
put in a third. The daily cost of operating one of these machines in Fort 
Worth is stated to be as follows : 

1 team at $ 3.75 

1 laborer at 2 . 00 

1 team at ., 3 . 50 

26 tanks of water, 400 gals, per tank, 10,400 gals, at $3 per 

1,000 3.12 

Total $12.37 

The average length of street covered per working day is stated to be 24 
blocks. These machines have proved very satisfactory in Fort Worth. 

Cost of Street Cleaning at St. Paul by Patrol System. — Engineering and 
Contracting, Sept. 4, 1918, gives the following: 

During the season of 1917, 58 miles of streets (1,347,051 sq. yd.) of pave- 
ments were cleaned by the patrol system (White Wings). The other paved 
streets were cared for by the ward crews. The total cost of the patrol system, 
according to the 1916 annual report of M. N. Goss, Commissioner of Public 
Works, was $70,178 or an average cost of $52.09 per 1,000 sq. yd. per season. 
The above figures include the cost of shovelers and teams hauling away the 
street sweepings. The area handled by one man was from 3,200 to 17,600 
sq. yd. The force consisted of an inspector at $100 per month, an assistant 
inspector at $90 per month, from 105 to 125 sweepers, 14 teams at 66% cts. 
per hour and 15 shovelers at 25 cts. per hour. The working day was 8 hours. 

Life of Street Push Brooms. — Engineering and Contracting, Mar. 19, 1913, 
states that in a discussion of a paper on street cleaning in downtown Chicago, 
presented before the Western Society of Engineers, Richard T. Fox, General 
Manager of the Citizens Street Cleaning Bureau said that he had found that 
the average life of a push broom when used in cleaning granite pavement was 
7 days. On asphalt the life of a broom ran up as high as 12 to 15 days. On 
asphalt in addition to the broom, the sweepers use a scraper with which most 
of the work is done, so that the broom is not in use continuously. The broom 
generally used by the Citizens Bureau is made of two rows of African bass with 
a row of Bahia grass on either side. Heavier brooms, made entirely of African 
bass, have been used, but it was considered that these did not pick up the fine 
dust as well as brooms with fine fibrous material on the outside. 



STREET SPRINKLING AND CLEANING 863 

Motor-driven Squeegees for Street Cleaning Show Saving. — Engineering 
and Contracting, March 1, 1916, publishes the following data which are based 
on tests made by the Municipal Research Bureau of Milwaukee, Wis., com- 
paring costs of horse-drawn and motor-driven squeegee street cleaning: 

The cost data show the operating expense of the horse-drawn and the motor- 
driven squeegees, and that the latter type will perform twice the amount of 
work of the former at a reduced unit cost. 

A careful analysis of the traffic condition of the streets cleaned by squeegees 
shows that 1,105,324 sq. yd. are subject to this process of cleaning and that 
from the total yardage the amount of 

413,825 sq. yd. should be cleaned 6 times, 

308,133 sq. yd. should be cleaned 3 times, and 

385,365 sq. yd. should be cleaned 2 times 
each week, or a daily cleaning of approximately 700,000 sq. yd. 

Average square yards cleaned per day by motor-driven squeegee 80 , 000 

Cost per 1,000 sq. yd., cts 16. 5 

The assessment per front foot based on a street 30 feet wide and cleaned 

50 times a season would be 1 . 37 

The average yardage covered per day by a horse-drawn machine being 
35,000 sq. yd., it will require 20 machines, or an additional 8 over the present 
equipment, to perform the work; but if the motor-driven type were substituted 
the purchase of only four machines would be necessary. 

The difference in operating cost of the two types would be as follows: 

Horse-drawn type, average cost per 1,000 sq. yd., cts 25. 5 

Motor-driven type, average cost per 1,000 sq. yd., cts 16.5 

Reduction in cost per 1,000 sq. yd., cts 9 

If the motor-driven squeegees were not available, the cost of operating the 
eight additional horse-drawn machines would be greatly in advance of the 
motor-driven type, as the following data shows: 

8 machines X $9,635 cost per machine =$77.08 X150 days = $11,562. 

By operating these 8 machines it would eliminate the service of — 

9 white wings at $2 per day X 150 days $ 2,700.00 

8 sprinklers at $6.34 per day X 150 days 7,608.00 

Total $10,308.00 

Twice weekly squeegee cleaning 3 , 854. 00 

Grand total $14,262.00 

Less the cost of operating 8 squeegees 11, 562 . 00 

Effecting a season's saving of $ 2 , 700. 00 

4 motor-driven machines X $13.26 cost per machine X 150 days = 
$7,956. 

Saving over cost of operating 8 horse-drawn machines = $11,562 — $7,956. 
or a saving of $3,606. 

With the same services eliminated for the motor-driven as for the horse- 
drawn squeegee, the total saving would be 

$14,262 - $7,956 = $6,306. 

*This item is included because certain streets are only cleaned twice a week 
that require the service six times weekly; and if performed the maximum 
number of times would eliminate the stipulated number of white wings and 
sprinklers. 



864 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Cost of Cleaning with Vacuum Cleaners, at San Diego, Cal. — In some of 
our western and southern cities where the problem of street cleaning is largely 
one of removing dry dust, vacuum street cleaners have been successfully 
employed. Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 3, 1917, gives the following 
data furnished by F. M. Lockwood, Manager, Operating Department of the 
city of San Diego, Cal. 

The city of San Diego, Cal., has operated vacuum street cleaning machines 
for the past four years. The first machine was purchased in the fall of 1912 
and the second in March, 1913, at a cost of $2,200. The apparatus is drawn 
by three horses; the vacuum arrangement being run by a small gas engine. 
The outfit is handled by one gas engineer and one teamster. The machines 
are worked two shifts a day. The costs of street cleaning with the vacuum 
machines for the first 7 months of 1917, were as follows: 



Vacuum No. 1 

Cost 

Opera- Mainte- Total Yardage per 1,000 

tion nance cost cleaned sq. yd. 

January $ 317.61$ 33.16$ 350.77 2,923,000* $0. 12 

February 397.19 41.34 438.53 3,654.417* .12 

March 398.33^ 86.47 484.80 4,048.069 .11976 

April 406.44 44.73 451.17 2,292,853 .196772 

May 418.46 137.61 556.07 3,130,837 .17761 

June.. 41.43 493.07 534.50 In shop 

July 365.78 186.35 552. 13t 2,257,354 .244593 

Totals $2,345.24 $1,022.73 $3,367.97 18,306,620 .. 

Averages 335.03 146.10 481.13 3,051,103 $0.18397 

Vacuum No. 2 

January $ 350.74$ 20.77$ 371.51 3,377,364* $0. 11 

February 294.13 23.44 317.57 2,887,000* .11 

March 369.19 16.43 385.62 4,174,581 .092373 

April 431.03 38.85 469.88 4,256,759 .11038 

May 373.75 27.08 400.83 3,442,492 .116436 

June 356.62 .85 357.47 2,985,323 .119743 

July 263 . 74 8 . 29 272 . 03 2 , 947 , 462 . 0923 

Totals $2,439.20$ 135.71 $2,574.91 24,070,981 

Averages 348.46 19.39 367.85 3,438,712 $0.106974 

* Estimated; no figures available for actual yardage, t This total, cost 
includes a complete overhauling and rebuilding of the entire apparatus. 



The above costs include teams at actual cost of feed, care and maintenance 
of harness, labor, fuel, oil and repairs, but do not include depreciation or 
interest on the investment. 

Suggested Procedure and Cost with Machine Flushers. — The following 
useful suggestions on motor flushing procedure, published in Engineering and 
Contracting, Feb. 5, 1919, are given in a report on street cleaning at Rochester, 
N. Y., submitted by the Rochester Bureau of Municipal Research, Inc., of 
which James W. Routh is Chief Engineer. 

Motor Flushing Practice and Costs at Rochester.— In 1916 the city purchased 
one motor flusher of 1200 gal. capacity, and in 1917 an additional one of 1,500- 
gal. capacity was put into service. The first of these is mounted on a 5-ton 
truck; the second has a 5M-ton truck. A comparison of the two flushers 
follows: 



STREET SPRINKLING AND CLEANING 865 

Flusher No. 1 Flusher No. 2 

Capacity 1 , 250 gal. 1 , 500 gal. 

Weight filled 12 tons 13M tons 

Indicated horsepower 30 40 

Speed (estimated) 6 to 10 miles 10 to 15 miles 

Pump (centrifugal) Direct conn. Direct conn. 

Nozzles 4 4 

Strainer None 2H-in. crane 

Time to connect, fill and get away 5 minutes 73^ minutes 

Time to empty tank (2 nozzles) 3H minutes 3>^ minutes 

Working pressures (on level ground) — 

2 nozzles 18 to 30 lb. 30 to 42 lb. 

3 nozzles 18 to 23 lb. 26 to 30 lb. 

4 nozzles 10 to 15 lb 22 to 25 lb. 

Fuel used per shift — 

Gasoline 7 gal. 9 gal. 

Oil 1 pint 1 pint 

The two machines are used for flushing some of the main streets. Two men, 
a driver and an assistant, are used on each machine. The assistant makes the 
hydrant connections and operates the nozzle levers. When the 1917 season 
started the flushing was done with new operators on the machines. Both 
men were experienced motor drivers, but neither knew anything about street , 
flushing ; as a consequence they did not always obtain the best possible results. 

During the four months, June, July, August and September, 1917, the two 
machines flushed a total of 12,399,734 sq. yd. of pavement, the total number of 
flushing miles traveled being 1,319.18, of which machine No. 1 covered 533.52 
and machine No. 2,785.66. The average cost per 1000 sq. yd. for the flushing 
was 9.62 ct. This figure does not include the costs of the water. An average 
of 338.6 gal. of water was used per 1000 sq. yd. flushed. The average yardage 
flushed per hour amounted to 14,515 sq. yd. Of the total yardage flushed, 
5,777,000 was asphalt pavement, 600,000 sq. yd. of Medina block and 6,000,- 
000 sq. yd. asphalt and Medina block. On the asphalt pavement the average 
number of gallons of water used per 1000 sq. yd. was 299.2, and the average 
yardage covered was 14,976 sq. yd. per hour. The average cost per 1000 
sq. yd. was 10.124. In flushing the Medina block an average of 365.4 gal. of 
water per 1000 sq. yd. was used. The average yardage flushed per hour was 
13,171 sq. yd. The average cost was 8.57 ct. per 1000 sq. yd. The cost of 
operating the flushers for the four months was as follows : 

No. 1 machine No. 2 machine 

Gas*.. $ 99.63 $142.71 

out 4.84 14.75 

Labor 462.75 467.69 

Flushing, miles 533. 52 785. 66 

Miles flushed per gal. gas 1.375 1.471 

Labor cost per mile $ 0.8673 $0.5953 

Total cost per mile $ 1 . 0722 $0. 7956 

* 388 gal. for No. 1 machine, 534 gal. for No. 2. f 9.75 gal. for No. 1 and 30 
gal. for No. 2. 

General Comments as to Motor Flushing. — ^In general, it appears, as a result 
of tests made, that only two nozzles should be used together on either flusher. 
In order to save one trip, three nozzles may be used on a narrow street or for 
flushing the center of a very wide street, if an effective pressure can still be 
maintained. This qualification is important because it was found that where 
three nozzles were used together instead of two, less effective pressures, and 
consequently less side wash, were obtained. The result was that dirty spaces 
sometimes were left near the center of the street. When four nozzles were 
55 



866 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

used together, water was wasted and, moreover, the nozzles were not all 
effective, because the two in front interfered with each other and pushed 
the water straight ahead instead of to one side. The resultant loss of pres- 
sure alone is sufficient cause to prohibit the use of four nozzles together at 
any time, with these machines. A suggested combination of nozzles for 
different conditions is indicated in Fig. 1. 

The efficient operation of flusher trucks depends to a large extent on the 
drivers, who have expensive pieces of apparatus in their care. Flushers will 
give good service only when carefully handled and kept in good repair. 

Motor Flushing Results. — The cleaning results obtained by motor flushing, 
with 30 lb. pressure or more, proved to be very satisfactory on asphalt streets. 
This was not the case, however, on Medina block pavements. These pave- 
ments are laid on a sand cushion, and the joints of most of them are not 
grouted ; hence the sand and dirt work up from the bottom through the inter- 
stices and make them difficult to clean and hard to keep clean. Where car 
tracks are paved with Medina blocks without a concrete base, the area in- 
cluded is still harder to clean, because the rails are all on a level, and because 
dirt and sand deposited on the rails are caught in the grooves. On a rainy 
' day it can be seen plainly how much cleaner are the sides of such streets than 
is the car track area. 

As the motor flushing results obtained on these Medina block car track 
streets were not all that might be desired, means should be provided for im- 
proving the work. With the present apparatus, better results could be ob- 
tained by making more trips on such streets. The flushing strokes then could 
be lapped more. This would make them narrower and more effective, because 
the side throw would not have to be so far for each individual stroke. (Increas- 
ing the number of trips, of course, would increase the cost in direct proportion 
to the number of extra trips.) 

In order to aid in obtaining the desired results, diagrams, based on past 
performances of the local motor flushing apparatus and needs, have been pre- 
pared in the hope that they may be adopted for the guidance of flusher 
operators. These proposed procedure diagrams, for motor flushers producing 
a maximum pump pressure of 40 lb., are shown as Fig. 1. If additional 
flushers are purchased, higher working pressures should be specified. The use 
of such apparatus would necessitate a modification of the suggested procedure, 
as fewer trips would then be necessary to obtain the same results. Higher 
pressures thus would tend also to reduce the unit costs for the work. 

As experience elsewhere has proved that on rough pavements the best 
results can be obtained by hose flushing, it is suggested that certain Medina 
block pavements be flushed by hose rather than by machine, even if the sug- 
gested procedure for motor flushers be adopted and new machines are pur- 
chased. Streets paved with Medina block require the use of more water, 
because they are rougher and dirtier than other pavements. With hose, the 
water can be concentrated on the dirty spots, and rough places can be given 
special attention. 

Suggestions for Bettering the Service. — The following suggestions are made 
with reference to obtaining better results from present equipment, as well as 
to point out desirable factors in purchasing and operating new equipment : 

As much valuable time is lost in filling the tanks with water, 4-in. intake 
pipes and hose, instead of the 2>^-in. size now used, would save considerable 
time. It takes 7>2 minutes to stop and fill a 1500-gal. tank, and only 3>^ 
minutes to empty it. Many of the local hydrants now have 4-in. connec- 



STREET SPRINKLING AND CLEANING 



867 



tlons, and 4-in. strainers and hose can be obtained on specifications. A 
recent quotation on 4-in. rubber hose capable of withstanding 140 lb. pressure 
was $2.21 per foot, without connections. It weighs 2 lb. per lineal foot. This 
question should be given consideration in purchasing new equipment. 

Mileage records are necessary for obtaining good cost data. No speed- 
ometers are used on the flushers, and it has been shown that they are hard to 
keep in order, on account of the vibrations of the trucks. However, hub 
odometers will give satisfactory service on trucks of this size, and should be 
supplied so that the proper records can be kept. 

A worth while saving could be made in gasoline consumption if the motor 
were stopped while the tanks are being filled, which is approximately one-half 
of the time. As starters are little used on heavy trucks, the engine would have 
to be cranked 25 or 30 times a shift in such an event. 



STRCCTS without CaH TftACK* 



STRCCT5 WITH Car Tracks 



-PaVCMCNT V 'lOTMS IN rCCT. 




ii 




1 
1 


■Ii 1^ 


. $rf If-* ij> i»> 



ii 


^ 


^ 


1 '' 1 


1 
1 


■11 ^ 






Ji.|i!P'i? 



NOTe- For car track streets vnitr 3i feet ite 
cote No. n 

Dimensions refer to the majimwm jTrip to be 
ilvstied per trip 
^ Miuifes strip tWiVti per £ nozrie trip. (iS t) 
^^Indicatts strip fli/shed per 3 nozzle trip. (iO'X) 
^—Showi area sprinkled beyond the effective 

tlvshinq range 
-Jt-»Shovv5 the direction, order, and position of 

. the tit/sher for each trip. 

2N or 5N 5hoivt the number of no/iles to be wed e««h fnp. 
Flushing Routes should be laid out according tw 
"riuJhtn^ Miles Traveled' rather than on a mvare yardage bo^is. 

Fig. 1. — Proposed machine flushing procedure for equipment developing a 
maximum of 40-lb. pressure. 

The following data were obtained from a consumption test on the No. 2 
flusher to determine the amount of gasoline wasted by running the engine 
while filling the water tanks: 

Total time of test 1 hr. 17^ min. 

Less time not running H mm. 

Time to consume 3^^ gal 1 hr. 6^ niin. including 6 starts 

Time to consume 1 gal 2 hr. 13 min. or 133 mmutes 



At 7K minutes a filling for 28 fillings per 7-hour shift, the fiusher is standing . 
210 minutes. This means that the machine is standing half the time and is 
then consuming one gallon every 133 minutes. For 210 minutes a shift, the 
possible saving should be 1.58 gal. For the 65 shifts in a season, the saving 
would be 102.7 gal., costing $26.70 with gasoline at 26 ct. a gallon. The total 
gasoline cost for this one truck for the 1917 season was $142.71, and if this 



868 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

were reduced by $26.70 there would be a saving of 18.7 per cent. This saving, 
of course, would be multiplied by more extensive use of one flusher and by the 
use of several flushers. 

The life of hose could be prolonged if more care were exercised in turning on 
the hydrants slowly, and also if hanging the hose over one hook were discon- 
tinued. If possible, the hose should be hung around the tank of the flusher 
without kinks. (These points are largely matters of instruction and disci- 
pline which should be given constant attention.) 

Sometimes sprinkling 15 to 30 minutes before flushing would increase the 
effectiveness of the results obtained, especially in removing horse droppings. 
This would soften up the dirt, which then could be flushed off readily. How- 
ever, the necessity for sprinkling should be determined by the judgment of the 
man directly in charge of the flushing work. 

It is believed that a flusher having a capacity of 1,500 gal. is the largest size 
desirable for Rochester, as a weight much greater than 12^ tons is likely to 
prove detrimental to the pavements. 

Two flushers which could maintain the same speed could be used to advan- 
tage in a battery on the wide streets. If this were done, the less frequented 
streets could be flushed first and the others done in the early morning hours, 
when there would be no serious delays from vehicular traffic. 

It cannot be expected that the best results will be obtained if the work is 
done without competent supervision in the field. The work done by each 
flusher should be studied and analyzed under the various conditions to be met, 
and the work should be planned so as to get the best results possible from each 
machine. If this is to be accomplished, the night flushing work must be under 
the direction of a night superintendent who understands the work thoroughly 
and who can develop it to meet local conditions satisfactorily. 

Costs, Equipment and Principles Developed for Flushing Streets. — An 
improved type of hose equipment for hand flushing is now in use by the Depart- 
ment of Street Cleaning of ISTew York City. Previous to 1915 it had employed 
ordinary 2>^-in. fire hose and IJ^-in. nozzles. This was carried on the regular 
sweepers' can carrier or dragged over the pavement by sweepers. As a result 
of studies and experiments the department has adopted the 2-in. size as 
standard for the city, and has developed a new hose reel and new hydrant 
equipment. Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 3, 1917, gives the following 
description of the New York equipment and principles taken from a paper by 
Raymond W. Parlin, formerly Engineer with the New York Bureau of Munici- 
pal Research, prepared for the 1916 annual convention of the American Society 
of Municipal Improvements. 

As a result of the experiment the following general principles for hand flush- 
ing appear to have been established: 

General Principles of Hand Flushing. — (1) The economical size of equipment 
is dependent upon the hydrant pressures available and the length of hose used. 

2. When the pressure at the nozzle is in excess of 25 lb. per square inch, 
water is delivered through a ^-in. or 1-in. nozzle faster than it can be properly 
used by two men and it is accompanied by excessive splashing. 

3. When the pressure at the nozzle is less than 18 lb. per square inch, water 
Is not delivered fast enough to keep up with the men nor with force enough to 
enable them to do effective work. 

4. The smallest size hose which will give pressure at the nozzle between 
18 and 15 lb. is the most economical for use. 

5. Better results can be secured by spraying ahead as far as the stream will 



STREET SPRINKLING AND CLEANING 809 

reach, to give the material on the street a prehminary soaking prior to the 
direct flushing, than can be secured by the direct flushing of a dry pavement. 

6. Larger quantities of wajier are required to clean rough pavement than 
smooth, and therefore a slightly larger nozzle may be used to advantage. (It 
is estimated that a ^-in. will be satisfactory for asphalt and a 1-in. for rough 
Belgian block.) 

7. Shut-off nozzles are necessary whenever working in traflBc, both to save 
water and to prevent accidents. 

8. Where water mains are large enough for proper domestic and fire 
supply, flushing will not interfere with the ordinary household use. 

9. A hose reel will enable the gangs to do more work with the same expendi- 
ture of energy and at the same time lengthen the life of the hose. 

10. By the adoption of procedure which prevents any "back tracking" 
of the equipment, over four miles of walking can be saved per gang per 8-hour 
day in covering a given amount of street, as compared with the procedure com- 
monly used in the past, which saving enables the gangs to do more work. 

Procedure in Handling Equipment. — The procedure in handling the equip- 
ment may be described as starting with the hose reeled so that the nozzle is on 
top or outside ; commencing to unreel when at a distance equal to the length of 
the hose from the hydrant ; unreeling toward the hydrant ; placing the reel on 
the side-walk near the hydrant; flushing from the point nearest the nozzle 
past the hydrant and as far as the hose will reach beyond the hydrant ; and 
reeling from the hydrant toward the nozzle ; thus completing the area served 
by ,a single hydrant. Whenever moving the hose,, the "hydrant man" is 
required to pick it up in loops and drag it ahead in such a way that it will not 
cross other loops. He is expected to keep a loop at the nozzle end, even with 
or slightly ahead of the "nozzle man," so that the latter will be free to move 
without assistance at all times. 

Equipment. — The New York equipment consists of an improved reducer 
which can be put on the hydrant without the use of a wrench and an improved 
reel with its tool box, third wheel, and special arrangement for receiving the 
reducer in winding on the reel. 

The cost of the equipment is approximately as follows: 

Three 50-ft. lengths 2-in. rubber hose at 60 ct. per ft. ... . $ 90.00 

One ^4 -in. shut-off nozzle 7 . 00 

One 2>^-in, to 2-in. reducer, hand swivel type 2.25 

One hydrant key .15 

One hose reel 30.00 

$129.40 
(Rubber-covered hose is preferable to cotton-jacket hose for this work.) 

The cost of operating with this equipment is as follows: 

Annual and Unit Costs Based on 200-day Season and One 8-hour Shift 

Per Day 

Dirty Belgian block pavement; night work. 

Force, 1 gang. 

First cost equipment, $130; hose, $90. 

Life hose, 250 working days; other equipment, 1,200 working days. 

Interest at 5 per cent. Water at 5 ct. per 1,000 gal. 

Area flushed per shift, 23,000 sq. yd. 

Area flushed per year, 4,600,000 sq. yd. 



870 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Fixed Chakges 

Per year 

Depreciation reserve (hose not included) $ 7 . 00 

Interest « 6 . 50 

Maintenance: 

Repairs and painting 15 . 00 

Storage: 20.00 

Operations: 

Hose 72 . 00 

Laborers, 2 at $2 800 . 00 

Water, 900 gal. per 1,000 sq. yd 207 . 00 

Total annual cost $1 , 127. 50 

Cost per 1,000 sq. yd 24.5 cts. 

When cleaning 30,000 sq. yd. per day the cost per 1,000 sq. yd. is 19.8 cts. 



Upon less heavy work and smooth pavements, New York gangs have been 
able to flush effectively 30,000 or more square yards in 8 hours, making as 
many as 45 connections to hydrants. 

Comparison of Various Types of Street Flushing Equipment. — Mr. Parlln 
also gives comparative annual and unit costs for cleaning with various types of 
equipment. These figures are based upon actual experience in the following 
cities, with equipment noted: Automobile pressure pump, Chicago, Los 
Angeles, Cal., and Rochester, N. Y.; Street car, pressure pump, Worcester, 
Mass.; Horse-drawn, pressure pump, Detroit, Mich., and Milwaukee, Wis.; 
Horse-drawn, air pressure, Detroit, Mich., and Washington, D. C. He con- 
cludes that the most economical examples of the various types of equipment as 
shown by the cost comparisons are: 1. New York, hose equipment. 2. Mil- 
waukee, horse-drawn equipment. 3. Chicago, auto equipment. 4. Worces- 
ter, street railway equipment. 

To determine the relation of these various types of equipment to each other 
a diagram. Fig. 2, was drawn, which shows the unit cost of cleaning various 
areas with the four types of equipment. The data used in constructing the 
diagram were based upon that obtained from the cities noted above and the 
assumption that the area represented the schedule area to be covered each 
day for 200 days. 

This diagram shows that hose flushing on small areas was the most econom- 
ical method; that up to 40,000 sq. yd. the horse-drawn equipment was next 
in economy; that from 40,000 sq. yd. to 90, 000 sq. yd. the hose was about as 
economical as the automobile; that from 90,000 sq. yd. to 120,000 sq. yd. 
the automobile was supreme, and for daily schedule areas of over 120,000 
sq. yd. the automobile and street car equipment give nearly the same 
economy. 

This means, states Mr. Parlin, that small cities which do not have over 
40,000 sq. yd. of hard pavement to clean each day can better afford to use 
hose equipment if hydrants are close enough together and plenty of water is 
, available. If local conditions prevent the use of hose, then horse-drawn 
equipment is economical if only flushing is required. If both flushing on the 
hard pavements and sprinkling on the macadam or gravel streets is desired, 
the automobile appears to be by far the most economical equipment. 

In large cities there appears to be no doubt that the automobile and street 
car equipment are the most economical, perhaps with the possible exception 
of those small or inaccessible areas which the larger equipment cannot reach. 
On such areas hose equipment can well be used as auxiliary to the machines. 



STREET SPRINKLING AND CLEANING 



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872 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Wherever the city has areas of more than 120,000 sq. yd. on street railway 
streets the street car equipment should be economical. Wherever the street 
car franchise provides for the sprinkling of the right of way the adoption of 
this type of equipment is especially to be desired, first, to eliminate sprinkling, 
and, second, to replace it by flushing, which is greatly to be preferred. The 
costs of street cleaning should be reduced, and if really effective sprinkling 
of the railway area has been provided the expense to the traction company 
should be reduced as well. 

Mr. Parlin concludes that perhaps the type of street washing equipment 
which has most in its favor is the combination sprinkler, flusher and squeegee. 
With such a machine it should be possible to secure the most efficient cleaning 
and the greatest economy. One of the weaknesses of flushing is the necessity 
for leaving the dirt spread over a wide strip to the gutter, especially on dirty 
smoothly paved streets which have little crown or grade. By running a 
squeegee along the gutter after flushing the center of the street much of this 
objection would be removed. 

Cost of Street Flushing at Chicago. — The following matter is given in 
Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 4, 1916. 

The city of Chicago purchased three automobile flushers in the fall of 1914. 
These were put in operation about April 10, 1915, and remained in the service 
until Nov. 19th, when weather conditions interfered with street flushing. 
During this period they were operated in two shifts of 8 hours each, making a 
total of 16 hours per day. For various reasons it was found most practical to 
have the drivers on the first shift report for work at noon to give their machines 
one hour's attention. Flushing operations would then begin and continue 
untn 9:30 p. m. The night shifts reported for work at 9:30 p. m. and after 
caring for machines commenced flushing at 10:30 p. m., continuing until 
7 a. m. the following morning. Flushers were operated every night except 
Sunday. 

In order to reduce non-productive travel to a minimum and enable the 
flushers to cover as much territory as possible it was found advisable to house 
the machines in separate sections of the city, the north, south and west sides. 
Suitable quarters were provided in ward yards most centrally located to the 
section wherein the machine operated. Owing to the necessity of covering 
as much territory as possible scheduled streets were covered every second day 
or night. The main arteries leading into the business section were covered 
nightly, as also were the streets within the business section. The benefits 
derived from the operation of the automobile fiushers were most apparent. 
On streets not covered by the automobile flushers the displacement of air 
caused by rapidly moving automobiles or street cars would invariably raise 
a cloud of dust, whereas on streets that were flushed this condition was almost 
entirely eliminated. 

It is believed that one of the principal factors in keeping down the cost of 
flushing was the installation of service recorders on these machines. These 
instruments allow no time to be lost without a proper explanation, thus 
preventing the idling of time by the operators. 

The following account of operations is taken from the 1915 annual report 
of the Department of Public Works of Chicago: 

During the period between April 10, 1915, and Nov. 19, 1915, 9,939.52 
miles of streets were flushed, with a total of 271,407,644 sq. yd. cleaned, 
divided as follows: 



Sq. yd. 
96,961,529 
93,404,220 
73.543,171 

7,768,661 


Cost 

$ 3,303.45 

3,375.15 

3.161.87 

946.40 


271,407,644 


$10,786.87 



STREET SPRINKLING AND CLEANING 873 

Lin. ft. 

North side 19,213,606 

South side 16,248,540 

West side 15,491,575 

Loop district 1 , 525 , 976 

Totals 52,479,696 

Material used in this work: 
12,547 gal. gasoline. 
572 gal. cylinder oil. 
642 lb. medium cup grease. 
39,297 tanks of water were used, equivalent to 58,990,500 gal., or an average 

of 5,865 gal. of water per mile of street flushed. 
The working hours are accounted for as follows: 

Hours 

Productive hours 7 , 745 . 08 

Non-productive hours 435. 01 

Time lost (all causes) 1 , 356 . 45 



Total 9,536.54 

Efficiency, 833-^ %. 
Total cost of operation including percentage of salary of head motor 

truck driver $11,209.87 

General average cost of flushing 1,000 sq. yd. .041 

General average cost of flushing per mile , . . 1 . 13 

Cost of Motor Flushers at Ottawa. — Engineering and Contracting, April 
3, 1918 gives the following significant facts from the 1917 annual report of 
Andrew F Macallum, C. E., Commissioner of Works of Ottawa. 

In 1916 82 street sweepers were employed. This year only 55 sweepers 
were hired, although 2^i miles of new pavements were added to the sweeping 
area. Assuming that there are 170 working days in the season, the total 
saving in wages will be about $12,400. This reduction in the cost of the 
work is largely due to the use of motor flushers. 

Two 1,200-gal. capacity motor flushers were purchased in April from the 
General Supply Co. These flushers were operated in two nine-hour shifts 
daily. The estimated cost for operating, including repairs, was $32 per day, 
and the actual cost $31. An average of 18 miles of pavements of all widths 
were thoroughly washed daily at a cost of $1.72 per mile. (The estimated 
daily average was 20 miles at a cost of $1.60 per mile.) The total cost for 
operating these flushers for 150 days will be approximately $4,650. 

These flushers replaced 20 of the old horse-drawn sprinkling wagons which, 
if used regularly, would have cost $16,800 for the season, making a saving 
of $12,150. The streets were washed cleaner and kept in better condition 
than ever before. 

In other words, each motor flusher not only did the work of 10 sprinkling 
wagons drawn by horses, but made it possible to dispense with the services of 
14 street sweeping laborers, effecting an annual saving of $8,500 for each of the 
two motor flushers. 

Comparative Costs of Auto Flusher and Horse-drawn Sweeping Outfit, 
Portland, Ore. — Engineering and Contracting, May 31, 1916, gives the follow- 
ing: 

The truck is a regular 5-ton Hiker equipped with tank, capacity of which is 
between 1,200 and 1,300 gal. The water is forced onto the street under 50 
lb. pressure. A centrifugal pump is used, operating from the engine. The 
tire equipment is 40 X 6 Goodrich Demountable all around. This truck 
cost the city $5,500, complete, and operates with a crew of three men at a 
cost of $0.1384 per 1,000 sq. yd. It leaves very little refuse for carts to pick 



874 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

up, the largest portion of this going into the sewers. By this process the 
streets stay clean longer, as no sediment is left to turn to dust as in the case 
with sweepers. The sweeping outfits represent an outlay of $5,620 as follows: 

3 sweepers $1 ,200 

1 sprinkler 400 

Carts 500 

12 horses at $250 each 3 , 000 

8 sets of harness at $50 each 400 

4 sets of harness at $30 each ■. . . 120 

$5 , 620 

The sweeper required a crew of 12 men and the average cost per 1,000 sq. yd. 
was 31 cts. 

Portland has 370 miles of paved streets, with 20,800 square yards to the 
mile. One of the trucks will cover 6 miles a day at a cost of $17.27. The 
sweepers covered the same ground in an equal time at a cost of $38.69. Thus 
the truck is saving the city $21.42 in a working day of eight hours. Allowing 
two eight-hour shifts with an average of 300 days to the year, it will be seen 
that a saving of $6,426.00 is effected, or enough to pay for the truck. These 
operating costs ^o not include depreciation. 

Costs of Flushing and Scrubbing at St. Paul, Minn. — The following is 
taken from Engineering and Contracting, Nov. 1, 1916. 

The equipment used by the Bureau of Sanitation of St. Paul, Minn., for 
flushing and scrubbing paved streets consists of five Studebaker power flush- 
ers. two 2-horse-drawn Hvass squeegees, one 2-horse Kindling squeegee and one 
3-horse Hvass squeegee. According to the annual report of M. N. Goss, 
Commissioner of Public Works, the area of paved streets flushed and scrubbed 
in 1915 was 1,493,000 sq. yd. This does not include the pavement laid in 
1914 or 1915 on which very little flushing was done in 1915. The cost of this 
service was as follows: 

Team hire $6,389 

Labor 2 , 504 

Gasoline, 9,308 gal 912 

Lubricating oil 123 

Water (32,145,850 gal.) 1,285 

Repairs 1 ,469 

$12,685 

Miscellaneous labor. . : 357 

4 new engines for flushers 1 , 400 

1 Hvass squeegee 950 

1 Kindling squeegee 1 , 200 

3,907 

$16,592 

The Street Railway Co. paid its proportion of this cost which was 24.2 per 
cent, or the ratio of the street railway area to the entire area of streets flushed. 

In the congested business district bounded by St. Peter St., Eighth St, and 
Third St. and Broadway all streets are flushed every night during the season. 
This district comprises 7. 12 miles of streets or an area of 146,400 sq. yd. The 
crew consists of one foreman, three teams at 60 ct. each per hour and two 
gutter cleaners at 25 cts. each per man. The cost of one night's flushing 
(8 hour shift) in this district amounts to $27.61. This includes gasohne, 
lubricating oil and water, but not repairs, interest or depreciation. This is 
19 ct. per 1,000 sq. yd. for one flushing. The flushers are used on the day 
shift on streets outside of the so-called congested district. The day shift 



STREET SPRINKLING AND CLEANING 875 

work nine hours. Paved streets are flushed or scrubbed at least once a week 
during the season. 

As a matter of coniparivSon of cost, tlie W. Seventli St. district, with an area 
of 89,700 sq. yd., 68,000 sq. yd. of which is sandstone, on the level, with street 
car tracks and very heavy traffic and with intersecting traffic streets as follows : ■ 
8,500 sq. yd. of asphalt, 10,800 sq. yd. of creosoted wood block and 2,400 
sq. yd. of brick, costs for one flushing $39.80 or 44 ct. per 1,000 sq. yd. This 
district is flushed once a week and is one of the hardest districts to clean. 

The E. Seventh St. district with an area of 150,400 sq. yd., of which 109,800 
sq. yd. are brick, steep gradient, street car tracks, automobile traffic and light 
miscellaneous traffic with intersecting streets as follows: 25,600 sq. yd. of 
asphalt and 15,000 sq. yd. of sandstone, cost for one flushing $43.56 or 29 ct. 
per 1,000 sq. yd. The crew in each of the above cases was one foreman, three 
teams and two gutter cleaners working one 8-hour shift. 

The squeegees are operated only in the day time on smooth pavements, 
such as creosoted wood block or asphalt. The 3-horse squeegee scrubs 42,- 
000 sq. yd. of pavement in one 9-hour shift and uses 11,000 gal. of water, the 
resulting cost being 17 K ct. per 1,000 sq. yd. scrubbed. The 2-horse squee- 
gees do a slightly less amount. The total amount of water used for street 
flushing purposes during the 1915 season was 32,145,850 gal. for which the 
department was charged $1,286. 

Street Flushing at Worcester, Mass., by Trolley Flushers. — Engineering 
and Contracting, April 4, 1917, gives the following: 

For many years the city of Seattle has been celebrated for its cleanliness 
and low death rate (8 per 1,000). Seattle has used flushing wagons that hurl 
powerful streams of water upon the pavements and wash them as clean as a 
kitchen floor. The flushers work at night. Worcester, Mass., has adopted 
the same method, but with a variation that is worthy of notice. In Worcester 
trolley cars, instead of wagons, are used. 

Each flushing car has a 2,900-gal. tank that is filled from sub-surface 
hydrants. For flushing, a centrifugal pump on the car, driven by a 45-H. P. 
motor, delivers 600 gal. per min. at a pressure of 80 lb. per sq. in. Three 
nozzles on the car itself and two on swinging arms that reach almost to the 
curb, flush the widest street clean. 

The best results are obtained by sprinkling the street with the car about an 
hour before flushing, for this softens up the dirt. A 40-ft. street requires about 
3,000 gal. per mile for the sprinkling and 10,000 gal. for the subsequent flush- 
ing, or a total of 13,000 gal. per mile. A car will sprinkle and flush 9 miles of 
street (averaging about 30 ft. wide) per night of 8 hours, using 95,000 gal. 
of water. 

The Amefican Car Sprinkler Co., of Worcester, has the contract for this 
work, and its annual charge for a 30-ft. street is about $550 per mile. 

A few push-cart men clean up the gutters in the morning, but the rest of 
the street is left perfectly clean by the flushing. 

Previous to the use of the trolley flushers, when day sprinkling was required, 
three car sprinklers, making several" trips over each street every day, covered 
the same area now covered by the two flushers, which make one trip nightly for 
sprinkling and flushing combined. The flushers work 8 hours and the 
sprinklers under the old method 14 hours. ' 

The amount of water used under the flushing system is about 60 per cent 
of that used under the old style day sprinkling, while the present combined 
sprinkling and flushing uses about 85 per cent of the amount. 



87G HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The cost of catch basin cleaning has been just about doubled on streets 
which are flushed. The average cost per catch basin per year for cleaning was 
$1 .95, and on streets flushed this has been increased to $3.90. 

The method of flushing by cars is not only cheaper than hand cleaning with 
brooms, but what is even more important is the fact that flushing is far more 
effective than brooming. Moreover, sprinkling during the day is no longer 
necessary to keep down the dust. 

Comparative Costs of Street Sprinkling with Motor Trucks and Horse 
Drawn Tanks. — Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 5, 1917, publishes the 
following comparative costs of street sprinkling with motor-driven sprinklers 
and with team-hauled tanks, given in a report of the Board of Public Works, 
Los Angeles, Cal. 

Savings in money and water, more efficient sprinkling and relief of traffic 
conditions were among the benefits reported after a year's use of the motor- 
driven trucks. 

Teams : 

Total team days of 8 hours each 10, 910 

Loads of water used, 550 gal. per load 303 , 722 

Average loads of water used per day (per team) *27 . 8 

Miles of streets sprinkled 47 , 209 . 7 

Miles of streets sprinkled per day, average (per team) 4 . 33 

Cost for team hire $51 ,301 . 16 

Cost for team hire per mile of street sprinkled $ 1 . 087 

Motor Sprinkling: 

Total truck days of 8 hours each 1 , 178 . 25 

Loads of water used, 1,200 gal. per load 49 , 618 

Average loads of water used per day (per truck) t42 . 11 

Miles of streets sprinkled 20,303 . 38 

Miles of streets sprinkled per day, average (per truck) 17 . 23 

Cost for truck hire $17 , 519 . 98 

Cost for truck hire per mile of street sprinkled $ . 863 

* This is a rate of a load in 17 min. for the team tank, sprinkling 820 ft. of 

street. 

t This is a rate of a load in 11 min. for the truck tank, sprinkling 2,170 ft. of 

street. 

Comparative Cost of Bituminous Surface Applications and Water Sprinkling 
in New Yprk City. — Engineering and Contracting, May 15, 1912, gives the 
following data from a paper by William H. Connell before the A. S. C. E. 

The results from tar have been very satisfactory, about H or >^ gal. per 
sq. yd. being applied and covered with torpedo sand or fine wash gravel. 
This formed a very desirable surface, at a cost of $0,035 for }i gal. and $0,045 
for H gal- per sq. yd. In these treatments the tar was applied cold. 

The Grand Boulevard and Concourse was treated with a heavier tar, which 
was applied under pressure through a hose at a temperature of 220° F., % gal. 
per sq. yd. being used, and then covered with torpedo sand or fine washed 
gravel. This road has been in use for 6 months, and although it has been 
subjected to very heavy, high-speed automobile traffic, it is now in first-class 
condition. The cost was $0,138 per sq. yd., which is high, owing to the lack 
of proper facilities for handling the bituminous material and the numerous 
delays which occurred. In the Borough of the Bronx a fair cost would be 
from $0.09 to $0.10 per sq. yd. for this treatment. Before the application of 
tar in these treatments, the road was thoroughly swept with horse-drawn and 
hand brooms. 

Asphalt road oil of about 20° Baum^- gravity was applied to a number of 



STREET SPRINKLING AND CLEANING 877 

macadam roads, using K gal. per sq. yd. On roadways having light or med- 
ium traffic, one application a year was sufficient to keep the road dustless; 
heavily traveled roadways required two and, in some instances, three applica- 
tions. The cost of this treatment was $0,013 per sq. yd. when K gal. per sq. 
yd. was used. The oil was applied with a pressure distributor on a number of 
roadways, and the cost was $0,009 for H gal. per sq. yd. This method of 
treatment is both economical and desirable. Just enough pressure was 
applied (about 15 lbs.) to drive the oil into the interstices of the stone to a 
sufficient depth to avoid having a mushy road surface. Before the application 
of the asphalt road oil, the surface was swept with a horse-drawn sweeper only. 

Preparations are now under way to equip the Bituminous Application Divi- 
sion with a sufficient number of pressure distributors to do all the bituminous 
surface work in 1912. For the cold treatments, the distributing device can 
be attached to an ordinary water sprinkler. The heavier materials will 
require the use of heater wagons. 

The bituminous material applied to the different roadways was selected 
from the standpoint of its adaptability for each particular case. The stone 
used consists largely of Rockland Lake and Clinton Point crushed trap rock. 

The following table gives a comparison of the cost of surface treatments 
and water sprinkling in the Borough of the Bronx, the water sprinkling being 
basied on sprinkling from three to four times a day for 180 days, at $5 per day 
for a team, and water at $0.10 per 100 cu. ft.: 

Tar, H gal. per sq. yd $0,035 

Tar, H gal. per sq. yd . 045 

Asphalt road oil, about 20° Baum6 gravity, K gal. per sq. yd 0.013 

Two applications . 026 

Asphalt road oil, about 20° Baum6 gravity, pressure distributor, %© gal. 

per sq. yd 0.009 

Two applications . 018 

Water sprinkling . 051 

The following figures relate to material and wages paid to laborers in the 
Borough of the Bronx: 

Foreman, per day $4 . 00 

Laborers, per day 2.25 

Average price of tar at freight yard, per gal . 061 

Average price of asphalt road oil at freight yard, per gal 0. 04 

Torpedo sand on work but not spread, per cu. yd 1 . 30 

With the use of pressure distributors in 19i2, the cost of applying the tar 
will be greatly reduced. The former method required the services of three 
laborers, whereas a distributor will need only one man to operate it, and more- 
over the time required to apply the tar will be reduced. 

Further costs of oiling road surface are given in Chapter XV. 

Cost of Calcium Chloride as Dust Preventive on Gravel Roads. — The 
Connecticut Highway Commission has obtained excellent results from the use 
of calcium chloride as a dust preventive on gravel Toads passing through sparse- 
ly settled sections. The methods employed in making the applications are de- 
scribed by W. L5roy Ulrich, Superintendent of Repairs, of the State Highway 
Commission, in Public Roads, from which the matter following is abstracted 
in Engineering and Contracting, June 4, 1919. 

The material is put up in metal drums, holding about 350 lb. per drum, and 
costs at the present time between $20 and $30 per ton at the point of shipment. 



878 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST • 

The price varies with the amount purchased. The drums will be painted by 
the shippers without extra charge if requested. If this is done, material may 
be stored for future use in any reasonably dry place. If it is not done, the 
drums, being very light-gauge material, quickly rust out, exposing the chloride 
to the air, from which it immediately attracts moisture and solidifies, in which 
form it is very expensive to handle. If properly sealed and handled, when the 
drum is opened it will roll out in the form of kernels about the size and appear- 
ance of popcorn. 

In order to obtain the best results the surface of the road to be treated should 
be kept in shape by the use of a drag for about two weeks previous to the appli- 
cation of the material. This will insure proper cross section and a reasonably 
smooth surface for receiving the material. The application may be made by 
laborers spreading with shovels, but this is not satisfactory on long sections as 
it is too slow and expensive. A uniform distribution can not be obtained by 
this method. Any ordinary lime sower will spread the chloride, but it is 
economical to purchase a special machine for this purpose. These machines 
may be purchased in different widths for use with a single horse or a pair. 

In making application with the use of horses the drums are distributed along 
the road at regular intervals, one at a point if a narrow machine is used, and 
two if the wider. The necessary interval is determined by the amount of 
material to be applied. About iy2 lbs. per square yard is necessary for the 
first application, which should be followed by a second treatment at 1 lb. per 
square yard. The interval between applications depends upon the quality 
and condition of the surface on which the material is spread and the character 
and volume of the traffic carried. Under moderate traffic a good surface 
would not require more than two applications per year; under heavy traffic 
three may be necessary. The best results are obtained if the material is 
spread on the road after a rain, when it is wet, as a better penetration is ob- 
tained at this time. 

In making an application with a 2-horse machine with a spread of 10 ft., 
two drums are distributed every 220 ft. This machine will hold the contents 
of two drums and after filling is run up one side and down the other and then 
up the middle of the road, stopping at the point where the next two drums 
have been placed. This applies a little less than 1 lb. per square yard on each 
edge of the road and nearly 2 lb. on the center 10 ft. This method has proven 
more satisfactory than making an even distribution over the entire surface. 
The same method may be followed with the one-horse machine. 

In order to eliminate the necessity for the distribution of the drums, the 
machine may be hauled behind and fed directly from an automobile truck. 
Eighteen drums may be carried on a 3-ton truck, which, running continuously 
in one direction, will cover one width for about 6,200 ft. Three trips will 
complete the treatment of this length of road. This has proven a little more 
economical than distributing the drums and spreading with horses. 

During the handling of the material, all workmen should wear rubber 
boots, as the chemical action of the chloride is very detrimental to leather. It 
is also well to provide cotton gloves, otherwise the hands will soon become 
sore. The hoofs and hocks of the horses, which are working oi;i the distributor, 
should be cleaned and greased night and morning. After the chloride is 
melted on to the surface of the road, it will not cause injury to horses or to 
automobile tires. 

Proper application of calcium chloride results in a smooth and practically 
dust less surface, making a road with almost ideal riding qualities. While 



STREET SPRINKLING AND CLEANING 879 

not considered as a binder this treatment does toughen the surface, making it 
less liable to ravel. One of the great advantages of roads treated in this man- 
ner is the ease with which the resulting surface may be maintained. All that 
is required is a light dragging at intervals in order to keep the surface smooth. 
On account of the moisture held in the surface this may be done whenever 
necessary without waiting for a rain. 

The surface of most gravel roads softens up in the spring when the frost is 
leaving the ground and the calcium treatment does not overcome this condi- 
tion. The results in Connecticut show that the treated roads do not mud up 
any more than untreated roads of the same quality and not as much as roads 
of this quality which have geen treated with a nonasphaltic oil. The con- 
tinued use of chloride has an accumulative effect. After two or three years, 
with two applications per year, the effect of the material is plainly noticeable 
In the spring, after the road has settled. 

During the year of 1918, with labor at approximately $2.75, teams at $7.50, 
3-ton trucks at $25, the cost of this treatment in Connecticut per square yard 
per year (two applications) has been $0,031, divided as follows: Chloride 
$0,026, handling and application $0,005. 

Snow Fighting vs. Snow Removal at New York City. — The following is 
given in Engineering and Contracting, July 4, 1917. 

New methods of snow removal inaugurated in New York City by Mr. J. T. 
Fetherston, Commissioner of Street Cleaning, have more than trebled the 
rate of removal and also have reduced the cost 68 per cent. Under the new 
plant the old system of removal by contractors has been amended so that the 
city now does the larger part of the work by the direct employment of labor 
and the use of department equipment. The following outline of the methods 
employed is taken from the recently issued report of the Department of Street 
Cleaning, covering the year ending Dec. 31, 1916: 

Owing to contracts in existence when the present administration assumed 
direction, application of the new principles was confined in the winter of 1913- 
1914 to a limited use of sewers for snow removal. As a result of the winter's 
experience and tests that were made, it became apparent that the city had had 
available for years a possible solution of the problem of rapid snow removal, 
through the extensive use of sewers, not alone after a snowfall, but during the 
progress of the storm. The experience of that winter demonstrated to the 
satisfaction of the administration that snow work should be started with the 
storm and clean snow dumped into the sewers as it falls. Such methods imply 
an attempt to keep pace with a storm, instead of trying to dig the city out 
after a block has occurred. 

In the summer and faU of 1914 the Department made preparations to apply 
during the following season its new programme for handling snow. This 
preparation included a thorough survey of the city's sewer system, specialized 
instruction of the Department's forces, enlargement of standard equipment, 
enrollment of emergency workers as "snow fighters" and the plotting of the 
city so that practically 50 per cent of its entire area could be cared for by the 
simultaneous attacks of the "snow fighting" gangs, within four hours after 
the call to go to work. Plans called for pushing snow into sewer manholes by 
the use of panscrapers operated by hand, and drag -scrapers, each drawn by a 
single horse. 

These plans did not eliminate contract snow removal, as large quantities 
of snow still had to be carted to the river dumps or main sewers ; nor did they 
release the city railways from their obligations to clear the snow from certain 



880 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

streets carrying railway tracks. But up to this time the city had depended 
upon trucks alone to haul snow from the streets to water front dumps and, 
consequently, the speed of snow removal had depended upon the supply of 
trucks available for the work. 

Results of the application of the new system during the winter of 1914-1915, 
as compared with preceding winters, showed the rate of removal doubled as 
compared with the best previous record, and that the cost per cubic yard 
decreased 67 per cent compared with lowest previous unit cost record. The 
total fall of snow for the winter was 22.4 in., and the total cost of removal was 
$523,892. If the entire snowfall of the winter had been handled by contract- 
ors' trucking forces alo^e, at the lowest previous contract rate ($0,367 per 
cubic yard), the cost of the season's work would have amounted to $1,584,822. 
The total area of the streets in the three boroughs scheduled for snow 
work in in the winter of 1914-1915 was 32,607,081 sq. yd., or 927 miles of 
streets. 

When the first snow of the winter of 1915-16 arrived, it found the Depart- 
ment further strengthened by valuable additions to its equipment and better 
trained organization; but the beneficial effects of these improvements were 
counteracted, to some extent, by the shortage of labor available for emergency 
snow work. Schedules called for 14,737 emergency laborers, working in 9- 
hour shifts, while storms were in progress. The average number of meu 
secured was 9,060, or 61 per cent of the required number. Use of snow plows, 
designed by the Department and attached to commercial motor-driven trucks, 
aided in reducing the effect of the shortage of labor. These plows were used 
for piling snow in the center or on the sides of streets. 

Over 50 in. of snow fell during that winter, compared with the average fall 
of 32.2 in. The total area scheduled for snow work in the three boroughs had 
increased to 33,311,899 sq. yd., which represented 946.17 miles of streets. 
Nearly 12,000,000 cu. yd. of snow (truck capacity basis) were removed at a 
gross cost of $2,521,299.55, or at the rate of 21.2 ct. per cubic yard. This was 
more than double the quantity (truck capacity basis) removed by the city dur- 
ing any previous winter season, and the cost was less than half the average 
cost per cubic yard for the previous 7 years. No serious complaints were 
made regarding snow removal during the season, which is creditable to speedy 
action in opening main arteries with automobile snow plows, employment of 
the largest procurable force of emergency laborers during storms and the use of 
sewers for the disposal of snow. 

Including the statistics of the snow storm of Dec, 1917, the total fall of snow 
for the calendar year 1916 was 54.6 in.; average for the previous 47 yearS; 
32.16 in. The daily rate of removal during 1916 was 198,000 cu. yd., com- 
pared with the grand average, 1907 to 1915, inclusive, of 71,886 cu. yd. Rate 
of daily removal during and following the storm of Dec. 15 last surpassed all 
. previous records. There was a snowfall of 12 in. The cubic yards removed 
totaled 2,178,301. Nine days were required for completion of the task, the 
daily removal approximating 242,000 cu. yd. This record was achieved de- 
spite a shortage of labor, because of the almost perfect working of the system 
established by the Department. An important feature was the use of 120 
city snow plows driven by commercial motor trucks. 

The following tables present statistics of snow storms and snow removal 
work during 1916. The tables showing the area assigned to each of the three 
forces engaged upon snow work show only slight changes from the tables 
showing corresponding statistics in 1915. 



STREET SPRINKLING AND CLEANING 



881 



Total Akea and Mileage of Streets 

Street area, Length, 

Borough sq. yds. miles 

Manhattan 16,201,019 460.25 

The Bronx 3,774,456 106.89 

Brooklyn 13,250,053 376.68 

Totals 33,225,528 943.82 

Schedule for Snow Fighting Force 

Street area, Length, 

Borough sq. yds. miles 

Manhattan 12,542,820 356.33 

The Bronx 3,031,165 86.11 

Brooklyn 8,885,701 252.43 

Totals... 24,459,686 694.87 

Contract Schedule, Mandatory Streets 

Street area, Length, 

Borough sq. yds. miles 

Manhattan 2,508,981 71.27 

The Bronx 309 , 079 8. 78 

Brooklyn 2 , 930 , 400 83 . 25 

Totals 5,748,460 163.30 

Street Railway Schedule 

Street area, Length, 

Borough sq. yds. miles 

Manhattan 1,149,218 32.65 

The Bronx 434,212 12.00 

Brooklyn 1 , 433 , 952 41 . 00 

Totals 3,017,382 85.65 

Depth and Weight and Density of Snow 

Density, Weight per 

1916 . Depth per cent cu. yd. 

February 2, 3.... 6.0 .16 269.46 

February 13, 14 6.4 .15 253.80 

March 2 3.2 .09 . 151.20 

March 6, 7 7.6 .13 218.7 

March 8 4.0 .14 234.9 

March 10 1.4 .10 167.4 

March 15, 16 4.1 .11 186.3 

March 21 2.1 .04 67.5 

March 22.. 2.9 .23 386.1 

April 8, 9 2.3 .20 337.5 

December 15 12.0 ' .05 84.4 

52.0 

Snow Fighting Versus Snow Removal 

"t, b a ^^ ft 

Contract snow removal 48 2,681 ,289 1 ,366,952 $0. 509 55,860 

City snow fighting 56 9,754,479 1,129,517 0.116 174,187 

Total 12,435,768 2,496,469 10.201 

56 



882 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Snow Equipment on Dec. 31, 1916 

o o jm 

"S ^ 8 

Borough 

Manhattan 113 61 3 64 12 11 7,677 4,038 4,730 

The Bronx 17 4 .. 10 3 3 1,529 617 574 

Brooklyn 39 18 1 26 5 5 4,058 2,869 2,132 

Total 169 85 4 100 20 19 13,264 7,524 7,436 






c? -fl 



^ Q. M 



3 



g 



a 



-S rtl 4i N 13 S 

o <u^ >> >>o <s o 

Manhattan 484 11 , 984 104 210 925 306 171 665 

The Bronx 90 2,860 14 43 139 43 30 105 

Brooklyn 311 7,477 76 82 346 62 54 180 

Total 885 22,321194 335 1,410411 255 940 

*Carried on auto trucks for making minor repairs to auto plows in the field, 
t Carried in stables for making repairs to auto plows. 



The average daily rate of removal for the two years under the old method 
was 51,390 cu. yd., at an average cost to the city of $0,535 per cubic 
yard. Under the new method, the average daily rate of removal for the 
two years was 234,211 cu. yd., at an average cost of 0.188. 

Cost of Snow Removal by South Park Commissioners, Chicago, was given 
by H. F. Richards, in a paper presented March 4, 1918, before the Western 
Society of Engineers. Extracts from the paper, as given in Engineering and 
Contracting, April 3, 1918, follow. 

The areas covered by the South Park Commissioners in their snow cleaning 
work include about 67 miles of drives and 175 miles of walks and 90 to 95 acres 
of skating ice. 

The South Park snow handling equipment includes five 3-wheeled tractors 
fitted with detachable V-shaped plows having wing extensions and with de- 
tachable revolving street brooms, one 4-wheeled tractor equipped with both 
V-shaped and straight moldboard attachments, some very large snow hauling 
wagons, 20 large 4-wheeled iron plows of the road grader type, 17 large wooden 
4-wheeled tractors fitted with detachable revolving street brooms, one 4- 
wheeled tractor equipped with both V-shaped and straight moldboard attach- 
ments, 17 large wooden, 4-wheeled plows similar to the road graders, 6 small 
iron-wheeled plows used mainly for cleaning snow off sidewalks around the 
smaller parks, several straight moldboard attachments for auto trucks, and 
a considerable number of large ajax scrapers, triangle plows, ice shaving 
machines, etc., for cleaning the fields of skating ice. 



STREET SPRINKLING AND CLEANING 883 

The following statement shows the cost of cleaning snow from the park 
driveways, the time required for carrying out the work being 3 days : 

First Day (A. M.). — Plowing snow to the gutters from Washington Park 
stables to 12th St. and Michigan Ave., over the following driveways: 

Width, ft. sq. yd. Miles 

Washington Park (part) 40-50 30 , 000 1 . 20 

Grand blvd. (center drive) 55 64,416 2.00 

South Park ave. (35th to 33rd) 42 6,122 0.25 

33rd St. (South Park to Michigan) 42 8,282 0.31 

Michigan ave. (33rd to 12th) 50 67,320 2.25 

176,140 6.01 

Cubic yards of snow on drive, at 4 in 19 , 571 

Cubic yards of snow on drive, at 6 in 29 , 357 

For a 4-in. snowfall it is estimated that 40 horses (5 right 4-horse hitches 
and 5 left 4-horse hitches) will be required to plow these drives in 5 hours 
before noon. At the rate of $6 per 8-hour day for team and driver, the cost 
will be $75. 

For a 6-in. snowfall it is estimated that 48 horses (6 right 4-horse hitches 
and 6 left 4-horse hitches) will be required. At the rate of $6 per 8-hour day 
for team and driver, the cost for 5 hours' work will be $90. 

Cost of Plowing Snow Off Above Deiveways 

Per 1,00*0 

Per mile sq. yd. Per cu. yd. 

of drive pavement of snow 

For 4-in. snowfall $12.49 $0,427 $0.00384 

For 6-in. snowfall 14.98 .512 .00307 

Total cost (without overhead) for 4-in. snowfall $75. 00 

Total cost ((without overhead) for 6-in. snowfall 90. 00 

First Day (P. M.). — In the afternoon half of the teams which plow from 
the park stables to 12th St. and Michigan Ave., in the morning will plow snow 
to the sides of the drives on — 

Width, Area, Length, 

ft. sq. yd. miles 

Drexel Blvd. (both drives) 40* 70 , 224 3 . 00 

Oakwood Blvd 50 17,060 0.50 

Washington Park (part of drives) 40-50 20 ,000 . 80 

The other half of the teams will plow. . 

Garfield Blvd. (South Park to State) 40 11 ,733 0. 50 

Michigan Ave. (55th to 33rd) 50 82 , 228 2.75 

201,245 2.75 

* Each. 

Cubic yards of snow on drive at 4 inches 22 , 360 

Cubic yards of snow on drive at 6 inches 33 , 541 

The cost of the afternoon's work (5 hours) will be the same as for the morn- 
ing's plowing — $75 for a 4-in. snowfall and $90 for a 6-in. snowfall. These 
drives will not be gone over twice, but it is intended to go over the drives 
between the Washington Park stables and 12th St. on Michigan Ave. twice 
in order to get them as clean as possible, as the first trip over the drives usually 
does not remove all of the snow. 



884 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cost of Plowing Snow Off Drives Cleaned in the Afternoon of the 

First Day 

Per 1,000 

Per mile sq. yd. of Per cu. yd. 

of drive pavement of snow 

For 4-in. snowfall $9.94 $0,373 $0.00336 

For 6-in. snowfall 1 1 . 93 . 448 . 00268 

Total cost (without overhead) $75 . 00 

Total cost (without overhead) 90. 00 

Second Day (Nine Hours ' Work) . — Half of the teams will plow to the gutters 
on — 

Width, Area, Length, 
ft. sq. yd. miles 

Garfield Blvd. (south drive — State to Western) 40-25 56,691 3.00 

Garfield Blvd. (north drive — South Park to Western) 40-25 68 , 424 3 . 50 

Other half of the teams will plow snow on — 

A. M. — (From park stables to 79th St. and Bond Ave.) — 

Washington Park (part of drives) 40-50 10 , 000 . 40 

Midway (south drive) 40 21 , 910 1 . 00 

Jackson Park (part of drives) 40 44 , 000 2 . 00 

Yates Ave. (71st St. and Bond Ave. to 79th St.) 32-38 36 ,500 1 . 75 

P. M. — In the afternoon over the following drives: 

Fifty-first St. (including Drexel Sq.) 40 31 , 976 0. 94 

East End Ave 50 18,700 0.65 

Jackson Park (rest of drives in "outer" circle) 40 70. 000 3. 00 

358,201 16.24 
Cu. yd. of snow on drive: At 4 in., 39,800; at 6 in., 59,700. 

As this is a 9-hour day, the cost of plowing the snow after a 4-in. snowfall, 
using 40 horses, will be $135, at the rate of $6 per 8-hour day for team and 
driver; in case of a 6-in. snow the cost will be $162, 48 horses being used. 

Cost of Plowing Snow Off Drives Cleaned on the Second Day 

Per Per 1,000 Per 

mile sq. yd. cu. yd. 

For 4-in. snowfall $8.31 $0,378 $0.00340 

For 6-in. snowfall 9 . 98 .453 . 00272 

Total cost (without overhead) for 4-in. snowfall $135. 00 

Total cost (without overhead) for 6-in. snowfall 162.00 

Third Day (Nine Hours' Work) . — One-half of the teams will plow snow to the 
sides on the following drives: 

Width, Area, Length, 
ft. sq. yd. miles 
66th and 67th Sts. (Jackson Park to Ash- 
land) 28 67 , 518 4.10 

♦Normal Ave 32 63,580 2.10 

Other half of the teams will plow — 

Grand Blvd. (side drives) 25t 58 , 432 4 . 00$ 

Washington Park (rest of "outer" circle 

of drives) 40-50 45,000 1.60 

234,530 11.80 

* Cu. yd. of snow on drive: At 4 in., 26,060; at 6 in., 39,090. f Each. 
t Together. 

At the rate of $6 per 8-hour day for a team and driver, the cost of plowing 
a 4-in. snowfall, using 40 horses, will be $135; for a 6-in. snowfall the cost will 
be $162, 48 horses being in use. 



STREET SPRINKLING AND CLEANING 885 

Cost of Plowing Snow Off Drives Cleaned on Third Day 

Per 1,000 Per 

Per mile sq. yd. of cu. yd. 

of drive pavement of snow 

For 4-in. snowfall. $11.44 $0,576 $ 0.00518 

For 6-in. snowfall :... 13.74 .692 .00415 

Total cost (without overhead) for 4-in. snowfall $135. 00 

Total cost (without overhead) for 6-in. snowfall 162. 00 

The above costs are based on a rate of 75 ct. per hour — $6 per 8-hour day — 
for a team and driver. They do not provide for finished cleaning over the 
various driveways of the South Park system, but cover primarily the clearing 
away of the "roughage" after snowstorms, such as can be accomplished by a 
single trip of the battery of plows over the different drives. Where two teams 
are used on a grader plow, the second driver operates the plow adjustments, so 
no laborers are necessary in such cases. As will be seen, the cost per mile for 
cleaning, outside of the downtown district, ranges from $8,331 per niile as the 
minimum for a 4-in. snowfall to $14.98 per mile as the maximum cost for a 
6-in. snow, two teams being used on each grader. 

In some instances but one team is used on a grader and then a laborer is 
required to man the plow. It has been found that this reduces the cost of a 
single trip, cleaning of a certain driveway, making it from $5.40 per mile for a 
snow of 4 to 5 in. to $7.20 per mile for a fall of from 5 in. to 1 ft., when 
the team hire is $6 per 8-hour day and the rate for labor is 30 ct. per hour, 

Use of Tractors. — Carefully kept records show that the work of cleaning 
snow off drives with tractors after ordinary snowfalls can be done at a cost 
somewhat less than with horse-drawn machines and with them the work 
progresses much more rapidly, too. In breaking up packed snow and ice the 
tractor outfits have proved themselves particularly adapted, while they are 
able to pile the snow over the curbing better than horseplows, leaving the 
gutters open. 

Operating Cost of 20-Ton Caterpillar Tractor in Snow Removal Work. — 
(Engineering and Contracting, March 3, 1920). 

Ten Caterpillar trucks operated in Michigan during the winter of 1919-20, 
on duties incidental to snow removal and the keeping of state trunk line 
highways open for traffic. These machines equipped with a 120 hp. motor 
are rated as a 20-ton tractor, their weight being 13 tons. The following 
statement from a bulletin of the State Highway Department shows the oper- 
ating costs for a 2-weeks' period for one of the tractors, used in pulling snow 
roller and plow: 

Gasoline, 175 gal. at 25 ct $ 43.75 

Lubricating oil, 36 qt. at 17 ct 6.12 

Grease, 3 lb. at 12 ct .36 

Alcohol, 20 gal. at 90 ct 18.00 

$ 68 . 23 

Labor, 52 days at $4.00 208 . 00 

Total $276.23 

Number of miles of road opened, 55.2. 
Unit cost per mile of road, $5,004. 

The above costs do not include fixed charges. There were no repairs or 
renewals during this period. 

Cost of Snow Removal With Rotary Plow. — The following is from Engineer- 
ing and Contracting, May 5, 1920. 

A rotary snowplow has been used at Outremont, Que., in clearing the 
streets of snow. The plow is mounted on sleds, and is drawn by horses. 



886 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The blades are operated by a 60-HP. marine engine. The snow Is pulverized 
by the blades and projected upward and then out through specially devised 
outlets. In a discussion of a report presented to the 1919 convention of the 
American Road Builders' Association, Capt. J. A. Duchastel, City Engineer of 
Outremont, gave the following data on work done by the machine in 1917-18: 

In one instance the work consisted of removing a bank of snow on each side 
of Cote St. Catherine Road. This snow had been piled up at a distance of 
10 ft. from the car track by the Montreal Tramways snow leveler. The bank 
was about 10 ft. wide and 1 ft. 9 in. high; the snow was very compact. The 
cost was worked out in the following manner: 

After allowing a depreciation of 10 per cent on the cost of the machine, 
interest at the rate of 7 per cent, and $241 per year for repairs, it was figured 
that the fixed charges per day for the machine for a period of 50 working days 
during the season, was $14. Figuring the cost of gasoline, the time of the 
operator, the corporation teams and helpers, as well as the time of a grader and 
snowplow used in connection with this work to remove whatever accumulation ' 
of snow was deposited on the sidewalks by this machine, it was found that the 
cost per lineal yard of cleaning one side only was 7.65 cts. This work covered 
a period of 23 hours and a bank of snow 6,775 ft. long, 10 ft. wide, and 1 ft. 
9 in. high, was cleared in that time. Naturally that was not continuous work. 

As a parallel to this work, the cost of removing snow on the same date on 
another section of the same road, under exactly the same conditions, was kept, 
the snow being loaded by hand in sleighs and removed to a dump less than 
K of a mile away. The cost per lineal yard was 23.7cts. This work covered 
a period of 10 hours and a bank of snow 950 ft. long, 10 ft. wide, and 1 ft. 
9 in. high was cleared. As a check on these figures, the cost of clearing Cote 
St. Catherine Road by the second method in the previous year was looked up, 
and it was found that the cost was 27.4 cts. Probably the bank was, on the 
average, a little bit higher. 

Cost of Loading Snow by Steam Shovel at Rochester, N. Y. — ^John T. Child 
gives the following data in Engineering and Contracting, April 7, 1920. 

After snow had accumulated on the ground for over two months a local 
contractor put his steam shovel grader into commission and attacked the 
huge accumulations of snow to prove the value and desirability of a steam 
shovel for loading heavy snow. The results obtained are summed up as follows : 

Equipment — 

Keystone steam shovel with 3^-yard skimmer bucket on 18-ft. boom. 
Shovel Cost per Day — 

Rent, including operator and fireman $40. 00 

Coal, >i ton at $8.75, supplied by city. 2. 25 

2 men to. release bucket and help move — hired by city . 6.08 

Total daily cost $48 . 33 

This cost is equivalent to 16 men at $3.04 — the prevailing rate here when the 
work started. The rate is $3.36 a day now, which would reduce the equivalent to 
14 men. 
Working Conditions — Day shift — 8 hours. 

Straight work loading from a bank of compact snow 3 ft. or 4 ft. high and 8 ft. 
to 10 ft. wide. Motor and electric railway — trafiic heavy on Main St., East, near 
Stillson St. 
Work Done — 

Loaded 155 3-yard wagons in 8 hours, or 465 cu. yd. 

Cost per load, $0,314. 

Cost per yard, $0,104. 

Time per load, 480/155 =3.1 minutes. 

Actual loading time — 2 min. 6 buckets to a load. 
Corresponding Labor Costs are $0,107 and $0.12 for hand labor at the two rates. 



STREET SPRINKLING AND CLEANING 887 

After the successful try outs with the H yd. bucket the contractor pur- 
chased a 1 yd. bucket so as to speed up the loading capacity of the shovel. 
The first few days several moves were necessary and 30 to 40 per cent of the 
time was lost because there were not enough trucks available to keep the 
shovel busy. Under these more or less unfavorable conditions as many as 
44 9-yd. truck loads were easily handled at a cost of 12.2 ct. per cubic yard. 

This shovel was not used early enough in the season to make any prolonged 
record but it has proven its value under certain conditions and undoubtedly 
all the available local apparatus of this kind will be listed for emergency snow 
work next year. 

In any event, the steam shovel can be used as a substitute for men at the 
same cost or less. The larger bucket decreases the actual loading time, and 
it has several advantages over hand labor. A longer boom will be used next 
year to reduce the number of moves and give more clearance in loading. 

The advantages of the steam shovel for snow loading may be summarized 
as follows: 

1. It can work 3 shifts and better at night in lighter trafific. 

2. It could be used to advantage with railway flat cars. 

3. It will remove ice and compact snow to the pavement where hand work 
requires picking and breaking up of the lumps at a greatly increased cost. 

4. It can load a higher and hence larger hauling unit. 

Motor Trucks for Snow Removal in Chicago. — Motor trucks gave excellent 
service during the winter of 1917-18, stated W. J. Gilligan in a paper pre- 
sented before the Western Society of Engineers. In fact, it was found that 
one motor truck would haul as much snow as five teams. 

The following matter, given in Engineering and Contracting, April 3, 1918, 
Is from Mr. Gilligan's paper. 

The blizzard of Jan. 6, followed by the storm of Jan. 12, made it necessary 
for the Bureau of Streets to use methods other than those ordinarily employed. 
As the budget of the Bureau did not carry a provision for the employment of 
motor trucks in snow removal work, consent was obtained from the City 
Council to use motor trucks and the rate fixed at $25 for a 9-hour day. Only 
patent dump trucks of large capacity were used. The trucks were made up 
into squads of ten each, each squad being in charge of a ward superintendent, 
a card puncher and two subforemen. Five loaders were assigned to each 
truck. In that way trucks were quickly loaded and kept moving, and by 
working day and night shifts the principal streets in the loop were cleaned in 
72 hours. For the reason that transportation lines were scouring the haunts 
of labor, bidding as high as $1 per hour and meals, and because of the extremely 
cold weather, it was difficult for the Bureau to keep men at work after it got 
them, and in order to compete somewhat with the other agencies that were 
bidding frantically for help it picked out the likely looking material, kept them 
for the night forces and paid them time and a half, which amounted to $3.97 
for 8 hours. In addition, on the coldest nights hot coffee and sandwiches were 
distributed to the gangs under the direction of a hastily organized 
commissary department. 

The employment of motor trucks in the work of snow removal has shown to 
the officials of the Bureau of Streets that the results obtained by their use is 
far superior to that of teams. The large amount of creosote block pavement 
in the loop made the handling of teams extremely difficult. Unskilled drivers 
and poorly shod horses made the task of proper maneuvering very hard, and as 
a consequence traffic was constantly interrupted. With motor trucks no such 



888 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

situations were encountered. The limited dumping spaces handy to the 
loop is also a strong factor in favor of the employment of motor trucks. The 
Graham & Morton docks at the foot of Wabash avenue is the largest loop 
dump, and it will accommodate about 75 teams. At the height of a snow- 
dumping day or night this spot was a bedlam of yelling, cursing drivers, with 
the work being often interrupted by staggering and falling horses. It was also 
necessary to shovel the snow from the tail end of the wagon into the river, 
while bottom dump wagons deposited their loads on the dock, making it 
necessary to rehandle it into the river. As many as 66 trucks, which equals 
330 teams, used the Graham & Morton dock in one night, coming in and out 
of the dump without a minute's confusion or delay. 

The labor this year was fairly plentiful and of a high caliber. The suspen- 
sion of building and allied industries threw many good laborers on the market, 
and the Bureau was able to use them to advantage in loading trucks. The 
Italian laborer, who comprises 95 per cent of the regular street cleaning force, 
being as a rule too short and overclothed to be efficient in that kind of work, 
was carefully excluded from our loading forces. The rapidity with which the 
Bureau was enabled to handle snow with motor trucks can be judged by the 
record of Jan. 29, a typical night at the Graham & Morton docks, when 680 
loads of snow were dumped in the river by trucks in 480 minutes, an average 
of one load every 45 seconds for 8 consecutive hours. It might be of interest 
to note that the record of delivery at the dock was distributed as follows: 

Hours between Loads 

6 and 7 118 

7 and 8 96 

Sand 9 76 

9 and 10 70 

10 and 11 97 

11 and 12 85 

12 and 1 75 

land 2 63 

It will be noticed the number of loads decreased as the vitality of the loaders 
ebbed until after the time coffee and sandwiches were distributed, when It 
took a strong upward turn. 

During the blizzards of Jan. 6 and 12 the Bureau hauled out of the loop 
14,611 wagon loads of snow, or 67,202 cu. yd., together with 5,644 motor 
truck loads, containing 44,179 cu. yd., a total of 20,255 loads, of 111,381 cu. 
yd., at a cost of $61,004.11. This averaged about 54 ct. per cubic yard. 

Snow Removal from Connecticut Highways. — Engineering and Contract- 
ing, Nov. 6, 1918, gives the following: 

About $40,350 was expended by the State Highway Department of Con- 
necticut for removal of snow from trunk highways in 1917- The mileage 
covered was 970, and, including the cost of equipment, the rate per mile was 
about $45. Under normal conditions of snowfall, this cost would probably 
have been less than $30 per mile. For its work last winter the Department 
planned to use 18 snow plows attached to the front of its trucks. These 
proved inadequate because of the unusual winter conditions, and were supple- 
mented by tractors and road machines. On heavily traveled routes practi- 
cally all the snow was removed while on mixed traffic roads about 3 in. were 
left. As the result of experiments made in 1917, the Department found that 
the removal of snow decreased the cost of bituminous repairs the following 
spring by at least one-third. This is accounted for by the fact that when the 



STREET SPRINKLING AND CLEANING 889 

snow is not removed the truck traffic is confined to one or two sets of ruts, 
which ultimately are worn into the road surface. 

Costs of Breaking Country Roads with Snow Rollers. — Charles A. French 
gives the following in Engineering News-Record, Nov. 23, 1918. 

Snow rollers have been successfully used by the street department of 
Laconia, N. H., for several winters past. Four were in operation during the 
past winter. The rollers are 6H ft. in diameter made in two sections 5-ft. 
long and have an effective snow-compacting width of about 12 ft. At present 
prices such rollers would cost $150 to $200 each. The roller weighs 4,750 lb. 
with nothing on it. When the snow is not too deep it can be operated with 
four horses and one man. The rollers are used chiefly in breaking country 
roads. For that purpose they are sent out when there is a snowfall of 4 in. 
or when a lesser depth has drifted. One man drives the four or six horses 
attached to the roller and others are sent to shovel when drifting occurs. 
Sliding places and chuck holes are roughly leveled by the shovelers, and the 
roller passing over compacts the snow so that it will hold up a team, and the 
road requires no more attention until the next storm. 

An average trip requires six horses, three to four men, and they cover 12 to 
15 miles in nine hours, so that, with labor at $2.75 and team with driver at 
$6.00 for a 9-hr. day, the cost is about $20.75 for 15 miles of road, or about 
$1 .40 per mile. Of course the character of the snowstorm varies this cost. 

In this climate if the roads are rolled after each snow or blow they build Up 
through cuts where snow drifts so that the snow blows over the roadway 
and little hand labor is required. They make a hard path which is wide 
enough for sleighs to turn out when meeting without getting into the soft 
snow. Rollers also pack the snow on exposed places that would blow bare 
and spoil the sledding. In many places we have excellent roads on top of 
drifts 6 to 8 ft. deep. 

In the spring, when the snow softens, some of the deeper drifts have to be 
cut out with a road machine mounted on runners, but it is surprising how much 
is saved in hand labor by the use of rollers. 



CHAPTER XV 
ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 

References. — Additional matter on the cost of constructing roads and 
pavements is given in Gillette's " Handbook of Cost Data" pages 258 to 474, 
also in Gillette and Thomas' "Highway Construction and Maintenance." 
Further data on the methods and costs of excavation and grading may be 
found in "Earthwork and Its Cost" and "The Handbook of Rock Excava- 
tion" by Gillette. 

Estimating The Cost of Paved Surfaces for Highway Improvement. — 
Robert E. Thomas of the Illinois State Highway Department, gives the follow- 
ing discussion in Engineering and Contracting, May 2, 1917. 

In some instances where bonds have been issued for road building, or where 
such action is pending, it has been deemed advisable to conduct the program 
In two distinct steps: one complete issue for the grading and building of all 
drainage features, and at a later date, another for the construction of the 
paved surface. Because of the fact that such surfaces often amount to as 
much as 75 per cent or 85 per cent of the total financial value of the work, it is 
imperative that investigation should be made relative to the probable cost of 
this feature before any concerted action is taken. It is hoped that the follow- 
ing information not only will be of assistance in making such an investiga- 
tion, but also will furnish a method whereby reasonable results may be 
obtained without a detailed consideration of every individual element. 

Because of the many operations and the several ingredients necessary in 
constructing a paving slab, it appears feasible to divide the estimate of cost 
into two parts, namely, that on materials and that on labor. 

Materials. — The quantities of materials necessary in building a slab of any 
type are calculable with comparatively slight chance of error after an inspection 
of the cross-section to be used, and a study of the specifications relating to the 
same. This is particularly true for such types as macadam (either waterbound 
or bituminous) or gravel, where the quantity of stone is merely the volume of 
the completed slab, increased by an allowance for compaction due to rolling. 
This allowance will vary with the condition of the subgrade, the quality of the 
stone and the manner of rolling, but under normal conditions will average 
approximately 20 per cent. The volume of stone screenings for waterbound 
macadam is also subject to variation, but can safely be estimated at from 15 
per cent to 20 per cent of the total amount of macadam stone required. In 
the case of screenings for bituminous macadam, a proportionately greater 
quantity is necessary, and the percentage will probably vary from 20 to 25. 
Practically all specifications state the amount of bituminous material to be 
'used per square yard for bituminous macadam, so no diflBculty will be 
encountered with this item. 

The materials making up a cement grouted brick pavement either with a 
sand or a sand-cement bed, or of the monolithic type, can be estimated by 
applying a few well-known principles. By reason of the size of brick usually , 

890' 



EOADS AND PAVEMENTS 891 

specified for paving purposes, and the space provided for grouting, it will be 
found that 40 bricks are needed to cover a square yard. For the concrete 
base it is first necessary to determine the volume of concrete required. By an 
application of Fuller's Rule, or reference to tables published in any first-class 
book on concrete, it is possible to secure the quantities of cement, fine and 
coarse aggregate in a cubic yard of rammed concrete of any desired pro- 
portions. In this connection, it might be well to add that the table based upon 
there being 3.8 cu. ft. of cement in a barrel and 40 per cent voids in the 
coarse aggregate will most nearly fit average conditions. The product of the 
total volume in the base and the three figures obtained from the table will be 
the corresponding quantities of materials necessary. If a sand cushion is 
specified, the volume is directly obtainable from its dimensions. When the 
bed is to be a mixture of sand and cement, the quantities of each may be 
calculated, by using the proper table, in a similar manner to that described 
for the base. It is practically impossible to compute the quantity of sand 
and cement to be used for grouting, but experience has shown that a barrel 
of cement, in a 1 to 1 mix, will cover from 20 to 25 sq. yd. of pavement. 

Cement concrete slabs present no difficulty, as the ingredients are computed 
identically as is the base for a brick pavement. 

The materials in a wearing surface of bituminous concrete can usually be 
computed directly from information contained in the specifications. It may 
be possible so to modify Fuller's Rule as to make it applicable without gross 
error to mixtures of this type. The base course of a bituminous concrete 
pavement is usually of cement concrete or of macadam, and can readily be 
analyzed by the methods already given. 

Undoubtedly some allowance should be made for loss of materials in han- 
dling and in transporting, and although a fixed percentage may be greatly in 
error for any particular case, it is thought that from 5 per cent to 10 pier cent 
for coarse and fine aggregate will represent good practice. 

When the estimated quantity of all material has been computed, prices 
of each F.O.B. the railroad station or siding nearest the improvement site 
should be obtained. Simple calculation will then permit the total material 
estimate to be reduced to a square yard basis. 

In the foregoing discussion no mention has been made of water, a very 
important factor not only physically, but, in many instances, financially as 
well. The availability and cost of water is so affected by local conditions 
that but few generalities are possible. However, it can be safely stated that a 
pipe line laid along the right-of-way, supplied by water from nearby streams 
or driven wells, through the medium of a small pump, will prove uneconomical 
on types of roads other than those involving the use of cement concrete. 
When this method is proposed, some use has been made of various formulae for 
estimating the cost. On macadam and gravel roads where water is applied 
in conjunction with the rolling, it is customary to haul the water in sprinkling 
wagons, and in such cases it is usually secured by pumping from streams or 
from neighboring farm wells. The cost by either method is incurred mostly 
by labor, and has been provided for in the data under that division. 

Table I has been compiled with the object of giving some idea relative to 
the amounts of materials in highway surfaces regulated by specifications of 
proven satisfaction. 

Labor. — It has been found by combining the estimated cost of the various 
operations involved in constructing slabs of different types for highway 
improvement, that the total labor cost, including the team haul on mate- 



892 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

rials, for any rate of labor, or for any length of haul, may be expressed in 
terms of an equation: 

P = ALH + BL + CH + D 
where, 

P = total labor cost per square yard in cents. 

H = length of average haul in miles. 

L = index number representing labor and team rate per hour. 
A-B-C-D = constants for a particular type of slab. 

Table I. — Quantities of Materials Per Square Yard of Pavement 



•3o 


it 


o 2 


^s 









^^ X- -zt i ^§ ^1 ^'S ^§ 2 
m- S« 5^ 6 ffl" w^ m" ^S - 

Brick, No 40 40 40 

Cement, bbl 147 .188 .169 .313 .111 

Bitumen, gal 2.55 2.55 2 

Sand, cu. yd 092 .087 .070 .092 .094 .037 

Screenings, cu. yd 042 .068 .060 

Gravel, cu. yd 099 .099 .099 .161 .167 240 

Broken stone, cu. yd 099 .099 .099 .161 .167 .250 .270 .272 

Filler, lb 9 9 .... 

The quantity " P " in this equation is graphically represented by the ordinate 
to a warped surface that had first been defined and located by computing the 
total labor cost for all limiting conditions. The equation was derived through 
the assumption of a straight line variation between the computed limits, and 
this theory has been corroborated by comparison with a number of actual cases. 

It was deemed advisable to indicate the labor and team rate by an index, 
as the numbers involved would be smaller and calculation therefore facilitated. 
For rates other than are represented in Table II the corresponding indices 
may be determined by proration. 

The estimating data used in establishing the various constants for A, B, C 
and D, as shown in Table III, are entirely trustworthy for conditions as those 
existing in Illinois, and have been used for the guidance of bidders on a vast 
amount of highway work. 

Table II. — Indices for Various Labor Rates 

Labor per hr., cts 15 17^ 20 223^ 25 273-^ 30 32^ 25 

Teams per hr., cts 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 

Index No. "L" 01 23 45 67 8 

Table III. — Constants for Various Types of Paved Surfaces 

Type— A B C D 

Brick: Sand-cement bed or sand cushion. . .9633 4.082 5.779 29.494 

Monolithic brick 9051 3.172 5.431 24.032 

Cement concrete 8341 2.909 5.005 23.452 

Bituminous concrete, concrete base 7481 4.353 4.488 30. 120 

Bituminous concrete, macadam base 8646 3 . 664 5. 187 22. 985 

Bituminous macadam 9189 2.832 5.513 17.992 

Water-bound macadam 8450 2.281 5.070 13.689 

Gravel 6900 1.635 4.140 9.810 

Finally, to obtain the total estimated cost per square yard for the slab, it is 
only necessary to combine the two costs as determined for materials and labor. 



EOADS AND PAVEMENTS 893 

It must be remembered that no provision has been made, as yet, for profit, so 
before a final figure is established, an allowance should be made for this item 
that is entirely commensurate with the work to be done. 

As an example, assume that for a particular case it is proposed to improve 
4 miles of graded and drained roadway by the addition of a cement concrete 
slab. Sand and stone are available F.O.B. a railroad siding 1 mile from the 
nearest end of the improvement at $1 per cu. yd., and cement under the same 
conditions at $1.65 per barrel net. Assume, furthermore, that the prevailing 
rates are 20 ct. per hour for labor and 40 ct. for teams. An analysis to deter- 
mine the probable cost per square yard could be conducted some what as 
follows: 

Materials: 

.313 bbl. of cement at $1.65 $0.52 

. 092 cu. yd. of sand at $1 09 

. 161 cu yd. of stone at $1 .16 

$0.77 

Profit .08 

Total for materials $0.85 

Labor : 

H = 3 B = 2.909 

L = 2 C = 5.005 

A = .8341 D = 17.452 
P = (.8341 X 2 X 3) -f (2.909 X 2) + (5.005 X 3) + 23.452 = 5.0046 + 

518 + 15.015 + 23.452 $0.49 

Profit .10 

Total for labor $0. 59 

Total estimated cost for the slab, $1 .44 per sq. yd. 

There are several items such as depreciation and repairs on machinery, the 
cost of which is directly traceable to the slab or metaled way, but which has 
not been included heretofore. Rather than reduce these items to a. yardage 
basis, it is more satisfactory to provide a lump sum covering the whole 
improvement. 

Cost of Maintenance of Road Building Outfits (Engineering and Contract- 
ing, June 4, 1913). — During the years 1908-1912 the Illinois Highway Com- 
mission built 1,022,159 sq. yds. of experimental roads. Of this total 397,244 
sq. yds. were bituminous macadam. The 1912 report of the commission gives 
the following data on the cost of maintenance of the road outfits, owned and 
operated by the commission for the construction of the experimental roads : 

Cost of 1 1 macadam outfits , $37 , 579 

Cost of 6 bituminous outfits 6 , 628 

Cost of 2 concrete outfits 5 , 381 

Total. . $49 , 588 

Cost of maintenance of macadam outfits $ 3 , 272 

Cost of maintenance of bituminous outfits. 1 ,273 

Number of outfit seasons covered by maintenance charges on macadam 

outfits 52 

Number of outfit seasons covered by maintenaace charges on bitu- 
minous outfits 12 

Cost per season for outfit for maintenance of macadam outfits $ 61 . 80 

Cost per season per outfit for maintenance of bituminous outfits 106. 00 

Cost per sq. yd. for maintenance of macadam outfits 0. 003 

Cost per sq. yd. for maintenance of bituminous outfits 0.003 

Depreciation Charges on Road Building Equipment. — According to Engi- 
neering and Contracting, Sept. 3, 1919, the regulations governing work of the 
State Highway Department of Arizona provide that upon completion of a 



894 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

project depreciation shall be charged to the project, the equipment being 
rated on the following basis: 

Per cent 
per year 

Engines, gas and steam 20 

Fresnos 100 

Graders 20 

Mixers, concrete 20 

Mules. 10 

Pile drivers 20 

Plows 20 

Rock crushers , 20 

Steam shovels 10 

Tents 75 

Wagons 20 

Wheelbarrows and concrete carts 50 

Trucks on daily rate on basis of life of three years. All small equipment 
such as picks, axes, shovels, etc., on value at time of transfer to new project. 
The following data, are from Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 3, 1917. 

With the exception of mules, the life of the equipment is not solely depend- 
ent on the lapse of time. The length of the road building season, the continu- 
ity of the work and the care given in handling and maintenance, are all 
important factors in determining the life. 

As for tents, it is not unusual to have them whipped to ribbons by strong 
winds in three months or less. On the other hand, if used only in dry weather, 
and where winds are not high, a tent may last several road building seasons. 

In this connection it seems wise to point out that annual depreciation rates, 
such as those above given, are often assumed to include current repair costs, 
although usually the depreciation rate is intended to relate solely to the loss of 
life of the entire machine and not to loss of life of its parts. Railway locomo- 
tives, for example, have had an average life of about 25 years, or a straight-line 
depreciation rate of 4 per cent per year, assuming no scrap value. But the 
current repairs on railway locomotives have averaged about 18 or 20 per cent 
per annum. 

Apparently the rates of annual depreciation above given do not include 
current repairs. Yet, if not, why is the annual depreciation of a steam engine 
put as high as 20 per cent? A steam engine will surely last as long as a steam 
shovel, yet the latter is given a depreciation rate of 10 per cent. 

The fact is that not a great deal has been published on the lives and mainte- 
nance costs of construction equipment. Dana's " Handbook of Construction 
Plant " gives data on this subject. The startling fact is brought out there that 
for one year (1908) repairs on steam shovels on the Panama Canal amounted 
to nearly 50 per cent of their first cost! This was equivalent to nearly 3 cts. 
per cubic yard excavated. This, of course, was under unusually expensive 
conditions and where the work was continuous. Dana puts the average life 
of a steam shovel at 20 years. 

In calculating depreciation and repairs, it is usually desirable to separate 
the two. Estimate depreciation for the full years, but estimate repairs by the 
month of actual work. Thus, in the case of a steam shovel, the annual depre- 
ciation may be estimated at 6 per cent, and the repairs may be estimated at 
2 per cent per month of single-shift work. Then if it is estimated that the 
shovel will actually work six months during a year, the depreciation amounts 
to 1 per cent and the repaii*s 2 per cent per month of actual work. 

Roadbuilding equipment averages less than 6 months' actual work in the 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 



895 



northern states — probably about 4 months. This runs up the interest and 
depreciation charges per month of actual work. Thus, with annual interest 
at 6 per cent and depreciation at 12 per cent, we have 18 per cent for the year, 
or 4.5 per cent per working month if charged entirely against the working 
time. Add to this, say, 2.5 per cent for repairs, and we have a total of 7 per 
cent per working month for interest, depreciation and repairs. 

Many a road building contractor has "gone broke," and many a highway 
engineer has erred grievously in his cost estimates, through failure to estimate 
correctly fixed charges and repairs on road building equipment. Add to this 
sort of underestimate one or two others of similar nature, and we have an 
almost complete explanation of why a new crop of road-building contractors 
buds forth each spring only to wither permanently each autumn. 

Costs of Grading in Earth Road Construction. — The following is given in a 
XJ. S. Dep't of Agriculture bulletin on " Earth, Sand, Clay and Gravel Roads" 
prepared by Charles H. Moorefleld of the U. S. office of Public Roads and 
abstracted in Engineering and Contracting, April 18, 1917. 

Table IV. — Gbadinq Machine Work 

Assumed conditions: Original cross section flat;. team to consist of six to 
eight well-trained horses; no material moved longitudinally. 

Character of soil Cost per mile 

Light prairie, free from stumps, roots, etc $ 60 to $ 80 

Average clay loam 100 to 150 

Heavy clay, moderate amount of sod and roots, plowing necessary 

throughout 200 to 250 

Heavy^ clay, exceptionally difficult conditions From $250 up 

Crowning and shaping road which has been graded with scrapers, 

etc 50 to 75 

Table V. — Excavation and Embankment 
Assumed conditions: All material to be loosened with plows or by blasting, 
and to be moderately dry when handled. Hauling to be done by means of drag 
scrapers, wheeled scrapers, or wagons. 

Average 
Average cost 

haul per cubic 

Kind of length. Method of yard, 

material feet hauUng cents Remarks 

Light sandy loam, [ 50 Drag scrapers ... . 10 to 15 ) Material assumed to 

free from roots, I 100 Drag scrapers 12 to 20 I be such that little or 

etc. j 300 Wheeled scrapers. 16 to 25 f no plowing is nec- 

( 1 ,000 Wagons 25 to 40 J essary. 

Average clay loam f 50 Drag scrapers. .. 15 to 20 ] Material such as to 
4ree from roots, I 100 Drag scrapers. ... 17 to 25 1 be loosened with 
^c. ] 300 Wheeled scrapers. 23 to 35 f plow drawn by two 

[ 1 , 000 Wagons 32 to 50 J horses. 

f 50 Drag scrapers 18 to 25 ] 

Heavy clay I 100 Drag scrapers. ... 21 to 30 (Four horses required 

I 300 Wheeled scrapers. 28 to 38 | for plowing, 
i 1 ,000 Wagons 40 to 55 J 

Low prices apply 
_ , , , where material may 

Hard pan or loose f 300 Wagons 40 to 65 1 be loosened with 4 

rock. 1 1.000 Wagons 45 to 75 / horses and hardpan 

plow. High prices 
where blasting is 
necessary. 

o T , , , High prices apply 

Solid rock f 300 Wagons. . . $0.65 to $1. 50 1 where stone is hard 

1 1,000 Wagons. . . .75 to 1.75/ and excavation shal- 
low. 



896 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Tables IV and V are intended to furnish a rough guide in making estimates 
of grading cost at a flat rate per cubic yard. They are based on labor at 15 
cts. per hour; horses at 12>^ cts. per hour. The depreciation of grading equip- 
ment and repairs are figured at 5 per cent per month while in use, and it is 
expected that the force will be organized economically and managed efficiently. 

Cost of Small Steam Shovel Work in Road Grading, California. — J. E. 
Bonersmith, gives the following in Engineering and Contracting, July 19, 
1916. 

The work described was on the California State Highway between Tormey 
and Eckley in Contra Costa County, California, and was done in 1915. The 
road graded was four miles in length and contained 72,000 cu. yd. of excava- 
tion through a rather rough country. The material consisted of earth, soft 
and hard shale. 

The method of work was as follows: After the culverts were constructed, 
two fresno gangs (each gang having a six-horse plow and from four to six 
fresnos) were started and made the fill over the culverts; also moved the dirt 
in all cuts where the hauls were 200 ft. and less. A Model 31 Marion Revolv- 
ing Shovel followed the fresno gangs and loaded all the material that had to be 
hauled into dump wagons: The number of wagons varied from six to twelve. 
Behind the steam shovel, a small fresno with four muckers did all the finishing 
work. 

The road was graded to a width of 21 ft. and through the thorough cuts the 
shovel had to turn through a full 180°. On this work, the average output of 
the shovel for an 8-hour day was 375 cu. yd., as there was considerable loss of 
time in spotting the wagons; but where the shovel was only going through 90°, 
it handled 510 cu. yd. The local water was the cause of some delay and since 
the water is a very serious question in the cost of equipment on any job, we 
now make it a rule to have the water analyzed and the proper boiler compound 
on hand before the shovel starts to work. 

Costs to job in day rentals: Horses rented to job at $1.25 per working day; 
fresnos, wagons, etc., at $0.25 per working day; wagon and fresno drivers at 
$2.50 per day; Marion steam shovel, including fuel, runner, etc., $50 per day. 
These costs of equipment are used on all our work as we have found from many 
years of experience that it is the only way we can arrive at a true cost. Take 
the shovel as an example; its rental is based on the following charges: 

First cost, $8,200; life of shovel, 1,000 working days in six years; cost per 

day $ 8.25 

6 per cent interest on $8,200 for three years, $1,476; interest per day.. . 1.48 
Repairs (when the shovel is broken down the engineers', firemen, etc., 

time is charged to repairs), per day 2*. 00 

Freight, knocking down, etc. (this cost was arrived at by cost kept on 

another shovel), per day 3 . 00 

Fuel, ^ ton of coal per working day at $12 per ton 9 . 00 

Water wagon with four horses and driver, per day 7 . 75 

Water and oil, per day .85 

Engineer per day 6.75 

Fireman, per day 3 . 00 

Two pit men at $2.50 per day 5 . 00 

Incidentals 2. 92 

Total cost per day $50. 00 

Following is the total cost of the above mentioned grading of the State 
Highway between Tormey and Eckley: 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 897 

Horses, 8,756 days at $1.25 per day $10,945.00 

Equipment, 1,842 days at 25 ct. per day 460. 50 

Driver labor, 1,842 days at $2.50 per day 4,605.00 

Steam shovel 104 days at $50 per day T. 5,200.00 

Foreman 120 days at $5 per day 600. 00 

Timekeeper 4 months at $75 per month 300. 00 

Muckers and slopers, 500 days at $2.25 per day 1 , 125 . 00 

Muckers, slopers, etc. 212 days at $2 50 per day 530. 00 

Purchases (picks, shovels, lanterns, oils, etc.) 182 . 60 

Insurance 280. 00 

Total cost $24,248. 10 

Cost per cu. yd $ 00.3367 

Costs on Street Grading with a Steam Shovel, in Minneapolis, Minn. — 
Fred T. Paul gives the following data in Engineering and Contracting, June 7, 
1916. 

The work under consideration was done by force account in 1915 under the 
City Engineer's Department, W. J. Walsh, Acting Engineer in charge. The 
material moved was a conglomerate with a^edium fine sand predominating. 
The cut was from 2 to 15 ft. deep, 70 to 80 ft. wide, and about 3,500 ft. long. 
A Marion-Osgood No. 18, ^^-cu. yd. traction steam shovel placed the material 
in ordinary 1>^ cu. yd. dump wagons, and these in turn deposited It in the fills 
on the street, making an average haul for the job of 1,000 ft. 

The work was started June 12 and finished on Aug. 20, covering a period of 
55 full working days of eight hours each, and five part days. On these part 
days, little, if any, dirt was moved, but the engineer, foreman, fireman, 
watchman and timekeeper received full time — ^while the laborers and teams 
were given only part time. A total of 21,500 cu. yd. of material were handled 
in the 55 full days, making an average day's output of 391 cu. yd. The 
maximum was reached during five days in the heaviest cut when 611 cu. yd. 
per day was moved. 

The total material cost of the job was $199.56, distributed as follows: 

27.45 tons of soft coal at $5.05 per ton $ 138. 62 

50 gal. steam cylinder oil at $0,294 per gal . 14 . 70 

Blacksmith repairs. 17. 64 

New shovel parts .82 

Miscellaneous, including waste, packing, hose, grease, etc 27.78 

$ 199.56 

The average daily pay roll was as follows; 

1 foreman at $4 per day 4 . 00 

1 engineer at $6 per day 6 . 00 

1 fireman at $2.50 per day 2 . 50 

l-20th timekeeper at $4 per day .20 

1 watchmad at $2.50 per day 2 . 50 

2 laborers on dump at $2.50 per day each 5 . 00 

2 laborers in pit at $2.50 per day each 5 . 00 

1 laborer on coal and water at $2.50 per day 2 . 50 

6 laborers straightening and leveling up at $2.50 per day each 15.00 

7 teams on dump wagons at $5 per day each 35. 00 

Total average daily payroll $ 77 . 70 

Grand total payroll for sixty days 4 , 553 . 61 

Total material as above 199 . 56 

Interest and depreciation on plant 70 . 00 

$4,823.17 
67 



898 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Distribution and Unit Costs 

Per 
General — ^ Amount cu. yd. 

Foreman. 60 days at $4 $ 240.00 $0.01116 

l-20th timekeeper, 60 days at 20 cts 12 . 00 . 00056 

Total general $ 252.00 $0.01172 

Excavating and Placing Material in Wagons 
Labor — 

Engineer, 60 days at $6 $ 360 .00 $0 . 01674 

Fireman, 60 days at $2.50 150 . 00 00698 

Watchman, 60 days at $2.50 150 . 00 . 00698 

2 pit laborers 58 days at $5 290 . 00 .01349 

Laborer on coal and water, 58}i days at $2.50 145 . 61 . 00676 

6 laborers on cleanup, 58 days at $15 870 . 00 . 04047 

Total labor $1,965.61 $0.09142 

Material and supplies as above 199 . 56 . 00928 

Interest and depreciation on plant, 10>^ per cent on $4,000 

for 60 days 70.00 .00325 

$2,235.17 $0.10395 

Hauling, Including Placing in Dump 

7 teams, 58>^ days at $35 $2,046.00 $0.09516 

2 laborers, 58 days at $5 290 . 00 . 01349 

$2,336.00 $0.10865 
Grand totals $4,823.17 $0.22432 

Based on the total cost of moving 21,500 cu. yd. an average distance of 
1,000 ft., the cost per cubic yard hauled 100 ft. would be .0221. However, the 
actual hauhng cost per cubic yard per 100 ft. was only .0108. 

Steam Shovel Excavation in Shallow Cut for Road. — Engineering and Con- 
tracting, June 21, 1916, gives the following: 

A road grading cut 1.6 miles long and nowhere exceeding 18 in. in depth was 
made Oct. 1 to Dec. 10, 1915, or in 54 days, for a brick on concrete base pave- 
ment on Ocean Ave., Deal, N. J. The total amount of excavation was 30,000 
cu. yd. The shovel used was Bucyrus with ^8-<5u. yd. dipper, and between 
the dates named it excavated 17,704 cu. yd. Working a 10-hour day, the 
greatest yardage was 477 cu. yd. ; the average yardage, excluding lost time, was 
33 cu. yd. per hour. During the 54 working days 25H hours were lost, due 
to rain or other causes. Some partial records were as follows: In 9 days two 
blocks 700 ft. long and 50 ft. wide were cleaned up. Again, in one week, in a 
cut running from 9 to 18 in. deep, an advance of 200 ft. per day was registered, 
or an average of about 350 cu. yd per day. The haul averaged about a half 
mile. The shovel had to wait for wagons at times from two to three minutes. 

Methods and Costs of Constructing Three Sections of Sand-clay Road. — 
Engineering and Contracting, April 28, 1915, publishes the following: 

The work considered is three sections of sand clay "object lesson" road 
built in 1912 in North Carolina. The construction methods are described 
and the costs are computed from data given in the Report for 1913-14 of 
Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, North Carolina. 

The first section of road extends from Calypso, N. C, southeast toward 
Kenansville. The adjacent land is slightly rolling and the soil is sandy 
throughout the length of the section. The grading consisted in plowing the 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 899 

ditches and bringing the road to the proper cross-section with a road machine- 
A small amount of material was moved for an average distance of 50 ft. with 
drag scrapers. For 1,650 ft. the road was graded 24 ft. wide and surfaced 14 
ft. wide, making the area graded 4,400 sq. yds. and the area surfaced 2,563 sq- 
yds. The crown of the finished roadway was three-fourths inch to 1 ft. Clay 
to the amount of 248 cu. yds. was hauled an average distance of 2,400 ft., and 
55 cu. yds. of sand was hauled an average distance of 1,760 ft. Farm wagons 
having an approximate capacity of 1 cu. yd. were used for hauling both sand 
and clay. They were loaded and unloaded with shovels. Two corrugated- 
iron culverts were ordered for this work, but were not received before the 
surfacing was completed. 

The equipment consisted of 1 road machine, 1 rooter plow, 1 turn plow, 1 
split-log drag, 2 drag scrapers, 1 disk harrow, farm wagons, and hand tools 
Labor cost $1 and $1.50 per day and teams cost $1.20 and $2.50 per day. 
The cost of grading and shaping 4,400 sq. yds. of subgrade was $3,860 or 
0.88 cts. per square yard. The costs for 2,563 sq yds. of surfacing proper were 
as follows: 

Item Cost 

Loading sand . $ 3 . 75 

Hauling sand. 6.25 

Spreading sand 1 . 50 

Loading clay 22 . 65 

Hauling clay 49 . 25 

Spreading clay ■ 5 . 50 

Mixing clay and sand 4 . 80 

Final shaping with drag 1 . 60 

Total $ 95 . 30 

Add grading 38 . 60 

Grand total $133.90 

Cost per square yard, 5.21 cts. 

The second section constructed extends from Cooleemee northeast to Jeru- 
salem, N. C. The land adjacent to the road is rolling and the soil varies from 
"black-jack" gravel to micaceous clay. This road had been graded to a 
width of 24 ft. in cuts and 18 ft. in fills, and the drainage structures were all 
completed before the object-lesson work was begun. 

The sand for use in surfacing was loosened with plows, loaded with hand 
shovels, hauled approximately l}i miles in slat-bottom wagons, and spread 
with grader and by hand. The subgrade prepared for surfacing was 20,020 
ft. long and 16 ft. wide, making a total area of 35,590 sq. yds. The same area 
was given a sand-clay surface 6 ins. thick after compacting, with a crown of 
^ in. to 1 ft. For the surfacing 4,820 cu. yds. of material were used, about 
3,000 cu. yds. of which were purchased. The wages per day were labor $1.25, 
and teams $3 . The costs were : 

Item Cost 

Loading sand at 6.05 cts. per cu. yd , $ 291 . 61 

Mixing surfacing at 0.1 ct. per sq. yd ' 37 . 25 

Shaping at 0.15 ct. per sq. yd 53.25 

Spreading sand at 1.'37 cts. per cu. yd 66 . 00 

Hauling sand at 25.46 cts. per cu. yd 1 , 227 . 00 

Sand pits 105. 25 

General expense 19 . 25 

Total $1,799.61 

Per square yard, 5.06 cts. 



900. HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The cost of superintendence, which is included above, was 6.33 per cent of 
the total cost. 

The third section of road was constructed in Lexington, N. C. The adja- 
cent land is rolling and the natural soil is clay of a plastic nature, but lacking 
in toughness. The first work was grading. The earth was loosened by a 
traction engine and a road plow ; loaded and hauled with drag scrapers, wheel 
scrapers, and wagons, and spread with shovels. The maximum cut was 4 ft. 
and the maximum fill 3 ft. The maximum grade was reduced from 3 per cent 
to 1 per cent. 

The equipment consisted of three No. 2 wheel scrapers, six No. 2 drag 
scrapers, two plows, three 13^-cu. yd. dump wagons, one 12-HP. traction 
engine, picks, shovels, etc. The average haul for excavation was 150 ft. and 
the maximum haul 400 ft. The sand mixed with the clay for surfacing was 
obtained from a pit and hauled for an average distance of 3 miles in 1-cu. yd. 
slat-bottom wagons. The quality of the sand was Excellent for the purpose 
for which it was used. Free labor cost $1.25 and $1.50, and foreman $3 per 
10-hour day. Convict labor was estimated at $1 per day, and teams cost from 
$2 to $3 per day. 

The total length graded was 3,000 ft., and the width graded, both in cuts 
and fills, was 30 ft., making the total area graded 10,000 sq. yds. The entire 
length of 3,000 ft. was surfaced for a width of 18 ft., making the area surfaced 
6,000 sq. yds. The compacted depth of surfacing material was 4 ins. and the 
crown ^ in. to 1 ft. The earth excavation amounted to 3,975 cu. yds., and 
the sand used for surfacing amounted to 815 cu. yds. The cost of the work 
was : 

Item Cost 

Excavation at 11 cts. per cu. yd $ 440 . 35 

Hauling sand at 80 cts. per cu. yd 652 . 00 

Spreading at 1.6 cts. per cu. yd 12 . 75 

Mixing sand and clay 60 . 60 

Sprinkling 6 . 00 

General expenses 5.75 

Total $1,177.45 

Per square yard, 19.6 cts. 

Methods and Cost of Constructing a Sand-Gumbo Road in Nebraska. — 

Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 4, 1914, gives the following data, taken 
from Bulletin No. 53 issued by the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

On August 19, 1912, work was resumed on the construction of the sand- 
gumbo road extending northwest from the Platte River toward Columbus, 
Neb. A section of road 3,002 ft. long was added to the section constructed 
during the fiscal year 1912. The roadbed was graded to a width of 32 ft. in 
cuts and 24 ft. on fills. A sand-gumbo surface 16 ft. wide was constructed 
having an area of 5,337 sq. yds. The section was completed on Sept. 4, 1912. 

Earthwork. — The maximum grade was reduced from 13.2 per cent to 4.4 per 
cent. The adjacent land is level and the soil is sandy. The earth was loos- 
ened with plows and hauled in drag, Fresno and wheeled scrapers. The 
average haul was 160 ft. and the maximum haul was 350 ft. In the excava- 
tion 760 cu. yds. of earth were moved and the maximum cut was 1.3 ft. and 
the maximum fill 2.7 ft. 

The construction outfit consisted of 4 drag scrapers, 2 Fresno scrapers. 1 
wheeled scraper, one 8-horse road machine, 1 steel road drag, 1 plow, 1 disk 
harrow, 1 spike harrow and the necessary hand tools. Labor cost $2 and 
teams $4 per 10-hour day. Table VI gives the cost of the earthwork. 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 



901 



Table VI. — Cost of Earthwork for Sand-Gumbo Road in Nebraska 

Unit 

Unit cost 

cost sq. yd. 

per wearing 

cu. yd surface 

$0,158 $0.0225 

0.0088 

. 0052 

. 0002 

. 0008 



Item — Amount 

760 cu. yds. excavation $120. 00 

Shoulders and ditches 46 . 40 

5,337 sq. yds. shaping subgrade 28 . 20 

Miscellaneous 1 . 40 

Superintendence 4 . 20 

Total $200.20 



$0.0375 



Materials and Methods Used in Making Wearing Surface. — The surfacing 
material consisted of a good quality of black gumbo and sharp clean sand. 
The gumbo was spread to a depth of 7^ ins. and the sand to a depth of 6 ins., 
both measured loose. The two materials were then mixed by means of plows 
and harrows and shaped with a steel drag and a road machine. The com- 
pacted depth of the finished surface was 8 ins. and the crown was ^i in. per foot. 
In this work 1, 165 cu. yds. of gumbo and 890 cu. yds. of sand were used. The 
gumbo was hauled approximately 2 miles in slat bottom dump wagons having 
a capacity of 1 cu. yd. The sand was hauled a distance of 4,000 ft. in the same 
wagons. The cost of the wearing surface was as given in Table VII. 

Table VII. — Cost of Sand-Gumbo Wearing Surface for a Road in Nebraska 

Unit 
cost 
sq. yd. 
wearing 
surface 
$0,008 
0.034 
0.131 
0.006 
0.018 
0.056 
0.002 
0.007 
. 0025 
0.001 
0.002 
0.007 

$0.2745 



Item — 
Purchase of gumbo pit. . , 

Loading gumbo 

Hauling gumbo 

Spreading gumbo 

Loading sand , 

Hauling sand , 

Spreading sand , 

Mixing sand and gumbo. 

Shaping , 

Rolling 

Miscellaneous 

Superintendence 



Unit 
cost 
per 
Amount cu. yd. 
$ 41.35 $0,035 
180.40 0.155 
698 . 80 
34.00 
93.60 
299 . 00 
10.60 
37.20 
4.00 
13.60 
12.60 
37.80 



0.600 
0.029 
0.105 
0.336 
0.012 
0.018 



Total $1,462.95 

The following is a summary of the cost : 



Amount 

Earth work $ 200. 20 

Wearing surface 1 , 462 . 95 

Total $1,663.15 



Unit 
cost per 

sq. yd. 
wearing 

surface 
$0.0375 

0.2745 

$0.3120 



Data on the Construction of 23 Sand-Clay Roads. — Table VIII, taken from 
Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 17, 1912, is based on data given in the an- 
nual report of Logan Waller Page, Director of the Office of Public Roads, for 
the fiscal year ending June 30, 1911. 



902 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



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ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 903 

Macadam Road Construction Using Industrial Railway for Hauling. — 
R. P. Mason gives the following matter regarding the construction of a maca- 
dam road about 9.5 miles long in Delta County, Mich., in Engineering and 
Contracting, April 7, 1915. 

The hauling outfit consisted of a 30 HP. locomotive and 50 Koeppel side 
dump cars. There was also one track laying car which carried the track, 
which consisted of 15 ft. sections of 24 gage track, 20-lb. rails, with 7 steel ties 
to the section. In all there were 4 miles of track with necessary curves and 
switches. 

Cars were loaded with 1}4 cu. yds. of stone which when dumped at a 
standstill just made one course of large stone. The haul averaged 3>^ miles 
each way and, at first , with 20 cars, 8 trips were made per day. After the 
operation was running smoothly 25 cars were handled on each trip. 

The stone was spread with road machine hauled by 2 teams. Unloading the 
stone took about 10 mins. and the machine finished the spreading while the 
train made another trip. Very little dressing with rakes put the surface in 
Al condition for rolling and the machine spreading gave a uniform distribution 
and smooth roadway. However, it is only by handling a large volume of 
stone per day that this system can be made profitable. It is necessary that 
all units of the force be proportioned and kept busy and as it takes two teams 
to handle the road machine it is essential that they have enough stone to make 
it an object. 

After the preliminary rolling a train of screenings was poured from the train 
in motion, making a windrow near the track sufficient to cover the course and 
spread by hand. This pouring, with the help of the spreaders, took about the 
same time as dumping the stone. 

Three 10-ton rollers worked constantly and by utilizing all the lost time of 
the train due to bad weather, moving, and shortage of stone and occasionally 
working nights, they were able to keep up their end. Two sprinklers, filled 
by a gas rotary pump, were used and, as the water was convenient along the 
road they furnished abundance and it was not always necessary to work them 
both. 

All the ordinary hazards of road building entered into this job, wet weather, 
soft subgrades and a number of railroad crossings which meant delay as well 
as extra expense for watchmen. A hill 5.1 per cent, 1,000 ft. long with a 16° 
curve about the center made it necessary to put in a spur at the foot and take 
the train up in two or three sections. As this work was entirely new to this 
locality an entire crew had to be broken in and it is evident that costs can be 
materially lessened in the future, now that the organization is complete. The 
fastest mile was laid in six days towards the end of the season, compared 
with the first mile on the same haul which took fourteen days. The crew 
required was about as follows: 

Loader 4 men 

Train. 2 men, engineer and brakeman 

Spreading 2 teams and teamsters 

Spreading 5 to 7 men 

Rolling 3 men 

Sprinkling 2 teams and teamsters 

Foreman 1 

Watchmen 1 or more 

Tracklaying 4 

Wages were $2 per day for laborers, $5 for teams with teamsters, $3 for 
roUermen, engineer, $90 per month. 



904 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Compared with team haul the method described shows a saving of about 30 
cts. per cubic yard, or nearly $700 per mile. We also saved 39 cts. on our 
stone and 10 cts. on the unloading, making a total of about $1,800 per mile 
over previous prices. The saving on haul alone would be more marked on a 
longer haul. . We also used the outfit in grading where material had to be 
moved some distance and found it extremely convenient and economical. 
Another very decided advantage of road building by this method is seen in the 
fact that there is no hauling over the road during construction and it is opened 
to traffic in perfect condition. It is also easier to keep the subgrade from being 
cut up and therefore takes less stone for a given thickness. 

The costs in Table IX include everything that is a proper charge to the 
work, the cost of moving outfit from one point to another, laying up, and 
tracklaying includes taking up as well. Loading includes setting up loader 
and in one case building a siding 1,000 feet long. The number of watchmen 
makes the hauling cost high; a greater output will cut down the spreading and 
the overhead in this case is high on account of the short season. 

Table IX. — Macadam Cost Sheet, Delta County, Michigan 

No. of days worked. 93 

Miles of finished road 9 . 44 

No. yards stone used 21 ,920 

No. yards stone used per mile. : 2,310 

No. days to build mile of road — average 9.4 

No. yards stone per day 236 

Cost of tracklaying per mile of finished road $108. 10 

Cost per 
cu. yd. 

Cost of stone at our siding , $ . 860 

Loading trains . 052 

Tracklaying . 047 

Engineer . 020 

Brakeman . 013 

Watchmen .017 

Coal - .012 

Oil, grease and waste . 002 

Repairs . 003 

Total. ........ $ 0.114 

Interest and depreciation on hauling outfit . 052 

Spreading . 1 14 

Sprinkling . : . 043 

Rolling .082 

Foreman and timekeeper . 030 

Total $ 0.269 

Int. and dep. on all other machinery . 040 

General expense . 031 

Total $ 0.071 

Total cost per yard (loose) of finished road $ 1 . 418 

Cost per mile $3,275.58 

Cost of Constructing Macadam Pavement at Hamilton, Ont. — The following 
figures, published in Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 4, 1918, from the 
report of E. R. Gray, City Engineer of Hamilton, Ont., for 1916-17 show the 
unit cost of constructing 2,361 sq. yd. of macadam on the northerly half of 
Burlington St. The macadam consisted of 5 in. of bottom stone and 3H in. 
of top stone, requiring 897 cu. yd. stone and screenings loose measurement, or 
559 cu. yd. in place. This was 1.6 cu. yd. of stone, loose measurement, for 
each cubic yard in place. The cost of work was as follows: 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 



905 



Cost 



Operation Quantities, etc. 

Grading 2,361- sq. yd : $ 

Bottom stone 45 loads tailings at $1.50 

169 loads bottom stone at $2.20H • 

Hauling bottom stone.. .221 loads at $1,873^ ($7.50 per day, 

4 trips). Incline tickets $13.00. 

Laying bottom stone 520 hours at 35 cts 

Rolling bottom stone 2 days. 

Top stone From Dundas, 7 cars 

From quarry, 19 loads at $2.953^ . . 
Unloading from cars and hauling 370.8 tons, 156.3 loads.. . . 

Hauling from quarry. ... 19 loads 

Spreading top stone 

Screenings 34 loads from quarry at $2.023^ . . . 

18 loads from Ward 6 

Hauling screenings 

Placing screenings 

Road roller, foreman, time keeper, watchman, coal, etc 



5 per cent on labor for tools, 5 per cent of $1,360. 





per 


Cost 


sq. yd. 


347.52 $0,147 


67.50 




372.65 


.186 


427.37 


.181 


181.93 


.077 


13.60 


.006 


.400.25 




56.15 


.193 


142.48 


.060 


34.44 


.015 


31.22 


.013 


74.98 




43.73 


.050 


85.04 


.036 


36.57 


.016 


139.92 


.059 



$2,455.35 
68.00 



.029 



$2,523.35 $1,068 

The labor cost of unloading the stone from cars using hoppers was 22.8 ct. 
per ton or 54 ct. per load, the latter averaging 2.37 tons. The labor time 
for unloading 370.8 tons from 7 cars was 24>^ hours at 35 cts. per hour. 

Eflfeci; of Length of Haul on Cost of Surfacing Macadam and Gravel Roads. — 
The following curve, taken from an article by K. I. Sawyer in Engineering and 
Contracting, June 17, 1914, is based on costs of road construction in Michigan. 





:::: IE ::: :i :::::::::: I!" ' 














ic — : : 












^ — !:."._: 




















rj _ 








V. ■ X ' IE - II - - " I - - 








"♦- lOUU 






: i_' '_ I "I : I : I : I ,z :I 














^ uKJU ~ 












<o ■ ~ i: I": I" : ■ i" 


irfLifiM 










^ ------ - - .--_._.-.-- 


..AQkrCJj*:-- - it 


Xv - 


^.C^i^'Q,-' - - 


















c: I ""' ■ " " ■; 












^ 1300 ~::":":":::::::"::"":'2:!' 








*i- lyi 




o - ^?^ ::_ 




















J iJ 












X ::":::: ::::;': : : 








+, ' " / " 












y '■ '■■ — __|- » // 


acadam Q'-O tv/o ■ 














^lOOC ;;'x--. --+■ 


1 t 1 














^ >}mit::-iiiiiiii-i i:;:i_:± 


:±i"i_±il±±iii.i::iiii 



15 20 25 3.0 35 4.0 45 
Average Jiaul of surfacing material in miles 



50 



Fig. 1. — Curve showing the effect of length of haul on the cost of surfacing. 



906 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cost of Operating a Steam Road Roller. — E. W. Robinson, gives the follow- 
ing costs of operating a 15-ton macadam road roller for the two seasons of 1910 
and 1911 in Engineering and Contracting, March 20, 1912. The roller was 
bought new In 1906 at a cost of $3,000, these two years making the fourth and 
fifth seasons, respectively, in use. In all it has been used to roll 150,000 
sq. yds. of water bound macadam, gravel and asphalted macadam pave- 
ments, and in addition was used on some three or four miles of county road 
work. It has also been used to a small extent to pull plows and rooters in 
opening side ditches and making street excavation, and for rolling down refilled 
sewer trenches. As nearly all the macadam roads and pavements in this 
locality are constructed of hard flint rock the large wheels are pretty well 
worn and will need replacing after another season or two. With that one 
exception the roller is in very good condition, considering the number of 
different men who have handled it, and only a few minor renewals have been 
necessary. 

1910 — 67.4 Days of 8 Hours Each 

Total Per day 

Engineman, 67.4 d&ys, at $2.50 $168. 50 $2. 500 

Coal, 32.59 tons, at $4.00 130.36 1.934 

Water, free 00. 00 0. 000 

Repairs and supplies 105 .26 1 . 562 

Interest, 6 % of $3,000 180. 00 2 , 671 

Depreciation, life 25 years, 3 % compound, 2,75 % of $3,000. 82 . 50 1 . 224 

Total $666.62 $9,891 

Cost per sq. yd. of rolling 26,006 sq. yds. of asphalted macadam, in- 
cluding subgrade, 6 ins. thick $0. 0156 

Cost per sq. yd. of rolling 15,062 sq. yds. of gravel pavement, including 

subgrade, 6 ins. thick 0.0126 

Average sq. yds. rolled per day of 8 hrs., asphalted macadam 630 

Average sq. yds. rolled per day of 8 hrs., gravel 787 

1911—96.75 Days of 8 Hours Each 

Total Per day 

Engineman, 96.75 days, at $2.50 $241 .88 $2 . 500 

Coal, 40.5 tons, at $2.55 average 103.26 1.067 

Water, free. 00. 00 0. 000 

Repairs, 11.85 days at $2.50, plus $19.90 49.53 0.512 

Oil and grease 5.40 0.056 

Interest, 6 % of $3,000 180. 00 1 . 858 

Depreciation, life 25 years, 3 % compound, 2.75 % of $3,000 . 82 . 50 . 851 

Total $662.57 $6,846 

Cost per sq. yd. of rolling 34,152 sq. yds. of asphalted macadam, 

including subgrade, 6 ins. thick $0. 0176 

Average sq. yds. rolled per day of 8 hrs., asphalted macadam 388 

It will be noted that with a much cheaper cost per day for operation in 
1911 than in 1910 there is a decrease in the amount rolled per day, with a 
corresponding increase in cost per square yard. The reason for this seeming 
inconsistency is that in 1910 the roller did nothing but roll the sub-grade and 
pavement proper, and was called out only when there was sufficient sub-grade 
or pavement prepared to constitute a full day's work, while in 1911 it was 
kept on the job continuously after the asphalting started and was also used to 
pull the two 500-gal. portable asphalt kettles forward as the work progressed. 
By the difference in the amount of pavement rolled per day for the two seasons 
a loss of about 40 per cent of time is shown for 1911 compared with 1910, and 
that figure represents pretty closely the time spent in pulling the kettles and 
lying idle waiting for the work to progress far enough to make it worth while 
to move back and roll the completed pavement. 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 907 

There are several reasons for the difference in cost of operation per day for 
the two seasons. The same engineman was employed both seasons at the 
same wages, and that item as well as interest and depreciation remain the 
same for both years. In 1910 the coal was purchased of local dealers at retail 
prices, while in 1911 a far better grade was obtained at a much lower price by 
buying a full car. The reason for the large difference in cost of repairs and 
supplies was due to the fact that the man who ran the roller in 1909 did not 
take proper care of it and when the present engineman took hold in 1910 a 
pretty thorough over-hauling was necessary. It might be well to state that 
the average man whose only experience has been with a threshing engine is not 
very apt to be fit to run and maintain in good condition a road roller. The 
present engineman, who is an old locomotive engineer and a good machinist, 
did practically all the repairing on rainy days and Sundays, and the roller had 
to be taken to the machine shop only once in the last two years. The reason 
so good a man was secured at such a low price is because he gets straight time 
the year around, and when not out with the roller is employed at other work. 

Cost of Road Roller Operation and Maintenance. — Engineering and 
Contracting, Jan. 1, 1913 publishes table X taken from the annual report of 
the Board of Public Works of Grand Rapids, which shows the cost of 
maintenance and operation, during the fiscal year ending March 31, 1912, of 
five steam road rollers owned by the city. 

Table X. — Cost op Road Roller Maintenance and Operation for One 

Year 

No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 6 

Roller Roller Roller Roller Roller 
Maintenance: 

Total mainte- 
nance 106.48 275.30 581.27 259.80 124.36 

Operation: 

Labor, running 717.10 681.20 743.00 769.10 809.20 

Labor, cleaning 30.00 26.00 30.00 60.00 18.40 

Labor, piloting 1.92 .60 .60 1.32 .60 

Tools .48 .78 .26 1 . 23 

Coal 267.51 227.66 246.83 152.99 277.05 

Kindling 24.70 21.90 22.30 11.60 20.95 

Oil 5.96 9.74 8.90 7.32 4.21 

Waste 3.52 3.33 3.84 1.44 2.77 

Packing 1.80 .80 .97 

Cartage 3.80 3.30 4.75 1.00 2.30 

Boiler compound.. . 7.56 5.46 3.90 1.50 2.76 

Lanterns and globes 2 . 37 .05 1 . 23 .92 

Matches .20 .05 .05 .05 

Grease .21 .90 1.74 .15 .60 

Delay penalty 1 . 00 

1-inch pipe .25 

Hose 5.80 

Total operation.. 1,061.13 980.99 1,068.92 1,007.85 1,146.89 

Grand total $1,173.61 $1,256.29 $1,650.19 $1,267.65 $1,271.25 

The total maintenance and operating expenses for these rollers for the year 
ending March 31, 1911 (taken from Engineering and Contracting, May 22, 
1912) were as follows : 

No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 6 
Roller Roller Roller Roller Roller 
Total mainte- 
nance $ 466.74 $ 479.23 $ 421.11 $ 255.33 $ 159.53 

Total operation. 1,251.42 1,290.29 1,188.87 1,149.38 1,162.48 



Total $1,718.16 $1,769.52 $1,609.98 $1,404.71 $1,322.01 



908 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The average cost of maintenance was $356.39 for 1911 and $269.44 for 1912. 

The weight of the rollers and number of hours operated in the year ending 
March 31, 1912 are as follows: 

No. hours oper- 
Weight, tons ated in year 

No. 1 roller 15 1,793 

No. 2 roller 13 1 , 703 

No. 3 roller 14 1,857 

No. 4 roller 8 1,922 

No. 6 roller 10 2,023 

The cost of maintenance and operation of these rollers per hour in operation 
were as follows : 

Total Per hour 

No. 1 roller $1,173.61 $0,605 

No. 2 roller 1,256.29 .737 

No. 3 roller 1 ,650. 19 .888 

No. 4 roller 1,267.65 .659 

No. 6 roller 1 , 271 . 25 .628 

A full day's work at Grand Rapids was lOK hours: 10 hours actual operation, 
and the balance firing up in the morning. 

Comparative Cost of Operating Steam and Gasoline Rollers. (Engineering 
and Contracting, Feb. 26, 1913). — The road building outfit of the Highway 
Commissioners of York County, Ontario, includes two 12>^-ton and two 11>^- 
ton steam road rollers and a 12-ton 2-cylinder gasoline road roller. In the 
report of the Commission covering the year 1912, E. A. James, Chief Engineer 
of the Commission, gives the following figures to show the cost as nearly as 
can be judged of operation of the steam and gasoline machinery, both rollers 
working under similar conditions : 

Cost of Operating Steam Roller 

For 10 Hours' Rolling 
Fuel- 
Kindling wood , $0. 05 

Coal, 380 lbs. at $6.85 per ton 1 . 30 

Water — 600 gals.; hauling 3 hrs. at 50 cts. per hr 1 . 50 

Oil, etc 0.05 

Engineer — 11>^ hours at 30 cts. per hour 3. 45 

Total $6. 35 

For 10 Hours' Spiking and Scarifying 
Fuel- 
Kindling wood $0. 05 

Coal, 480 lbs. at $6.85 per ton 1 . 64 

Water — 800 gals., hauling 2.00 

Oil 0.05 

Engineer — 1 1 3^^ hours at 30 cts 3.45 

Total • $7. 19 

Cost of Operating A Gasoline Roller 
For 10 Hours' Rolling 

(Fuel — 12 gals, gasoline at 15 cts. per gal $1 . 80 

Water — ^CooUng 0. 12^^ 

Oil-. 0.07 

Engineer — 'lO^^ hours at 30 cts 3 . 073^ 

Total $5.07 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 909 

For 10 Hours' Spiking and Scarifying 

Fuel — 20 gals, gasoline at 15 cts. per gal $3. 00 

Water — For cooling 0. 15 

Oil . 07 

Engineer— lOK hours at 30 cts 3 . 07 

Total $6.29 

Cost of Shaping Up and Rolling Old Macadam. — Engineering and Contract- 
ing, Sept. 4, 1918, gives the following: 

The cost of dressing up 12-ft. wide limestone macadam roads in Putnam 
County, Indiana, with a steam roller having a scarifier attachment ranged from 
$9.24 to $5.35 per mile in 1916. The average cost for the months of May, 
June, July and August of that year was about $7.08 per mile. The average 
total cost per day for the roller for this period, including coal, was $6.73. 
The cost of coal per day was $1.39. The above figures are based on the follow- 
ing costs: 

Coal $3 per ton 

Roller operator 30 ct. per hour 

Helper 25 ct. per hour 

Teams for hauling coal 35 ct. per hour 

The average number of days operated per month was 24.6, the average 
number of miles covered during this time being 23.5 or about 0.95 mile per day. 

Cost of Renewing Surface of Old Macadam. — Engineering and Contracting, 
Nov. 7, 1917, gives the following: 

Most of the suburban roads in the District of Columbia are water-bound 
macadam which have had a surface treatment either of oil or light tar. Three 
methods of renewing the surface on these old and worn macadam roads are 
employed, depending upon the condition of the road to be repaired. 

When the surface has been treated formerly with oil or tar and is in generally 
good repair, except for a few potholes or ruts, these places are patched with 
a mixture of stone, of a size corresponding to the depth of the depression, and a 
cold bituminous material. This material may be either a tar of the heaviest 
consistency which can be used cold, such as Tarvia K-P or Ugite C; or it may 
be an asphaltic emulsion such as Headley's Cold Patching Material No. 1. 
The largest size of stone possible is used, well mixed with about 1 gal. of 
bituminous material to each cubic foot of stone. The patches are rolled with 
a steam roller and covered with a thin coat of stone chips to prevent adhesion 
to wheels while they are still moist. 

When the surface of a macadam road, which has been previously treated 
with oil or tar, is very much worn or rutted, the entire surface is loosened to 
the depth of about 2 in. with a scarifier, as much as possible of the top coat 
containing the bituminous material being entirely removed. The fine stone 
may be screened out of the material which is removed if it is sufficiently 
pulverized, but it is usually reserved for use in repairs to little traveled roads. 
Sufficient new stone is then added to restore the proper cross section of the 
road, and the surface is brought to the condition of new water-bound maca- 
dam. This is opened to travel and kept watered until the surface is firm and 
compact. It is then swept clean of dust and the new surface is treated with the 
bituminous material in the same manner as a new road. About 34 gal. per 
square yard of bituminous material (either oil or tar) is spread by means of a 
sprayer, and the surface is then covered with stone chips or pea gravel. 

When the surface is much worn and it is desired to renew it with a strong 
new surface, the old macadam road is scarified to a depth of about 3 in. and 



910 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

reshaped to a surface about 2 in. below and parallel to the finished surface. 
A layer of 2-in. stone is then added and rolled to restore the cross section. 
About IH gal. per square yard of hot tar of heavy consistency is then applied, 
covered with stone ^ in. to 1 in. in size, and rolled. After this a second coat 
of tar of about H gal. per square yard is applied and covered with K-in. 
stone chips and rolled. This is, of course, the well-known penetration method, 
applied to the re-surfacing of old roads, and its use is advisable in cases where 
the road sustains a fairly heavy traffic of both horse-drawn and motor vehicles 
of all classes, say from 500 to 1,500 vehicles in 24 hours for a roadway 20 ft. 
wide. 

The cost of the above treatments depends largely upon the condition of the 
roads when repaired, and also upon the cost of labor and material at the 
particular location under consideration. In a general way, in the District of 
Columbia, the mixed bituminous material used in the first method costs 
from $1.40 to $1.50 per cubic foot in place in the road. If it will average 
1 in. deep, then it will cost 12 to 12>^ cts. per square foot or $1.08 to 1.12K per 
square yard of patch (not of roadway surface). This applies to small 
patches. Larger patches would cost somewhat less per square yard. To patch 
a roadway, 2 per cent of whose surface required repair to an average depth of 
1 in., will therefore cost about 2 cts. to 2K cts. per square yard of roadway 
surface. 

The second method will cost probably 10 cts. per square yard for the pre- 
liminary work and from 5 to 6 cts. per square yard for the new surface treat- 
ment, or a total of 15 to 16 cts. per square yard of roadway surface. 

The third method, including the work of scarifying and reshaping and the 
cost of material and labor, will cost from 60 to 75 cts. per square yard, depend- 
ing on many and various factors. 

The costs are based on labor at about 30 cts. per hour, teams at $5.50 per 
day, stone at 10 cts. per cubic foot at the road, and bituminous materials at 
10 cts. to 15 cts. per gallon at the work. 

Repairing Ruts in Macadam Roads. — Engineering and Contracting, May 29 
1912, gives the following method used by the Road Commissioners of Alger 
County, Michigan, L. E. Adams, County Road Engineer, in repairing ruts 
which had developed in some of the macadam roads of the county road sys- 
tem: The macadam was loosened with a pick to the bottom course of rock 
and the hole cleaned out. Rock from IK to 2}^ ins. was placed in the hole, 
well wet and tamped so that the top was a trifle above the level of the sur- 
rounding road. Screenings were then placed on the rock, thoroughly damp- 
ened and tamped with a 25-lb. iron rammer. The ruts on about 3K miles 
of road were repaired in this way at a cost of $60 per mile. Screenings and 
rock were delivered in cars on spurs near the work for 10 cts. per cu. yd., and 
were hauled in wagons and deposited along the side of the road where needed. 
The average haul was one mile. Team and driver cost $4.50, foreman $2.50 
and labor $2 per day. 

Cost of Maintenance of Macadam with Roller and Scarifier. — George E. 
Martin gives the following matter in Engineering Record, Nov. 4, 1916. 

Putnam County, Indiana, has a very large mileage of macadam roads. 
Many of these roads were built with but little attention to grades or drainage. 
Greencastle, the county seat, is in the center of a region producing a good 
grade of road-building limestone, and comparatively large amounts of stone 
have been placed on the roads of the vicinity. 

The county, in 1915, purchased a steam roller with a scarifier attached to it. 




ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 911 

This outfit has been used to dress up the roads at the following costs for 
operation: 

Total Coal 

cost cost Miles Days Cost 

per per oper- oper- per 

day day ated ated mile 

May $6.56 $1.23 16.75 23.6 $9.24 

June 6.69 1.54 19.50 25 8.56 

July 7.25 1.35 27.75 25 6.84 

August 6.43 1.85 30.25 25 5.35 

Average 6.73 1.49 23.56 24.65 7.50 

The costs are based on coal at $3 per ton; wages of roller operator, 30 cents 
per hour; wages of helper, 25 cents per hour; and teams for hauling coal, 35 
cents per hour. 

The roads were about 12 ft. wide. In most cases they were both graded and 
rolled at this cost. About 50 per cent of the mileage was scarified and 12 
miles were rolled only. 

The work was done under the direction of Alva E. Lisby, Putnam County 
road superintendent, who collected the data quoted. 

Maintenance Cost of Water Bound Macadam at Hartford, Conn. — Interest- 
ing data on the maintenance of waterbound macadam streets at Hartford, 
Conn., were given by Leon F. Peck, Superintendent of Streets of that city, in a 
lecture delivered Jan. 9, 1920 before the post-graduate students in civil 
engineering at Yale University. The matter following is abstracted from the 
address in Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 4, 1920. 

Waterbound macadam comprises 73 per cent of the streets of all kinds, 
paved and unpaved, in the city of Hartford. The macadam maintained over 
the 10 fiscal years 1907 to 1916, inclusive, averaged 97 miles per year. In 
area this amounted to 1,321,000 sq. yd. per year. Probably 50 per cent of 
of these streets have been macadamized more than 20 years. Over most of 
this 10-year period, labor cost 25 ct. per hour, and a team with driver 62K ct. 
per hour. 

Per sq. yd. 
per year 
Average cost for the 10 years of maintenance, including restoration 

or renewals $0. 0343 

Coat of depreciation at 10 per cent and interest at 43^ per cent on 

$13,400 worth of equipment 0.0015 

Total, including depreciation and interest, averaged over the 

entire macadam area * $0 . 0358 

The average annual cost, not including interest and depreciation for the 
first three years of this 10-year period, was $0.0340 per square yard, for the 
middle four years $0.0365 per square yard, and for the last three years $0.0317 
per square yard. 

Thus it is seen that the direct cost of maintenance did not increase during 
the 10 years notwithstanding the great increase in the number of motor 
vehicles. 

During the next three years the cost of labor, teams and materials increased 
until the rates for the fiscal year ending March 31, 1919, stood as follows: 

Labor, 373'^ ct. per hour, an increase of 50 per cent. 

Teams with drivers, 87 3^^ ct. per hour, an increase of 40 per cent. 

Repair materials increased about 40 per cent. 

The actual cost for that year of maintaining 107 miles of macadam or 1,416,- 
000 sq. yd. was $0.0551 per square yard, an increase of 60 per cent over the 



912 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

average for the 10-year period. This percentage of increase is in excess of 
that for labor and materials. It is beheved that the excess is entirely due to 
the fact that war restrictions prevented the securing of the customary amount 
of asphaltic road oil, thus the usual maintenance benefit of the oil was lost. 
Taking the present cost of new macadam at Hartford, which is 99 cts. per 
square yard and distributing it over a period of years long enough to bring in 
the average maintenance costs, say 20 years, then the ultimate cost can be 
determined as follows: 

Interest at 4K per cent on first cost for 20 years = $0,045 X $0.99 X 

20, per sq. yd $0, 8910 

Sinking fund to repay original outlay at end of 20 years, compounded 

annually at 4 per cent = $0.03358 X $0.99 X 20 6649 

Present annual cost of maintenance including depreciation and interest, 

$0.0566 per square yard, for 20 years. $0.0566 X 20 = 1 . 1320 



Ultimate cost per square yard for 20 years $2 . 6879 

Ultimate cost of Hartford's macadam per square yard per year . 1344 

Rate of Scarifying Macadam Road with "Allen" Scarifier.— In a paper, 
presented at the 1918 annual conference of Ontario Road Superintendents, 
R. Crawford Muir described the reconstruction of Dundas Street, the chief 
means of access to Toronto. 

The old road was scarified 4 to 6 in. deep for its full length and width, and 
the loose stones were drawn to the sides to form the shoulders, thus reducing 
the crown necessary for the new surface. 

The type of scarifier used was the " Allen" attached to the side of the roller. 
This scarifier consisted of 2 picks or teeth and was capable of picking up 800 
to 1,200 sq. yd. a day. 

Estimating Gravel Road Material Quantities and Cost of Hauling. — 
Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 5, 1916, publishes the following extract 
from Iowa State Highway Commission Service Bulletin December, 1915. 



Table XI.- 


-Number op Linear Feet of 


9-Ft. Road a Load of a G 


riVEN Size i 




Should 


Cover for Various Loose Depths 


i 


Weight of load 












Lime- 


Size 








Granite, 


stone, 


of load, - 


— Length spread for loose depth in 


inches 


lb. 


lb. 


cu. yd. 


3-in. 


4-in. 5-in. 


6-in. 


2,800 


2,500 


1 


12 ft. 


9 ft. 7.2 ft. 


6 ft. 


3,500 


2,125 


IK 


15 ft. 


11.25 ft. 9 ft. 


7.5 ft. 


4,200 


3,750 


nt 


18 ft. 


13.5 ft. 10.8 ft. 


9 ft. 


4,900 


4,375 


w 


21 ft. 


15.75 ft. 12.6 ft. 


10.5 ft. 


5,600 


5,000 


2 


24 ft. 


18 ft. .14.4 ft. 


12 ft. 


6,300 


5,625 


2H 

2H 


27 ft. 


20.25 ft. 16.2 ft. 


13.5 ft. 


7,000 


6,250 


30 ft. 


22.5 ft. 18 ft. 


15 ft. 


7,700 


6,875 


2H 


33 ft. 


24.75 ft. 19.8 ft. 


16.5 ft. 


8,400 


7,500 


3 


36 ft. 


27 ft. 21.6 ft. 


18 ft. 


Table XII 


— Number 


OF Cubic 


Yards 


OF Material Per Mile 


TO Make 




Given Loose Depth 


FOR Various Widths of Road 












XXT''^ /-I 4- Vk .r^-C /^ii-M-Trk ri^'i Y% yv 






wiatn oi suriacmg — 




Depth of loose material in 


9-ft. 


14-ft. 15-ft. 16-ft. 


18-ft. 




inches 




cu. yd. 


cu. yd. cu. yd. cu. yd. 


cu. yd. 


i^^-in. screenings) 




180 


280 300 325 


367 


3-in 






440 


684 733 782 


880 


4-in 






587 
734 
880 


913 979 1,043 
1,141 1,222 1,304 
1,369 1,466 1,565 


1,174 
1,468 
1,760 


5-in 






6-in 






Square yard 


s of surface 


per mile . . 


5,280 


8,213 8,800 9,387 


10,560 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 913 

Knowing the cost of gravel in any community the cost of the material for the 
road can be easily determined. The cost of hauling the gravel varies also 
between rather wide limits but the following may be considered as average 
prices where teams cost forty cents per hour and where ordinary earth roads 
are hauled over: 

Table III. — Average Cost for Hauling Gravel Based 40 cts. an Hour for 

Teams 

Cost, cts. 
Length of average haul per cu. yd. 

One-quarter mile 21 

One-half mile 28 

One mile 40 

Two miles 63 

Three miles 86 

Motor Truck, Scarifier and Road Graders on Gravel Road Maintenance. — 
Thomas H. Edwards gives the following data in Engineering Record, July 15,- 
1916: 

Montgomery County, Ala., has 650 miles of public roads, 450 miles of which 
are of gravel. In 1914, in order properly to maintain them, the County Board 
of Revenue decided to motorize the maintenance work. Material economies 
have been effected. One truck, it has been found, takes the place of from 16 
to 20 mules for pulling a scarifier. The five trucks now in use make it possible 
to scrape practically the entire system after each rain, each truck pulling 
three road machines and being able to make 30 miles a day. A great saving 
has been accomplished in the hauling of the gravel. Four trailers are pro- 
vided for each truck for this purpose. 

Scarifying. — The use of the motor truck has made scarifying a comparatively 
easy matter. As previously stated, where formerly from 16 to 20 mules were 
required to pull the scarifier, one of the trucks now accomplishes the work with 
ease. 

Recently there has been completed 6 miles of scarifying and reshaping at a 
cost of $24 per mile. This includes rebinding. The writer understands that 
in a neighboring county a contractor bid as much as $400 per mile for similar 
work. The detailed costs follow: 

Costs of Scarifying 6-Mile Road 

Gasoline for truck, 146 gal., at 25c $ 36. 50 

Oil for truck, 35 gal., at 56c 19 . 60 

Laborers' time, 31.5 days, at $1 31 . 50 

Engineer's wages, 7 days, at $3. 21 . 00 

Foreman's wages, 7 days at $3. ... , 21 . 00 

Total cost of scarifying $129 . 60 

Cost per mile 21 . 60 

Cost of shaping 6 miles with truck followed by road ma- 
chine 14 . 78 

Cost of shaping per mile 2.46 

Total cost, per mile, of finished road $ 24.06 

It is very important, in the maintenance of gravel roads, to scrape them after 
each rain. With the five trucks now in use it is possible to cover practically 
the entire system before the roads become too dry to accomplish any good. 

With the truck we are in position to completely scrape 30 miles of road per 
day. To do this there is hung to each truck a fleet of three road machines. 
A round trip completes the road. 
58 



914 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The cost per mile of this class of work is about 50 cents. The cost for the 30 
miles is: 

Truck driver $ 3 . 00 

Laborers, 3 at $1 3 . 00 

Foreman -. 3 . 00 

Gasoline, 20 gal. at 25 ct 5 . 00 

Oil, 2 gal. at 50 ct 1.00 

Total for 30 miles at 50' ct $15.00 

The replacing of chains, repairs to trucks, etc., necessary to truck upkeep 
cost about $400 per year. 

Hauling Gravel. — In connection with each truck there are four Troy reversi- 
ble 3-yd. trailers. While the truck and two of the trailers are at the dump the 
other two trailers are being loaded. Therefore only about ten minutes are 
lost per trip, this being consumed in loading the truck. 

By this method of hauling, it has been possible to place gravel on the roads 
for from 7 to 1 1 cents per yard-mile, as against from 30 to 40 cents for mule 
haul, and includes spreading the material on the road. 

With an increase of late in the price of gasoline from 11 to 25 cents per gallon 
it has been possible to keep the costs per yard-mile around 10 or 1 1 cents. 

The unit costs of operating one of the trucks for hauling gravel during a 
week, shows a gasoline consumption of about 35 gal. per day. This is from 10 
to 12 gal. more than the truck uses on the average haul, due to very long 12-per 
cent grades on the particular road traveled. 

The first truck, a White 6-cylinder, latest type road truck was purchased in 
the latter part of 1914. It proved such an economy to the county that four 
others were purchased, together with trailers and equipment. All of the 
trucks are of 5-ton capacity. 

Cost of Boulevard Oiling in Kansas City, Mo. — C. W. Redpath gives the 
following data in Engineering and Contracting, Nov. 20, 1912. 

Approximately 50 miles of macadam roadways are oiled twice a year by 
the Park Board of Kansas City. The method of oiling employed has been 
very successful and economical. 

Nearly the entire boulevard system is of 12-in. macadam, constructed of 
native limestone, which is used both for base and wearing surface. The roads 
have been carefully constructed, have a 12-in. crown on a 40-ft. roadway, and 
have excellent drainage. 

The conditions for oiling are as follows: 

(a) Before oiling, such repair work as is necessary should be done on the 
roadway, as the oil forms a cushion over the patch and protects it 
from raveling. 

(6) The road surface should be hard and clean and all loose material 
removed. 

(c) The road surface should be dry. 

(d) Only one-half of the roadway should be oiled at a time, if for no other 
reason than a protection and courtesy to the public. 

(e) The weather should be warm, with no prospects of rain, as rain on a 
freshly oiled surface will wash away much of the oil, sometimes completely 
ruining the job. 

The oil used is a residuimi of Kansas oils, which has an average specific 
gravity of 93 at 60° F. and which must register 19 to 21° B. by high grade 
hydrometer. The oil is received in tank cars from the Standard Oil Co. and 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 



915 



pumped Into two steel receiving tanks of 8,000 gals, capacity each, whence It is 
heated by steam coils and discharged by gravity into distributing tanks. 

The cost of the oil this year, including freight, was about 2}^i cts. per gallon. 
It was charged out at 2H cts. per gallon, the difference being the approximate 
cost of operating the distributing station. 

The oil is distributed by steel tank wagons, of about 600 gals, capacity. To 
the back of each wagon is attached a sheet iron trough into which the oil is 
discharged by three 2-in. valves, flowing evenly upon the roadway through 
small holes in the bottom of the trough. 

On all previously oiled roadways, with which this article deals, a smooth oil 
cushion has been built up. This surface is thoroughly swept with a rotary 
street broom, preparatory to distributing the oil. The oil is distributed 
lightly from the tank wagon upon the roadway, and the tank is immediately 
followed by the rotary street broom, which spreads the oil over the surface 
in a thin even coat. Two to four men with hand brooms are necessary to keep 
the oil from running into gutters, and to spread oil on uneven places in 
roadway, and at intersections with streets. 

The oiled surface is then covered with a thin coat of limestone dust, the 
finest product of the crusher. This is spread from the rear of an ordinary 
wagon by two men working from the ground with No, 2 scoop shovels. The 
dust coat first protects vehicles and pedestrians from the dangerous and nasty 
oiled surface, and after a few days under traffic forms with the oil a cushion 
surface. 

Table XIII. — Cost of Boulevard Oiling at Kansas City 



Foreman 

Man-hrs. on brooms. . 
M a n-h r s. spreading 

dust . 

Man-hrs. oil wagons. . 
Man-hrs. extra water, 

etc 

Team-hrs. on dust .... 
Team-hrs. on broom. . 
Team-hrs. oil wagons.. 

Cost of delays 

Oil, at 23^ cts. per gal. 3 
Dust, at 30 cts. per cu. 

yd.... 



Benton Blvd. 
55,010 sq. yds. 
Hrs. Per sq. yd. 
193^ $0.00026 
583^ .00011 



Paseo. 
51,200 sq. yds. 
Hrs. Per sq. yd. 
26 $0.000159 
86 .000419 



Gillham Road 

19,920 sq. yds. 

Hrs. Per sq. yd. 

8 $0.00013 

24 .00031 



S9H 
19>^ 

28H 
77 

21H 
31 



590* 
54 1 



.00040 
.00009 

.00011 
.0007 
.00019 
. 00029 
.00005 .. 
.00163 4, 

.00029 



122 
26 

39 

27 
34 

"828*' 

54 1 



. 000595 39 

.000127 8 

.000190 15 

.000737 373^ 

. 000263 8 

. 000332 14 

. 000062 

.002357 356* 



.00048 
.00010 

.00019 
.00094 
.00010 
.00035 
.00010 
.00170 



.000316 24 t .00036 



$0.00412 $0.005557 $0.00476 

* Gallons, t Cu. yds. 
Average haul miles 

Dust 2 2.5 1.0 

Oil 1.75 I.O 2.0 

Rates of wages — Foreman $2 . 50 per day 

Labor . 25 per hr. 

Teams . 50 per hr. 



The oiling crew usually consists of one foreman at $2.50 per day, two to four 
men hand brooming oil, four men spreading dust, one man spreading oil, one 
extra man, two oil tank teams, two to four teams hauling and distributing 
dust. All labor is paid at the rate of 25 cts. per hour, but teams including 
drivers at the rate of 50 cts. per hour. 



916 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Daily reports are made out by the foreman; from these reports Table XIII 
has been compiled. This table is for three boulevards which represent aver- 
age conditions when haul of materials is taken into account. 

Under ordinary circumstances, the cost per square yard for oiling on The 
Paseo should be between $.004 and $.005, but on this boulevard there was 
8,280 sq. yds. of new roadway, which requires much more oil and labor than 
the old cushion surface. There are also 4,968 sq. yds. of this boulevard used 
as a traffic way, on which the travel is exceptionally heavy, so that more labor 
is required in cleaning same, and a thick coat of oil and dust is required. 

Cost of Applying Emulsifying Oil in Carlisle, Pa. — John C. Hiteshew gives 
the following data in Engineering and Contracting, June 9, 1915. 

In 1914 Emulsifying Oil was selected because of its previous success. It 
had very little odor and after a few hours dried sufficiently not to track onto 
the sidewalks. Also the price played a large part in the selection. 

The manner of applying the oil was as follows: An overhead siding was used 
from which the oil was run from tank car to sprinkler by gravity. An ordin- 
ary water sprinkler of 500 gals, capacity was used, and filled about one-half 
full, the sprinkler was then taken to the block to be oiled and the other half 
filled with water at the nearest fire plug. The oil and water were the 
thoroughly mixed with a hoe, but later on it was found that time was saved 
and as perfect a mixture was secured by placing the hose connected with 
the fire plug in the bottom of the sprinkler and turning on full pressure of the 
water, which would then literally "boil up" and thoroughly emulsify. 

The sprinkler distributed the oil so uniformly that no brooming was required 
after oiling. The streets were lightly swept before oiling in order to clean 
them but to leave sufficient dust for the oil to take hold or penetrate. 

The cost of oiling approximately 160,000 sq. yds. or 34 blocks, or eight miles 
of street averaging 45 ft. in width, giving the whole two applications, was as 
follows: 

Materials — • 

26,509 gals, emulsifying oil at .0446cts $1 , 182. 31 

Demurrage 16 . 00 

Total $1,198.31 

Labor — 

Foreman, 5 hrs. at 20 cts $ 1 . 00 

Labor, 65 hrs. at 16 cts 10.40 

Labor, 97 hrs. at 1 5 cts 14.55 

Labor, 5 hrs. at 10 cts .50 

Team, 103 hrs. at 15 cts 15.45 

Team, 25 hrs. at 10 cts 2. 50 

Collector, 21 days at $1.00 21 .00 

Collector, 6 days at $1.50 9.00 

Total $ 74.40 

Grand total... ' $1,272.71 

Per square yard $0 . 008 

Cost of Asphaltic Oil Surface Treatment at Portland, Me. — During the 
season of 1912 an area of 39,066 sq. yds. of macadam at Portland, Me., was 
given a surface treatment with asphaltoilene. The following costs on this 
work, given in Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 1, 1913, were rearranged 
from the annual report of the Commissioner of Public Works. The asphalt- 
oilene cost 7K cts. per gallon. Labor was $2 per 9-hour day, and team and 
driver $5. 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 917 



Job 


Cleaning and 




Asphalt- 


Total cost 


Gals, per 


No. 


application 


Sanding 


oilene 


per 


sq. yd. 


sq. yd. 


5 


$0,008 


$0,003 


$0,019 


$c 


1.030 


0.26 


7 


.004 


.005 


.025 




.034 


.33 


1 


.010 


.002 


.027 




.039 


.36 


2 


.006 


.005 


.029 




.040 


.39 


8 


.006 


.004 


.030 




.040 


.40 


4 


.013 


.003 


- .031 




.047 


.41 


6 


.013 


.006 


.031 




.050 


.41 


5 


.018 


.005 


.048 




.071 


.64 



Cost of Tarvia Treatment at Queen Victoria, Niagara Falls, Park System 
(Engineering and Contracting, Dec. 5, 1917). 

About 28,000 sq. yd. of the Niagara River Boulevard in the Queen Victoria 
Niagara Falls Park System, Ontario, were given a surface treatment with 
tarvia A in September, 1916. The cost of the work was 6.6 ct. per square 
yard, according to the annual report of the Park Commission. The average 
haul was l}i miles, and the surface treated was 18 ft. wide and 14,000 ft. long. 
About 3^ gal. of tarvia was applied per square yard of surface. The detailed 
cost of treatment was as follows: 

Cts. 

Labor ^ per sq. yd. 

Teaming, 3'^-in. stone 0. 69 

Loading and spreading stone .56 

Sweeping and brushing roadway .10 

Heating tarvia .40 

Distributing and rolling .10 

Miscellaneous .09 

Total labor 1.94 

Materials: 

K-in. stone chips, 348 tons at $1.10 1 . 37 

Tarvia A, 6,500 gal. at 10 cts 2 . 32 

Freight, $115; car service, $19 .48 

Coal, 19.7 tons at $7. ,49 

Total materials 4 . 66 

Grand total 6 . 60 

Teams were paid for at rate of 45 cts. per hour; laborers received 20 cts. per 
hour and foremen 30 cts. per hour. 

Cost of Asphalt Macadam Construction with Telford Base at Carlisle, Pa. — 
C. A. Bingham gives the following data in Engineering and Contracting, Dec. 
20, 1911. 

During the season of 1911 the Street Department of Carlisle, Pa., under the 
direction of the writer constructed about 10,000 sq. yds. of asphaltic macadam, 
of which 6,129 sq. yds. was on new work with a telford base and 3,529 yds. 
was on an 8-in. resurfacing on old macadam. 

The grading for the new work was considerable, one grade being reduced 
from 5 per cent to 2.40 per cent, necessitating cuts up to 7 ft. for the full width 
of the 60-ft. street. This work was done by heavy plowing by double teams 
or power and hauling in dump wagons to fill adjacent streets. The grading 
force averaged eight men and 4,150 cu. yds. was cut at a cost of 32 cts. a yard 
as shown in the table following. 

Simultaneously another gang of about eight men quarried 4,425 perch of 
limestone (a perch is 25 cu. ft. in this locality) at one of the town quarries near 
by. This cost 31 cts. a perch, not including stripping of clay which was done 
in opening a new street. The average rate was 7 perch per man day in low 



918 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

breast work. Only four perch was obtained from a pound of dynamite on 
account of much bhstering. 

The rock was then crushed by the department crusher into bins and hauled 
to this and other jobs. The crusher had a 10 X 22 opening and was portable 
and low setting. Sufficient power could not be produced by a 13-ton roller 
so a 16 H. P. traction engine was leg,sed. Three men loaded three carts on a 
400-ft. haul and three men fed the crusher and one man operated bins. , The 
average amount crushed was 86 perch in ten hours and the cost was 27 cts. b, 
perch. Coal was purchased by carload and a half ton per day was used. 

Owing to a large amount of necessary work in other sections the laying of 
telford was given to a contractor whose quarry and plant was on the street 
and who could bid even with the department and yet make considerable profit. 
All other work was done by the municipal forces. 

Prior to laying the telford the entire subgrade was trimmed to crown and 
contour and rolled thoroughly by a 13-ton three- wheel roller. At the same 
time the banks in deep cuts were sloped back to the building lines which will 
account for the large cost of 11 cts. per sq. yd. for trimming. The telford 
stones were broken about 8 ins. in height and were laid very close and well 
keyed with stone wedges. The average amount laid was 40 sq. yds. per man 
in 10 hours. After a stretch of 300 ft. (36 ft. between curbs) was ready it was 
rolled in a day by the large roller which crushed off projecting corners and 
imbedded the stones until the telford was 6 ins. above subgrade as called for. 
About 4 ins. of IM to 23'^-in. stone was then spread over by a spreading wagon 
and when rolled into the interstices of the base there remained room for 2 to 3 
ins., loose, of ^ to l^-in. stone. This top course was only rolled two or three 
times to smooth it up and no screenings were allowed. 

The representatives of the asphalt company claimed that the top stone 
should be about 2}i ins. in size, but upon experiment it was found that this size 
required nearly 50 per cent more asphalt and produced only slightly better 
penetration and gave more danger of a flat stone tilting up. It was also 
claimed that no rolling whatsoever on the top course should precede the pour- 
ing but it was found that undulations would then not be found until too late 
for correction except at'considerable cost. 

The force used on the asphalt work was only five men. One man attended 
the wood fires, two men carried the hot asphalt and one man poured. The 
fifth man spread screenings, leveled stones ahead of pouring and on close work 
helped to pour. Fires were started at sunrise and pouring commenced at 
7 A. M. The gang took very little time for lunch and at night always filled 
the kettles with fresh asphalt for the next day's work. 

The kettles used were two caldrons on tripods holding nearly a barrel apiece 
and one 150-gal. asphalt heating tank on wheels. With this meagre outfit an 
average of over 400 sq. yds. a day was maintained. During the hot weather 
the barrels were suspended on trestles over the caldrons and set directly on 
the large kettle and thus emptied by gravity, but as the weather grew cooler 
this was too slow a process and the barrels were broken apart and the asphalt 
cut up in chunks. This of course could not be done in warm weather. It was 
found that with the time gained and by the burning of the broken barrels that 
more money was saved than by the slow method and the buying of fuel wood 
and returning the barrels. The barrels which had been drained in warm 
weather were well cleaned, when it became cooler by jarring the asphalt loose 
which had clung to the inside. 

The only fault found with the material was the foreign matter contained in 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 919 

the barrels; sometimes a quart of paint or a dipperful of sticks would be found 
in one barrel which sometimes clogged the valve of the barrel and once caused 
a leakage of half a barrel, and necessitated a constant cleaning of the can spouts. 

The asphalt was of natural lake origin and was heated to 360° F. so that it 
would reach the road at nearly 350° F. The weather temperature was from 
80 to 98° F. The shipments of asphalt were so delayed that some extra work 
on an approach had to be completed when the temperature was down to 40°. 

The asphalt was all poured by hand and .was carried in large buckets and 
poured into the spreading can which had a fan-shaped spout 4 ins. wide and a 
^^-in. opening. A good 2-in. penetration was secured with 1}4 gal. to the 
square yard by heating to a high temperature and having the stone clean and 
warm. Screenings from %-in. down were then spread over a depth of about 
K in. and the surface thoroughly rolled with a 6-ton tandem roller until the 
road was solid and set. At first a board was placed along the concrete curbs 
to protect them from splashings of asphalt, but after a little practice the men 
could spread along the curb without the board. The asphalt cost 15 cts. per 
sq. yd. and applying cost 6 cts. per sq. yd. It is hoped that next spring an 
appropriation will be made to clean ofif the screenings with a horse sweeper and 
place a seal coat over the entire street. 

The resurfaced section was done in two layers, each of about 6 ins. loose 
which rolled to 4 ins. making the completed work average 8 ins. Every 20 ft. 
cross-stakes were set 6 ft. apart to correct crown and the road metal was 
placed about 25 per cent higher than the required depth to allow for compres- 
sion. Every load of stone was dumped a few feet away from the desired loca- 
tion and then shoveled back to place so that no solid cores would be formed. 
This gave a smoother surface even on the resurface work than was produced 
by spreading wagons on the telford section. The stone for resurfacing was 
l^^ to 2^^ ins. except top course of 3 ins. (loose) , which was ^ to l^i ins. The 
resurfacing cost 24 cts. per sq. yd. This section was rolled and asphalted 
similar to the telford section. 

In the following cost table data are given on a section of water-bound 
macadam which was placed at the end of the asphalt work and will make good 
comparison. It will be noted that no sprinkling cost is given, the reason being 
that the department sprinklers are operated by fire department horses and the 
water is also free because of semi-municipal ownership. As all macadam 
streets here are thoroughly wet until waves run ahead of the roller the sprink- 
ling item if paid for would bring the water-bound macadam up to 37 cts. a 
yard. In other words, we construct an asphalt macadam for 8 cts. per yard 
additional over a water-bound macadam, or for the amount spent in annual 
repairs for two years on the inferior road we can build it right and enjoy a 
perfect road for many times that period. 

The detailed cost of constructing the asphalt macadam was as follows: 



Quarrying Stone (4,425 Perch) 

Rate, Per 

cts. perch 

Labor, 6,933 hours 17 $0. 2663 

Dynamite, 1,035 lbs 14 . 0327 

Fuse, 2,975 ft M .0033 

Caps, 2,000 9-10 . 0040 

Blacksmith 0080 

Total (quajrying) $0. 3145 



920 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Crushing Stone (4,425 Perch) 

Rate, Per 

cts. perch 

Foreman, 26 hours 20 $0.0011 

Labor, loading, 1,550 hrs 14 .0492 

Labor, feeding, 1,866 hrs 15 . 0632 

Carts, 1,810>^ hrs 24 !0982 

Power and engineer, 5403^ hours 40 0488 

Coal, 313^ tons $2.36 .0169 

Total $0.2773 

Excavation (4,150 Cu. Yds.: 6,206 Sq. Yds. and Sidewalk and Slopes) 

Rate, 

cts. Cu. yd. Sq. yd. 

Foreman, 610 hours 17 $0.0249 $0.0167 

Labor, 5,492 hours 14 . 1852 . 1239 

Teams, 84 hours 35 . 0070 . 0047 

Carts, 1,692 hours 24 .0978 .0654 

Roller engr., 72 hours 20 . 0034 . 0023 

Dynamite, 98 lbs 14 . 0033 . 0022 

Coal, 4,000 lbs 2 . 0019 . 0013 

Total $0.3239 $0.2166 

Sub-grading (Trimming, 6,206 Sq. Yds.) 

Per 

Rate, cts. sq. ya. 

Foreman, 619 hours 17 $0.0169 

Labor, 3,039>^ hours 14 .0685 

Teams, 50 hours 35 and 40 . 0031 

Carts, 475>^ hours 24 .0183 

Roller engr., 81 hours 25 .0032 

Coal, 3,000 lbs $4.50 .0018 

* , 

Total $0. 1113 

Macadam (8 in. Resurfacing on Old Macadam, Unrolled on Surface, 

3,529 Sq. Yds.) 

Rate, Per 

cts. sq. yd. 

Labor, 477 hours 14* $0.0192 

Carts, 505 hours. 24 .0343 

Roller engr., 205 hours 25 . 0145 

Coal, 8,000 lbs .0026 

Stone, 998 perch : 59.2 . 1715 

Total $0. 2424 

* 14 and 15 cts. 

Rate, Per 

cts. sq. yd. 

Telford stone, 1,471 perch 31.45 $0.0755 

Foreman laying, 490 hrs 25 . 0200 

Labor laying, 870 hrs 15 . 0212 

Team hauling, 440 hrs *. 35 .0252 

Rolling Telford, 40 hrs 25 .0016 

Coal, 2,600 lbs 02 . 0008 

Macadam stone, 932 perch 59. 18 .0900 

Team hauling, 330 hrs 35 .0188 

Spreading, 365 hrs 25 . 0148 

Rolling, 190 hrs 25 .0078 

Coal, 12,000 lbs 02 .0039 

Profit 1502 

Total -. $0.4300 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 921 

Asphalt Binder and Applying 

Rate, Per 

cts. sq. yd. 

Labor, unloading, 109 hours * $0. 0017 

Team, 44 hours t • 0009 

Fuel wood, heating, 9 cords *t . 0039 

Foreman, 178>^ hours 20 . 0037 

Labor, 1 304 hours * . 0196 

Screenings, 231 perch 59. 18 .0142 

Carts, 77 hours 24 .0019 

Asphalt, 12,810 gals 11.57 .1536 

Rolling, 188H hours f 75 . 0146 

Total... $0.2142 

• 14 and 15 cts. flO and 24 cts. *t $3 to $6. 

Summarizing we have the following costs: 

Asphalt Macadam with Telford Base 

Per 
sq. yd. 

Excavation $0.2166 

Subgrading 1113 

Telford and macadam 4300 

Asphalt binder 2142 

Total $0.9721 

Asphalt Macadam on 8-In. Resurfacing 

Per 
sq. yd. 

Resurfacing, 8-in $0. 2424 

Asphalt binder 2142 

Totals $0.4566 

The following costs were for the construction of a section of resurfaced water- 
bound macadam at the end of the asphalt macadam work. The total area 
was 2,240 sq. yds. 

Rate, Per 

cts. sq. yd. 

Labor, 322 hours 14 to 20 $0. 0208 

Carts, 97 hours 24 to 35 .0147 

Roller engr., 103 hours 25 .0115 

Crushed stone, 923 perch 59 to 90 . 2727 

Coal, 7,500 lbs 2 .0066 

Total $0. 3265 

Output and Organization Used in Operating Asphalt Mixer in Constructing 
2-in. Asphaltic Concrete Surface. — The following data are taken from an 
abstract published in Engineering and Contracting, April 3, 1918, of a paper 
by R. Crawford Mulr presented at the 1918 annual conference of Ontario 
Road Superintendents. 

Mr. Muir described the reconstruction of Dundas Street which is the chief 
means of access to Toronto. 

The wearing surface mixture was prepared in a Cummer standard 1-car 
protable paving plant of 2,000 sq. yd. of 2-in. top per day (10 hours) rated 
capacity, having a twin-pug mill (10 cu. ft.) capable of handling a 1,006-lb. 
batch of material. The total weight of this plant ready for transporting is 100 
tons. 

When the plant is working at its full capacity, 3 tons of coal are required per 
day* 



922 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The organization at the plant Is as follows: 

1 Foreman. 
1 Engineer. 

1 Fireman and 1 blacksmith. 

2 Men at scales weighing materials. 

2 Men feeding stone to elevator to drier. 

2 Men feeding sand to elevator to drier. 

2 Men shoveUng stone from car. 

2 Men shoveling sand from car. 

2 Men stripping barrels, etc. 

1 Man with horse, conveying; sand from pile to elevator. 

1 Man with horse, conveying stone from car to elevator. 

On a good day's work (8 hours) the following quantities of material were 
used: 16 tons of asphalt, 132 tons of stone, 47 tons of sand, 11 tons of dust or 
filler, making a total of 206 tons of mixture. 

The materials were mixed in a batch as follows: 

Weight, lb. Per cent 

Stone (K-in.) 625 64.10 

Sand 225 23 . 07 

Dust (fiUer) 50 5. 13 

Asphalt cement 75 7 . 70 

100.00 

These weights, of course, were modified from time to time, in order to take 
care of the variations in the materials as delivered. Special care was exercised 
to see that there was always a high percentage of filler and that the mix carried 
all the asphalt cement possible without being sloppy. 

When the quantity of asphalt cement in the mixture exceeded 7^ per cent 
of the total weight there was trouble in some places with waving and ridges in 
the pavement, also with more or less bleeding. On the other hand, if the 
percentage fell below 7, the pavement had a tendency to crack. 

The hot mixture was hauled from a portable plant, which was located at a 
railway station, to the road in the usual asphalt spreading wagons, dumped 
on the foundation at a temperature varying from 250° to 350° F. and conveyed 
to its final resting place by means of shovels. In shoveling the hot mixture 
into place, the material was shoveled from the bottom of the pile, thereby 
preventing the lower layer of the pile from becoming chilled. When the lower 
part of the pile becomes chilled, an uneven distribution and compression re- 
sults. On a number of loads, especially on a long haul the larger particles of 
the mixture settled to the bottom of the load; when this occurred, the mixture 
on being dumped was remixed by turning over with hot shovels. The mix- 
ture, after having been deposited roughly in place by shovels, was spread by 
means Qf hot iron rakes to a depth of 2^ in., thus allowing for an ultimate 
compression of 2 in. During this operation the rakers did not stand on the 
hot mixture any more than was necessary. Care was taken that all lumps 
were broken and a uniform consistency and even grade maintained, so as not 
to have depressions in the finished pavement. Raking is a most important 
factor in the construction of an asphaltic concrete pavement. With a hot 
mixture, 300° F. or more, 4 to 6 minutes were necessary for raking, but with a 
cold or stiff mixture 10 to 20 minutes were sometimes required. Cold or 
extra stiff mixtures should be avoided as insuflBcient compression and incon- 
sistency results. 

The largest number of loads dumped in one day was 65 (228 tons) , covering 
an area of 1,800 sq. yd. or a length of 940 lin. ft. This was on the shortest 
haul, H of a mile. On the longest haul, 2 miles, 36 loads (126 tons) were 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 923 

dumped, 9 teams each making 4 trips in 8 hours, covering an area of approxi- 
mately 1,130 sq. yd. On an average on a full day's work, 46 loads (106 tons) 
were deposited on the road, covering an area of approximately 1,300 sq. yd. 
These quantities would have been increased had the contractor placed more 
teams on the work. 

Cost of Asphaltic Macadam at Waynesboro, Pa. — Engineering and Con- 
tracting, Oct. 4, 1916, publishes the following data, relative to the street 
improvements at Waynesboro, Pa., carried out by the city street force undei 
the supervision of G. C. Brehm, City Engineer. 

The organization consisted of two foremen at 21 cts. per hour, a roller engi- 
neer at 25 cts. per hour and labor at 18 cts. per hour. 

Of the 25,000 sq. yd. of asphaltic pavements laid, one block (1,170 sq. yd.) 
was constructed on Cleveland Ave., the cost of which follows: 

It was found upon examination that the old macadam was so badly worn 
than an entire new base was necessary, and in order to bring the contour of the 
road to its proper place, about 8 in. of grading had to be done, the rough 
grading being handled by means of the road roller and plow. The average 
haul was 1 mile. 

Upon the thoroughly rolled sub-base, run of crusher limestone 6 in. thick 
(after compression with a 10-ton roller) was used as a base. 

Three inches of crushed stone (after compression) 2 to 3 in. in size was placed 
upon this base and after being thoroughly rolled with a 10-ton roller the 
asphalt, which was Aztec, was applied by means of pouring cans. Just 
enough ^^-in. stone to take up the voids was then spread over the hot asphalt 
and the whole was again thoroughly rolled. After applying H gal. of asphalt 
per square yard, the surface was covered with K-in. chips and rolled. 

The ^-in. and ^^-in. stone contained a great deal of dust and screening 
was necessary before they could be applied to the road. The cost of the work 
was 85 ct. per square yard, as follows: 

Gkading (312 Cu. Yd.) 
Unit Amount 

Teams 122 hr. 

Labor 50 hr. 

Labor 3323^ hr. 

Roller engineer 21 hr. 

Insurance 

Supervision 

Coal 2,465 lb. 

Oil 1 gal. 

Dep. machinery 



Rate 


Per sq. yd. 


$0.50 


$0.0522 


.21 


.0088 


.18 


.0514 


.25 


.0044 




.0013* 




.0119 


4.50 


.0048 


.50 


.0004 




.0179 



Total $0. 1531 

• Rate, $1.74 per $1,000. 

Base, 6 In*. (1,170 Sq. Yd.) 
Unit Amount 

Stone 250 tons 

Hauling 99 hr. 

Spreading 108 hr* 

Rolling 7 hr. 

Coal 828 lb. 

Oil 3^ gal. 

Supervision 

Insurance 

Dep. machinery 

Total $0. 2354 

• 25 hours at 21 cts. ; 83 hours at 18 cts. 



Rate 


Per sq. yd. 


$0.75 


$0.1603 


.50 


.0423 




.0173 


.25 


.0015 


4.50 


.0015 




.0001 




.0060 




.0004 




.0060 



924 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



SuKFACE, 3 In., of 3-In. and 2-In. Stone (1,170 Sq. Yd.). 



Unit Amount 

Stone 164 tons 

Hauling 65 hr. 

Spreading 116 hr* 

Rolling 11 hr. 

Coal 1,291 lb. 

Oil 3^ gal. 

Supervision 

Insurajice 

Dep. machinery 

Total 

* 30 hours at 21 cts.; 86 hours at 18 cts. 



Rate 

$0.75 

.50 



.25 



Per sq. yd. 

$0.1051 
. 0280 
.0186 
.0023 
.0024 
.0002 
.0096 
.0005 
.0094 

$0.1763 



Asphalt 
Unit Amount Rate 

Asphalt 2,381 gal. $0,083-^ 



37 hr.t 
128 hr.t 
3 cords 



4.00 



Hauling . 

Applying 

Wood 

Oil and waste § 

Supervision 

Insurance . 

Dep. machinery 

Total 

t 6 hours at 50 cts.; 31 hours at 18 cts. % 28 hours at 21 cts.; 
cts. § 12 gal. oil at 12 cts.; 5 lb. waste at 15 cts. 

Stone, 1 In. and ^i In. 

Unit Amount 

Stone 15 tons 

Hauling 13 hr. 

Spreading 17 hr. * 

Screening i j«.i.I.'vii«i<23 hr. 

Rolling 4 hr. 

Coal and oilf 468 hr. 

Supervision 

Insurance 

Dep. machinery. 

Total 

* 4 hours at 21 ct.; 13 hours at 18 cts. f Oil, H gal. 

Stone, 3^^ In. 

Amount 



Rate 

$0.75 

.50 

'".18 
.25 



Per sq. yd. 

$0.1729 
.0073 
.0204 
.0103 
.0019 
.0029 
.0005 
.0026 

$0.2188 
100 hours at 18 



Per sq. yd. 

$0.0096 
. 0056 
.0027 
.0035 
.0009 
.0009 
.0030 
.0002 
.0034 



6 tons 

7 hr. 
11 hr* 
11 hr. 

4 hr. 



Unit 

Stone 

Hauling 

Spreading 

Screening 

Rolling. 

Coal and oilf. 468 lb. 

Supervision ; 

Insurance 

Dep. machinery. 

Total 

* 2 hours at 21 cts.; 9 hours at 18 cts. f Oil, ^ gal. 

Miscellaneous 
Amount 



Rate 
$0.75 
.50 



.18 
.25 



Unit 

Teams 

Labor. 

Blacksmith, repairs, etc 

Total 

* 14 hours at 21 cts. ; 35 hours at 18 cts. 



21 hr. 
49 hr. ■■ 



Rate 
$0.50 



$0.0298 



Per sq. yd. 

$0.0038 
.0030 
.0018 
.0017 
.0009 
.0009 
.0030 
.0001 
.0034 

$0 0186 



Per sq, yd; 

$0.00S9 
.0079 
.0013 

$0.0181 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 925 

Summary 

Per sq. yd. 
pavement 

Grading $0. 1531 

Base .2354 

3-in. surface .1763 

Asphalt application . 2188 

Stone, 1-in. and %-in 0298 

Stone, 3^-in 0186 

Miscellaneous . . 0181 

Total $0.8501 

Cost of Removing an Asphaltic Macadam Road Surface, Reworking the 
Old Material and Relaying it as Asphaltic Concrete. — G. C. Dillman pub- 
lished the following data in Engineering and Contracting, Dec. 9, 1914. 

A poured process asphaltic macadam surface 16 ft. wide was laid on the 
extension of Woodward Ave., Detroit, in 1912. This road is a trunk line 
between Detroit and Pontiac and is subjected to a heavy traffic. Holes 
began to appear in the surface soon after its completion. 

The original improvement was made by Royal Oak township of Wayne Co. 
Mich., which did not make the repairs required by the state reward road law 
and in July, 1914, the surface was reconstructed under the direction of F. H. 
Rogers, state highway commissioner. The new work consisted of tearing up 
the old asphaltic surface, heating it with necessary new material added and 
relaying on the old slag macadam base. 



Detroit United 







f^^'l^oy i 1 ,2fAsphalfic concrete wearing surface: > ,.4 pavement crown 

j \ ]^..- New surface j ___ ^ >/ .-10 road crown 

' ''->" .:;•."■.;'• -^ ^'6"of i''fd3i cru5hedstbne(s/agy'[y.,'^^,,^^^i0'^ 
(Old roadway) ■•-•'. ■•}-;f^^J 

-Cobble sfone in low places only " '• '■'• " 

- 4 Tile drain 
Fig. 2. — Typical cross section of roadway improved. 

, Removing Old Surface. — The asphaltic surface to be removed was first swept 
clean. Twelve men, picking, lifted and picked into small chunks and shoveled 
into wheelbarrows, the material covering about 250 lin. ft. of roadway surface 
each day. 

In scalping off the old bituminous top, two places were broken up at the 
same time to hasten the work. At first the men picking stood on the surface 
already broken up, puUing the chunks as picked up, toward them. This did 
not work out satisfactorily so another method was tried, in which the men 
stood on the old surface, driving the pick beneath the broken edge. The 
surface coat was then readily lifted and broken into pieces that could be 
handled. These large pieces were then thrown back where three men picked 
them into still smaller ones to save, time in the mixers. The old material 
broke up readily in the morning but towards noon softened and more time was 
needed in breaking. Although the depth of penetration was far from being 
uniform, the bituminous top separated readily from the slag foundation. 

Long stretches of the old surface were laid when the foundation was wet^ 
and the bad effects of water present could be seen. The asphalt had not 
penetrated to a sufiicient depth, and there was practically no bond in the pave- 
ment in such places. In other places a 6-in. penetration was observed. 



926 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

When the old surface was broken up the stone was often covered with moisture 
and the asphalt could be peeled from the stone. This presence of moisture 
may be partially accounted for in that the general drainage of the road was 
poor, yet it is probable that the foundation had not been in a dry condition 
since the pavement was laid. When the road was resurfaced, the foundation 
was allowed to dry out and the general drainage was also taken care of. 

Mixing and Placing. — The equipment for mixing and placing consisted of 
2K-CU. yd. hot mixers, 1 500-gal, heating kettle, 1 5-ton roller, carts, small 
tools, etc. 

The old surface picked into small chunks was delivered to the mixers in 
wheelbarrows. An average batch consisted of sufficient material to lay 3H 
sq. yds. of 2}i in. surface, and contained 728 lbs. of old top, 252 lbs. of new 
stone and 15.92 lbs. of new asphalt. 

The old top was charged into the mixer with about 25 per cent, of H to % 
in. stone added and about 0.45 gals, per square yard, or about 1.6 gals, per 
batch, of new asphalt. Mixing was usually continued 8 mins. at the end of 
which time the temperature of the material would average about 240° F. 
Two high-wheeled carts were used to convey each batch to the point where it 
was to be laid. 

The base, after removing the surface material, was found to be very rough 
due to the original poor grading, and to the varying depths of penetration of 
the asphalt. All depressions in.the bottom layer were filled with ^ in. stone, 
after which it was thoroughly compacted by rolling. 

After the bituminous macadam had been laid and rolled to a thickness of 
23^ ins., a squeegee coat of asphalt was applied at the rate of about 1 gal. per 
square yard. A 34 in- layer of stone chips free from dust, was then put on and 
rolled in. It was believed that ^i gal. of asphalt per square yard would be 
sufficient for the squeegee, but due to the large size stone in the old surface 
material, it was necessary to double this quantity. 

Each day a sample of the surfacing laid was analyzed by the chemist and 
from the results of his analysis, together with the appearance of the old 
material, the mix was determined. Almost constant attention had to be given 
the mix on account of the varying composition of the materials. An attempt 
was made to keep the per cent of bitumen between 5 and 6, but it was low at 
times due to the large stones in the sample tested. 

The road was closed to traffic July 13, 1914 and opened to traffic August 12, 
1914, about an Jiour after completion. Thirty-eight men were required 24 
working days to tear up, remix and relay 9,055 sq. yds. In a 10-hour day a 
maximum of 510 sq. yds. was laid. 

Cost and Personnel. — Table XIV gives an itemized statement of the costs per 
square yard of pavement laid. These figures were compiled from the daily 
expenses as gathered by the state inspector and are very close to the exact cost. 
The contract price for laying the bituminous pavement was 73 cts. per square 
yard, $500 being allowed for the extra asphalt used for squeegee. 

The prevailing rate of wages was $2.25 a 10-hr. day for ordinary labor; 
$2.50 and $3.00 being paid enginemen, firemen and roUermen, and $4.00 for 
raker. The teams cost $5.00 per day 

The estimate for foreman is based on 30 days at $10.00. The contractors 
had two foremen on the work at all times, both being members of the contract- 
ing firm. 

The equipment cost cannot be stated in exact figures, since it was owned by 
the contractor, but the figures given represent an average rental price. 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 927 

Table XIV. — Unit Costs of Work 

Cost per 

Labor: sq. yd. 
Preparing old bituminous top — 

2 engineman $0,016 

2 firemen 0.014 

2 platform men 0.013 

6 wheelers 0. 029 

12 pickers 0. 064 

Total $0. 136 

Placing new material — 

4 cartmen $0,020 

1 kettleman . 008 

1 raker 0.013 

1 roUerman 0. 008 



Total $0,049 

Preparing grade — 

3 grademen $0,015 

Putting on squeegee and chips — 

3 squeegeemen $0 . 021 

Other labor — 

2 helpers ' $0,012 

1 waterboy . 003 

1 nightwatchman . 007 

Incidental labor 0.016 

team (steady) . 017 

Total : $0,055 

Cost of labor per sq. yd $0. 276 

Materials: 
Asphalt — • 

20.53 tons in mix $0,051 

49.80 tons in squeegee 0. 123 

Cost of asphalt per sq. yd., $0,174. 
Stone — 

325.9 tons in mix $0,068 

90.5 tons in chips 0.019 

12.7 tons in grade 0.003 

Cost of stone per sq. yd., $0,090. 
Incidentals — 

Fuel, insurance, freight on equipment, etc $0,073 

Equipment (estimated) — 

Roller and kettle $0. 023 

Two mixers 0. 100 

Small tools 0. 006 



Total $0. 129 

Foreman (estimated) $0 . 033 



Grand total $0. 74 

Summary' 

Average for 

Item 2,586 batches Totals 

Length surfaced, lin. ft 1 . 97 2 , 586 

Area surfaced, sq. yds 3 . 50 9 , 046. 5 

New asphalt added, lbs 15.92 41 ,065 

New asphalt added, per cent 1.6 

Old bitu. top, lbs 128 1,882,835 

Old bitu. top, per cent 73 . 1 

New stone in mix, lbs 252 651 , 790 

New stone in mix, per cent 24 . 3 



928 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Comparative Cost of Mixing Bituminous Road Materials by Machine and 
by Hand. — In an article in Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 26, 1913, 
Herbert C. Poore gives the following costs: . 

Mixing work previous to the 1912 season has generally been done by hand 
on wooden platforms with hot shovels. During 1912, however, 18 mechanical 
batch mixers were used. These mixers are portable and are either set up in 
connection with the crushing plant or else moved along the road as the work 
advances. To handle the stone economically the crusher bins at a stationary 
plant discharge directly to both wagons and to the mixer hopper by gravity 
and the mixer discharges the coated stone to the wagon by dropping from a 
spout. 

The apparatus most generally used is one manufactured by the Municipal 
Engineering & Contracting Co. of Chicago, known as the Chicago Improved 
Cube Mixer. "When provided with the Austin oil torch heating attachment 
the stone may be dried for use in bituminous road construction. The machine 
consists of an iron cube, revolving on its diagonal axis and gear driven from a 
steam engine mounted on the same portable frame. A small belt-driven air 
compressor furnishes the necessary pressure for operating the crude oil torch. 
The two ingredients are mixed in the cube chamber by kneading and folding 
rather than by stirring and the action is rapid and complete. 

The broken stone is first dumped or shoveled into the measuring hopper 
which is then raised on an inclined slide by a small cable hoist. After deposit- 
ing the charge in the mixing chamber the stone is turned for several minutes 
under the oil torch blast before the hot Tarvia is poured in. To discharge the 
mixture, the engineer operates a single lever which tips the revolving cube and 
allows the material to drop by gravity to the wagon or wheelbarrow. 

The mixers, generally of H yd. capacity, in unit with the stone crusher, run 
three batches in 10 to 15 mins. with four men; namely, an engineer, a tar man, 
a loading man and a helper. A wagon of IH cu. yd. capacity waits for the 
three batches to be mixed and then hauls them to the road, unually not more 
than a mile distant from the plant. 

When the mixing machine is used on the road, the stone is dumped on a 
board platform at the mixer, placed some 200 ft. ahead of the point where the 
tar macadam is being laid, and moved as the work progresses. The loading 
skip of the mixer is filled by hand and the mixed macadam wheeled in barrows 
to the road. Portable kettles holding 100 or 200 gals, are in use at both the 
stationary and portable plants. The Tarvia is shipped in steam coiled tank 
cars, run off into barrels, and conveyed to the road in the barrels to be used as 
required. Contractors are asked for bids on both water-bound macadam and 
tar macadam. The latter price is always stated in a square yard price over 
and above the cost of water-bound macadam. For example, on a 6,300 sq. 
yd. job a price was give of $3.25 per cubic yard of stone in place with 18 cts. 
per square yard for bituminous work. On this 6-in. road, 1.18 gals, of Tarvia 
were used in the top 2 ins. of hand-mixed macadam, making a total cost of 
$0,935 per square yard of finished road. The contract prices average about 
$7,600 per mile for a 14-ft. road, or approximately $0.92 per square yard exclu- 
sive of binder. The following are the contract prices on several roads: 

Coventry, R. I., length road 3.16 miles; contract price, including binder, 
$1.01 per square yard; Warwick, R. I., length road 4.00 miles; contract price, 
including binder, $0.98 per square yard. Foster, R. I., length road 4.88 miles; 
contract price, including binder, $0.87 per square yard. These sections were 
mixed by machine and the work progressed from 150 to 400 ft. per day. 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 929 

The following figures, based on careful observation of the various jobs, are 
a close approximation of the relative costs by the two methods : 

No. 1 — Portable Plant on Resurfacing — 2 Ins. Thick, 440 Sq. Yds. 

Per day 

Foreman, ^ time $ 2 . 50 

Engineer 2 . 50 

6 laborers at $1.85 11. 10 

Kettle man 2 . 25 

2 men spreading at $1.85 3. 70 

$22.05 

This gives a cost of $0.05 per square yard for labor of mixing and spreading 
stone and Tarvia. The mixer turned seven to eight batches per hour, which 
covered 50 sq. yds. of surface. Observation of two other portable plants 
gave approximately the same labor cost. 

No. 2 — ^Hand Mixing on Board Platform: Resurfacing 2 Ins. Thick, 

280 Sq. Yds. 

Per day 

Foreman, M time $ 2 . 50 

10 laborers at $1.85 18.50 

1 kettle man. 2 . 25 

$23.25 

This gives $0,085 per square yard as the cost for labor of mixing and 
spreading. 

In work of similar nature done by the writer the labor cost for mixing and 
spreading a finished 2-in. course has varied from $0.12 to $0.18 per square 
yard. The difference of $0.05 and $0,085, or $.035, per square yard, is further 
increased by the saving in bitumen in the machine mix over the hand mix, 
amounting to .75 gal. per square yard, of approximately $0.06 per square yard. 
On the other hand the machine mix costs are increased by interest and depre- 
ciation and the cost of installing and moving the plant. 

Cost of Asphaltic Macadam Construction on the Boulevard System of 
Kansas City, Mo. — C. W. Redpath gives the following in Engineering and 
Contracting, May 21, 1913. 

The boulevard system of Kansas City (in 1913) comprised some 55 miles 
of improved roadways practically all of which were of macadam construction, 
maintained by the use of road oil which tested 19/21 B. by high grade hydro- 
meter. This oil was applied hot from a tank by gravity or by spraying at a 
presstire of about 20 lbs. This was essentially an improvement in mainte- 
nance and while satisfactory to a degree has had several drawbacks, viz. : 

(a) Oiling must be done from two to four times a year at an average cost of 
1 ct. per square yard per application. 

(6) Constant oiling has built up a thick oil cushion. 

(c) Satisfactory repairs are impossible on this cushion. 

(d) The thick cushion has become wavy and uneven under traffic. 

Some of these roadways have been reconstructed by removing 2 ins. of the 
top course and replacing with a 2-in. asphalt bound wearing surface applied 
by the penetration method. This has proved a satisfactory solution for the 
improvement of the old oiled macadam pavements. 

First Method. — 8,300 sq. yds. of macadam were put down on Gillham Road 
and bound with asphalt, the asphalt being applied by the penetration method. 
59 



930 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Most of the asphalt was received In car lots on a railroad siding near by and 
was hauled by wagon to a large asphalt agitator tank. It was loaded into 
this tank with a hand derrick, after as many of the hoops and staves as possi- 
ble had been removed, the remaining pieces of the barrel being taken from 
the tank when the asphalt was melted. 

The liquid asphalt at about 350° F. was then pumped into a small portable 
kettle of about 300 gals, capacity, which was supplied with a fire box to keep 
the asphalt at the proper temperature for pouring, and in this kettle was 
hauled by team to a convenient location for distribution. Here it was loaded 
into small hand kettles and carried to the man who poured it upon the pre- 
pared rock surface. 

It was necessary to have an engineer at $3.00 per day on the agitator tank 
to fire and operate the pump. Only one portable kettle was used and some 
time was lost by the pouring gang each time it was taken away to be filled. 
This has been made note of in Table I, which is the complete cost report on 
labor and materials for applying two coats of asphalt on 8,300 sq. yds. of 
pavement. 

Several types of small hand kettles were tried, but one which gave the best 
results holds 5 gals, and was made specially for this work. The liquid asphalt 
is spread from this kettle with a long swinging motion of the arm from right to 
left. The asphalt used was Texaco 96 Paving Cement, which weighs 8.25 
lbs. per gallon and costs $21.30 per ton, f . o. b. Kansas City. It was delivered 
in ordinary wooden barrels and was very hard to strip when the weather was 
warm. 



Table XV. — Cost of Labor and Materials — Applying Asphalt on Macadam 
By Penetration Method 

First coat — Squeegee coat — 

Cost per Cost per 

Hours sq. yd. Hours sq. yd. 
56 $0.00210 46 $0.00173 



8,300 Square yards 

Foreman, 31.2 cts. per hour 

Stripping barrels and loading into big 

kettle 

Firing large kettle and loading small 

kettle 

Transporting small kettles 

Lost time of gang. 

Loading and carrying hand kettles 

Pouring asphalt. •. • •. 

Spreading and wheeling Joplin flint. . . . 

Roller, 50 cts. per hour 

Joplin flint from car to work 

Asphalt from car to work 

Brooming Joplin flint from first coat . . . 



162 

97 

8 
47 
98 
87. 
51 
54 



164 



Total labor 

Asphalt gals. 12 , 732^ 

Joplin flint cu. yds. 57^ 



Total materials 

Total labor and materials. 



1 1.534 gal. per sq. yd. 
)S. per sq. yd. 



. 00488 103 



.00310 



00438 


65 


.00293 


00048 


4 


.00024 


00142 


24 


. 00072 


00295 


49 


.00148 


00262 


49 


.00148 


00154 


65 


.00196 


00325 


38 


.00229 


00158 , 




.00247 


00182 . 


. . . . 


.00060 


00494 . 







$0 03196 $0 01900 

$0 . 1 3478 4 , 2832 $0 . 04534 
.00890 89.34 .01397 



$0. 



14368 
17564 



$0.5931 
.07831 



2 .516 gals, per sq. yd. 3 18.6 lbs per sq. yd. * 29.1 



The first coat of asphalt was covered with a layer of ^ or % in. Joplin flint, 
a very hard stone which is found in the lead and zinc mines at Joplin, Mo. It 
costs $.048 per 100 lbs., f. o. b. Kansas City, or $1.30 per cubic yard. A cubic 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 



931 



yard of the flint weighed about 2,700 lbs. This also was received in cars on a 
railroad siding near by. After rolling this first coat thoroughly, all the loose 
Joplin flint was swept off by hand with street brooms and the road surface 
was ready for the second or squeegee coat of asphalt, which was applied in the 
same way as the first coat and covered with Joplin flint. After rolling, the 
surface was ready for traffic and while some loose screenings were removed 
afterward, most of them worked into the asphalt under traffic. All finish 
rolling was done with a 7-ton Springfield- Kelly tandem roller. The engineer 
was paid $3,00 per day and the roller is charged in the cost report at 50 cts. 
per hour. 

As this was the first work of this kind done, some difficulty was experienced 
in training the laborers to handle and pour the asphalt. The foreman was 
paid $2.50 per day, two engineers at $3.00 per day and all labor at 25 cts. per 
hour. Teams were paid for at the rate of 50 cts. per hour. When asphalt was 
poured only part of the day, the gang was put at other work. 

Second Method. — In continuing this work, 6,184 sq. yds. of pavement were 
laid just as the above with the exception that a different method of heating 
and distributing the asphalt was used. The advantages of these changes is 
shown in Table XVI in the reduced cost of labor per square yard. Part of 
this difference, however, is due to the better organization and greater skill 
pouring and handling the asphalt. 



Table XVI.- 



-CosT OF Labor and Materials — ^Applying Asphalt on 
Macadam by Penetration Method 



6,184 Square yards 

Foreman, 43.8 cts. per hour 

Stripping barrels 

Loading and firing kettles 

Loading hand kettles 

Carrying hand kettles 

Pouring asphalt 

Wheeling Joplin flint from piles to work. 

Spreading Joplin flint 

Roller, 50 6ts. per hour 

Joplin flint from car to work 

Asphalt from car to work 

Brooming Joplin flint from first coat .... 

■f otal labor 

Asphalt eals. 

Joplin flint cu. 



Hours 
27 
27 
80 
27 
65 
53 
28 
15 
27 



First coat 

Cost per 
sq. yd. 
$0.00191 
00109 



— Squeegee coat — 
Cost per 



115 



.00324 
.00109 
.00263 
.00214 
.00113 
.00061 
.00219 
.00166 
.00134 
. 00465 



Hours 
16 
18 
45 
17 
38 
30 
42 
27 
17 



sq. yd. 
$0.00113 
. 00073 
.00182 
. 00069 
.00154 
.00122 
.00170 
.00109 
.00138 
. 00259 
. 00048 



gals. 8,720i 
yds. 411 



$0.02368 $0.01437 

.12390 3,210.52 .04560 
.00859 641 .01341 



Total materials 

Total labor and materials. 



$0.13249 
. 15617 



$0.05901 
. 07338 



1 1.410 gals, per sq. yd. 2 0.519 gals, per sq. yd. 3 17.9 lbs., or 0.00663 cu. 
yds. per sq. yd. * 27.94 lbs., or 0.01035 cu. yds. per sq. yd. 

Two large kettles of 500 gal. capacity and supplied with fire boxes were 
manufactured to order, at a cost of $300 apiece. They proved very satis- 
factory. The kettles were placed side by side with space enough between for 
a platform, the top of which was about level with the top of the kettles. A 
long incline plane was attached to the platform so that it could be readily 
removed. The barrels were stripped from the asphalt, which was rolled up 
the plane to the platform where it was cut up and dropped into the kettles. 
One kettle was loaded while the liquid asphalt was taken from the other. 

The melting plant, as ?^bove described, could be quickly moved as the work 



932 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

progressed, so that when the distance between the kettles and the point of 
pouring became more than 150 ft., it was moved. 

The advantages of this asphaltic macadam pavement are: 

1. It does not disintegrate under impact or suction. 

2. It is not slippery. 

3. It is entirely waterproof. 

4. Its wearing properties are excellent. 

5. Its surface can be readily renewed by another squeegee coat. 

6. It is easily cleaned. 

7. Cuts can be quickly and neatly repaired. 

8. The disagreeable feature of oiling two or more times a year is elirhinated. 

9. The maintenance cost is low. 

The results obtained on this roadway have been very satisfactory and after 
six to nine months under heavy traffic it affords a smooth, resilient, waterproof 
and dustless pavement, which shows very little wear. It is now proposed to 
gradually change the entire boulevard system of Kansas City; from a water 
bound macadam maintained with road oil to an asphaltic macadam by sur- 
facing with a 2-in. asphalt wearing surface. 

Cost of Tarvia-Macadam at Fredericton, N. B. — The following data, 
published in Engineering and Contracting, March 15, 1911, were given by 
J. L. Feeney. 

During the past season two blocks of tarvia-macadam were laid by the city 
of Fredericton, N. B., the total amount being 5,582 sq. yds. 

The broken stone used in the work was nearly all I'^i to 2-in. trap rock, 
though a small amount of sandstone was of necessity used. The stone was 
purchased from the city roads and streets department at a cost of $1.30 per 
ton for crushed trap rock and $1 .00 per ton for sandstone. 

The binder material, Tarvia X, was applied hot, the penetration method 
being used. Two applications of the binder were used on the wearing course 
and also on the top dressing. The amount of Tarvia used per sq. yd. of surface 
was 3.07 U. S. gals. Of this amount, 2.4 gals, were used on the wearing 
course and .67 gal. on the top dressing. The Tarvia cost $5.25 per cask of 
48 U. S. gals., delivered in Fredericton. The total amount of Tarvia pur- 
chased was 378 casks. Of this amount, 357 casks were used in constructing 
the two blocks of pavement, leaving 21 casks in stock. Of the empty casks, 
345 were returned to the company, this netting the city $94.15. Thus the 
total net cost of the Tarvia used in this work will be seen to be $1,780.10, or 
about 10.4 cts. per U. S. gal. 

Sand was spread on the finished surface of the pavement, the amount used 
per 100 sq. yds. of surface being 1.55 cu. yds. The total amount of sand used 
was 45 loads. The cost of the sand was $1.25 per load. 

The following tabulation shows the cost of material and labor for construct- 
ing the macadam, this work including a small amount of grading: 

Per 
sq. yd. 

1,603 tons crushed trap rock at $1.30 $0,372 

130 tons sandstone at $1.00 023 

Labor 083 

Teaming 074 

Rolling 021 

Engineering and superintendence 054 

Sundries .008 

Totals (5,582 sq. yds.) $0,635 

The following is the average organization of the gang engaged in grading 
and constructing the macadam proper: 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 933 

11 laborers at $1.50 per day. $16.50 

2 double teams at $3 . 50 per day. 7 . 00 

2 single teams at $2.25 per day 4 . 50 

Total $28.00 

This force placed on an average 180 sq. yds. of macadam per 9-hr. day. 

The cost of the tarvia treatment was as follows: 

Per 
sq. yd. 

17,136 gals, tarvia at 10.4 cts $0,319 

Labor, heating, applying, etc 057 

Cost of plant, tools, etc 024 

45 loads sand at $1.25 per load 010 

Totals (5,582 sq. yds.) $0,410 

The gang employed in heating and spreading the binder was as follows: 

6 laborers at $1.75 per day $10.50 

1 single team at $2.25 per day 2 . 25 

Total $12.75 

With this force the binder was applied to about 185 sq. yds. of macadam 
each 9-hr. day., The total thickness of the completed Tarvia-macadam 
was 7 ins. and its total cost was $1,043'^ per sq. yd. This is a rather low 
cost when it is considered that this Tarvia-macadam work was the first at- 
tempt in the city in the construction of this kind of pavement. The cost of the 
Tarvia was also somewhat high, being 12>^ cts. per imperial gallon, whereas 
the same product can be obtained at less cost in New England cities. The 
essential features in the low cost of construction were the comparatively low 
cost of crushed stone, the short haul (the cost of hauling amounted to 31 cts. 
per ton mile) and the small amount of excavation necessary. 

Costs of Plant and Equipment for Building Bituminous Roads. — The cost of a 
portable plant for asphaltic concrete roads in Chicago is given in Engineering 
and Contracting, Oct. 14, 1914, as follows: 

Within the city limits of Chicago there are approximately 500 miles of 
macadam streets and roads. To accomplish the work of resurfacing the out- 
lying roads a portable, one-car asphalt plant with a rated capacity of 2,500 
sq, yds. of 2 in. asphaltic concrete in 9 hours was purchased from the Warren 
Brothers Co., Boston, Mass., at a cost of $13,000. 

The plant was put in operation in May, 1914, and since that time has 
operated continuously. The rated capacity has been exceeded upon several 
occasions, 3,240 sq. yds. of surfacing being the maximum output in one day. 

Several changes were made in the plant after its erection by W. H. Barton, 
the foreman, to better adapt it to the work in hand. The whole plant was 
changed so as to use fuel oil for heating purposes, avoiding the smoke and 
other inconveniences from burning coal. Also all the small lubricators were 
displaced by one central steam pressure lubricator with lead pipes to the 
various points requiring lubrication. 

Operation. — In operation, the sand and stone mixed in the proper 
proportions are run into the dryer where the mixture is heated to 300° F. 
From there it is conveyed to the storage bins and thence to the measuring 
bins, whence it is drawn off as required to the 15-cu. ft. mixing drum. 
Materials are proportioned by weight. 

The force employed at the mixer consists ordinarily of 1 foreman and 34 men, 
as follows: 1 chief drum man, 1 drum man, 1 kettle man, 1 mixer man, 1 time- 



934 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

keeper, 1 material man, 25 laborers, 1 assistant chemist, and 2 watchmen. 
The total cost of labor employed at the mixer averages $90 a day. 

To facilitate the quick delivery of material at the plant a car tracer is 
employed who locates and keeps the cars in transit. This tracer uses a 
motorcycle and usually covers a distance of 75 miles each day. 

Mixture, — The mixture used averages approximately as follows: 

Item Percentage 

Bitumen 6.5 

Sand 37.2 

Stone 52.3 

Filler 4.0 

Total 100.0 

The stone aggregate consists of clean crushed Wisconsin granite ranging 
from 34 to 1 in. in diameter which cost delivered $2.25 per cubic yard. Tor- 
pedo sand is used. Portland cement serving as filler to make up the defi- 
ciency in fine material. The Mexican liquid asphalt used for binder (penetra- 
tion 60 to 70) is delivered in tank cars. 

Hauling. — Ordinarily about 18 teams are employed in hauling. Recently, 
however, 5 ton Pierce-Arrow motor trucks have been used to advantage. 
Material hauled in motor trucks is handled more quickly and arrives at the 
point where it is to be laid in better condition than when hauled by teams. 
The newly laid road is, however, subjected to excessive loads due to their use, 
all materials being, as far as possible, hauled over the completed surface. 

Laying Surfacing. — Surfacing material is delivered hot in tarpaulin covered 
wagons, or motor trucks, and dumped directly into the prepared base. The 
material is raked, smoothed and tamped, to a uniform surface 2 ins. thick and 
finished by rolling with a 6-ton tandem roller. No paint, or finish coat of 
bitumen is applied, a slight roughness of surface being desired. 

Force Employed. — The day labor force employed in preparing the old 
surface and laying the asphaltic concrete is ordinarily organized as follows: 
1 asphalt foreman, 2 rakers, 2 smoothers, 2 tampers, 15 helpers, 2 watchmen, 
and 2 roller engineers. By far the larger part of the work consists of laying 
the surfacing. 

Output and Cost. — As a rule, in excess of 2,000 sq. yds. of 2-in. surfacing, or 
about 1,000 lin. ft. of roadway 18 ft. wide, has been covered each working 
day of 9 hours. The average cost of all work completed, including the prepa- 
ration of the old roadway and laying the 2-in. asphaltic concrete surface, 
has been approximately 70 cts. per square yard. 

Suggestions for Selection and Use of Bituminous Paving Equipment. — 
The following matter is taken from a paper by W; S. Godwin and published 
in the Proceedings A. S. C. E., Vol. XXXIX, and reprinted in Engineering 
and Contracting, Dec. 31, 1913. 

Hot Surfacing and Penetration Methods. — If pressure distributors are 
equipped with interior steam coils, and sufficient steam is supplied to keep the 
bituminous material at a uniform temperature of about 280° F., they are 
capable of distributing the heavier grades for either the hot surfacing or the 
penetration methods of construction. 

The equipment generally used in the penetration method has been portable 
or semi-portable melting kettles, having capacities ranging from 50 to 500 
gals., and hand-distributing pots. This method of heating and applying is 
expensive and the results obtained are invariably crude. The bituminous 
material is often too cold, and, in some cases, is overheated and damaged. 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 935 

The arrangement and equipment for penetration work is most satisfactory 
when the contractor receives the bituminous material at the nearest railroad 
siding, in 6,000, 8,000, or 12,000-gal. tank cars, equipped with interior steam 
coils. A 20-HP. boiler may be attached to the steam coils in the tank car and 
thus heat the material to the desired temperature. If this arrangement is 
provided at the railroad siding, the hot material may be run by gravity into 
the distributing wagons. If this is not practicable, the material may be 
pumped from the car to the wagons. A horse-drawn distributing wagon may 
be hauled from the railroad to the work and then may be attached to a steam 
roller. Bituminous material received in barrels costs the contreictor an addi- 
tional sum of at least 2 cts. per gal. for each barrel and also the freight on the 
barrels, which is about 15 per cent of the gross weight. Besides, he has two or 
more melting kettles to operate and a very large bill for fuel to heat them. 

A 20-HP. boiler and a 600-gal. distributing wagon will cost about $1,000, 
and, with an average haul from the railroad siding, should cover 800 sq. yds. 
per hour. Two 400-gaL melting kettles, at $400 each, and a dozen buckets 
and pouring pots will cost about $850, and will not cover one-half as great a 
yardage. 

Should the extent of the work not warrant the purchase of such a plant, 
there should be secured a strong, well-built 500-gal. melting wagon and a hand 
distributor, having a capacity of at least 30 gals, mounted on wheels, and 
having a regulating distributor at least 20 ins. wide. A distributor of this 
kind costs $65, and should pour 250 sq. yds. per hour, using IK gals, in the 
initial pouring and ^ gal. in the flush coat. The use of pouring pots should 
be avoided if possible. 

Mixing Method. — The cost of heating and mixing plants depends princi- 
pally on their capacity and the care and material used in their construction. 
A small portable batch heater and mixer, similar to a concrete mixer, and 
capable of heating and mixing about 7H tons per hour to a temperature of 
200° F., costs $1,500. Mixers of this class are only capable of mixing stone 
which is larger than ^i in. As the bituminous material is placed in these 
mixers hot, a 500-gal. melting kettle is required. For close or dense mixtures, 
stationary, semi-portable and railroad plant are used. Semi-portable plants, 
comprising the heating drum, mixer, melting tank, etc., cost $7,500, exclusive 
of any building, and have a capacity of about 75 sq. yds., or 7H tons, of 
sheet-asphalt mixture per hour. The improved railroad plants, whicli cost 
about $12,000, are capable of heating and mixing sufficient asphalt and sand to 
a temperature of 325° F., to lay 175 sq. yds., or 17K tons, of sheet asphalt 
mixture per hour. The modern duplex stationary plant, in which the large 
dryers, 15 cu. ft. mixers, conveyors, etc., are operated with independent 
motors, cost about $33,000, including a steel building. These plants have a 
capacity of 500 sq. yds., or 50 tons, of sheet-asphalt mixture per hour. 

As mixtures of stone are laid at a lower temperature and require less bitu- 
minous material than sheet asphalt, the capacity of plants increases about 18 
per cent when heating and mixing for paving of this class. 

In buying a bituminous mixing plant of any kind, the contractor or munici- 
pality should receive bids only from companies which have had considerable 
experience in the manufacture of such machinery. It should be required 
that the plant be erected and operated under the direct supervision of the 
builder until it has met the guaranteed requirements. The guaranty should 
be for a certain number of pounds of properly heated paving mixture at a 
specified temperature, per day of 10 hours, and not a certain number of 



936 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

square yards. As all dense bituminous mixtures, when compressed to 2 ins. 
weigh very nearly 200 lbs. per sq. yd., this portion of the guaranty can easily 
be changed from square yards to something which is definite and easily ascer- 
tained. The contract should also state the maximum quantity of fuel to be 
consumed in 24 hours, and last, but not least, the date when the finished plant 
will be completed, erected, tested, and ready to run to the guaranteed capacity. 
Cost of Asphalt Block Pavement Laid on Sand and Loam Base. — Engi- 
neering and Contracting, Feb. 6, 1918, pubhshes the following data: 

Asphalt block pavements laid at Savannah, Ga., on a natural base have 
proved remarkably successful. The earliest pavement of this type was put 
down on Gaston street in 1906 and is now in excellent condition. On several 
streets where this pavement has been laid there has been no maintenance cost. 
The success at Savannah is attributed largely to the character of the soil 
upon which the block is placed. This foundation consists of sand intermixed 
with a small amount of loam. Where clay has been encountered there have 
been some failures, due to moisture getting under the blocks and allowing a 
rocking motion. With the sand loam streets excellent drainage is afforded, 
which is absolutely necessary for the success of asphalt block pavement laid 
on the natural base. It is stated that success is not attained if the block is 
placed upon pure sand, for there is a creeping movement and the blocks are 
not held firmly in place. 

The method employed in Savannah in laying the asphalt block pavement is 
as follows: 

The street upon which the block is to be laid is graded to approximately the 
established sub-base grade, curbing and catch basins are installed and then 
the street is thoroughly puddled and then rolled over and over with a 10-ton 
roller. If any portion settles below the sub-grade base, material is added and 
this is compacted firmly by rolling and puddling. Grade pegs are then 
instrument ally set and the surface is carefully screeded or shaped to the sub- 
base grade with templates, care being taken that no foreign material is left 
upon the surface of the base. After this the blocks are carefully laid, one 
man following the pavers driving the blocks on the edge so as to have as tight 
joints as practicable. Then the surface of the block is rolled with the 10-ton 
roller. River sand is then used for filling the joints, and is left on the surface 
for 10 days to two weeks before it is cleaned off. 

The average cost per sq. yd. of asphalt block pavement laid in 1916 was as 
follows: 
Labor: Per sq. yd. 

Watchman $0,010 

Grading .080 

Shaping base . 010 

Rolling foundation . 010 

Laying block .112 

Paving backs at street intersections . 002 

Placing sand and filler . 002 

Cleaning up . 008 

Total $0,234 

Material: 

Asphalt block $1,540 

Sand .005 

Use of equipment . 030 

Small tools, coal, etc . 001 

Total $1,576 

Grand total, per sq. yd 1 . 81 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 937 

The asphalt block paving gang consisted of a foreman who was paid $4 
per day, block layers paid $3 per day and ordinary laborers at $1.75 per day. 
The steam roller men were paid $3 per day. The size of the gang usually 
consisted of 20 to 25 laborers, including the drivers of teams or carts. 

Cost of Asphalt and Brick Pavements, at Flint, Mich. — The following data 
are taken from an article by Clarence E. Ridley in Engineering Record, June 
10, 1916. 

Quantity of Work Completed. — The total amount of pavement built by the 
city by day labor during the 1915 season was 90,031.8 sq. yd., of which 73,- 
799.6 sq. yd was sheet asphalt. In addition the city also constructed sewers, 
sidewalks, bridges and other work, bringing the total cost to $322,920.08. At 
the same time there was spent on contract work $135,320.42, thus making 
the total cost of improvements for the fiscal year ended Feb. 29th, 1916, 
$458,240.50. 

The overhead engineering on all of the foregoing work amounted to 
$7,095.76, or 1.5 per cent of the value of the work done. 

In order to afford a comparison of the figures on unit costs there are given 
in Table XVII the cost of materials and labor used in the construction of 
pavements, all the material prices being f.o.b. Flint, except that for cement, 
which is the price delivered on the line of work. 

Table XVII. — Unit Costs of Road Wokk 
Asphalt, per ton: 

Bermudez $29 . 36 

Standard. 13.91 

Trinidad 21 . 37 

Texaco 14. 11 

Fluxing oil, per ton 8 . 85 

Binder stone, per ton 1 .28 

Limestone dust, per ton 4.10 

Asphalt sand, per cu. yd 1 . 09 

Concrete gravel, per ton . 83 

Paving brick, per sq. yd 0. 88 

Cement, per bbl 1.29 

Laborers, per hr. for 10-hr. day 0.25 

Teams, per hr. for 10-hr. day . 55 

As the total excavation for paving was more than 50,000 cu. yd., and as but 
one steam shovel was available, it was necessary to use hand labor on about 
two-thirds of the work. In the selection of streets the hand labor was favored 
at a,ll times, which makes the saving shown by the steam shovel even larger 
than is indicated by the figures in Table XVIII. In addition to the excavation 
it was, of course, necessary to have a hand crew working ahead of the steam 

Table XVIII. — Compaeative Costs of Steam-Shovel and Hand Excavation 
Steam-Shovel Excavation 

Total cubic yards 16,838.9 

Labor cost $ 4,965.01 

Average cost per cu. yd .... . 295 

Average cost per sq. yd., finish grading 0. 042 

Total average labor cost per cu. yd 0. 377 

Average cost of fuels, oils, etc., per cu. yd 0. 015 

Reimbursement of equipment fund for depreciation and repairs. 0.033 

Total average cost of excavation per cu. yd 0.425 

Hand Excavation 

Total cubic yards 34 , 464 . 5 

Labor cost $15,913.43 

Average cost per cu. yd ... 0.46 

Average cost per sq. yd., finish grading 0. 063 

Total average labor cost per cu. yd .• • • • ^- ^^^ 

Reimbursement of equipment fund for depreciation and repairs. . 0.028 

Total average cost of excavation per cu. yd 0. 598 



938 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

roller putting the subgrade in condition for concrete. It will also be noted 
that the cost of this finished grading on work done by the steam shovel is 
one-third less than on the streets excavated by hand. 

These costs show that had all the excavation been done by steam shovel a 
saving in cents of 17.3 times 34, 464. 5. would have been made, which amounts to 
$5,962.36. Thus, if a new machine had been bought, its cost would have been 
saved in a single season. 

Cost of Curb Work. — With the exception of six streets on which brick pave- 
ment and stone curbing were used, and two others having straight concrete f 
curbs, a combined curb and gutter was used. Two gangs of fifteen men each '' 
were working on this feature of the paving almost all season. By having a 
finisher on either side of the street the graders could follow the curb gangs very 
closely. An average of 400 ft. per day was placed. The unit cost of labor and 
material for this work is as shown in Table XIX. 

Table XIX. — Cost of Combined Curb and Gutter 

Total lin. ft. curb and gutter 47,967 

Total number of wagon loads (IK cu. yd.) gravel 2,371 

Average cost gravel per load at pit $0 . 93 

Average cost of delivery on job per load „ 0. 93 

Average length in ft. built per load of gravel 20 

Average cost of gravel per ft $0 . 0924 

Average length in ft. of curb and gutter per bbl. of cement 10. 7 

Average cost of cement per ft $0. 1206 

Average cost of labor . 1300 

Reimbursement of equipment fund for depreciation and repairs. . 0.0214 

Total average cost of curb and gutter per ft $0. 3644 

Cost of Concrete Foundations. — A 6-in. concrete base of 1:3:6 mixture was 
placed on all the streets. The gravel was unloaded from cars and delivered on 
the line of the work by teams and wagons. The average length of haul was 
0.47 miles, and the average cost per ton-mile was 39.6 cents. It will be noted 
that for this length of haul the cost falls very close to the ton-mileage curve 
plotted for hauling asphalt. Table XX gives the cost of the concrete work for 
the year. 

Table XX. — Cost of Concrete Foundations 

Total number sq. yd. foundation 90,031 . 8 

Total number carloads gravel 554 . 

Total weight of gravel, in tons 26 , 420. 

Average weight of gravel per car, in lb 95 , 300 . 

Average cost of gravel on tracks per car $39 . 55 

Average cost of unloading cars: 

(1) Shovelers (hand) 4.50 

(2) Teaming 9.00 

Total number wagon loads (13^ cu. yd.) gravel 10,819.0 

Average number wagon loads per car 19 . 5 

Average weight of wagon load, in lb 4 , 880 . 

Average cost per wagon load on track $ 2 . 03 

Average cost per wagon for delivery on job 0. 69 

Cost of gravel on tracks per ton . 83 

Average cost of unloading gravel per ton 0. 091 

Average cost of hauling gravel per ton 0. 182 

Amount of gravel per sq. yd. foundation, in lb 587 . 

Cost of gravel per sq. yd. on track $ 0. 244 

Cost of unloading and delivering on street per sq. yd 0. 08 

Total average cost of gravel per sq. yd . 3240 

Cost of water per sq. yd. 0.0075 

Number of sq. yd. foundation per bbl. cement 5.47 

Average cost of cement per sq. yd $ 0. 2350 

Amount of depreciation on equipment . 0007 

Average cost of labor per sq. yd . 0850 

Total average cost of foundation per sq. yd $ 0. 6522 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 939 

Brick Surfacing. — It has already been stated that but 16,232.2 sq. yd. of 
brick pavement was laid. As this amounted to only about 18 per cent of the 
total paving and was made up of comparatively small jobs, its cost is not as 
low for this class of work as the main surfacing costs are for asphalt paving 
work. The average cost of brick paving, with a stone curb and 6-in. founda- 
tion, excluding the cost of excavation, was $2,128 per square yard. The 
amount of material per square yard of surface was 40 brick, 3^o bbl. of cement, 
Ms load of cushion sand and Koo load of slushing sand. The cost of material 
and labor for these items per square yard is shown in Table XXI. 

Table XXI. — Cost of Brick Surfacing 

Brick, f. o. b. Flint $0. 88 

Delivering brick on line of work . 08 

Cement . 03 

Cushion sand . 04 

Slushing sand 0,01 

Fixing sand bed, laying, rolling and slushing brick 0. 16 

Total average cost of brick surface $1 . 20 

Saving on Sheet Asphalt. — The greatest saving was made on sheet-asphalt 
surface. Enough money was made on this work alone to more than pay for 
the plant and equipment twice over. Exclusive of grading, the average cost 
of asphalt paving was $1.51 per square yard. All of the sheet-asphalt pave- 
ments were laid in residence districts with widths of 24 and 26 ft. Texaco 
asphalt was generally used in the binder with an average penetration for the 
season of 75.5. Mexican asphalt mixed half and half with either Bermudez or 
Trinidad was chiefly used in the top with an average penetration of 65.3. An 
average of 24.9 per cent of the sand used passed an eighty-mesh screen, and 
29.3 per cent of the total aggregate used passed this screen. 

The percentage of bitumen for the season averaged 10.9. The total cost 
of the plant and equipment is listed in Table XXII. 

Table XXII. — Cost of Asphalt Plant 

Original cost of plant erected $9 , 245. 00 

Cost of foundation 380 . 76 

Kettle shed 493.92 

Buildings (office, engine room and limestone dust shed). 742.88 

Flux oil tank 302. 89 

Miscellaneous equipment for plant and street 638. 14 

Total cost of plant and equipment. $11,803. 59 

Cost of five asphalt wagons $ 824 . 76 

Cost of asphalt roller 2 , 350. 00 

Total cost of street equipment $3, 174. 76 

Grand total $14,978.35 

Of the above items of plant, the equipment, asphalt plant, wagons and roller 
were allowed a depreciation of 20 per cent, and the rest a depreciation of 10 
per cent, amounting in all to $2,803.63. The asphalt plant is located on the 
Pere Marquette Railroad, as near the center of the city as possible. The 
average hauling distance during the past season was 0.96 miles, but one haul 
of more than 2 miles and one of less than }i mile occurred. The average cost 
of delivering the asphalt during the year amounted to 23.7 cents per ton- 
mile. The asphalt surfaces placed consisted of l}i in. of binder and a 1-in. 
top. The average amounts of material used and cost per square yard of 
surface are given in Table XXIII. 

The total yardage of sheet asphalt, 73,799.6, times the difference in the con- 
tract price offered for the work and the actual cost, 38 cents per square yard, 



940 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



equals $28,043.85. Less $2,803.63 depreciation, this amounts to $25,240.22 
saved on the asphalt surfacing alone. 

Table XXIII. — Average Amounts of Material Used, and Total Cost per 

Square Yard 

Amount Cost 



Binder Material 
Texaco asphalt .... 

* Fluxing oil 

Sand. 



per sq. yd. per lb. 



Cost 
per sq. yd. 



5.47 1b. $0.007055 $0.03859 

.15 1b. 0.004425 0.00066 

16.35 1b. 0.000425 0.00695 

0.000640 0.05740 



Binder stone 89.70 lb. 

Cost of material in binder $0. 1036 

Top 
One-half Trinidad and one-half 

Mexican 18.50 1b. 0.008820 0.16317 

Fluxing oil 2.20 1b. 0.004425 0.00973 

Sand 147. 15 lb. 0.000425 0.06254 

Limestone dust 15.20 lb. 0.006050 0.03116 

Material in top $0. 2666 

Coal, electric power and water . 0200 

Labor at plant . 0844 

Labor on street . 0668 

Teaming 0. 0330 

Salary of expert, engineer in charge and assistants 0.0300 



Total average cost of asphalt pavement per square yard 

SO, 



$0.6044 



c SO 

^2 



c 50 



(J I ^ 2 J 

Distance from Pbnf in Miles 
Fig. 3. — ^Cost of delivering asphalt. 

Cost of Sheet Asphalt Pavement at Montreal, Que. — Engineering and Con- 
tracting, Jan. 3, 1917, publishes the following data. 

The introduction of a cost keeping system and a consequent better method 
of handling construction has resulted in a marked reduction in the cost of sheet 
asphalt pavement in the city of Montreal, Que. In 1914 the total cost of this 
pavement was $2.79 per square yard. In 1915 it was $2.13, a reduction of 
23.6 per cent over the cost of the previous year, and in 1916 it was $1.93. 
The pavement consists of a 6-in. 1:3:6 concrete base, a 1-in. binder and a 2-in. 
wearing surface. The city has the following asphalt plants: 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 941 

Plant Daily 

built, capacity, 

Division year yds. Cost 

East 1903 1,000 $16,000 

West 1909 1,500 22,000 

North 1914 2,000 28,000 

Portable 1914 1,500 26,000 

During 1915, 600,000 sq. yd. of sheet asphalt pavement were laid. The 
detailed cost of the work, according to a paper presented at the annual con- 
vention of the American Society of Municipal Improvement by Paul E. 
Mercier, Chief Engineer of the city, was as follows: 

Persq. yds., 
cts. 
Grading 

Foremen. 2.4327 

Timekeepers . 1166 

Engineers . 1590 

Layers 0477 

Drillers 0689 

Water boys 0742 

Watchmen *. 1.9186 

Laborers 26.9240 

Teamsters 17 . 5536 

Material 

Sundries. 0.4081 

Repairs, int., etc 3.2913 

Total grading 52 . 9947 

Foundation 

Foremen 1 . 6340 

Timekeepers .1 140 

Engineers . . 6555 

Layers 0285 

Watchmen 1 . 9000 

Laborers 11, 6565 

Teamsters. 13. 1195 

Autos , 0380 

Stone 16.2830 

Sand . 15.0575 

Cement 27.8350 

Sundries 2 . 2705 

Repairs, int., etc 4 . 8080 

Total foundation 95.4130 

Surface 

Foremen 5873 

Timekeepers . 1097 

Engineers . 6454 

Spreaders 1 . 4263 

Tampers 8003 

Watchmen : 4131 

Laborers 2.8913 

Teamsters 7099 

Autos 1 . 2849 

Material 

Asp. bin. and wear 52 .2193 

Sundries ' 1 . 4844 

Repairs, etc 1 . 9878 

Total surface. 64 . 4754 

Grading, Foundation, Surface, Total 

per sq. yd., per sq. yd., per sq. yd., per sq. yd., 

ct. ct. ct. ct. 

Labor 49.2953 29.1590 8.7839 87.2382 

Material 59.1755 52.2193 111.3948 

Sundries 3 . 6994 7 . 0785 3.4722 14.2501 

Total 52.9947 95.4130 64.4754 212.8831 



942 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



The cost of material and the wages in 1915 were as follows: 

Bitumen — $14.25 per ton f.o.b. plant. 

Sand — 75 to 98 cts. per ton f.o.b. plant. 

Stone — $1.10 to $1.70 per ton f.o.b. plant or works. 

Stone dust — $5.45 per ton f.o.b. plant. 

Flux — ^10^^ cts. per imperial gallon. 

Cement — $1.71 per barrel f.o.b. plant Or works. 

Laborers — 25 cts. per hour. 

Teamsters — 60 cts. per hour. 

As noted previously, the unit cost of the sheet asphalt laid in 1916 was $1.93 
per square yard. In further detail the cost was — 

Grading, Foundation, Surface, Total, 

per sq. yd., per sq. yd., per sq. yd., per sq. yd., 

ct. ct. ct. ct. - 

Labor 32.8257 26.9681 12.8364 72.6302 

Material 6571 50.3405 60.6638 111.6614 

Sundries 3.8084 3.7504 1.4692 9.0280 

Total 37.2912 81.0590 74.9694 193.3196 

The cost of material and wages for 1916 was as follows: 

Bitumen— $19.33 f.o.b. plant. 

Sand — 75 cts. to $1.10 f.o.b. cars or wharf. 

Stone — $1.00 to $1.40 f.o.b. plant or works. 

Stone dust — $4.90 f.o.b. plant. 

Flux — 103<i cts. f.o.b. plant per imperial gallon. 

Cement — $1.76 f.o.b. plant or works per barrel. 

Laborers — 25 cts. per hour. 

Teamsters — 60 cts. per hour. 

Cost of Constructing an Asphalt Surface Drive with Sunken Concrete 
Curb. — ^W. T. Colman and M. H. West furnished the following information 
and costs published in Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 15, 1911. 

Among the numerous improvments and extensions made in the drives 
of Lincoln Park, Chicago, was the construction of a 40 ft. drive, which 
extended the Sheridan Road pavement for a distance of 4,631 ft. The 
design of the street is unique in that it is so built as to allow the water to run 
off the street onto the lawn at the side, which is graded so as to form a hollow 
along each side of the road. The road is 40 ft. wide with a 7-in. crown, and 
has 2 ins. of asphalt on an 8-in. base of crushed stone. At the sides of the 
drive are reinforced concrete curbs 5 ins. thick, extending from the surface of the 
street 24 ins. deep. The top H in. of the curb is surfaced with a grout con- 
taining H lb. of lamp black per bag of cement, for the purpose of giving the 
top of the curb the same appearance as the asphalt street. 

The material upon which the road was built consists of a gumbo clay. A 
stretch of about 300 ft. of this had to be taken out to a depth of from 3 to 5 
ft. because the 15-ton roller, used on the crushed stone base, could not produce 
a satisfactory surface on account of the soft clay. A 15-ton Springfield roller 
was used for the stone and a 5-ton roller on the asphalt. The stone was 
brought in barges from the Artesian Stone Co.'s plant on the Chicago Drainage 
Canal and landed at the park docks. At the docks the barges were unloaded 
with a clamshell bucket operated by a derrick and the material dumped into 
an elevated bin of about 10 cu. yds. capacity. Troy wagons were driven under 
the bin to receive their loads. The road work paralleled the shore hne of the 
lake at only a short distance from it so the length of haul was not great. 

Curb. — The concrete curb was formed by 16 ft. panel forms of which there 
w;ere about 500 lin. ft. employed. The curb was reinforced with three H-in. 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 943 

square bars as shown in the accompanying section of the street. These were 
20 ft. long and lapped 6 ins. at the ends. They were suspended in the forms 
in templets made of a 34 -in. piece of pine, which was left in plfce to form the 
expansion joint. 

The cost of excavation for the curb is included in the cost given for the curb 
itself, and that for placing the stone includes the cost of the preparation of the 
road bed for receiving the stone. In this work a large amount of local rubble 
stone was mixed in with the crushed stone, the object being to fill up the deeper 
places, as far as possible, with local material. 



''^ ^'' ' ■' ' ''''' * '' X\'r:^.^^'^^^ ' " ' ^77Ji ^^\ ^C:^hji^^\'l, 



... _^ y. ^.^^^ 
Fig. 4. — Section of asphalt surfaced drive showing sunken concrete curb. 

The building of the concrete curb was started on April 14, 1910, and was 
completed June 29th. The costs of the 9,263 lin. ft. of curb follow. Fore- 
men's rates are monthly and sub-foremen daily: 

Labor Time, Rate Total 

Engineering hrs % 136 . 47 

Foreman : 91 $125.00 mo. 48.60 

Sub-foreman 666>^ 3.00 day 222. 16 

Dump wagons 343 . 66% hr. 228 . 67 

2-wheeled wagons 112 . 12^ hr. 14.00 

Common labor 24 . 38>'2 hr. 9 . 20 

Common labor 932 . 30 hr. 279 . 60 

Common labor 382 2.50 day 106. 11 

Common labor. 17,500 .25 hr. 4,395.00 

Skilled labor. 

Carpenters 253 . 623^ hr. 157 . 50 

Carpenters 56 .60 hr. 33. 60 

Timekeepers 13 55 . 00 mo. 3 . 06 

Timekeepers 73 55 . 00 mo. 20 . 40 

Teamster 3 2 . 623^ day . 87 

Teamster 320 60. 00 mo. 81 . 56 

Tools .^ 19.24 

Total cost * $5,881.59 

Labor cost per lin. ft ^ $0 . 64 

Material * Quantity Price 

Cement at $1.25 per bbl 495 $ 621.88 

Crushed stone at $1.50 per cu. yd 318 477.00 

Torpedo sand at $1.60 per cu. yd 213 340. 80 

Lamp black at $0.08 per lb 1243^ 9 . 94 

Reinforcement rods at $43.00 per ton 12.64 543.52 

Total $1,993.14 

Cost of material per lin. ft .21 

The cost of form lumber is not included. 

Unit Costs of Curb 

Cost per 
Un. ft. 

Engineering $0 . 005 

Foremen . 029 

Carpenter labor . 022 

Common labor .517 

Transportation . 055 

Miscellaneous . 015 

Total labor $0 . 643 

Material .21 

Total cost per lin. ft $0 . 85 



944 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Crushed Stone Base. — The work of placing stone was carried over from the 
previous year at which time some stone had been deposited for use at various 
intervals of tftne. The stone was placed on the road about 8 ins. thick and 
covered an area of 23,160 sq. yds. The costs of this work, which follow, 
Include the local rubble stone which was also placed in the work to help fill out. 



Time, hrs. 



Labor 

Engineering 

Foreman 13>^ 

Foreman 284 

Foreman 514 

Sub-foreman 170 

Sub-foreman 993^ 

Double teams 1 , 529 

Double teams. 2 , 331 

Single teams 249 

Common labor 98K 

Common labor 59 

Common labor 332 

Common labor 257 

Skilled labor 

Steam roller engr 928^ 

Timekeeper 28 

Timekeeper 27 

Teamster 153 

Teamster 2,4453^ 

Tug 28 

Scows 50 ds. 

Derrick 24 ds. 

7 stone scows 

Tools 



Total cost 

Total labor cost per sq. yd . 



Rate 



$150.00 

125.00 

3.00 

2.40 

2.25 



mo. 
mo. 
day 
day 
day 



. QQH hr. 
.25 hr. 
. 123-^ hr. 
.383^ hr. 
.30 hr. 
2 . 50 day 
.25 hr. 

.50 hr. 

. 55 hr. 

65.00 mo. 

2.623^ day 

60 . 00 mo. 



3.85 

4.34 

20.47 

45.00 



day 
day 



Material Quantity 

Crushed stone at $1.65 per cu. yd 17 . 5 

Crushed stone at $1.50 per cu. yd 3 , 453 . 78 

Crushed stone at $1.40 per cu. yd 464 . 25 

Crushed stone at $1.00 per cu. yd. 167 . 50 

Crushed stone at $0.70 per cu. yd 3 , 885 

Crushed stone at $1.50 per cu. yd 71 . 64 



Total 

Cost of material per sq. yd. 



Unit Costs of Crushed Stone Base 



Engineering.... 

Foremen 

Skilled labor..., 
Common labor. 
Transportation . 
Miscellaneous. . 



Total 

$ 220.37 

8.67 

144.87 

171.50 

51.15 

27.98 

1,019.33 

582.87 

31.31 

37.94 

17.70 

92.53 

6,314.25 

464.25 

56.54 

7.48 

44.77 

619.76 

107.80 

217.00 

473.88 

315.00 

564.71 

$11,500.66 
$ 0.498 

Price 

$ 28.87 

5,181.68 

649 . 95 

167.50 

2,719.50 

107.56 

$8,855.06 
$ 0.394 



Cost per 
sq. yd. 
$0,010 
.020 
.049 
.284 
.089 
.046 



Total labor $0,498 

Material per sq. yd . 394 

Total cost per sq. yd. 8" deep $0. 892 

The 70 ct. stone was that brought by barges from the Drainage Canal and 
the price is for stone at the quarry. The $1.00 stone was purchased from a 
material yard and does not include hauling. The other stone items show 
the prices paid for stone delivered from various material yards at different 
seasons of the year. 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 



945 



Asphalt. — The total amount of asphalt upon the street amounted to 22,318 
sq. yds. and was placed 2 ins. thick. The material was mixed in a Link Belt 
Co. asphalt mixer in the following proportions: 

Lbs. 

1 part torpedo sand 168 

1 part bank sand 168 

3 parts H" stone 504 

Asphalt 81 



Total? cu. ft. or 1 box. 



921 



The asphalt used was a fluxed Gilsonite. Part of the work was done with 
Sarco and part with Pioneer asphalt. Although the work has not yet been 
laid one year, it has nevertheless shown no signs of wear or deterioration 
under a heavy automobile traffic. The asphalt work was commenced April 
29th, and was completed July 9th, 1910. The costs follow: 



Labor 

Engineering 

Foreman 

Sub-foreman 

Sub-foreman 

Sub-foreman 

Troy dump wagons. 
Troy dump wagons . 
Two-wheel carts .... 

Common labor 

Common labor 

Common labor 

Common labor 

Skilled labor 

Timekeeper 

Steam roller engr . . . 

Machine man 

Machine man 

Teamsters 

Teamsters 

Tools 

Derrick 



Time 
hrs. 



Rate 



16 



2 

28 

4 

439 

42U^ 

469 

,579 

18 

,510 

13 

,1223^ 

97 
,8363^^ 
438 
325 
8 
878 



$150.00 mo. 
125.00 mo. 
3.00 day 
2 . 50 day 
.66^^ hr. 
.25 hr. 
.12H hr. 
.38 hr. 
.35 
.30 
2.50 
.25 
65.00 
.50 
3.15 
2.80 
2.62 
60.00 



hr. 

hr. 

day 

hr. 

mo. 

hr. 

day 

day 

day 

mo. 



Total 

57.18 

362.01 

1.07 

9.33 

1.10 

159.29 

105.38 

57.63 

608.10 

5.30 

453.00 

3.61 

,030.63 

25.25 

918.25 

153.12 

100.17 

2.34 

224.70 

479 . 88 

60.00 



Total cost 

Labor cost per sq. yd. 



Material 

Torpedo sand at $1.60 per cu. yd. 

Bank sand at $1.60 per cu. yd. . . ! 

Crushed stone at $1.50 per cu. yd 

Crushed stone at $0.70 per cu. yd. . . . . 
Granite screenings at $3.75 per cu. yd. 

Sarco asphalt at $24.00 per ton 

Pioneer asphalt at $19.44 per ton 

Total cost of material 

Cost of material per sq. yd 

Cost of labor and material per sq. yd. . 



Quantity 
495.2 
459.2 
371.0 
940.1 
109.5 

52.91 
239.85 



Engineering 

Foreman 

Skilled labor 

Common labor 

Transportation 

Miscellaneous 

Total labor per sq 

Material 

Total cost per sq. yd 
60 



yd. 



$7,817.34 
$0,352 

Price 
$ 724.37 
505.12 
556.50 
658.08 
409.59 
1,269.84 
4,663.32 
$8,786.82 
$ 0.394 
0.746 
Per sq. yd. 
$0,003 
.017 
.234 
.048 
.026 
.024 
$0,352 
.394 
$0,746 



946 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Summary of Costs 

Labor on stone, per sq. yd $0,498 

Labor on asphalt, per sq. yd . 352 

Stone for base, per sq. yd [ 394 

Asphalt material, per sq. yd . 394 

Total cost per sq. yd $1 . 638 

Labor cost on curb, per lin. ft. ... .64 

Material cost on curb, per lin. ft ,21 

Total cost of curb per lin. ft $0 . 85 

The above figures are based upon a nine hour day. 

Plant. — The plant used on the work is the property of the Lincoln Park 
System. All repairs and operations are charged into the work but no charge 
for depreciation is made against the work. 

The cost of the plant is as follows: 

Link Belt Co., asphalt mixer $ 5 , 590 

Gasoline tractor 1 , 200 

6-ton roller 1 , 800 

15-ton roller 1 , 500 

Asphalt tanks and tools 1 , 000 

Total value of plant $11 ,090 

Cost of Asphalt Street with Concrete Base and Gutters. — The following 
data, given in Engineering and Contracting, March 15, 1911, refers to a 
half-mile extension of a street bordering Lincoln Park, Chicago. The work 
comprised the removal of an old pavement, the preparation of the subgrade 
for the new pavement 27 ft. wide with a 6-in. concrete base and 2-in. wearing 
surface of asphalt and a combination concrete curb and gutter. 

The work was done by force account by the Lincoln Park Commissioners, 
of which M. H. West was Superintendent and Fred Howitt Engineer of 
Parkways. 

Curb and Gutter. — The concrete curb and gutter work was commenced 
Sept. 29 and completed Dec. 1, amounting in all to 4,708 lin. ft. The cost 
was as follows: 

Cost per 

Labor lin. ft. 

Engineering $0. 0196 

Foreman, per mo. $75 0. 0270 

Double teams, per hr. $0.66^ 0. 0091 

Single teams, per hr. $0.333^ 0.0000 

Common labor, per hr. $0.25 0. 1908 

Skilled labor, per hr. $0.30 0. 0925 

Timekeeper, per mo. $65. 0. 0019 

Total labor $0. 3409 

Cost per 

Material lin. ft. 

117 cu. yds. gravel at $1.50 $0.0373 

98 cu. yds. torpedo sand at $1.60 0.0331 

24 cu. yds. stone at $1.50 0.0076 

273 bbls. cement at $1.35 0.0782 

Lumber 0.0079 

Steel 0.0172 

Lamp black 0.0045 

Tools 0.0015 

Total material $0. 1873 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 947 

Excavating Subgrade. — The excavation and preparation of the subgrade 
was not begun until the curb and gutter work was about half completed on 
Nov. 1. The preparation of the subgrade involved the removal of old mac- 
adam and some old cedar block pavement. It is estimated that the entire 
area was excavated about 6 ins. deep. The surplus material was loaded by 
hand into wagons and was carted about K to ^ mile to the lake front. A 
15-ton roller was used to finish the subgrade. The costs of this work were as 
follows: 

Cost 
per sq. yd. 
pavement 

Engineering. $0. 0035 

Foreman 0.0144 

Skilled labor 0.0124 

Common labor 0. 1378 

Teams 0.1328 

Timekeeper 0. 0015 

Steam roller, 20 days 0.0122 

Total $0.3146 

Concrete Base. — Following upon the preparation of the subgrade the 6-in. 
concrete base was placed. This work was started Oct. 31 and completed 
Nov. 22. The materials were distributed along the street and the mixer 
was moved forward as the work progressed. One of the interesting parts of 
this work was the use of a wood template. It was with difficulty that the men 
were induced to use this template in beginning the work, but after a few days 
the men found it indispensable. The boards used to shape the pavement are 
arranged to be raised and lowered by means of thumb screws. By this means 
the layers of the concrete base were shaped up, and later, the asphalt. Dur- 
ing the construction of the concrete base, each day's work was covered with 
manure and canvas as it was feared that freezing weather might suddenly 
set in. The cost of the concrete work follows: There were 7,427 sq. yds. 6 ins. 
thick or 1,238 cu. yds.: 

Cost per 

Labor sq. yd. 

Engineering .* $0 . 018 

Foreman . 017 

Double teams 0. 004 

Single teams 0. 007 

Common labor . 133 

Skilled labor 0. 108 

Totals. $0. 197 

The cost per cubic yard for labor was thus $1,182. 

Cost per 

Materials sq. yd. 

Cement at $1.35 bbl $0,206 

Stone at $1.40 yd 0.294 

Torpedo sand at $1.50 yd . 004 

Lumber, expan. joints, etc. 0. 007 

Wood template . 004 

Tools and sundries . 003 

Mixer, rent $162, hauling $15, fuel $12 0. 025 

Canvas 0.007 

Oil and waste . 0004 

Totals $0,550 

The cost per cubic yard for materials was $3.30. 



948 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Asphalt.^-The asphalt used consisted partly of Sarco brand and partly of 
Pioneer brand. A Link Belt Co. asphalt mixer, which was purchased by the 
park at a cost of $5,590, was used. It was operated by belt from a gasoline 
traction engine. A 6-ton roller was used on the asphalt, giving a compression 
of 266 lbs. per sq. in. The asphalt work consisted of 7,427 sq. yds. of 2-in. 
surface. It was started on Nov. 7 and completed Dec. 1, 1910. The costs 
were as follows: 

Cost per 

Labor sq. yd. 

Engineering $0 . 009 

Foreman . 016 

Teams 0.032 

Common labor . 240 

Skilled labor 0.043 

Timekeeper 0. 003 

Total $0,343 

Cost per 

Materials sq. yd. 

Stone at $1.40 $0 . 085 

Sand at $1.60 0.050 

Sand dug at site $1.00 0.022 

Asphalt, "Sarco," at $24 ton 

Asphalt, "Pioneer," at $19.44 ton 0.301 

Lumber for exp. joints . 002 

Brooms, 4 0.001 

Coke 0.033 

Gasoline . 008 

Engine oil, waste, etc . 002 

Tools 0.004 

Steam roller 0. 009 

Link Belt mixer ' 0.027 

Total $0,544 

A summary of the costs of the road work is as follows: 

Labor per sq. yd. concrete base $0. 197 

Material per sq. yd. concrete base 0. 55 

Labor per sq. yd. asphalt 0.343 

Material per sq. yd. asphalt . 544 

Preparation of subgrade per sq. yd 0. 314 

Total $1 . 948 

Cost of Asphalt Paving Repairs in St. Paul, Minn. — Engineering News, 
July 9, 1914, gives the following data from the report of the Commission of 
Public Works. 

In 1912 the city of St. Paul, Minn., purchased a municipal asphalt plant at 
a cost of about $15,000. The plant consists of a Warren Bros, portable 
asphalt plant, one 8-ton asphalt steam roller, one scarifier, one Lutz surface 
heater, one fire wagon, one gyratory stone crusher, two portable melting 
kettles, six 2-cu. yd. steel-lined asphalt wagons, four ^-cu. yd. concrete 
spreaders, one set of curb cutter's tools, nine asphalt rakes, testing scales, 
and the necessary small tools. The accompanying table gives an itemized 
cost of the plant. 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 



949 



No. 

Warren Bros*, portable asphalt plant 1 

Steam roller, 8-ton 1 

Scarifier 1 

Lutz surface heater 1 

Fire wagon 1 

Melting kettles 2 

Asphalt wagons, 2 cu. yd 6 

Concrete carts, ^i cu. yd 4 

Koehring concrete mixer, No. 14 1 

Tandem steam roller, 8-ton 1 

Koehring paver. No. 14 1 

Chain belt paver. No. 15 1 

Chicago concrete mixer, No. 5 1 

Tinius-Olson brick tester 1 



Rate 



$425.00 
171.50 
117.00 



Cost 

$4850 

2250 

365 

1800 

112 

850 

1029 

468 

1950 

2200 

1900 

1770 

481 

475 



The plant was put into operation Apr. 25, 1912, and during the season of 
1912 was worked a total of 92 days. The amount of asphalt pavement turned 
out during the season was 19,428 sq. yd.; 15,040 sq. yd, of this was cut out 
work and 4388 sq. yd. burner work. Besides this, 5459 sq. yd. of asphalt 
pavement were put down for paving contractors in repairing pavements built 
under a guaranty; of this, 2363 sq. yd. was cut out work and 3095 sq. yd. 
burner work. The total cost was $6013, which was charged to and collected 
from the contractors. 




ParHway 



"^f^oncreieCurbieuffer ' ^ Eng.Confg. 
^i^V zro'- 

Fig. 5. — Cross section of street and gutter. 



-^ Z'O 



All asphalt-paving repairs during the year 1913 were made by this municipal 
asphalt plant. The plant was put in operation March 30, and during the 
season worked 178 days. Asphalt paving to the amount of 44,194 sq. yd. 
was turned out; 43,296 sq. yd. of this was cut out work and 897 burner work. 
Asphalt repairs for contractors were made to the extent of 16,832 sq. yd., of . 
which 16,039 sq. yd. was cut out work, and 793 sq. yd. was burner work. 
The total cost was $21,613, which was collected from the company which had 
guaranteed the pavement. 

For the City Ry. Co., 7370 sq. yd. of asphalt pavement were laid, and the 
cost, $11,031, collected from the company. For other public-service corpora- 
tions, 1250 sq. yd. of asphalt pavement and 148 sq. yd. of concrete founda- 
tion were laid. This work cost $2340, which was collected from the various 
corporations. 

About 246 sq. yd. of asphalt pavement was laid on bridges on which the 
city maintains the wearing surface; this cost $430, and was charged against 
the bridge building and repair fund at $1.75 per sq. yd. Small repairs were 
.made for other city departments and charged against those departments 
at $1 per sq. yd. The repairs to asphalt pavements on which the guaranty 
period had expired and for which the city paid, amounted to 14,487 sq. yd. 
of cut out work. This repair work cost the city $18,490, an average of $1 per 
sq. yd. 



950 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The following shows cost and relative data regarding asphalt repairs for the 
year 1913. 

Total area of pavements on which repairs were made in sq. yd. . 222,327 

Area or repairs in square yards 18,733. 18 

Per cent, of area repaired 8 . 42 

Cost of repairs $ 18 , 921 . 34 

Average cost per square yard of total area . 085 

Cuts in asphalt pavement made by the City Water Department, heating, 
lighting and telephone companies, sewer contractors and others, were repaired, 
at a cost of $2340, which was collected from the various companies. 

Cost of Operation. — The operating crew at the plant consisted of one fore- 
man, one engineman, one tank man, four laborers, and a night watchman. 
Four teams were employed hauling asphalt from the plant to the work. 

The street crew was made up of one foreman, one timekeeper, one roller 
man, two rakers, two tampers, one smoother and one cement man laying new 
pavement; and two shovelers, six scrapers and two teams removing and 
hauling old paving. The total expense was divided as follows: 

Operation of plant, labor $ 5,889.02 

Fuel 1,024.47 

Hauling material 1 , 559 . 18 

Superintendence, livery, watchman, etc 3, 164.21 

Repairs and supplies 1 , 658.05 

Material 26,876.59 

Street crew labor 8 ,206. 66 

Hauling material to street 5,068.40 

Engineer and watchman . 1 , 391 . 65 

Tools, repairs, etc 790 . 05 

Total $55,628.28 

Total labor $25, 175.66 

Total material 30,452. 62 

55,628.28 

Charged to outside parties $34 , 194 . 23 

Charged to bridges 430 . 49 

Material on hand 2,512.71 

37,137.43 

Total cost to city of work $18,490.85 

Cost of Operating Municipal Asphalt Plant of District of Columbia. — Engi- 
neering and Contracting, June 6, 1917, publishes the following: 

All minor repairs of asphalt pavements in the District of Columbia are made 
from the output of a portable municipal asphalt plant. This plant also Is 
employed in furnishing product for the construction of an asphalt macadam 
wearing surface on old macadam streets. The plant, a Warren Bros.* portable 
asphalt plant, with a nominal capacity of 100,000 lb. per day was purchased 
and installed in 1912 at a cost of $6,900. Since that date it has been operated 
from 220 to 240 days per year, with an average output of about 80 per c^nt of 
its capacity. 

During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1916, the plant was operated 236 
working days, with an average daily output of 715 cu. ft. and a total output 
of 168,684 cu. ft. Old material was used to considerable extent. Old asphalt 
topping removed from the streets in resurfacing was crushed to a finely broken 
product to which was added the new material. The use of this old topping 
resulted in a substantial saving. A Noyes crusher was used for breaking up 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 951 

the old material. The cost of the crusher, including a portable engine and 
boiler, was $1,910. 

The following data on the work of the municipal asphalt plant for the fiscal 
year are taken from the report of the operations of the Engineer Department 
of the District of Columbia: 

The following amounts of materials were purchased for use in manufacturing 
the output during the year: 

Sand, 2,160.50 cu. yd. at $ 1.03 

Asphaltic cement, 461.74 tons at 10. 00 

Limestone dust, 205 tons at 2 . 53 

Screenings, 855 tons at 1 . 32 

There was purchased for use in operating the crusher and mixer the following 
large items: 

Fuel oil, 23,927 gal. at $0. 031 

Coal, 170 tons at 3 45 

Wood, 80 cords at 5.00 

The costs of operation, including material and labor, are kept from day to 
day, and the summary of this data for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1916, 
develops the following unit costs for the year's operations: 

Operation of Crusher 

Period of operation, 52 working days; output of crusher, 2,327 cu. yd. 
Labor and fuel ($1,320.06 plus $83.20) $ 1 ,403. 26 

Cost per cu. yd., $0,603. 
Maintenance, renewals and repairs 83 04 

Cost per cu. yd., $0.0357. 
Overhead costs: 

Capital invested, $1,910, at 3K per cent $ 66.85 

Obsolescence, 5 years, at 20 per cent 382.00 

Cost per cu. yd., $0,193. 

$ 448.85 
Cost of crushed product, per cu. yd.: 

Labor and materials $ . 603 

Repairs to plant . 036 

Overhead . 193 

$ 832 

Operation of Plant 

Period of operation, 236 days; total output, 168,684 cu. ft. 
At plant: 

Labor (3.56 cts. per cu. ft.) $ 6,004.18 

Fuel oil (0.50 cts. per cu. ft.) 776. 68 

Coal (0.27 cts. per cu. ft.) 455.80 

Wood (0.13 cts. per cu. ft.) 223 .60 

Binder stone 82 . 50 

Tool repair (0.20 cts. per cu. ft.) 329 . 66 

Total (4.71 cts. per cu. ft.) $ 7,872.42 

Haul from plant to street: 

Labor (3.85 cts. per cu. ft.) $ 5,904.05 

On strGPt * 

Labor (12.3 cts. per cu. ft.) $18,905.53 

Painting joints (0.15 ct. per cu. ft.) 236.00 

Wood (0. 13 ct. per cu. ft.) 223. 60 

Tool repair (0. 10 ct. per cu. ft.) ... 164 . 63 

Total (12.68 cts. per cu. ft.) $19,529.96 



952 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Maintenance and repairs: 

At plant (0.22 ct. per cu. ft.) $ 365 . 93 

On street (0.15 ct. per cu. ft.) 228.94 



Total (0.37 ct. per cu. ft.) $ 594 . 87 

Overhead: 

Capital invested, $6,900, at 3H per cent $ 241 . 50 

Obsolescence, 5 years, at 20 per cent 1 ,380.00 



Total (1 ct. per cu. ft.) $ 1 , 621 . 50 

Supervision: 

Foremen and overseers (3.7 cts. per cu. ft.) $ 6,239.67 

Total manufacturing costs per cu. ft.: 

Cents 

Plant, labor 4.71 

Hot haul 3.85 

Street work 12 . 68 

Maintenance of plant and tools .37 

Overhead — 

Interest and obsolescence 1 . 00 

Supervision 3 . 70 



26.31 

The sand used was bought under a contract at 44 ct. per cubic yard and 
hauled from the wharf to the plant at a cost of $1,266.26 for 2,160.5 cu. yd., or 
59 ct. per cubic yard, a total of $1.03 per cubic yard. All other material was 
delivered at the plant site at the costs shown below. 

The cost of cubic foot of old material mixture was as follows: 

0.67 cu. ft. crushed material, at 83.2 ct. per cu. yd $0.0206 

0.27 cu. ft. sand, at $1.03 per cu. yd 0103 

3.891 lb, asphaltic cement, at $10 per ton 0195 

Total material $0. 0530 

Manufacturing and placing cost 2631 



Total (cu. ft.) $0. 3161 

Asphaltic concrete mixture: 

0.5 cu. ft. screenings, at $1.32 per ton $0.0330 

0.5 cu. ft. sand, at $1.03 per cu. yd 0190 

4.2 lb. limestone dust, at $2.53 per ton 0053 

9.161 lb. asphaltic cement, at $10 per ton 0458 

Total material $0. 1031 

Manufacturing and placing costs 2631 



Total per cu. ft $0. 3662 

1 Includes 10 per cent tare. 

The plant operating force consisted of one foreman at $100 per month and 
the following per diem employes : 

1 Steam engineer (operating mixing plant) at $3. 50 

1 Steam engineer (operating crusher) at 3.00 

1 Timekeeper at 3 . 00 

7 Laborers (operating plant) at 1 . 75 

12 Laborers (operating crusher) at 1.75 

4 Laborers (miscellaneous, including watchman) at 1 .75 

12 Carts* (hot haul) at 2.50 

• Hauling hot material from plant to street operating or patching gangs. 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 



953 



There are two patching gangs, each of which consists of the following units 
of per diem employes: 

1 Foreman at '. $4 . 00 

5 Skilled laborers (1 shoveler, 2 rakers and 2 tampers) at. 2.25 

5 Skilled laborers (roUermen, cutting out and miscellaneous) at 2,00 

10 Skilled laborers (miscellaneous) at 1 . 75 

2 Wagons (hauling old material to dump and hauling barricades) at 5.00 

1 Cart (hauUng tool and fire wagons) at 2. 50 

In connection with the supervision of the above there are two inspectors, 
one of whom is employed at a salary of $125 and the other at $100 per month. 
These men are held responsible for the character and performance of all 
the work, prepare all statements and reports in connection therewith and map 
out the various routes to be followed. 

Reference Note: In Engineering and Contracting, March 5, 1913, data 
are given on the operation of municipal asphalt plants iti 20 cities as abstracted 
from the report of David E. McComb upon an investigation of the desirability 



Sw'fhh 




5000' Maul 



^ Cify Wafer Htjd rani- 



Low loh will hold 
200 Loads 



\ ir'Pipe Line 



■3000'Hauf 



Dump 
Fig. 6. — Sketch showing various conditions relating to paving job. 

and cost of establishing a municipal plant for the District of Columbia. 

Labor Hour Requirements on Brick Paving Work. — D. B. Davis gives the 
following in Engineering and Contracting, May 5, 1920. 

In estimating the cost of paving work, while the labor market is constantly 
changing from month to month, estimators who have an indefinite knowledge 
of the labor hour requirements for the divisions of work necessary, are liable 
to have their estimates incompatible with the true value of the work. A 
knowledge of the labor hours necessary to do a certain work together with 
accurate price quotations on the materials which enter into it, will give the 
estimator much more faith in his estimates. 

In making an estimate of a certain work a chart showing the various condi- 
tions relating to the work will help to guarantee against omission of important 
details. This chart can be a rough sketch, which in case of a brick paving job 
in a city, will show the length of haul from the nearest switch to the job ; the 
length of haul from the closest dump to the job; the kind and nearest water 
supply and other matters of interest one will record on making an inspection 
of the site. An example of a chart of this kind is shown in Fig. 6. 



954 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



A brief study for determining the labor hour requirements for some divisions 
of work connected with a brick paving job in a city will be undertaken. 

The excavation in this case will be assumed to be completed. 

To estimate the cost of unloading and hauling brick from the cars to the 
job, it is first necessary to figure on the cost of unloading them. It has been 
the experience of the writer on a number of his jobs that a working unit 
consisting of five men loading from the cars to the wagons and six men at the 
job, unloading these wagons as they come, will unload approximately on an 
average of 19,300 paving brick in a 10-hour day. Or it requires approxi- 
mately 5.7 labor hours to handle the brick from the cars to the pile. Fig. 7 
shows the cost to unload brick to the pile at different rates of wages for labor 



2.40 
§2.20 

■r 










/ 










y 


/ 










/ 












/ 










/ 


/ 








^1.60 
*o 140 




/ 










/ 












120 


f 









































20^ 30^ 40'*' 

Price of Labor per Hour 

Fig. 7. — Cost of unloading brick from 

cars and on job. 
Assumption: 5.7 labor hours per M. 



























v> 












"^6000 












^ 




\ 








^ADOO 
KAOOQ 




\ 








^3000 




\ 


.rr, 


Corye 




2000 






\ 






1000 






\ 


\ 

















Q 10 20 

Number Trips Made Per Pay 

Fig. 8. — Curve showing number of 

loads per day. 
Extra wagons provided to prevent 
idle time. 



To haul the brick from the switch to the job, extra wagons are provided, so 
that the teamster after having hauled the loaded wagon to the street to be 
unloaded can immediately hitch to an extra empty one and proceed back to the 
switch. In this way no team time is lost while waiting for loading or unload- 
ing the wagons. 

The number of loads that can be hauled in a given length of time can be 
determined by the formula: 

T 

Number of loads hauled = f ^ 

L — z 



In which T = total working time in minutes. 

L = length of haul (round trip) . 

z = lost time in minutes, unhitching, etc. (this will average 17 minutes). 

r = rate of team travel (180 ft. per minute). 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 



955 



Fig. 8 shows this formula plotted for different lengths haul. 

Now to find the teams required ; find from Fig. 8 the number of trips per day 
corresponding to the length of haul. Then the nrnnber of trips X the capacity 
of each load equals the number of brick that one team will haul. Then 

-, , . . y ■, , ■, 7 = number of brick required. 

number brick hauled by one team 

Fig. 9 shows the cost of hauling brick for various lengths haul. In this case 
team hire is figured at 80 cents per hour and the capacity of each load at 665 
brick. 

The total cost of handling and hauling the brick may be found by adding the 
values from Figs. 7 and 9. 



5000 






















/ 






^dOO/J 






/ 








1 

^3000 






r 




















%2000 


1 












1 












M. 














1000 

































.60 LOO 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.60 

Cost Per WOO Paving Brick fo Haul 

Fig. 9. — Cost of hauling brick. 
Team, $8 per day; 665 brick per load. 



.16 

.14 

%■" 
t" 

■e 
I'* 

.4 
.2 








/ 




















X. 


Nonf 
Wheel 


■acHor 
»r reqt 


ired fo 


tie 
•Cone 


/ 


Jl'Bo 


•>mMl 


*"3, 


















^ 


^ 


-<■ 


WChu 


e Mi XI 


r 




















- 









































.20 



Fig. 10. 



4f0 .50 

Average Wage per Labor Hour 

- Cost of laying 1 : 7 6Tin. 
concrete base. 



To estimate the labor required to lay a concrete base 6 in. thick the required 
organization should first be outlined. Such an organization, where the con- 
crete mix is 1 part cement and 7 parts gravel and a 1-sack steam chute mixer 
is used, is as follows: 



1 Engineer mixer. 

1 Fireman mixer. 

2 Concrete spreaders. 
1 Handling cement. 



3 Gravel wheelers. 
3 Gravel shovelers. 
1 Water boy. 
1 Foreman. 



This gang will lay concrete base requiring approximately 0.20 labor hours 
per square yard. Fig. 10 shows values platted when using a 1-bag chute, 
boom and an old-style non-traction mixer which requires men to wheel the 
1-bag mixed concrete from the mixer to the bed. 

To estimate the labor required to lay the brick in the pavement, it is well to 
remember the divisions of labor required. For the ordinary city pavement 



956 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION" COST 



it will require five divisions. The following table gives these divisions with 
coeflacients relating to each: 

Sand bed mixers. 0. 00742 

Brick carriers 0. 01320 

Brick setters . 0.00214 

Batting in closures . 00200 

Cement grouting, by hand mix 0. 00797 

Cement grouting, machine mix 0. 00460 

To find the number of men needed for each division of work to balance the 
whole gang, multiply the required output by the factors opposite each division 
in the table and take the closest even number. 















































y 










/ 








> 


/ 








y 


y 










y 





































a 

.10 
.06 



'30 ,40 ,50 

Avenge Wa^e Per Hour 

Fig. 11. — Cost of laying brick. 
Includes preparing sand-bed, carry- 
ing brick, laying brick, batting in- 
closures and foreman. 

Assumption: 0.31 labor hours per 
sq. yd. 































y 


/ 








y 


yCeneni-6'ouf 
mixed nboxsi by ham 


y 


/ 








5 

V 


y 






^ 


^ 


_^ 


^ 


inSn 


if 6rou 
all mix 


mixed 
fr 


.01 


y^ 

































30 40 60 

Average Wage Per Hour 

Fig. 12.^ — Cost of applsdng filler 
to brick pavement. 
Assumption: Mixing by hand, 
0.080 hrs. per sq. yd.; mixing by 
machine, 0.046 hrs. per sq. yd. 



For example, to find the number of men needed to carry brick in order to lay 
1,000 sq. yd. in 10-hour day: Multiply 1,000 yd. by 0.0132, which makes 13.2 
or 13 men needed. 

Fig. 11 shows the costs of laying brick in pavements at different rates of 
wages. It is figured on the assumption that the operations named require 
0.31 labor hours per square yard. 

Fig. 12 shows the cost of applying cement grout filler. The lower line shows 
the cost when using a small grout mixer and the upper line shows the cost 
when using the old-style grouting boxes, which require mixing by hand. With 
labor at 50 ct. per hour it can be seen that a saving of 1^ ct. per square yard is 
made by using the gasoline grout mixer. 

The labor hours required for these various operations were obtained from the 
writer's experience and represent work that has been done by energetic, 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 957 

enthusiastic workmen. The proximity which another gang could approach 
these values would depend wholly on the morale of the workmen and the 
experience and "pep" of the man in charge. 

Cost of Brick Paved Roads. — The following data, published in Engineering 
and Contracting, May 29, 1912, have been taken from a Road Bulletin of the 
Highway Department of the Missouri State Board of Agriculture. The fol- 
lowing figures are the»actual cost, not including miscellaneous items, etc., 
upon 12,000 sq. yds. (1,333 cu. yds.) of hand-mixed 1 : 4 : 7 street concrete 
base 4 ins. thick, put down under average good conditions in Missouri. 



Per Per 

sq. yd. cu. yd. 
Labor Mixing and Placing: 

Wheeling stone, wheelbarrows $0.0115 $0. 1035 

Wheeling sand, wheelbarrows 0033 .0297 

Spreading cement 0033 . 0297 

Turning sand and cement 0101 .0909 

Turning concrete. . 0134 . 1206 

Watering 0029 . 0261 

Tamping 0033 .0297 

Off-bearing 0101 . 0909 

Foreman .0135 .1215 

Total labor $0.0714 $0«6426 

Total Cost Material and Labor: 

Stone $0. 1300 $1. 1700 

Sand 0639 .5751 

Cement 1200 1 . 0800 

Labor 0714 .6426 

Superintendency 0101 .0909 

Grand total $0.3954 $3. 5586 



The average of several cost accounts (good cost conditions) upon laying brick 
pavements in Missouri (actual cost) with common labor at 15 cts. per hour 
and bricklayers at 20 cts. per hour, is given as follows: 

Per 
sq. yd. 
Labor for Laying Brick: 

Preparing sand cushion $0. 0095 

Stacking brick 0060 

Wheehng brick 0105 

Laying brick 0075 

Culling brick 0035 

Batting and grouting 0045 

Cleaning 0030 

Foreman 0025 

Total labor $0. 0470 

Material: 

Sand $0. 1000 

Brick 7000 

Grout 0180 

Total material. $0. 8180 

Superintendency ' 0050 

Grand total, labor and material $0. 8700 



058 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Other costs for brick pavement on concrete base show the following : 

Per 

Shaping subgrade $0 iq 

Concrete base, 4-in A5 

Sand cushion, 2-in .[........... .10 

Brick, 45 per sq. yd ! 95 



Total $1 . 60 

Labor Cost of Monolithic Brick Pavement. — The following data are taken 
from Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 4, 1918. 

Monohthic brick pavement was constructed on the Highline Road in King 
County, Washington, at a labor cost of about 23 cts. per square yard. The 
paved section was 20 ft. wide. The concrete base was a 1 : 3 : 6 mix, 3 in. thick 
at the sides and 5H in. at the crown. The blocks for part of the work were 
vertical fiber bricks, 4 X 8M in. X 2^ in. deep; for the remainder standard 
paving blocks 4 X SH in. X SH in. deep, laid flat, were used. The average 
labor cost for 91,500 sq. yd. of pavement laid between June and October, 1916, 
was as follows: 

Per sq. yd. 

Concrete base, 4% in. thick $0. 086 

Sand-cement cushion . 018 

Laying brick . 072 

Grouting .033 

SprinkUng ^ . 005 

Curb forms .012 

Total. $0,226 

The above figures include the cost of covering the completed pavement 
with 1 to 2 in. of earth and removal of same. The average paving crew was as 
follows: 

Per Per 

day day 

Superintendent. '. $6.00 Brick crew: 

Mixer crew: 1 bricklayer $7 . 00 

1 foreman 4 . 00 1 batter-in 3 . 00 

1 mixer engineer 5 . 00 1 liner 2.75 

2 subgrade men 2 . 75 6 carriers 2 . 75 

4 shovelers 2 . 75 4 pilers 2 . 75 

8 wheelbarrow men 2 . 75 Grout crew (8 laborers) 2. 75 

2 cement men 2.75 Covering, uncovering and 

2 concrete spreaders 2.75 sprinkling (2 men) 2 . 75 

1 concrete rodder : . . . . 2.75 Curb forms: 

Cushion crew (5 men) 2.75 1 man 4 . 00 

1 helper 2.75 

1 water boy 1 . 50 

The concrete for the base was mixed in a 21 cu. ft. Koehring mixer of the 
boom and bucket type. The 1 : 3 sand cement cushion was mixed in a 3-ft. 
Little Wonder mixer. The bricks were handled by laborers with brick clamps. 

Organization and Output of Brick Paving Gang in Vermilion County 
Roads. — Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 4, 1918, gives the following. 

In the construction of the monolithic brick pavement for the Vermilion 
County, Illinois, Bond Issue Roads, the average gang consisted of 32 men 
distributed as follows: 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 059 

Concrete Gang Paving Gang 

Ahead of Mixer: 1 Brick setter. 

1 Form setter. 3 Stackers. 

5 Wheelers. 1 Starter (also helps with tamping). 

3 Shovelers. 1 Batter. 

1 Cement man. 5 Carriers. 
At Mixer: 1 Culler. 

Mixer operator. 1 Roller. 

Fireman. 3 Men grouting. 

Behind Mixer: 1 Man wetting down pavement and 

2 Men spreading concrete. pulling forms. 

1 Man tamping concrete and carry- 
ing forward boards for mixer run- 
way. 

With this organization about 800 sq. yd. of pavement was laid per day. 
The pavement is 10 ft. wide and consists of a 4-in. wire-cut-lug paving brick 
laid directly on a fresh concrete base 4 in. thick at the side and crowned 1 in. 

The gang, as given above, did not deliver the materials from the freight 
cars to the road. Materials were delivered on a narrow gage (2 ft.) track laid 
alongside the pavement. The sand and stone were dumped from cars on the 
subgrade, and the brick was stacked in piles on the other side of the track. 
In stacking brick and in delivering brick onto the road, the bricks were 
handled with tongs. 

Labor Cost of Brick Paving on Country Roads. — The following data, based 
on the experience of the New York State Highway Commission, were pub- 
lished in Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 19, 1913. 

The cost of brick paving on country roads varies according to local condi- 
tions. Highway contractors make use of various labor-saving devices to 
decrease the cost of construction. All unloading of stone and sand is done by 
machines. Many contractors are using traction engines for the hauling of 
material; some use small gage tracks with locomotives and cars. A modern 
concrete mixer is very necessary. 

From the data obtained from various roads, a fair estimate of cost, based on 
labor at 17H cts. per hour, teams at 50 cts. per hour, and foreman at 35 cts. per 
hour, would be as follows : 

Labor cost per square yard, brick paving in place, exclusive of concrete base: 

Per sq. yd. 

Unloading and piling brick $0 . 035 

Hauling brick one mile . 040 

Laying and rolling . 070 

Making sand cushion . 020 

Grouting. . 028 

Expansion joints . 007 

Culling, replacing, etc 0. 005 

Total labor. . $0,205 

No office or incidental charges are included in the above. 

The manipulation of the concrete for the base varies from 40 cts. to 60 cts. 
per cu. yd., using batch machines and depending on gravel or stone concrete. 
(The average bid price for brick pavement in Western New York, including 
concrete base 5 in. thick, but excluding excavation, was $2.05 per sq. yd.) 

Cost of Vitrified -brick Pavement on an Old Macadam Base, Carlisle, 
Penn. — John C. Hiteshew gives the following matter in Engineering News, 
Dec. 24, 1914. 

During the 1914 season 2,493 sq. yd. of vitrified-brick pavement were laid by 
the Street Department of Carlisle, Penn., under the supervision of the writer. 



960 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Track Section. — The section paved comprised one block on High St., the 
main business street, through which the tracks of the Cumberland Valley 
R.R. run. The railroad company was unwilling to pave between and along 
the tracks, but it agreed to construct a concrete curb, 6 X 18 in., set 2 ft from 
outside face of curb to rail. The concrete was a 1 : 2 : 3 mix with a 1 : 1 finish 
coat, and was constructed by contract at a price of 35c. per lin. ft. 

Pavement Base. — The old macadam with which the street was paved was 
used as a base for the new brick paving. The macadam had a depth, before 
excavation, of at least 18 to 20 in. 

In grading, the old macadam was spiked up with a 13-ton steam roller, 
excavated to subgrade, and thoroughly dry rolled, as with wet rolling the 
macadam showed a tendency to push ahead of the roller, causing waves. 

In shaping the base spikes were set to subgrade at 7-ft. intervals across the 
street, and the final shaping done by hand picking. After roUing, new spikes 
were set, which supported the 3 X 8-in. by 16-ft. guides for a striking 
template. 

Concreting Filled-in Trenches. — The Gas & Water Co. had recently renewed 
a great many trenches along the street, and poor foundations existed in the old 
gutters, so it was deemed advisable to fill all these new trenches and the 
gutters with concrete 5 in. deep. 

Stone Cushion. — The cushion was composed of limestone dust and screen- 
ings, ly^ in. in thickness; and was struck off by means of a short striking 
template drawn by three men. The cushion was then rolled with a 250-lb. 
roller drawn by hand. 

Laying Bricks. — The bricks were laid by one foreman and two men, one of 
the men breaking half -brick to fill in ends of courses. Usually there were 
three men carrying to each brick layer. An average of 7000 bricks were laid 
by each man per day. Vitrified-shale paving blocks were used. 

Rolling Bricks. — Rolling was done with a 5-ton horse roller drawn by 12 
men. 

Grouting. — The joints were grouted with a 1:13^ portland-cement grout. 

Expansion Joints. — A %-in. "Elastite sandwich" joint was used longitudi- 
nally along the four curbs and transversely over 75 ft. 

".Elastite" was found to be a great improvement over the old pitch expan- 
sion-joint filler, doing away with the boards, wedges, heating the pitch, etc., 
and the first cost of the joint was practically the entire cost, as it took very 
little time to place it in position. 

Sand Covering. — The green pavement was covered with H in. of sand for 
several days. Traffic was turned on the pavement at the end of five days. 

Cost Data. — The following is an itemized list of cost data: 

Cost per sq. yd. 
of pavement 

Unloading and hauling brick $0 . 0777 

Grading and rolling subgrade 0, 1126 

Concreting trenches . 0848 

Crushed stone cushion . 0543 

Brick 0.8600 

Laying brick . 0376 

RolHng brick . 0062 

Grouting 0.0845 

Expansion joints 0.0356 

Covering with sand 0. 0047 

Total $1 . 358 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 961 

Dump wagons were charged at the rate of 10 and 15c. per hr. The reason 
for this was that they were fire teams ; one was paid 10c. per hr. ; for the use of 
the other the Street Department paid the driver's salary, vhich was $1.50 per 
day, or 15c. per hr. 

The bricks were purchased in March at a reduction of $1 per M. The great 
advantage in this was that we got a better run of bricks and had them when 
needed, and we saved $1 per M, or $100 on the year's work. 

All macadam excavated was used in resurfacing streets adjacent to the work. 
Approximately 20,000 sq. yd. were thus resurfaced. 

It will be noticed that a stone cushion was used instead of sand. The reason 
was that when first tried as an experiment the stone formed a compact cushion 
without becoming too solid, and at the same time reduced the cost by one-half. 

During the season of 1913 5,689 sq. yds. of vitrified brick pavement were 
laid. Mr. Hiteshew gives the cost of this work in Engineering and Con- 
tracting, April 15, 1914, as follows: 

Cost of Brick Paving at Carlisle, Pa. in 1913 

Cost per 
Item— sq. yd. 

Unloading, hauling & piling bricks $0 . 065 

Grading & rolling macadam base. . . . 091 

Stone cushion and rolling with 500-lb. roller . 052 

227,560 brick at $21 per M 840 

Laying and rolling brick . 034 

Cement grout filler . 068 

Expansion joint .010 

Totals $1. 16 

Total number of sq. yds 5 , 689 

Cost per sq. yd $1.16 

Note. — An average of 7,000 brick per man per day were laid. 

Cost of Labor and Materials for Brick Paving at Carlisle, Pa. 

Item — Rate 

Foreman, per hour $ . 25 

Laborers, per hour 0. 16 

Roller engineer, per hour 0. 25 

Cement, per bbl. (net) 1 . 32 

Sand, per ton 1 . 50 

Brick, per M 21.00 

In 1909 the cost of 2,070 sq. yds. of similar pavement, given in Engineering 
and Contracting, Feb. 2, 1910 by C. A. Bingham, was as follows: 

Spiking Up and Carting Off Old Macadam 

Persq. yd. 

Roller engineer, 45 hrs. at $0.20 $0. 0046 

Foreman, 55 hrs. at $0.17 .0048 

Laborers, 261 hrs. at $0.14 .0188 

Carting, 192 hrs. at $0.25 .0238 

Coal, 2.5 tons at $4.00 . 0052 

Total (1,935 sq. yds.) ; $0.0572 

Raking, Leveling, Rolling, Etc., Macadam Base 

Foreman, 34 hrs. at $0.17 $0.0029 

Roller engineer, 39 hrs. at $0.20 .0040 

Laborers, 56 hrs. at $0.14 .0041 

Crushed stone, 69 cu. yds. at $0.98 . 0349 

Coal, 2 tons at $4.00 .0041 

Total (1,935 sq. yds.) ' $0.0500 

61 



962 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Dust Cushion 

Foreman, 25 hrs. at $0. 17 $0 . 0020 

Laborers, 50 hrs. at $0.14 0033 

Crusher dust, 66 cu. yds. at $0.98 0312 

Total (2,070 sq. yds.) $0.0365 

Unloading, Hauling, Stacking Blocks 

Foreman, 45 hrs. at $0.17 $0.0037 

Laborers, 390 hrs. at $0.14 . . 0264 

Carting, 363 hrs. at $0.24 0421 

Total (2,070 yds.) $0,072 

Block 
85,660 at $19.00 M $1,627.54 or $0,786 yd. 

Laying Blocks 

Foreman, 127 hrs. at $0.17 $0.0104 

Laborers, 402 hrs. at $0'.14 0271. 

Total (2,070 sq. yds.) $0,035 

Rolling and Inspecting 

Team, 15 hrs. at $0.20 $0,001 

Laborers, 63 hrs. at $0.14 004 

Total (2,070 sq. yds.) $0,005 

Grouting 

Cement, 44 bbls. at $1.20 $0.0254 

Sand, 11 tons at $1.40 ^. 0074 

Foreman, 32 hrs. at $0.17. . .' 0071 

Laborers, 106 hrs. at $0.14 0091 

Sand covering, 5 tons at $1.40 . 0034 

Total (2,070 sq. yds.) $0.0459 

Recapitulation 

Per sq. yd. 

Excavation $0 . 057 

Grading .050 

Cushion 0.036 

Haul, etc 0.072 

Blocks 0.786 

Laying 0.037 

Rolling 0.005 

Grouting 0.046 

Grand total $1 .089 

Cost of Grouting Brick Pavements. — H. E. Bilger, Engineer of the Illinois 
State Highway Department gives the following data in an article published in 
Engineering and Contracting, Dec. 6, 1916. 

Quantity of Grout Required per Unit Area. — With a grout composed of 1 part 
cement and 1 part sand, it has been found that 1 barrel of cement, with an 
equal volume of sand, will make sufficient grout to cover the areas below under 
the two types of bed for the brick: 

4-In. Brick on Ordinary Sand Cushion 

32 sq. yd. if repressed brick is used. 
24 sq. yd. if wire-cut lug brick is used. 

4-In. Brick on %-in. Mortar Bed 

30 sq. yd. if repressed brick is used. 
22 sq. yd. if wire-cut lug brick is used. 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 963 

It will be noted that by using the mortar bed instead of the customary sand 
cushion, an equal volume of grout covers a smaller number of square yards, 
this being due to the fact that when the sand cushion is used, some of the sand 
finds its way up between the brick and prevents the entrance of the grout for 
the full depth of the brick. 

It has been found that 10 gals, of water are necessary to build complete a 
4-in. brick pavement with a grout filler on a 4-in. concrete base. 

Labor Cost for Grouting Brick. — In some of the state jobs the labor cost 
varies from about 1.6 cts. per square yard to 3.9 cts. These matters are so 
dependent upon the eflSciency of the organization rather than upon the rate 
per hour, that the cost is largely dependent upon the foreman in charge. As a 
fair average figure for estimating purposes, when labor is 25 cts. per hour, the 
actual labor cost without making any allowance for overhead, etc., is about 
2)4 cts. per square yard of brick pavement. 

Cost of Grouting Brick Pavements. — Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 20, 
1915, publishes the following: 

The cost of 1-1 grout filling for 58,000 sq. yds. of brick pavement at Center- 
ville, Iowa, as reported by M. A. Hall, city engineer, was as follows: 

Cts. per 

Item sq. yd. 

Screening sand at 20 cts. per hour 0. 05 

Dry mixers at 22^ cts. per hour 0.15 

Wet mixers at 20 cts. per hour . 20 

Rubbers at 20 cts. per hour 0. 43 

Wheelers at 20 cts. per hour 0. 13 

Other men at 20 cts. per hour . 03 

Water boy at 10 cts. per hour 0. 04 

Foreman at 40 cts. per hour . 14 

Total labor 1 . 17 

0.017 bbl. cement at $2 3.40 

0.034 ton sand at $1.05 0.35 

Total materials 3.75 

Grand total 4.92 

On 26,500 sq. yds. of this pavement the labor cost of grouting joints is 
reported to have been only 0.9 ct. per square yard. 

The costs of 1-1 grout filling and sand covering for six sections of the Byberry 
and Bensalem service test road built by the Philadelphia department of public 
works are reported as follows: 

Cts. per 
Section 4 sq. yd. 

Cement at $1.30 3. 51 

Sand at $1.885 3. 67 

Labor 3. 49 

Total 10. 67 

Cts. per 
Section 8 sq. yd. 

Cement at $1.30 3. 64 

Sand at $1.885 3. 34 

Labor 2. 08 

Total 9. 06 



964 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cts. per 
Section 10 sq. yd. 

Cement at $1.30 3. 65 

Sand at $1.885 3. 32 

Labor 3. 50 

Total 10. 47 

Cts. per 
Section 13 sq. yd. 

Cement at $1.30 3. 66 

Sand at $1.885 3. 31 

Labor 1.86 

Total 8. 83 

Cts. per 
Section 18 sq. yd. 

Cement at $1.71 3. 56 

Sand at $2,015 4. 67 

Labor 3. 14 

Total 11.37 

Cts. per 
Section 26 sq. yd. 

Cement at $1.65 4. 56 

Sand at $1.82 3. 24 

Forms at $32 per M 0. 32 

Labor 3. 63 

Total 11 .75 

The volumes, per square yard, of sand used for grout and covering on these 
six sections were as follows: 

Area, sq. yds. Cu. yds. sand Sand, cu. yds. per sq. yd. 

462.5 9 0.0195 

535.5 9.5 0.0177 

534.4 9.4 0.0177 

621.4 10.9 0.0175 

430 7.6 0.0177 

1,004.4 17.87 0.0177 

The cost at Carlisle, Pa., of 1-13^ grout filler for brick pavement laid in 

1913, with wages at $1.60, cement at $1.32 and sand at $1.50, was 6.8 cts. per 
square yard. 

The labor cost of grouting brick pavement laid at Fort Worth, Tex., in 

1914, was 1.7 cts. per square yard. The methods were: The grout for the 
filler was composed of equal parts of cement and sand and enough water 
to make it flow properly. An average of 0.021 bbl. of cement per square yard 
was used. Two grout boxes were used when a full gang was working, and 
where the work was extensive and the weather permitted fast bricklaying, a 
third box could have been used to advantage. To keep the men around the 
boxes from standing idle waiting for a batch to be mixed, the cement and sand 
were mixed dry on the concrete base or on the finished pavement and wheeled 
to the boxes as fast as needed. This shortened the length of time of mixing 
in the box and made it about equal to the time it took for the other box to be 
emptied, thus keeping the whole gang employed. To keep the cement and 
sand from separating the grout was agitated continuously until the last 
bit had been dipped out. The first pouring was made thin enough to flow into 
all cracks and was kept swept ahead by means of steel street brooms. After 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 965 

the first pouring had progressed 25 to 40 ft., depending upon the weather and 
whether or not the brick were thoroughly dry, one box was turned back to 
apply the second and final coating. This second pouring was mixed thicker 
than the first and rubber squeegees were used to fill the joints flush and keep 
the blocks free from surplus grout. To obtain the 34 -in. joint at the rail it was 
necessary to fill it fiush with the top as with the rest of the pavement and 
then, before it has set hard, to clean the grout out with pointed stick or 
trowel. Soon after the second coat of grout was placed the whole surface was 
covered with about H in. of damp sand. On dry, hot days the brick were well 
sprinkled before pouring the grout, considerable water being used for this 
purpose. 

Labor Cost of Laying Brick Gutter. — The following costs, published in 
Engineering and Contracting, May 1, 1918, cover the work of laying 850 
sq. yd. of brick gutter, 12-in. wide, and include all labor except for the delivery 
of materials. The gutter was laid as a water course for asphalt pavement 
on a very flat surface. The curb and base were, of course, previously in place. 
The items covered include sorting and laying bricks, cleanup, grouting, sand 
cushion, etc. The work was done during good weather by a good foreman but 
indifferent crew. The total hours for the three items listed are correct, but 
the work of spreading cushion, laying brick, etc., was not separated, and is, 
therefore, included under the single item of "Labor." The usual standard 
specifications governed the work and they were strictly enforced, particu- 
larly as regards grouting. The cushion was spread dry 1}4 in. thick, pre- 
viously thoroughly mixed in the proportions of 1 part cement to 5 parts sand. 
Grout was mixed 1 : 1 in small quantities to the consistency of cream, and 
spread immediately after mixing. The labor cost of the work was as follows : 

Per sq. yd. 

Foreman, 85 hrs. at 50 ct $0. 049 

Labor, 729 hrs. at 30 ct 257 

Cleanup, etc., 61 hrs. at 30 ct 021 

Total (850 sq. yd. brick gutter) $0. 327 

Cost of Tearing up and Replacing Brick Pavement for Trench. — F. L. 

Shidler gives the following data in Engineering and Contracting, June 2, 1915. 
The trench was as near as possible to the curb and crossed under two sets of 
street car tracks and two street intersections. The costs given are for tearing 
up brick pavement down to grout base, trenching sand cushion and replacing 
same, relaying brick pavement and slushing with cement filler for laying a wire 
conduit for ornamental street lights. They also include the cost of sixteen 

1 ft. 4 in. square holes about 16 ins. deep, cut through cement and stone 
sidewalks, filling these holes with concrete and setting four base bolts in each 
hole. The cost for the post holes, etc., was as follows: 

Item Per hole 

Labor cutting, 25 hrs. at 50 cts $0. 78 

Labor concreting 0.31 

Total labor $1 . 09 

12 wood templets for base bolts 0. 19 

2 cu. yds. concrete at $3.60 0.45 

Miscellaneous . 07 

Total materials, etc $0.71 

Grand total , $1 . 80 



966 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The cost of the trench IH ft. wide and 1,130 ft. long was as follows: 

Item Lin. ft. 

Tearing up and cleaning brick $0,019 

Relaying brick . 025 

Teaming 0.004 

Total labor $0,048 

2 cu. yds. cushion sand 

4 bbls. cement 

300 new brick : 

Miscellaneous ^ 

Total materials $0 . 016 

Grand total $0. 064 

Removing Block Pavement Between Track Rails by Plowing. — (Engineer- 
ing and* Contracting, June 7, 1916.) For two years the Cleveland Ry. Co. 
has used a special plow for rooting up block pavement between rails when- 
ever reconstruction of track was required. The plow first built was experi- 
mental and somewhat crude in detail. The apparatus consists of a cast steel 
spear-shaped blade with shallow mold boards attached to the front end of a 
steel frame truck mounted on car wheels. The truck has a wooden body in 
which the necessary counter weighting load can be placed. In operation 
the truck is pulled by a work train and the plow blade loosens the pavement 
as illustrated. The designer of this plow, Chas. H. Clark, Engineer Mainte- 
nance of Way, Cleveland Ry. Co., furnishes the following data: Cleveland 
Railway Co. has had one of these pavement plows in operation for the past 
two years, during which time we have made some very remarkable records; 
the following are only a few of the many instances in which the plow has 
worked and the time in which it has taken up the pavement : 

4 , 500 ft. on Woodland Ave. in 28 minutes. 

3 , 200 ft. on Woodland Ave. in 30 minutes. 

1 , 500 ft. on E. 55th St. in 12 minutes. 

1 ,000 ft. on Euclid Ave. in front of Hotel Statler to E. 9th St. in 4 minutes. 

1 ,475 ft. on Lorain Ave. in 13 minutes. 

Cost of Cleaning Old Paving Brick by Compressed-Air Hammers. — Charles 
S. Butts gives the following data in Engineering News, July 23, 1914. 

The construction of the Rocky Branch joint district sewer at St. Louis, Mo., 
involved the disturbance of a considerable extent of paved street. The work 
is 5,724 ft. long (on Blair, Palm and Glasgow Aves.) and was done by the 
James Black Masonry & Contracting Co., at a price of about $500,000. 

Of the total length, 4,600 ft. was in streets having brick paving grouted with 
cement, the paved width being 17 to 30 ft., and the total paved area being 
about 10,000 sq. yd., with about 530,000 brick. The specifications require 
the contractor to repave the streets and leave them in as good a condition as 
before the construction of the sewer. 

The question was (and always has been) whether it pays to clean vitrified 
paving brick (cement grouted) for use in repaying streets. In cleaning them 
by hand a man can clean about 300 a day. And at $4.50 per 1 ,000 (which was 
paid for this method of cleaning) he would make only $1.35 per day. In 
order to make it any inducement to clean them by hand about $9 per 1 ,000 
would have to be paid. The contractor finding this method not only slow 
but also unsatisfactory, abandoned the hand-cleaning method and adopted 
the following machine method which has proved very satisfactory. 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 967 

An old vacuum-cleaning wagon was obtained and set up in a convenient 
. location at the pile of brick to be cleaned and used as an air compressor. A 
H-in. supply*- pipe was run to a cleaning board, and to it were connected 
K-in. hose, to each of which was attached a 6H-lb. stone-mason's vibrating 
air hammer. The hammers had 1-in. chisel points for cleaning the portland- 
cement grout from the brick. A bench was built and about 70 bricks placed 
on it with the side upward. One side and one end were cleaned first ; then they 
were turned and other side and other end were cleaned. As there was no 
cement on top or bottom it required only one turn to complete the cleaning. 
The capacity of this particular machine is three hammers, and, as the follow- 
ing table shows, the more hammers operated, the cheaper the brick can be 
cleaned. 

1 ham- 2 ham- 3 ham- 
mer mers ihers 

No. brick cleaned per day 1,200 2,400 3,600 

Cleaning brick, $2 per 1,000 $2 . 40 $4 . 80 $7 . 20 

Turning brick, $1 per 1,000 1.20 2.40 3.60 

Gasoline for machine 1 . 40 1 . 40 1 . 40 

Cost $5.00 $8.60 $12.20 

5 % for care of tools, etc 0.25 0.43 0.61 

. Total cost. $5.25 $9.03 $12.81 

Cost per 1,000 brick 4.375 $3,762 $ 3.3558 

The difference in cost per 1,000 is due to the gasoline used, it costing $1.40 
per day to run the machine whether one, two or three hammers are used. To 
the above costs per thousand for cleaning must be added about $2 for hauling 
to the pile and back on the street, which would make the cost (using the two- 
hammer price) $5.76 per 1,000. This against $16 per 1,000 for' new brick 
makes a saving of $10.24 per 1000 for the small-size brick (2^ X 4 X SH 
in.). The large paving brick now in use (SH X SH X 4}i in.) would cost 
about $4.50 per 1,000 to clean, plus $2 for hauling, making $6.50 per 1,000 
against $22 for new brick, a saving of $15.50 per 1,000. 

Cost of Cleaning Paving Brick by Compressed Air Power. — C. G. Cum- 
mings gives the following matter in Engineering and Contracting, March 7, 
1917. 

An interesting application of a portable, self-contained, engine-driven air 
compressor was developed some four years ago by C. F. Crowley, Com- 
missioner of Public Works, of the city of Troy, N. Y. This consists in remov- 
ing and cleaning old paving brick. The equipment used for this work, which 
was purchased in 1913, consisted of a 15-H.P. Sullivan Class WK-3, port- 
able, single stage air compressor, the compressor being operated by a gasoline 
engine, mounted on the same truck with the compressor, and operating the 
compressor through a gear and pinion. 

This outfit furnished compressed air for a Sullivan " DA- 15," 25-lb. plug 
drill, and a Sullivan " DB-13" hand bushing tool equipped with bits like that 
on a cold chisel. The larger of the two tools is used for tearing up the brick, 
and the smaller for cleaning the old mortar and grout from them. With the 
plug drill one man can remove 4 sq. ft. of pavement in 15 or 20 minutes, taking 
the bricks up either one brick at a time or several, as desired. When doing 
this work by hand, the workmen were frequently obliged to break several 
bricks, which were perfectly good, in order to get out one, so that the loss was 
considerable. 

Before the purchase of this outfit the cost of removing and cleaning bricks 



968 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

by hand was $24 per thousand and a crew of 10 men was able to handle about 
1,000 bricks per day. The detailed cost of operating the compressor and drill 
outfit was as follows : 

1 compressor engineer $ 3 . 00 

7 gallons of gas at 18 cts 1 . 26 

4 operators at $1.85 , 7 .40 

Lubricating oil .25 

Total cost per day $11.91 

The above, of course, does not include interest or depreciation. Mr. 
Crowley estimates that about 2,000 bricks are removed and cleaned in eight 
hours with the two tools. This brings the cost of taking up and cleaning to 
$5.96 per thousand bricks. On work done with this outfit in 1914 a crew of 
40 men was cut down to 18 men. It is estimated that this outfit pays for 
itself on every 100,000 bricks taken up and cleaned. Savings included labor 
on the brick, saving in the sand cushion, saving in time in making the bed 
under the brick and in laying the brick. Cement and grouting are also 
saved. 

Mr. Crowley gives the following table showing the number of bricks cleaned 
each year and the saving made by the use of this outfit : 

Brick cleaned Saving 

1913 229,000 $4,122 

1914 82,200 1,480 

1915 ... 356,000 6,400 

1916 100,000 (Est.) 1,800 

767,200 $13,802 

Cost of Toothing Brick Paving with Air Compressor. — The Highways 
section of the Department of Public Improvements of Baltimore, Md., is using 
air compressors in connection with its work of toothing brick pavements. 
The following information on this work, given by R. M. Cooksey, is published 
in Engineering and Contracting, April 4, 1917. In doing this work by hand, 
stone cutters are employed in preference to laborers, this having been found to 
be more economical, as the latter class ruined much good paving. The 
average day's work for a stone cutter is 25 lin. ft. of toothing at $4.50 per day, 
which equals 18 cts. per ft. The average day's work by machine is 300 lin. ft. 
of toothing at a cost of $6.79 per day or about 2.26 cts. per ft. The cost of 
the machine work includes the following items : 

5 gal. of gasoline $10 . 5 

1 gal. cylinder oil . : 26 

1 gal. Polarine oil 23 

1 special laborer 2 . 50 

1 special laborer 2.75 

Total $6.79 

The equipment consisted of one No. 2 portable compressed air outfit, with 
hose connections for hammers, made by Chris. D. Schramm & Son, Phila- 
delphia, Pa., and two No. 2 Thor chipping hammers. The city purchased 
three Thor hammers, so that it would have one in reserve, should the one in use 
get broken or out of order. 

Cost of Concrete Road, Allen County, Ind. — The following data, are taken 
from Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 6, 1918. 

The road was built in the period from June 11 to Oct. 12, 1917. The 
pavement was 12,263 ft. in length and 16 ft. wide, the total surfaced area 



I ' 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 069 

amounting to 21,801 sq. yd. The average spacing of the transverse expan- 
sion joints was 25 ft. Armored joint protection plates and ^^-in. joint filler 
were used. The average thickness of the concrete was 7.3 in. 

The equipment employed on the paving work include a Koehring No. 11 
paver of the boom and bucket type, a Ward gasoline pressure pump and 3,000 
ft. of 2-in. water line. Wooden sideforms and wooden stakes were used. 

The concrete was a 1:2:3 mixture, washed sand up to >i in. in size and 
washed gravel 3^ in. to 13^ in. being used for aggregate. The organization of 
the paving gang was as follows : 

No. of men Distribution (variable) 

2 Setting forms. 

1 Installing armor plates. 

2 Handling cement. 

10 Handling aggregates. 

2 Operating mixer (1 fireman). 

2 Placing concrete (sometimes 3 or 4). 

1 Finishing pavement. 

1 Foreman. 

One team hauled the cement. The subgrade usually was kept leveled by 
one or more men. When necessary one man was specially detailed for 
grading. The forms were removed and the pavement covered by the entire 
force. 

The cost of the materials, all prices being f.o.b. Fort Wayne, Ind., was as 
follows : 

Cement, per bbl., net $1.69 

Aggregates, per ton . 5275 

Protection plates, per joint-foot 0. 125 

Joint filler, per ft . 04 

A 10-hour day was worked, the wage basis being as follows: 

Motor trucks (3- and 4-ton) $30. 00 

Teams 6.00 

Experienced men 3 , 00 to 3 . 50 

Ordinary labor 2.75 

Foreman 4 . 50 

Grading. — This covered the bringing of an old gravel roadbed on red clay 
soil to the proper grade. The material was loosened with plow and road 
grader and shoveled into dump wagons. It was spread with shovels and road 
machine. The cost was as follows : 

Per cu. yd. 

Loading wagons $0 . 26 

Plowing and grading . 083 

Spreading on dump 0. 076 

Hauling first 100 ft 0. 06 

$0,479 

Hauling Aggregate. — The hauling was done with 3-ton and 4-ton trucks, the 
average length of haul being 1.7 miles. A 5-ton Gallon power unloader was 
used in handling the material. The cost of loading the trucks was approxi- 
mately 9 cts. per cubic yard. The actual cost of hauling was 42 cts. per cubic 
yard. 

Paving, Labor Costs. — A 2-bag batch (12 CU. ft.) was mixed in drum from 
H to ^ minute. Five No. 2 wheelbarrows were used for supplying the 
mixer. The batch of concrete was dumped from the bucket and shoveled into 
place. The surface of the pavement was hand floated, the joints luted and 



970 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

troweled and the edges of the slab rounded. The maximum cost of this work 
was 16 cts. per square yard or 79 cts. per cubic yard of concrete. The minimum 
cost was 9.6 cts. per square yard or 47.3 cts. per cubic yard. 

Covering Pavement. — Earth ranging in texture from loose top soil to hard 
soil was shoveled from the berms and ditches and spread on the concrete. The 
average depth of the covering was 2 in. The maximum cost of covering was 
3.1 cts. per square yard, and the minimum cost was H ct. per square yard. 

Summary of Costs, — The following summary represents the average cost 
for 20 days' work: 

Cost per Cost per 

sq. yd. cu. yd. 

Item pavement concrete 

Cement $0 . 54 $2 . 66 

Cost of aggregates . 19 . 95 

Hauling aggregates . Oil . 54 

Loading aggregates .-= 0.023 0. 115 

Expansion joint complete , . 063 0.31 

Paving operations . 133 . 651 

Covering pavement 0.015 0.074 

Removing earth cover 0. 005 0. 024 

Overhead and miscellaneous . 065 . 319 

Totals $1,144 $5,643 

The item "Miscellaneous" includes fuel, oil, repairs, depreciation and 
one-way moving expense of plant. 

The total number of hours on the work was 1,065. The number of hours 
lost due to rain, lack of materials, and miscellaneous delays was 498. This 
makes the actual number of working hours 567. The miscellaneous delays 
include minor delays due to mechanical troubles of plant, short intervals of 
waiting for materials, etc. The average yardage of pavement laid per 
working hour was 38.4 sq. yd. 

Cost of Arizona Federal Aid Concrete Road. — The following data given in 
Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 4, 1920, relate to the construction of a 
concrete pavement on the Phoenix-Temple, Ariz., highway, Arizona Federal 
Aid Project No. 2. The work was done during January and February, 1919, 
by forces of the Arizona State Highway Department under the supervision of 
Clyde E. Learned, Senior Highway Engineer, U. S. Bureau of Public Roads, 
who furnished the matter in this article. 

The cost data cover about three-fourths of the length of road construction. 
The work involved 2.92 miles of 18-ft. wide, 5-in. thick, 1:2:4 concrete pave- 
ment. The total number of cubic yards of concrete placed was 4,397, equiva- 
lent to 31,658 sq. yd. of pavement, giving a ratio of 1 cu. yd. to 7.2 sq. yd. 

The subgrade was composed of an old surfaced road of caliche conglomerate 
and mixture of decomposed granite and caliche, which was very hard to work. 
The preparation of the subgrade for the concrete was very expensive, but an 
exceptionally good piece of work was performed. 

The mixing was done with a new No. 22 Koehring paving mixer, using a 
3-bag batch. 1.57 bbl. of cement were used per cubic yard of concrete in 
place; 0.48 cu. yd. of sand, and 0.89 cu. yd. of stone. The wooden side forms 
were 2 in. X 5 in. and were left in place. 

Water was pumped a maximum distance of IH miles. Trouble was expe- 
rienced with the pumps as they were of too small a capacity. The pipe was 
old, and the line was poorly laid. 

Common labor and teamsters were paid $3.50 per 8-hour day. State 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 971 

teams were used and were figured at $6 per day for team and driver. The 
hauling costs were exceptionally high due to poor handling of teams. The 
crushing costs also were high, due to poor setting of crushing plant, constant 
breakdowns and changing of foremen. 

The organization of the concrete gang was. very good, the average daily run 
being 450 lin. ft. and the maximum daily run 540 lin. ft. The gang was made 
up as follows: 

Per day 

1 foreman $ 6 . 00 

1 mixer engineer (gas engine) 5 . 50 

1 bucket man on boom of mixer 4 . 00 

1 pump man 4 . 00 

2 finishers, rolling, belting and finishing joints 9.00 

2 strike board men (screening and tamping) at $4 8. 00 

2 concrete spreaders at $3.75 7 . 50 

1 handy man, installing joints, wetting subgrade, etc 3. 50 

4 men wheeling and loading stone wheelbarrows at $3.50 14.00 

2 men wheeling and loading sand at $3.50 7 . 00 

4 extra men loading stone to wheelbarrows at $3.50 14.00 

1 extra man loading sand to wheelbarrows at $3.50 3. 50 

1 man, cement to hopper, from side forms 4 . 00 

1 water boy, also spotting piling of cement 3 . 00 

1 watchman wetting down concrete 3. 50 

2 men dyking for curing and wetting down concrete at $3,50 7.00 

27 men. Total $103. 50 

An additional pump man required nights for about one-third of time. 

The itemized cost of the pavement was as follows: 

Cost 
per cu. yd., 
Labor: ^ concrete . 

Supervision (foreman and timekeeper) $ 0. 08 

Preparation of subgrade, including dragging, rolling, wetting down, 

harrowing and trimming . 57 

Setting wooden side forms, including trenching for same. (Forms 

remain in place) .45 

Loading materials, mixing, placing and curing concrete, pumping 

water, watchman, cleaning off pavement and cutting expansion 

joint filler 1 . 12 

Dumping and spreading sand and stone on subgrade .06 

Pipe line, hauling, laying and removing (estimated) .16 

Assembling and dismantling mixer (estimated) .01 

Total labor $ 2.45 

Concrete Materials: 

Cement — Per bbl. 

F. o. b. Phoenix (net) $ 3.17 

Loading and unloading .13 

Hauling, average haul 1 mile .11 

Return freight and bag losses (estimated) .05 

Total cost per bbl $ 3 . 46 

Cost (1.57 bbl.) per cu. yd. concrete 5.43 

Sand — Per cu. yd. 

Premium $ . 10 

Hand screening at pit (part of supply) .40 

Loading at pit (total supply) .40' 

Hauling pit to crusher (>^ mile bad haul) .32 

Screening at crusher (part of supply) .20 

Hauling to road (3-mile average haul) 1 . 40 

Cost per cu. yd. on road $ 2 . 82 

Cost (0.48 cu. yd.) per cu. yd. concrete 1 .35 



972 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Gravel (State Plant): Per cu. yd. 

Premium $ 0. 10 

Loading at pit .48 

Hauling, pit to crusher (H mile bad haul) .32 

Crushing and screening 1 . 02 

Hauling to road (3-mile average haul) 1 . 40 

Cost per cu. yd. on road $ 3 . 32 

Crushed Stone (Tempe Commercial Plant): 

Cost in bin, $1.85 per ton X 2460/2000 *. $ 2. 28 

Haul to road (3-mile average haul) 1.40 

Cost per cu. yd. on road , $ 3 . 68 

Composite price of gravel and crushed stone 3. 50 

Cost (0.89 cu. yd.) per cu. yd. concrete 3. 11 

Total cost cement, sand and stone, per cu. yd. concrete 9.80 

Expansion joints (Carey's Elastite) .10 

Materials and Repairs: Cost 

Mixer — per day 

Gasoline, 22 gal. at $0.25 $ 5. 50 

Oil, grease, waste, etc 1 . 00 

Cost of 50 days 300. 00 

Pumps — 

Gasoline, 8 gal. at $0.25 2. 00 

Oil, grease, waste, etc .50 

Cost per day $ 9.00 

Cost of 50 days 450.00 

Crushing Plant: 

Coal, ^4 ton per day at $7.50 $ 5. 00 

Oil, grease, waste, etc 1.00 

Cost per day $ 6.00 

Lump sum 

Repairs on mixer (estimated) $ 20 . 00 

Repairs on pumps (estimated) 200 . 00 

Repairs on crusher (estimated • 500. 00 

Total cost, fuel and repairs $1 , 470 . 00 

Per 

Side Forms and Stakes: station 

Side forms, 200 ft. B. M. at $45.00 $ 9.00 

Stakes and nails 1 . 00 

Total cost for 28 yd. concrete ~$ 10. CO 

Interest and Depreciation: Lump sum 

Mixer cost, $4,360, at 10 per cent $ 436. 00 

Two pumps and engines, $400, at 10 per cent 40.00 

Pipe line, connections, etc., $5,000, at 10 per cent 500.00 

Car subgrader, $400, at 10 per cent 40 . 00 

Small tools, hose, etc., $500, at 50 per cent 250.00 

Cement house, $300, at 50 per cent 150. 00 

Crushing outfit, $4,000, at 15 per cent 600. 00 

Dump wagons, $3,000, at 10 per cent 300.00 

Total interest and depreciation $2,316.00 

Summary of Cost 

Per cu. yd. 

concrete in 

road 

Labor... $ 2.45 

Cement 5.43 

Sand 1.35 

Gravel and crushed stone 3.11 

Expansion joints * .10 

Materials and repairs for plant .33 

Side forms and stakes .36 

Interest and depreciation on plant ^JO 

Total per cu. yd. concrete $ 13. 53 

Total cost of concrete pavement per cu. yd ' , 13. 53 

Total cost of concrete pavement per sq. yd 1 . 88 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 973 

The finished concrete road was an exceptionally good piece of work. 
Cost of Federal Aid Concrete Pavement in Colorado. — Engineering and 
Contracting, Feb. 4, 1920 publishes the following information given by Clyde 
E. Learned, of the U. S. Bureau of Public Roads, under whose supervision 
the road was built. 

Colorado Federal Aid Project No. 1 comprised the construction of a con- 
crete pavement on the Denver-Littleton road. The pavement was a 1:2:3 
mix, 16 ft. wide, and 5}i in. thick at sides, and 6>^ in. thick at the center. 
The total number of square yards was 36,974 which required the placing of 
6,325 cu. yd. of concrete giving a ratio of 1 cu. yd. to 5.85 sq. yd. of pavement. 
The work was done by contract. It was comnienced in July, 1918, and 
finished in November of that year. 

The mixing was done in a No. 514 Smith Chicago paver with rotary dis- 
tributor. The size of batch was 3H bags. This mixer had been in use for 7 
years. The side forms were wood, and they were used over again. 

The fine grading and preparation of subgrade were very poor, and this 
occasioned delays in front of the mixer. The concrete pavement work was 
delayed considerably owing to lack of facilities for furnishing materials fast 
enough to keep the mixer in continuous operation. 

Common labor and teamsters were paid $4 to $4.50 per 9-hour day. Team 
and driver were paid at the rate of $7 per day. The average haul on cement 
was ^i mile; on sand ^i mile, and on gravel % mile. 

The size of the concrete gang was dependent, to a great extent, on the 
ability of the contractor to get and keep enough laborers to carry on the work. 
From the beginning of the pavement work on July 19 to the last of August, 
the concrete gang was made up as follows, and the following scale of wages 
prevailed per 9-hour day : 

Per day 

1 foreman $ 7.00 

1 mixer operator (attends to firing) 6. 00 

1 man regulating water for batch and dumping mixer 4 . 00 

1 boy on revolving distributor spreading concrete and wetting sub- 
grade 3.75 

1 man spreading concrete and assisting installing joints 4.25 

2 men on strike board, striking off and tamping concrete, at $4.00. . 8.00 
1 finisher, rolling, belting, hand floating and edging 6.00 

1 man shaking out and bundling cement sacks; also assisting finisher 

to belt concrete and move bridge 4. 00 

2 grade men around mixer leveling up subgrade and tamping where 

necessary, at $4.00 8 . 00 

2 men moving and setting forms also installing joint material, at 

$4.00... 8.00 

2 men carrying and putting cement into mixer hopper, at $4.00. . . 8.00 
2 men on mixer hopper assisting in dumping wheelbarrows, moving 

mixer runways, and taking care of hose from pipe line to mixer, 

at $3.75 7.50 

6 men on two sets of gravel wheelbarrows, loading and wheeling, at 

$4.25 25.50 

2 men on one set of sand wheelbarrows, loading and wheeling, at 

$4.25 8.50 

2 extra men loading gravel in wheelbarrows, at $3.75 7 . 50 

1 extra man loading sand in wheelbarrows 3.75 

3 men covering and wetting concrete, at $3.75 11 . 25 

1 water boy 1 . 50 

1 night watchman, wetting concrete and taking care of fire on mixer 4.00 

33 men. Total $136.50 

The average daily run of this gang, when material was on hand, was 480 
lin. ft. of pavement per day, the maximum nm being 70 lin. ft., the above 
runs being equivalent to the placing of 146 and 173 cu. yd. of concrete. 



974 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

From the first part of September to the end of the work on Nov. 5, the con- 
crete gang was smaller, averaging about 25 men, and differed from the above 
organization as follows: 

The man spreading concrete was eliminated, his work being done by the 
strike board men, who were advanced to $5 per day. 

Where two men had previously been used, one man was now used on each 
of the following: grading in front of the mixer, handling cement to material 
hopper, and moving and setting forms. These men were advanced 50 cts. to 
$1 per day. The men used for covering up were eliminated, as tnis work was 
performed each morning by the whole gang before any concrete was laid. 
One of the extra men loading wheelbarrows was also eliminated, and the pay 
of the wheelbarrow men was raised to $4.50 per day. 

The total wages per day for these 25 men were $112.50, and the average 
and maximum daily runs were 420 and 505 lin. ft. of pavement, this being 
equivalent to the placing of 128 and 154 cu. yd. of concrete. This gang had 
the maximum weekly run of 2,370 lin. ft. of pavement, which was accom- 
plished in S'^i working days. 

The organization of the concrete gang was very good, and the work went 
along very smoothly, the only serious trouble being the lack of materials. 

The following table shows the cost of the pavement : 

Cost 
per cu. yd., 
concrete 
Labor: 

Supervision (foreman and timekeeper) $0. 175 

Preparation of subgrade for concrete .059 

Setting and moving forms . 066 

Loading, mixing, placing and finishing . 994 

Covering, cleaning off, cutting joints . 095 

Pipe line, hauling, laying and removing . 063 

Assembling and dismantling mixer .012 

Mixer — to and from job — Denver . 010 

Total labor $1,472 

Concrete Materials: 

Cement— Per bbl. 

F. o. b. mill. $1.98 

Freight -, -32 

Loading, hauling and unloading .15 

Freight return bags and losses .05 

Total cost per barrel $2 . 50 

Cost per cu. yd. concrete (1.70 bbl.) 4.25 

Sand— ... ^®^ ^"- y^- 

Average cost screened in piles or at pit $1 . 00 

♦Loading and hauling to road .50 

Cost per cubic yard $1 . 50 

Cost per cu. yd. concrete (0.60 cu. yd., which allows for waste). .90 
Gravel — 

Average cost screened in piles or at pit $1 . 20 

♦Loading and hauUng to road .60 

Cost per cubic yard ' • • : • $1 • 80 

♦Loading and hauling combined, as drivers helped load materials. 
Cost per cu. yd. concrete (0.80 cu. yd., which allows for waste) 1.44 

Total cost cement, sand and gravel per cu. yd. concrete $6 . 59 

Water — From Denver and Littleton water mains $0.06 

Joints — Carey's Elastite, H in. premoulded asphalt 065 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 975 

Cost 
Materials and Repairs: percu. yd., 

Mixer — concrete 

Coal, price $8.00 per ton $0,051 

Oil, waste and packing .006 

Repair parts . 012 

Total mixer $0 . 069 

Side Forms — Lumber and pins . 016 

Total cost of materials and repairs $0 . 085 

Interest and Depreciation: 

Mixer, $2,300.00, at 15 % $345.00 $0,055 

Pipe line and connections, $750, at 15 % 112.50 .018 

Small tools, hose, etc., $140, at 50 % 70.00 .011 

Total interest and depreciation $0 . 084 

Summary of Cost 

Per cu. yd. 
concrete 
in road 

Labor $1,472 

Cement 4 . 250 

Sand 900 

Gravel 1.440 

Water 060 

Joints. 065 

Materials and repairs f oi plant . 069 

Side forms 016 

Interest and depreciation on plant .084 

Total per cu. yd. concrete 8. 356 

Total cost of concrete pavement per cu. yd $8 . 356 

Total cost of concrete pavement per sq. yd $1 .427 

Crew Organization for Concrete Pavement Work. — An organization capable 
of turning out 600 to 700 sq. yd. of concrete per day for road construction 
under conditions prevailing in Western Washington is outlined in Concrete 
Highway Magazine, from which the matter following is abstracted in Engi- 
neering and Contracting, Oct. 2, 1918. 

Materials. — In many cases sand and pebbles have been obtained near the 
road to be paved, and as a rule the sand and gravel banks have sufficient 
elevation to allow sluicing the material into bunkers. With the many streams 
in western Washington, water is usually near by in large quantities. 

Under these conditions and with the following crew at the pit and bunkers, 
250 cubic yd. per day can be turned out. 

1 man for pump and engine. 

1 man at nozzle sluicing in pit. 

1 man helping nozzle man removing large rocks, roots, etc. 

1 man at bunkers looking after sand box and keeping chutes clear. 

Grading. — Supposing the road to be paved is a well developed highway with 
proper grades established, and that only light grading is to be done prior to 
paving, the following men will do the rough and fine grading: 

1 foreman in charge of grading and ribbon setters. 
1 engineer for caterpillar and roller. 
1 teamster for Fresno and wheeler. 
4 laborers, pick and shovel work. 

When caterpillar is hooked to road grader and scarifier one of the above 
laborers is used on grader as helper. One of the above laborers also is used at 
times as teamster's helper. 



976 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Ribbons. — The grading foreman has: 

1 man setting ribbons. 
1 man helper. 

Placing Material.— Where the maximum haul is 4 miles, 3 five-ton trucks 
will handle the output of bunker and put material on ground to run 1 three- 
sack batch mixer. 

Final Subgrade. — Two men are required back of mixer bringing subgrade 
to exact depth and dragging subgrade template on ribbons. 

MrxER Crew For Three Sack Machine 

1 foreman in charge of concrete crew. 

6 men used on wheelbarrow for gravel, 3 wheelbarrows with 2 men to each 
barrow. 

2 men are used on wheelbarrows for sand, 1 man for each wheelbarrow. 

2 men are used for cement, 1 man carries cement to bench, 1 man empties 

sacks into hopper. 
2 men for spreading concrete. 
2 men for rodding. 
1 man for finishing. 

1 engineer on mixer if gas engine is used. If steam mixer is used a fireman is 

necessary. 

2 men for covering finished concrete with 2 in. of earth, 

2 men watering earth covering on concrete less than 10 days old. 

1 man watering subgrade. 

1 man for water supply to mixer. 

Presuming that the road to be paved is 20 ft. wide with a 1 : 2: 3 mix and a 
thickness of 6-in. side and 8-in. center, the crew of 23 men as outlined above 
should lay 600 to 700 sq. yd. of pavement per day. 

Four Examples of Concreting Gang Organization for Road Work. — The 
following information, collected by special committees of the National Con- 
ference on Concrete Road Building is given in Engineering and Contracting, 
Feb. 23, 1916. 

Example I: Pennsylvania, Easton — Bethlehem Model Road, — The best results 
were obtained with a gang organization as follows: 

Gang Cost per day 

I'foreman at $3 $ 3. 00 

1 mixer operator at $3 3 . 00 

1 fireman at $2.50 2.50 

2 templet men at $2 4. 00 

3 men spreading at $2 6 . 00 

2 men floating at $2 4.00 

1 man finishing at $2 2.00 

2 men on forms at $2 4 . 00 

1 man changing chute at $2 2 . 00 

2 men handling cement at $1.75 3.50 

7 men on wheelbarrows at $1.75 12.25 

7 men shoveling at $1.75 12.25 

1 utility man at $1.75 1.75 

1 waterboy at $1.50 1.50 

32 men in total gang $61 . 75 

This list schedules the men according to their special duties. The first task 
in each day's work was from the previous day's work to bring forward the 
forms and other working appliances and to cover the previous day's concrete 
with earth. All men, such as templet men, floaters and finishers, were 
employed in this task. The three men handling concrete also placed the 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 977 

expanded metal reinforcement and the expansion joints. Laying a slab 7 in. 
thick and holding the material in the drum for a 90 sec. mix, this gang ave- 
raged 525 sq. yd. per day at a cost of approximately 11.7 cts. per square yard. 
A No. 16 Koehring paving mixer, with boom and bucket delivery, was used. 
With a shorter mixing time, say 45 sec, it is suggested that the gang be 
increased three to five men on wheelbarrows; with such an increase it is esti- 
mated that the yardage could be increased 50 per cent. Data reported by 
WiUiam D. Uhler, Chief Engineer, State Highway Department. 

Example II: Illinois State Aid Road Work Practice. — The data given are 
based on experience on 25 to 30 jobs of state aid road work representing 
approximately 500,000 sq. yd. of pavement. Assuming excavation complete 
and all material delivered on the work and that the subgrade is in average 
condition, the following crew is considered to be most efficient imder average 
conditions on work similar to state aid road work in Illinois. 

General — Number 

Superintendent 1 

Foreman 1 

Front End of Mixer — 

Wheeling sand 2 

Wheeling stone 4 

Extra shovelers 2 

Handling cement 2 

Bundling cement sacks 1 

Trimming subgrade 1 or 2 

Rear End of Mixer — 

Shovelers 3 or 4 

Firiisher 1 

Curing concrete 2 

On Mixer — 

Engineer 1 

Fireman 1 

Forms — 

Setters 2 

Water — 

Pumpman 1 

Miscellaneous — 

Watchman 1 

Waterboy : 1 

Total 27 or 29 

The list given needs some explanation to be entirely plain. First the assign- 
ment of only one or two men to trimming subgrade assumes that the subgrade 
is already practically correct. Of the three or four shovelers at the rear end 
of the mixer, two also handle the strike-board and one also occasionally 
assists the finisher. At times of any delay in mixing operations, practically 
the entire gang is turned to covering the concrete with earth. Under ordinary 
conditions, however, it is necessary to assign two men to covering and sprin- 
kling concrete in addition to the work done by the whole gang. The gang is for 
a two-bag batch mixer, and with this machine its average daily output of 18 
ft. wide and 7 in. thick pavement is about 800 sq. yd., working day 9 hr., mix- 
ing time per batch, 35 sec. The average cost of mixing and placing concrete 
and of setting forms and joints is 10 cts. to 12 cts. per square yard. A single 
day's cost may run as low as 8 cts. per square yard, but an average job of any 
size, figuring repairs, fuel and depreciation on mixer, brings the cost between 
10 and 12 cts. where labor receives from 20 to 25 cts. per hour. A smaller gang 
will reduce the unit cost slightly if no account is taken of interest, overhead, 
62 



978 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

etc. The slower progress, however, runs up these fixed charges so that in the 
end, the cost is greater rather than less. Data reported by H. B. Bushnell. 
Division Engineer, State Highway Department. 

Example III: Wisconsin, Mihoaukee. County Roads. — An efficient gan^ 
organization for conditions prevailing in Milwaukee County has been found 
to be about as follows : 

Gang Cost per day 

1 foreman at $5 $ 5 . 00 

1 timelceeper at $5 5 . 00 

1 engineer at $5 5 . qO 

1 fireman at $2.50 2 . 50 

1 pumpman at $2.50 2 . 50 

1 form setter at $2.50 ' 2 . 50 

1 finisher at $3 3 OO 

2 strikeoff men at $2.50 5 . 00 

2 puddlers at $2.50 5. 00 

2 cement handlers at $2.50 5. 00 

1 boy bundling sacks at $1.50 ". 1 . 50 

1 waterboy at $1 1 . 00 

6 sand laborers at $2 12 . 00 

12 stone laborers at $2 24 . 00 

1 man removing forms at $2 2 . 00 

2 men covering concrete at $2 4 . 00 

1 man sprinkling at $2 2 . 00 

1 man trimming subgrade at $2 2 . 00 

38 men Total $89 . 00 

The particular road on which this gang worked contained 17,280 sq. yd., 
was 18 ft. wide and averaged 7 in. in thickness. The subgrade was clay and 
required little sprinkhng before laying the concrete. Wheelbarrows were 
wheeled directly on the subgrade without planks. Sand and gravel were 
placed in the middle of the road and cement on the side. Water was available 
at the job and was pumped through 2-in. pipe by a steam pump. A 16-ft. 
paver was used with an open spout for distributing the mixed material. The 
mix was 1: 2: 3K, two bags of cement being used to a batch, and 11 cu. ft. of 
aggregate. Protected joints were placed every 50 ft. 

The actual number of days consumed in the construction of this particular 
piece of work was 33, of which five were Sundays. Of the remaining working 
days, two were lost because of rain and a defective pump. This left 26 days 
for actual construction work. During this period, the maximum output for 
one day was 1,000 sq. yd. and the minimum 264 sq. yd. The average output 
was 665 sq. yd. per day or 3323^^ lin. ft. per day. The actual labor cost for 
mixing and placing was $0.1396 per square yard, which included labor incurred 
in supplying water covering and sprinkling concrete and also a watchman dur- 
ing the construction period. The cost to the contractor for lost time, moving 
plant to and from the job, the laying of pipe, etc., amounted to $0.0201, giving 
a total cost per square yard for labor of $0.1597. The timekeeper looked 
after the ordering of materials, spotting of cars and unloading and placing of 
materials on the job. A cheaper engineer might have been employed but it is 
believed that the results obtained justified the additional expense. The 
man employed in trimming the subgrade saved more than enough in materials 
to pay for his wages. Data reported by F. W. Whitlow, Superintendent of 
Construction, County Highway Commission, Milwaukee County, Wisconsin. 

Example IV: California Highway Commission. — (1) Specific crew organiza- 
tion employed on recent jobs. 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 979 

Division III— Maintenance Requisition 155, Auburn Boulevard 

Concrete Crew: 

1 mixer engineer at $4.00 $ 4. 00 

1 foreman at $4.00 4. 00 

1 water boy at $2.00 2.00 

1 cement man at $2.75 2.75 

2 finishers at $3.00 6,00 

2 men on tamp, at $2.75 5 . 50 

4 spreaders at $2.75 1 1 . 00 

15 laborers at $2.50 37.50 

Total $72.75 

Average for 20 good days' run = 118.9 cii. yd. per day. 

^^=»0.613cu.yd. 

Note. — Mixer rent of $10 not included in above. 



Division III — Stanislaus County, Route 13, Section A 

Concrete Crew: 

1 mixer engineer $ 3 . 63 

1 foreman . 4 . 50 

1 finisher . 3.00 

6 spread tampers at $2.75 16. 50 

13 shovelers and wheelbarrow men at $2.50 32. 50 

Total $60 . 13 

16 days' average run = 101.4 cu. yd. 
TOT^ = S0.592 cu. yd. 



2. Conditions and amount of work, plant used and other reasons influencing 
choice of organization employed. 

See (3) for conditions and amount of work. No special conditions influ- 
enced the choice of organization. The organization (see 1 above) is cus- 
tomary where a two-bag mixer is used, and an output of from 100 to 150 cu. 
yd. per day is expected. The following crew can probably be considered as 
typical of work throughout the state : 

1 foreman $ 4 . 00 

1 mixer engineer 4 . 00 

1 cement man 2.75 

1 finisher 3.00 

2 tampers and strike off men at $2.75 5. 50 

6 men spreading, shoveling up loose materials, checking 

up subgrade, etc., at $2.75 16. 50 

13 men on wheelbarrows and shovels at $2.50 32 . 50 

25 men. Total $68 . 25 

This crew could easily turn out an average of 125 cu. yd. of concrete per day 
at a cost of $0.54 per cubic yard. Delays due to shortage of material, supplies, 
water and mixer trouble generally tend to keep the average from 10 to 20cts. 
per cubic yard higher. The figures given above are for average conditions, 
and for the average run of labor. There have been times when contractors 
with an especially capable and experienced crew of men and no other difficul- 
ties have been able to mix and place concrete for as low as 40 cts. per cubic 



980 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

yard, and even lower, and on force account work (work done by the State 
under day labor) we have done the work for as low as 48 cts. per cubic yard on a 
single day's run. But out of over twenty contracts under way in Division y I 
this summer not one mixed and placed concrete as low as 50 cts. per cubic yard, 
and the average was much higher. 

The Auburn Boulevard job consisted of laying a concrete base 4 in. thick, 
for the most part, on an old oil macadam base. The old pavement was first 
scarified and the top 2 in., which consisted of a mushy mixture of oil, dirt and 
a small amount of rock, was removed. The remaining base, on account of the 
amount of rock and oil contained, was rather difficult to prepare accurately 
for a 4-in. base. On this account the header and subgrade charge is higher 
than is customary on work of this nature. 

3. Records of output or costs indicating efficiency of crew organization as 
employed. 

M. R. No. 155 Auburn Boulevard 

1. Length of concrete pavement, 18,273 lin. ft. = 3.46 mi. 

(Part 18 ft. X 4.5 in.; part 15 ft. X 4 in.) 

2. Total yardage, 3,963.5 cu. yd. Per 

3. Labor cost of mixing and placing (not including water cu. yd. 

supply or curing or repairs) $2 , 994 .73 = $0 . 730 

4. Cost of curing concrete 837.23 0.211 

5. Cost or running pump and water supply 310.09 0. 076 

6. Cost of laying and removing water pipe 95.43 0,024 

7. Cost of headers 1,277.89 0.322 

8. Cost of shaping subgrade 1 ,073. 50 0.270 

9. Cost of unloading and hauling rock, sand and cement 4,480.35 1.130 

Total cost $2 . 763 

10. Average haul = 0.7 miles. 

Items 3 to 9 = $11,069.22, or $3,200.00 per mile. 

The mixer used on the Auburn Boulevard was old and as the work pro- 
gressed the break-downs were numerous, causing disorganization of crew and 
consequent increased costs. Delays due to shortage of materials toward the 
latter end of the work added unfairly to the cost of the concrete. The total 
cost of $2.76 per cubic yard of concrete in place is not excessive, but is higher 
than should be on a large job and where there are no serious difficulties to be 
overcome. 

6. Discussion of specific or general questions of crew organization that 
experience indicates needs enlightenment or investigation. 

No suggestions can be made along this line, as there are no particular crew 
organization problems connected with concrete paving work. The only real 
problem is the problem of the superintendent always to organize the layout of 
his work so as to prevent serious delays in any one part of the organization. 
Thus, he must plan his grading crew to keep ahead of the subgrade crew, the 
finishers must keep ahead of the hauling of materials, and the material men 
must keep ahead of the concrete crew. If each outfit can see only one day's 
work laid out ahead, there is from 25 per cent to 50 per cent loss of efficiency. 
On the day labor work in Stanislaus County, Contract D-50, the work was so 
regulated at the start that each unit of the work was at least one-half mile 
(representing four or five days' work) ahead of the other units. Data reported 
by A. B. Fletcher, Highway Engineer, California Highway Commission. 

Summary from Examples. — Using modern paving mixers, a concreting gang 
for road work will consist of from 30 to 40 men. These are round numbers. 



2 


12 


7 


2 


2 


1 2 


2 


22 


8 


2 


2 


1 2 


2 


13 


6 


2 


2 


1 2 




15 


4 


2 






(2) 


(29) 


(9) 


(5) 


(1) 


(3) 




14 


5 


3 


1 


3 




5 


10 


1 








9 


5 


1 






(2) 


(13) 


(11) 


(3) 


(2) 






4 


6 


2 


2 






10 


11 


3 


2 





ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 981 

In instances fewer than 30 men will suffice and in more rare instances a greater 
number than 40 may be required. The exact number will depend upon the 
nature of many controlling conditions. Also the number of men allotted to 
the several duties required to be performed is likewise determined by the 
nature of these conditions. As illustrating the vagaries of organization 
recorded in practice, Table XXIV has been compiled from data readily at 
hand. Doubtless some of the wide variation exhibited is due to inequalities 
of organizing skill but with all reasonable allowance for this cause, there 
remain important differences caused entirely by differences in conditions 
controlling the concreting work. 

Table XXIV. — Disposition of Men in Concreting Gangs for Concrete 

Road Work 

Job Genl. Front Rear Mixer Forms Water Misc. 

I 1 16 9 2 2 .. 2 

II 

Ill 

IV 

[Base 

I Top....... 

VI 

(Base 
Top 

VIII 

Concreting is but one operation in the process of concrete road building. 
The economic target is the lowest cost for the whole process, and the concret- 
ing operation must so co-ordinate with other component operations that 
the mark is hit. It may often be, therefore, that the most efficient concreting 
gang organization is not the one that would mix and place most cheaply a 
cubic yard of concrete in finished road slab considering this one operation 
as the beginning and end of all effort. The law of co-ordination has influence 
in an even more minute way. Consider for the moment the concreting opera- 
tion to be independent of all others. On the Pennsylvania road work de- 
scribed later, it is the requirement that the batch shall turn 90 sec. Under 
this requirement, the most efficient gang organization has been found to be 
that of column one in Table XXV. Could the mixing period be cut in half 
the most efficient gang organization would be that of column two in Table 
XXV. Again, considering the gang organization for Illinois road work as 
given in Example II. By reducing this gang by a few men it is stated that a 

Table XXV. — Gang Organization and Output as Influenced by Time of 

Mixing 

Thus— 1 2 

Mixing time, seconds 90 45 

General labor 1 1 

Men in front 16 21 

Men in rear 9 9 

Men on mixer 2 2 

Men on forms 2 2 

Miscellaneous 2 2 

Total men 32 37 

Output sq. yd. average 525 787 



982 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

smaller unit labor cost could be obtained but the slower progress would 
increase interest and overhead costs enough to exceed the saving. 

Gang organization is determined then, first by the controlling construction 
conditions and second by the work organization'as a whole. These determin- 
ing factors are seldom constant outside of a single job and are often variable 
on a single job. No general formula is possible for solving all problems of 
concreting gang organization. The organization of each gang is a separate 
problem and must be so solved. 

Bonus System Cuts Cost of Laying Concrete Pavement. — Engineering and 
Contracting, June 5, 1918, gives the following: 

The city of Flint, Mich, is constructing 10 miles of pavement and 30 miles 
of sewers by day labor under the direction of the city engineer. Common 
laborers' wages are $3.50 a day, and the men engaged in paving were not 
efficient until a bonus system was applied. For example, a gang of 16 men and 
a foreman operating a concrete mixer averaged only 47 cu. yd. of concrete 
base (6 in. thick) per day, when actually working, at a cost of $1.23 per cu. 
yd. for labor; but upon the payment of a bonus system a gang of 12 men and 
a foreman averaged 90 cu. yd. a day when actually working, and at this rate 
the labor cost, including the bonus, was less than 60 ct. per cu. yd., or 10 ct. 
per sq. yd. 

The bonus payment was 1 ct. to each of the 13 men for each square yard of 
concrete in excess of 500 sq. yd. per day. At this rate, if 600 sq. yd. were laid 
in a day, each of the 13 men would earn $1 bonus, but each of these extra 100 
sq. yd. would cost the city only 10 ct. for labor. 

It is well within the capacity of a gang of 13 men to run 100 sq. yd. of 6-in. 
concrete per hour, an4 this rate was attained. 

There are few classes of construction work to which it is so easy to apply a 
" bonus system" as to paving work. This is because of the fact that the num- 
ber of units of work done each day is readily ascertained and because each 
gang is usually engaged continuously upon the same sort of work. In view of 
this it is rather astonishing that some sort of bonus payment is not made to all 
gangs engaged in laying pavements. Engineers in charge of pavement con- 
struction by day labor should invariably apply a bonus system. Otherwise 
the men are almost certain to loaf, for they reason that the city, or county, or 
state for whom they are working can afford to foot any bill and is not likely to 
scrutinize the cost very closely, anyway. 

Method of Reducing Labor Cost of Concrete Mixing. — A novel method 
employed by the Independent Asphalt Paving Co. of Seattle, Wash., in hand- 
ling aggregate for the construction of S}^ miles of concrete pavement on the 
Pacific Highway in Thurston County, Washington, made it possible for the 
company to materially reduce the size of its mixing crew. The plan is 
described in the Concrete Highway Magazine, and abstracted in Engineering 
and Contracting, May 1, 1918, as follows: 

The company was well equipped with all kinds of road-making machinery 
and had a number of automobile trucks for the delivery of material. At the 
town of Lacey, which is approximately in the center of the work, they received 
their sand and pebbles by railroad. At this point a stiff leg derrick with ^-yd. 
clamshell bucket was erected. This derrick lifted material directly from cars 
to stock piles of approximately 3,000 cu. yd. of gravel and 2,000 cu. yd. of 
sand. No paving was started until about this amount of material was on 
hand, it being intended that when concreting commenced it should be 
continuous. 



u 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 983 

While this reserve of material was being assembled a small loading bunker 
was built, designed to hold about 5 yd. of sand and 10 yd. of gravel, filling 
being accomplished by means of the stiff leg derrick. It was equipped with 5 
measuring boxes for sand and 5 for gravel, so situated that they would dis- 
charge simultaneously by gravity 5 measured batches of sand and gravel into 
compartments built into the truck bodies for this purpose. Each batch of 
sand contained 6 cu. ft. and each batch of gravel 9 cu. ft., this being the neces- 
sary sand and gravel to make up a batch of 1 : 2 ; 3 mix for the 3-sack mixer 
used on the job. 

The trucks for delivering the material were of 3-yd. capacity, having their 
bodies or boxes divided into 5 compartments by means of wooden partitions. 
Each compartment received one full batch of sand and gravel for a 3-sack mix. 
The lower half of each partition was hung on strap hinges and was held in 
place by a simple catch, which could be easily released when the body was 
raised ready to discharge into the hopper of the mixer. 

The partitions and sides of the truck were built up 6 in. above the required 
depth necessary to hold a batch, in order that when the body was raised 
for discharging the material would not run from one compartment to the 
other. 

The trucks were accurately loaded at the bunkers, transported 5 full 
batches of sand and gravel to the mixer and dumped these batches directly 
into the loading hopper of the machine, a batch at a time, without even letting 
the material touch the subgrade. 

The contractor was able to reduce his mixing crew of men from 22 to 10, 
and the 10 men easily accomplished the work. All question of material loss on 
the subgrade was eliminated, and the resulting concrete was entirely free from 
clay balls or other foreign material. 

From actual timing records kept on this work, each truck is delayed at the 
mixer from 9 to 10 minutes on each trip, or for 25 per cent of the working time. 
The commercial rate for this size truck if rented would be $2.50 per hour. 
Thus the waiting time of 4 trucks necessary to keep the mixer going, at 2 hours 
each, or a total of 8 hours, would at the rate of $2.50 per hour be $20 per day; 
while under the usual system there would be necessary to accomplish the same 
work 12 men, costing, at $3.25 per day, $40; to which should be added the loss 
of material, amounting to at least $10 — or a total of $50 per day. 

It is thus seen that an approximate saving of $30 per day, or a little better 
than 5 cts. per square yard, has resulted from this plan of operation, originally 
intended to meet an expected shortage in labor. 

Concrete Delivered Wet by Motor Trucks Shows a Large Saving as Com- 
pared with Customary Methods. — The following matter is taken from Engi- 
neering News-Record, May 1, 1919. 

Delivery of wet concrete, from a central crushing and mixing plant, to the 
road surface, by motor trucks, over hauls ranging from }^i mile to four miles, 
was satisfactorily accomplished on the Belair Road of the Maryland State 
Road Commission. By this method extensive rehandling of materials was 
dispensed with, thus reducing the cost, and the speed of the trucks was such 
that for the distances named there was no apparent injury to the quality of 
the concrete mixture. The maximum time required to transport the concrete 
from the mixer to the road was 35 minutes. 

The work under consideration, was the building of a 3-ft. strip of concrete 
8 in. thick on each side of the macadam road and connecting it with the old 
road with new macadam. It was undertalien to overcome the spreading 



984 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

action of the traffic by giving support needed at the edges and at the same 
time widen the road which had become too narrow for the heavy motor truck 
freight route. 

After both shoulders were completed, the entire road received a seal coat of 
bituminous material and stone chips, which was allowed to cover the concrete 
shoulder, giving a pavement 20 ft. wide of uniform appearance. 

As there was excellent stone in most of the hills adjacent to the road, the 
contractor decided to save handling labor by mixing the concrete at the quarry 
and hauling it to the road in motor trucks. A location about midway of the 
contract was selected, a quarry was opened and a crushing and mixing plant 
was set up. 

Two portable boilers of the locomotive type were used ; one, a 25-hp. boiler 
and engine, furnished power to run the crusher and mixer, the other, an 18-hp. 
boiler, furnished steam for the rock drills at the quarry and for pumping the 
necessary water for the boilers and the concrete. 

A jaw crusher was placed under the platform upon which the stone from 
the quarry was dumped. After being crushed, the stone was elevated into the 
bin and separated into the desired sizes by a rotary screen. There were three 
general sizes of stone : The chips which passed a ^4-in, screen went into the sand 
bins; the crushed rock passing a 23'^-in. screen went into the coarse aggre- 
gate bin, while the larger stone went out as tailings. What tailings could not 
be used for repairs on the construction road were taken out and again fed 
through the crusher. As the crusher did not produce enough fine material, 
sand was also delivered upon the platform and fed through with the stone and 
elevated Into the sand bin. 

Gravity was utilized to the utmost throughout the operations, from the 
quarry to the mixed product in the truck body. The plant was situated at the 
foot of a hill down which the quarried rock was hauled in carts to the crusher 
platform. After crushing, the stone and sand were fed directly into the mixer 
from the bins, care being taken to proportion them properly. Water was 
supplied from the elevated tank shown in the sketch. The bin and the 
platform for the concrete mixer were placed at such height that the mixer 
could discharge directly into the trucks. 

On the road the dumping of the concrete followed a different plan than 
would be employed if the entire road section were being covered, as in the case 
of constructing a concrete road. As the shoulder which was being con- 
structed was of small section, it was necessary to dump the mixed concrete 
upon the surface of the old road and shovel it into the forms on the side. One 
truck load of concrete filled about 35 ft. of forms, and extra handling was 
necessary, which of course increased the cost above what it would be if an 
entire road suiface were being built. 

Convict labor was utilized for common labor upon this road, a camp being 
built at the quarry to house and feed the laborers. Guards were provided by 
the prison officials for watching the convicts, but the contractor furnished 
the foremen to supervise the work. The contractor reported that this labor 
was quite satisfactory. In the construction of the shoulders steel forms were 
used. 

Approximate costs for carrying work on under this system are given in the 
following table, based upon an average haul of 3.5 miles and the -construction 
of 6,975 ft. of shoulder which was laid in a period of 13 working days. The 
average days work was thus 535 lin. ft. or 179 sq. yds. The cost per day of 
equipment include interest and depreciation. 



ROADS AND PA VEMENTS 985 

Itemized Cost of Laying Three-Foot Concrete Shoulders for Macadam 

Roads 

Quarrying and Crushing Stone per Day 

1 foreman at 65cts. per hour $ 5,85 

1 engineer at 44^cts. per hour 4.00 

1 blacksmith at 44^^cts. per hour 4.00 

17 laborers at 27J^^cts. per hour 42 . 50 

3 carts at 55^^cts. per hour 15 . 00 

Equipment at $7.50 per day 7 . 50 

25 lb. dynamite at 30cts. per pound 7 . 50 

Total cost per day for 36 cubic yards of stone and 4.4 cubic yards of 

dust $86 . 35 

Cost of rock per cubic yard in quarry $ 2 . 137 

Royalty 15 

Total cost rock per cubic yard 2 . 287 

Sand per Day 

Sand in pit, 13.6 cubic yard at 85cts. per cubic yard $11 . 56 

Hauhng sand and cement by truck, $30 per day 30.00 

Three laborers at 27J^^cts. per hour 7 . 50 

Total cost per day $49 . 06 

Total cost per cubic yard $ 3.61 

Mixing Concrete per Day 

3 men at 27 J^^c. per hour $ 7 . 50 

Equipment $7.50 per day 7 . 50 

Total cost per day for 40 cubic yards $15. 00 

Total cost per cubic yard . 375 

Hauling Concrete to Road per Day 

1 truck at $18.00 per day $18.00 

1 truck at 25.00 per day 25.00 

1 truck at 27.50 per day 27 . 50 

Total cost per day for 40 cubic yards $70 . 50 

Total cost per cubic yard $ 1 , 762 

Placing Concrete per Day 

1 foreman at 55^^cts. per hour $ 5. 00 

2 laborers, build forms 27J^^cts. per hour 5. 00 

Placing, 4 laborers at 27J^^cts. per hour 10.00 

Total cost per day for 40 cubic yards $20 . 00 

Total cost per cubic yard .50 

Cost of Concrete in Place per Square Yard 

Cement, 1.5 bbl. at $2.50 $ 3.750 

Sand, 0.34 cubic yard at $3.60 1. 227 

Dust, 0.11 cubic yards at $2.287 252 

Stone, 0.9 cubic yard at $2.287 2 . 058 

Mixing, per cubic yard . 375 

Hauling, per cubic yard 1 . 762 

Placing, per cubic yard . 500 

Total cost per cubic yard $ 9 , 924 

Total cost per square yard, 8 in. thick 2 . 205 

' Grading per Square Yard 

1 foreman at 55^^cts. per hour $ 5.00 

8 laborers at 27J'^cts. per hour 20. 00 

Total for 180 sq. yd $25.00 

Cost per square yard $ . 138 

Total cost per square yard .,....,. 2 , 343 



986 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The construction cost upon the Baltimore-Washington Boulevard for 
similar work but using the ordinary methods was $3.24 per sq. yd. The 
largest saving was in handling materials. Mixing, placing, forms, curing 
and protection on the Boulevard cost 84 cts. per sq. yd., while the same opera- 
tions on the Belair Road cost about 20 cts. per sq. yd. (The average haul for 
the entire road was about 2>^ miles, and the costs given were taken for an 
average haul of 33^ miles. This would also decrease the average cost per 
square yard in place for the entire road.) 

Time Cost of Reinforced Concrete Pavement Construction at Plymouth, 
Wis. — W. G. Kirchoffer gives the following in Engineering and Contracting, 
Aug. 6, 1913. 

Description of Pavement. — The pavement was 40 ft. wide between gutters, 
which were 18 inches wide built integral with the curbs: making total width 
of roadway between curbs 43 ft. The base of the pavement was a 6-in. layer 
of concrete composed of 1 part of cement, S}4 parts of sand and 6 parts of 
crushed rock. Upon this base the reinforcement was laid, which consisted 
of American Steel Wire & Fence Co.'s woven wire mesh No. 7. This was laid 
in strips at right angles to the direction of the street and covered the entire 
surface from gutter to gutter. 

The surface or wearing coat was 1^ ins. in thickness and was placed directly 
upon the fabric. It was composed of 1^ parts of crushed granite and 1 part 
of cement. The crushed granite was in two sizes; 3^ to ^ in. and H in. 
down to dust. These were proportioned so as to make the most dense 
mixture. 

The surface coat was troweled smooth after being brought to the proper 
crown by a screed. It was then sprinkled with dry cement, if in a wet condi- 
tion, after which the surface of the pavement was covered with granite chips 
ranging in size from 3^ to ^ in. These were cast on by hand or with a shovel. 
Wherever these did not sink into the surface of the pavement, they were 
lightly tamped with a float or trowel. 

The pavement was cut up into squares 40 ft. each way by expansion joints. 
In place of the usual joint of tar or asphaltum, 1-in. "pecky" cypress boards 
were used. These were 8 ins. wide and placed along each gutter, and every 
40 ft. at right angles to the street. "Pecky" cypress is a species of cypress 
that has the appearance of being worm eaten or partially rotten. It was 
adopted because of its durability. 

Methods of Construction. — The Curb and gutter were constructed previous 
to the excavation for the pavement. After the subgrade has been completed 
and rolled for a distance of a block or more, the laying of the pavement was 
begun. The cypress boards which were to constitute the expansion joints 
were used as an outside form for the curb and gutter and as templates in form- 
ing the crown of the street, thus saving the use of considerable lumber as well 
as time in placing and removing it. 

The base concrete was laid in sections 40 ft. square and enough in advance 
of the wearing coat to allow the cement to get its initial set. Then the rein- 
forcement and wearing coat were placed in 40-ft. sections. No travel was 
allowed on the completed work for a period of 10 days after laying and the 
surface was kept moist by spraying with garden hose. 

Time to Complete Work. — Work on the excavation for curb and gutter was 
begun May 25, 1910, and on the curb and gutter proper June 4 and was com- 
plete on June 12, a total of 25 working days. The grading for the pavement 
was begun June 13 and the laying of the pavement on July 19, The entire 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 987 

pavement was complete Sept 3, a total time of 80 working days from the time 
of beginning the curb and gutter. 

During the time this pavenjent was under construction, a careful record was 
kept of the actual time put in upon each kind of work. The total number of 
square yards in the pavemerjt was 10,786.22 and the total number of feet of 
curb and gutter was 4,648.2; the time required to perform each part of the 
work and the hours required to lay 1,000 sq. yds. of pavement or 1,000 lin. ft. 
of curb and gutter is given in the accompanying table. 

This pavement is now nearly three years old, has passed through three 
winters and there is not the sign of a crack or a flaw in it any place, not even 
along the street Car tracks. 

The use of the woven wire mesh has demonstrated the fact that it is possible 
to construct a concrete pavement so that it will not crack along the center of 
the street, a thing which has happened so generally in other places. This new 
form of surface is not slippery and does not wear perceptibly. The expansion 
joints have worn off some but not enough to show any abrasion of the concrete 
along the edges of the boards. 

This pavement was designed by Mr. Kirchoffer, and was constructed by 
contract under his supervision. The contract price was 48 cts. per linear foot 
for the curb and gutter and 1.233'^ per square yard for the pavement complete, 
including the excavation. 

Table XXVI.— Actual Time in Hours Per 1,000 Sq. Yds. and Per 1,000 Lin. 
Ft. for Constructing Concrete Pavement and Curb and Gutter, 
Plymouth, Wisconsin 






O" C O*^ ,3^ H^ H*^ 

Teams 4.3 159.4 48.3 108 156.3 163.7 

Laborers 271 93.5 212 696 908 364.5 

Foreman 19.4 140 9.3 98 107.3 159.4 

Timekeeper 15.2 6.0 41.8 41.8 21.2 

Engineer and roller 15.2 16.5 16.5 15.2 

Carpenter's setting: 

Forms for curb and gutter 125 125 

Expansion joints and stakes 39. 1 39. 1 

Engineer and mixer 6.0 56.8 56.8 6.0 

Total square yards pavement, 10,786.22; linear feet of curb and gutter, 4.648.2. 
Wages paid: Laborers, $1.90 per day; foreman, $4.00 per day; timekeeper, 
$2.00 per day; engineers, $2.25 per day; teams, $4.50 per day; carpenters, $2.00 
per day. 

Cost of Concrete Road with Bituminous Wearing Surface in California. — 
The following data, taken from an article by C. L. Rakestraw published in 
Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 11, 1914, were accumulated in constructing 
14 miles of state highway from Healdsburg to Santa Rosa, California. 

Breaking up Old Roads.-^Most of the construction was over old roads, and 

the breaking up of the old road surface was necessary. These old surfaces 

were often quite hard, due to years of compacting by traffic. When old ma- 

■ cadam is 6 to 10 ins. thick and has been compacted from three to five years, it Is 

practically impossible to break up the crust by teams and plows. First, the 





bC 


o c 




T3 a 


5^ 






159.4 


48.3 


108 


93.5 


212 


696 


140 


9.3 


98 


6.0 




41.8 



988 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

line of teams (16 to 20 horses) will be so long that three or four drivers are 
necessary, and it is much trouble to turn the line around. Second, the power 
from this hne of teams will be so unsteady that it is very hard for the four 
plow men to guide the rooter or plow. The following, based on actual work, 
is the cost of hard rooting, using teams: 

Item — Cost per day 

20 head, rent with harness, at 50 cts $10 . 00 

20 head, feed and lodging, at 50 cts 10 . 00 

4 teamsters, at $3.25 13 . 00 

4 plow men, at $2.75 11 . 00 

Depreciation on equipment ,. . . . 32 

Sharpening 10 plow points, at 20 cts 1 . 00 

Supervision, supt. $1 and foreman 50 cts 1 . 50 

Total $46. 62 

This outfit would root about 1,000 ft. per day, and the cost per lineal foot 
was therefore about 4.7 cts. Compared with this, an 18-ton Kelly Spring- 
field road roller would, with the same rooter and points, but with only three 
plow men, root 1,500 ft. per day at the following cost: 

Item Cost per day 

Roller, including depreciation $10. 00 

Engineer 4 . 00 

Fuel, oil, grease 2 , 35 

Depreciation, plow and points . 32 

Sharpening 13 plow points, at 10 cts 1 . 30 

Supervision, supt., $1, and foreman, 50 cts 1 . 50 

3 plow men at $3.75 8 . 25 

Total $27 . 72 

Total per lineal foot 1 . 85 cts 

Comparison of the two statements shows in favor of road roller rooting a 
saving of 2.83 cts. per lineal foot, or $149.42 per mile of road. These figures 
are for hard rooting. When a roadway has only about 2 ins. of macadam on 
the surface it can easily be rooted with twelve head of horses and a road plow 
or rooter at a very reasonable cost, as shown by the following statement: 

Item Cost per day 

12 head rent with harness, at 50 cts $ 6. .00 

12 head, feed and lodging, at 50 cts 6 . 00 

2 teamsters, at $3.25 6. 50 

3 plow men at $2.75 8.25 

Depreciation in plow, points, etc 0. 32 

Sharpening 15 points at 10 cts. 1 . 50 

Supervision, supt., $1, and foreman, 50 cts 1 . 50 

Total $30.07 

Total per lineal foot 1.67 cts 

This outfit will plow 1,800 ft. per day, and the unit cost given above is 
based on this output of work. For thin macadam, rooting by horses is the 
cheapest method, and it has the additional advantage that the travel of the 
horses breaks up the clods from the plow. When a rooter is used for rooting 
it is generally the practice to run a 6-horse plow back and forth through the 
material until all the larger lumps are broken, and it is in shape for the road 
graders and fresnoes to handle readily. The difference in hardness of the . 
macadam will not affect the output of the steam roller, because the roller has a 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 989 

fixed rate of speed, and can accomplish only the fixed amount of rooting, 
whether in a soft or hard material. 

Rough Grading. — After breaking up the old road surface, it was rough- 
graded to within 0.1 ft. of the required grade when rolled for the whole width 
of the road, including the shoulders. If the shoulders are graded at this 
time the material is handled with fewer teams than if the grading is done after 
the concrete is laid. Also the constant compacting of the shoulders by work 
teams during the concreting puts them in better shape, and ensures a more 
uniform appearance. 

Staking and Placing Side Forms. — After the rough grade had been brought 
to within 0.1 ft. of exact elevation, the grade and line stakes were set. The 
road being particularly described had a 15-ft. pavement 4 in. thick with a 
43^-ft. shoulder on each side. The concrete base has a crown of 2^ ins., the 
arc of the crowning being a parabola. From the edges of the concrete slab 
the shoulders slope straight, dropping 4 ins. in 43.^ ft. 

The location of the side forms was 7K ft. from the crown, and with their 
top edges 2}^i ins., or 0.21 ft., lower than the crown elevation shown in the 
profile. Two lines of grade stakes were employed, a line 93^^ ft. each side of 
the center line and 2 ft. out on each side from the side forms for the concrete 
roadway. These 2-ft. intervals gave ample room to set and peg the side 
forms without disturbing the grade stakes; also the carpenters in setting the 
side forms with a 30-in. spirit level could notch the level 2 ft. from the end, 
and with it alone adjust the form board both to distance and grade, working 
from the grade stakes. The carpenter setting side forms required only a 
spirit level and a hammer. 

The side forms were handled usually by two men at $2.75 per day and two 
men at $2.50 per day. These could place, line up and fasten about 800 ft. 
on each side, or 1,600 ft. of side forms per day at the following costs: 

Item Cost per day 

2 carpenters at $2.75 $ 5 . 50 

2 helpers at $2.50 5. 00 

* 1,680 ft. 2 X 4-in. plank at $26 per M ft. B. M • 9 . 27 

Nails, etc . 23 

200 stakes at 1 ct 2 . 00 

Interest and depreciation 0.15 

Superintendent, $1 ; foreman, 50 cts 1 . 50 

Total for 800 ft. of road $23 . 65 

Per lineal foot of road 2.96 cts. 

* Boards used three times, so one-third of total cost is charged. 

Subgrade Construction. — After the side forms were placed and checked, 
material was filled between them to the proper depth to give the correct 
cross-sectional profile when properly rolled. When the rolling was com- 
pleted, the surface was checked by means of a template and when there were 
variations of consequence from the true grade the surface was harrowed and 
material added or removed as required. 

The cost of reshaping subgrade varies so much with the material that its 
tabulation by items is impossible. It runs, however, about ^i ct. per square 
foot for a 15-ft. pavement; this cost is exclusive of grading, excavation and fill. 
Excavation, where it consists of shaving off a thin layer of crust here and there, 
costs about 80 cts. to 90 cts. per cubic yard. 

Mixing and Laying Concrete. — The specifications called for a 1:2:4 broken 
stone concrete and stated the sizes of stone and sand. With the undertaking 



990 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

of work it was found that a natural gravel pit existed at Healdsburg and that 
the company operating this pit had faciUties for furnishing promptly this 
gravel in any quantity demanded by the work. The gravel was exceptionally 
clean washed gravel, well graded and dense. Gravel was, therefore, sub- 
stituted for broken stone. It cost delivered to any railway siding along 
the work 72 cts. per cubic yard. The average haul from railway to the work 
was 1}4 miles, and the cost of hauling was 63 cts. per cubic yard, or 41 cts. 
per yard mile. This cost of haul seems high, but it is accounted for by the 
weight of the gravely 3,300 lbs. per cubic yard, and by the fact that crooked 
roadB prevented haulage in wagon train by traction engines and made team 
hauling necessary. 

Using this gravel and a 1 : 6 mixture, it was determined that 96 sacks of 
cement would make 100 ft. of 15 ft. by 4 in. pavement. The plan adopted 
was to pile the gravel continuously along the middle of the subgrade and place 
the cement in four-sack piles spaced 4 ft. apart. A cleat was riveted to 
the inside of the mixer charging hopper to indicate a two-sack batch of 1 : 6 
mix. Six men using square-pointed shovels charged the gravel and one 
man charged the cement. Golden Gate cement in cloth bags was used; 
paper sacks broke easily and carried water, and also the fog loosened the paste, 
letting the sacks open and admit dampness. 

The mixer traveled on 3 ft. X 3 in. redwood sills, which could be shifted 
easily and often enough to guide the mixer well. This runway was located 
midway between side forms, which shifted the discharge chute slightly off 
center, but not enough to inconvenience the concreters. As the mixer was 
operated some IH days behind the subgrade finishing crew, the subgrade 
surface had opportunity to dry out, and consequently it was wetted down 
ahead of the concrete laying, so that moisture would not be sucked by the 
soil from the concrete. 

The concrete was distributed by the chute, and also shoveled against the 
side forms, special care being taken to well spade and dump the concrete 
against the forms, so as to ensure an exceptionally dense and strong concrete 
next the shoulders, where severest wear comes. No expansion joints were 
used. 

By leaving out the expansion joints and letting the expansion of the pave- 
ment itself break the pavement, we have the maximum of this pavement 
in the largest possible slabs. Now, after cleaning the concrete slab for the 
application of the wearing surface, specially clean these cracks and pour hot 
or heavy asphaltic road oil into them; this will form a perfect expansion joint. 

The cost of the concrete base laid as outlined above was as follows : 



Item Cost per day 

1 foreman at $4 $ 4 . 00 

1 engineman at $3 3 . 00 

10 shovelers at $2.75 27 . 50 

1 cement man at $2.75 2,75 

2 finishers at $3 6. 00 

Depreciation of plant and tools. .9 . 00 

Cost of water 6.13 

Total $57 . 38 

The average daily run of concrete pavement was 550 lin. ft., or 101.85 cu. 
yds. The above statement of costs is a statement of costs with concrete 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 991 

materials — cement and gravel — delivered onto the subgrade ready for use, 
and they give the following unit costs: 

Per Hn. ft., 15-ft. roadway 10.4 cts. 

Per cu. yd. of concrete 56 . 3 cts. 

Method and Cost of Securing Water. — All w^ater used on this work had to be 
, pumped. A line of 2-in. boiler pipe in 8-ft. lengths vi^as laid along the work 
and provided with 1-in. taps at 50-ft. intervals. This pipe line was torn up 
and laid ahead as pumping stations were moved and as the work progressed; 
two men at a daily cost of $5 were employed continuously at this work. 
All pumping stations but one were located at adjacent streams, and the water 
supply cost nothing except for pumps and pumping. In one case an 180-ft. 
well was bored at a cost of $380; this well supplied 100,000 gals, per day 
during the driest part of the year for about five miles of the road. The cost 
per day of supplying water was as follows: 

Item Cost per day 

1 gas engine pump man at $2.75 $ 2. 75 

2 gas engine pump men at $2.50 5. 00 

2 pipe layers at $2.50 5. 00 

Int. and dep. on 17,000 ft. of pipe and engine 2.00 

Fuel and oil on gasoline pump 2. 15 

Superintendent, $1 ; foreman, 50 cts 1 . 50 

Total $18.40 

Water was used in about equal quantities for (1) mixing concrete; (2) curing 
concrete and (3) wetting subgrade; of the above total cost, therefore, one- 
third or $6.13, was charged to each service. 

Finishing and Curing. — Several methods of finishing and curing the con- 
crete slab were investigated. The first plan was: Six hours after placing to 
broom with a steel broom the surface and so roughen it that the bituminous 
covering would cling. After twelve hours sprinkling began and the concrete 
was kept moist. While this plan might have been satisfactory in winter or 
wet weather it did not give good results in the summer which was the time 
of year the work was done. The concrete could not be kept evenly moist and 
also much water ran off and was wasted. The second plan was to broom the 
concrete as in the first plan, then build earth dams along the pavement edges, 
then wet down the concrete, then cover it with 2 ins. of earth and water the 
covering until saturated and the water showed in pools. By this plan the 
moisture was better distributed, it was more obvious to common laborers when 
more wetting was needed, and there was less loss of water by evaporation and 
run off. A third plan tried and abandoned was: after brooming the concrete, 
to sprinkle it and cover it with heavy building paper held down by clods and 
stones. The idea was to remove the paper, resprinkle and replace the paper 
every night for seven nights, the standard curing period. It was anticipated 
that the paper would prevent evaporation, reduce labor as compared with 
shoveling in earth and building dams, be quick in application, eliminate 
attention during the day and offer several other advantages. The plan did 
reduce labor but the paper was torn off in places by the wind and did not pro- 
tect the pavement from drying out in spots. It was no better than the 
first plan. 



992 HANDBOOK OF C^ONSTRUCriON COST 

A fourth plan was finally devised which eliminated most of the faults of pre- 
ceding plans. First, levees were built along the edges and over the side forms 
in such position that about one-third the width of the embankment fell inside 
the form board and over the concrete. These side levees were built high 
enough to hold a-depth of water of 2 ins. over the crown of the slab. At suit- 
able intervals depending upon the grade, cross levees connecting the side 
levees were built. These levees divided the pavement into a series of basins 
which could be filled with water. On superelevated curves in addition to 
cross levees a number of parallel longitudinal levees were built. 

Referring to some of the details noted above: The purpose of building the 
side levees two-thirds outside the side forms is two-fold: First, about one- 
third the width of the levee becomes saturated and this third is over the 
concrete slab which requires wetting. Second, the form boards can be lifted 
out for reuse leaving two-thirds of the levee intact to maintain the reservoir. 
Besides being required for hydraulic reasons the division by cross levees into 
small basins serves the purpose of confining loss of water by a levee break to a 
small area of pavement; restoration is also thus facilitated. Also in construc- 
tion the workman can let one basin be filling while he is building the succeed- 
ing levees. 

This method of watering concrete pavement had the following advantages 
over the second described and next most successful method: (1) It required 
less labor to construct cross levees than to cover the slab all over with 2 ins. of 
earth; (2) the wetted black earth covering suffers greater loss by evaporation 
than does the heat refiecting water surface ; (3) all the pavement is water 
covered while an earth covering may dry out in spots and absorb water from 
the concrete; (4) all work is done at night when water is needed for no other 
purpose, while an earth covering has to be sprinkled continuously; (5) one 
filling of the basins suffices for the total curing while an earth covering has to 
be wetted frequently; (6) the levees suffice as barriers notifying drivers not to 
cross the work, while with earth covering separate barriers are necessary; 
(7) the filling of the basins, however, must be more carefully done so as not to 
wash the concrete than when earth covering is used; the best method is 
to let the hose stream run on a sack laid on the pavement. 

The cost of curing concrete pavement by the methods described are given 
by Table XXVII; in this table method three being considered not practical 
is omitted, also its cost is about the same as that for method one. It is seen 
from Table XXVII, that method four is far the cheapest. 

Table XXVII. — Cost of Curing Concrete Pavement 

Method Method Method 

No. 1 No. 2 N6. 4 

1 man at $2.75 per day $2.75 $2.75 

Men at $2.50 per day $12.50 17.50 10.00 

Depreciation, shovels, etc . 40 . 80 0.65 

Cost of water 6.13 6.13 6.13 

Supervision, supt. & foreman — 1 . 50 1 . 50 1 . 50 

Total cost 1st day $20.03 $28.68 $20.53 

Lineal feet covered 300 550 650 

Cost per lin. ft., 1st day $0,067 $0,052 $0,037 

Cost of each consecutive day . 067 . 052 . 005 

Total cost of curing, 7 days, per lin.f t. pavement 0. 469 0. 364 0. 067 

The side form boards were removed seven days after placing the concrete; 
this work cost about 1 ct. per lineal foot of pavement. The earth levees were 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 993 

left in place about a week longer and were then removed, usually with a 
four-horse road scraper and at a cost of about 0.3 ct. per lineal foot of pave- 
ment- With the same scraper the shoulders were brought as near as prac- 
ticable to grade and then they were finished by hand. Constructing shoulders 
cannot easily be figured in cubic yard units but if they are brought to shape 
with the rough grading as previously described the work will cost exclusive of 
rolling, about 5 cts. per hneal foot of pavement and including rolling about 
6 cts. per lineal foot of pavement. 

SUMMARY OF COST 

Summarizing the costs previously given, the following tabulation is 
obtained: 

Per ft. road 

Tearing up old roadway with rooter and plows $ . 0283 

Placing form-boards (after exc. and emb. have been done) 0.0296 

Handling and preparing sub grade with rolling 0. 0375 

Cost of pouring and finishing 4-in. concrete base 0. 1043 

Cost of curing and finishing (Method No. 4) , 0. 0670 

Cost of removing form-boards 0. 0100 

Cost of cleaning earth off pavement 0. 0030 

Cost of preparing shoulders . 0600 

Actual cost per lineal foot. $ 0. 3397 

Actual cost per mile $1 , 793 . 62 

10 pet. for contingencies 179 . 36 

Total cost per mile , $1 ,972.98 



These costs are exclusive of costs of materials and of excavation and fill. 

Organization and Output of a Gang Laying Concrete Base for Asphalt 
Pavement. — W. D. Jones gives the following in Engineering and Contracting, 
July 5, 1916. 

In paving a street with 6 in. of concrete, 1 in. of binder, and 2 in. of asphalt 
wearing surface at Los Angeles Harbor, California, the contractors for the 
work, had the following output, plant and organization for one working day of 
8 hours with good clear running and no important stops. • 

The mix was 1 : 3 : 6 of cement, sand and crushed rock, respectively, and was 
mixed in batches by a No. 14 Chicago Street Paver having a charging skip and 
a revolving spout for discharge. The base on which concrete was laid had 
previously been prepared and stakes driven with tops 2 in. under the sub- 
grade in order that they might be worked over. Planks 2 in. X 10 in. were 
laid out ahead and concrete materials, in quantity necessary per foot of 
street, piled on these for ease in shoveling to wheelbarrows. Cement was 
piled alongside the street at intervals necessary for handling to the mixer, as 
the work progressed, by hand. Fourteen wagons hauled the necessary 
materials from stock piles about 3^ mile away, over dirt road. Occasionally 
an extra load had to be brought in close to the mixer or one taken away in 
order to correct error in gaging the quantity necessary, by wagon loads, but 
as a rule the measurements checked out pretty well. Two men shoveling into 
one sand barrow and four men into two rock barrows kept the mixer supplied 
with sand and rock, the men taking turns at wheeling the barrows up the 
incline to dump into charging skip. One cement man fed mixer and his 
helper carried sacks from the storage piles mentioned above to the platform 
63 



994 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



on which he stood. One wagon with body removed, one teamster and two 
men were kept busy taking out planks after the mixer had passed over and 
before they were covered with concrete, and hauhng them ahead and placing 
them for additional material as the work progressed. One man put in and 
maintained the header boards which limited the edge of the pavement and 
another was kept busy between grading and cleaning up in the wake of the 
mixer and in driving stakes to the grade of the finished surface of the street; 
this was done by measuring up from the tops of stakes previously driven below 



I Tamping and Watering] Note •- 6 Spreaders for 50' 
f^oo Street 5 forE4'5treet 




Fig. 13. — Diagram of gang organization. 



subgrade, all stakes having been driven the same distance below finished 
grade. One man attended to the discharging spout and three men to leveling 
and working the concrete to place 3 in. below the finished surface of the street. 
Three men took care of this end when the street was 24 ft. wide or narrower but 
more men were necessary in laying a wider pavement, six being necessary on a 
50-ft. street, the cost having been observed on a 24-ft. section. One man 
followed up after concrete was fairly hard and roughened the surface of the 



I 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 995 

concrete with a triangular stamp in order to give a better bond with the 
binder; he also put up barriers and wet down the concrete. In eight working 
hours 13,000 sq. ft. of 6-in. base was laid with this mixer and organization. 
This amounts to 241 cu. yd. for the day and to 1 cu. yd. every 2 minutes. The 
organization and cost summarized is as follows: 

1 foreman at $4 $ 4 . 00 

1 engineer at $3.50 3. 50 

1 checker at $3 3.00 

1 cl. helper at $2.25 '. 2 . 25 

14 teams and drivers at $5 70 . 00 

6 rock men at $2.75 16.50 

3 sand men at $2.75 8.25 

1 cement man at $2.75 2.75 

1 cement helper at $2.50 2. 50 

1 header, boards, at $2.50 2 . 50 

1 team, driver and helper at $7.50 7 . 50 

1 plank man at $2.50 2.50 

1 stake man at $2.50 2 . 50 

1 spout man at $2.50 2 . 50 

3 leveling at $2.50 7 . 50 

1 tamp and water at $200 2 . 00 

Total labor $139.75 

241 cu. yd Per cu. yd. 0.58 

Total labor exclusive of hauling material to site. 69 . 75 

Total labor exclusive of hauling material to site. Per 

cu.yd 0.29 



The diagram, Fig. 13, shows distribution of organization about the mixer. 

Comparative Cost of Concreting Pavement of Street Railway Right of Way, 
Using Batch Machine, Continuous Mixer and Hand Mixing. — The following 
costs, given by S. Gausmann, formerly Roadmaster of the Brooklyn Rapid 
Transit Company, New York, in Engineering Record, April 10, 1915, are 
based on doing work with no car interference. These costs will be somewhat 
increased under car operation, with machines outside the tracks, or decreased 
with machines of larger capacity. 

The freight rates for hauling machines to and from work are in accordance 
with rates approved by the Public Service Commission of the State of New 
York, First District, and include the total cost of maintenance of the car 
equipment, cost of trackage and overhead line rights and office expenses of the 
freight department. These rates vary according to the length of haul, the 
figures given being for an average haul.. This haulage cost would be con- 
siderably reduced where the track department does its own handling of 
material, etc., and where only the wages of crews are charged against it instead 
of having the freight department make a general charge per car-mile. 

Cost with Batch Mixer. — The batch mixer, for which the following costs for 
operation are given, is of 0.5 cu. yd. capacity. It can be bought for $1300, 
mounted on a car, and is electrically operated as to mixing only, so that it 
must be hauled to and from the work daily. 

The number of men employed and their rates per hour in operating a ma- 
chine of this character are: One assistant foreman, 25 cents; one operator, 
25 cents; four laborers, 20 cents; six laborers, 18 cents; fourteen laborers, 
16 cents; one checker of time and material, 15 cents, or a total cost of $47.70 
for one day of ten hours. This cost is distributed to the various operations 
as follows: 



996 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cost Per Day for Gang on One Batch Machine 

Operation of the machine $ 2 . 50 

Watching mix and dumping 4 . 25 

Handling material to the machine 13 . 50 

Removing and placing the track 22 . 10 

Ramming and tamping under the rail 3 . 85 

Checking 1 . 50 

Total $47.70 

Add other charges: 

Overtime for cleaning , $ . 90 

Interest on investment .58 

Freight to and from work 6 . 25 

Lubricants, repairs and incidentals 2 . 33 

$10.06 

Total $57.76 

A gang of this size will average in a ten-hour day approximately 675 ft. of 
single track with concrete 7 in. deep. The area, with 6 X 8-in. X 8-ft. ties 
spaced 2 ft. center to center is equal to 94.22 cu. yd., making the unit cost 
$0,613 per cubid yard, exclusive of material. 

Cost with Continuous Mixer. — A good continuous mixer of a standard 
make can be purchased for $560. Although such mixers are suppUed on 
wheels for use at the side of the track, a good car with old pony wheels and a 
wooden frame can be made for approximately $30, thus bringing the total 
cost to less than $590. This cost is for a gasohne-operated machine, but an 
electrically operated one is preferable. Provided an old motor is obtainable, 
the first cost will vary but little from gasoline, whereas the cost of operation 
will be less. 

As a machine of this kind is easily derailed it need not be removed from the 
street daily, and can be left on the work continuously ready for use at any 
time, with no outlay for freight charges until it is required at other points. 

The number of men employed, and their rates per hour, in operating one of 
these machines are: One assistant foreman, 25 cents; one operator, 25, cents; 
two laborers, 20 cents; three laborers, 18 cents; eight laborers, 16 cents; one 
checker of time and material, 15 cents, or a total cost of $28.70 for a ten-hour 
day. This cost is distributed to the various operations as follows: 

Cost Per Day for Gang on Continuous Mixer 

Operation of machine $ 2 . 50 

Handling material to machine ' 10. 20 

Distributing in track *. . 12. 10 

Ramming and tamping under rail 2 . 40 

Checking 1 . 50 

$28.70 
Add other charges: 

Overtime for cleaning $ . 50 

Interest on investment . . .26 

Freight to and from work 1 . 25 

Gasoline, oil and repairs 2 . 25 

$ 4.26 

Total $32.96 

This gang will average 430 ft. of single track per ten-hour day, with con- 
crete 7 in. deep. This area, with 6 X 8-in. X 8-ft. ties spaced 2 ft. center tq 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 997 

center is equivalent to 60.054 cu. yd., making the unit cost S0.5488 per cubic 
yard, exclusive of material. 

Mixing by Hand. — Of course, in mixing by hand the number of men em- 
ployed may vary, but for an illustration we may assume that as many are 
employed as on the continuous mixer, exclusive of the operator. The cost 
then would be distributed to the various operations as follows: 

Mixing by Hand 

Distributing material and mixing $10. 50 

Distributing in the track 11 . 80 

Ramming and tamping under the rail 2 . 40 

Checking , 1 . 50 

$26.20 

This number of men in a ten-hour day will average 225 ft. of single track 
with concrete 7 in. deep which, with 6 X 8-in. X 8-ft. ties spaced 2 ft. center 
to center, amounts to 32.77 cu. yd., equivalent to a unit cost of 80 cents per 
cubic yard. 

The foregoing figures were obtained from many years' experience in this 
line and from carefully collected data. While they may not apply to all 
locations, the costs can be easily adjusted to meet any conditions from the 
information given. 

Portable Frame for Canvas Covering for Concrete Road Construction 
(Engineering and Contracting, Dec. 3, 1919). — A simple portable frame for 
supporting the canvas covering used in concrete road construction before the 
earth protection is applied is described in a recent issue of The Concrete 
Highway Magazine. Details of the arrangement are shown in Fig. 14. 

'/^x 4'' Contin uous 




-e'jie''^/a"- 4-o''o.c. 

- 2x0" Coniinuous 

Fig. 14. — Cross section showing construction of frames and methods of support- 
ing them on side forms. 

A sawhorse of the required height was set up in the center of a completed 
section of concrete road and 1 by 4-in. transverse members laid across it. 
The ends were then bent down until they touched the side forms and nailed to 
2 by 6-in. longitudinal runners. A 1 by 4-in. continuous strip was nailed to 
the truss members at the top so as to hold them rigidly and uniformly spaced. 

The lower or horizontal wire was attached to one side by winding it around 
a cleat securely nailed in place. In order to spring the other side into position, 
a crowbar was used. The wire was wrapped around a cleat and then attached 
to the bar, which was used as a lever until the wire was taut enough and the 
cleat had been nailed down. This was continued until all horizontal wires had 
been placed. Additional strength and rigidity were obtained by connecting 
the crown of the truss with the horizontal wire by a vertical wire. Cleats 2 by 



998 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

6 by 12 in. were placed under the side braces at intervals of 4 ft., to facilitate 
handling. Eight of these supports were made in units 25 ft. long. 
The cost of 200 lin. ft. of the supports was: 

Lumber, 1,500 ft. B. M. at $50. $ 75.00 

Wire, nails, etc 3 . 00 

Labor, 3 men, 2 days, at $4 24 . 00 

Total (200 lin. ft. at 51 cts.) $102 . 00 

The frame was devised by G. J. Lynch of Reagon & Lynch, Contractors 
Uniontown, Pa., and was used on the construction of a portion of State High- 
way Route No. 116, near Smithfield, Pa. Mr. Lynch gives the following 
figures showing the cost of shifting the canvas: 

Eight men and one foreman working one hour were necessary to shift 200 ft. 
of canvas until these supporting frames had been devised. Now the same 
work is accomplished in 15 minutes. The covering is moved three times a 
day. The following table gives comparative costs between old and new 
methods : 

Cost of shifting canvas without supports: 

8 men, 3 hours, at 40 cts $ 9 . 60 

1 foreman, 3 hours, at 60 cts 1 . 80 

Total $1 1 . 40 

Average daily yardage 600 

Unit cost per sq. yd 1.9 ct. 

Cost of shifting canvas with supports: 

8 men, ^ hour, at 40 cts $ 2.40 

1 foreman, ^ hour, at 50 cts .45 

Total $ 2 . 85 

Unit cost per sq. yd 0.475 cts. 

Cost of Removing Old Concrete Pavement. — The following data are based 
on an article published in Engineering and Contracting, May 3, 1916. 

A length of 410 ft. of concrete pavement constructed in 1913 as a portion of 
what is known as the Byberry and Bensalem Service Test Road was in 1915 
removed because of rapid wear and replaced by new concrete. The original 
pavement was 5 in. thick of 1:3:6 concrete. The amount of pavement 
removed was 792 sq. yd. or 110 cu. yd. It was removed by hand using bars 
and sledges. The cost of removal was 29.67 cts. per square yard or about $2.08 
per cubic yard. The labor cost of reconstructing this pavement was 21.46 cts. 
per sq. yd., thus the cost of removing the old concrete cost about 38,2 per 
cent more than the labor cost of a new pavement. 

Cost of Redressing Granite-Blocks for Pavements. — The following data, 
published in Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 14, 1914, are taken from a 
discussion of the use of blocks from old granite block pavements by Wm. A. 
Howell before the American Society of Municipal Improvements. 

The old blocks used on the 1914 jobs in Newark range in length from 10 to 
14 ins. 

A blockmaker can in a day's work of 8 hrs. nap and reclip 175 large blocks 
into 350 small ones. It costs the contractor $15.00 per thousand for the small 
blocks, or $30.00 per thousand for the large ones. These blocks run 21 to the 
square yard, or 42 to the yard for the small ones. 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 999 

A rough detailed estimate of the cost of this kind of pavement, which would 
permit of a variation of possibly 10 to 15 cents, would be about as follows: 

Cost per 

Item sq. yd. 

Paid city at 3 cts. each $0. 63 

Paid clippers for work ,63 

Laying and handling .20 

Sand .05 

Concrete .65 

Grading .10 

Hauling .10 

Grouting .* • ... .12 

Cost per sq. yd. (21 blocks required) $2 . 48 

The following is taken from Engineering Record, Dec. 14," 1914. During 
the last two years extensive areas of granite block pavement have been taken 
up, redressed and relaid by the Baltimore Municipal Paving Commission. 
The expense of removing, dressing and relaying the block has been less than 
two-thirds the prevailing price for new granite-block surface. 

The old stones were of the usual heavy type, many as large as 14 in. in 
length, 6 in. in width and 8 in. in depth. The broken blocks are from 43^ in. 
to 6 in. deep, and those which are less than 3 in. in either surface dimension are 
not used. 

As much of the old block was laid on streets bearing a light traffic only, little 
trouble is experienced because of the operations of the working gangs. From 
the old pavements the blocks, which are sand filled, are removed with crow- 
bars and placed convenient to the cutters, who work in the street, producing 
about 225 of the small blocks per 8-hr. day. The price for redressing is 
about 2'^i cents per block, although, as the work has been let in many con- 
tracts, this price varies somewhat. The renovated blocks are carried to the 
heavy-traffic streets on which they are to be used. They are then laid in 
transverse courses on a 6-in. l:Zyi:7 concrete foundation with a 2-in. sand 
cushion. The joints are grouted with a 1:1 mortar, a thin coat of which is 
finally applied to the surface. TraJfiBc is kept off the completed pavement for 
14 days. 

During 1913 there were laid of this new paving about 5,000 sq. yd., and in 
1914, to Nov. 1, 3,900 sq. yd. Approximate costs per square yard of finished 
pavement for this surface are as follows: Breaking up old pavements, $0.09; 
recutting, $1.00; hauling, laying and grouting, $0.71; total unit cost, $1.80. 
As the old blocks have practically no value unless used in this way, the cost 
of laying the recut prisms, exclusive of foundation, may be compared with that 
for improved granite block, exclusive of foundation. As an average figure for 
the latter in Baltimore is $2.80, recutting means a saving of 36 per cent. 

Paving Blocks Cut from Old Granite Block Wall (Engineering and Contract- 
ing, July 3, 1918). — The problem of disposing of a masonry wall around 
the old City Hall at San Francisco was solved by cutting the stone into paving 
blocks. The work was done by hand and the paving blocks were produced 
at a cost of $37.50 per 1,000. The men were paid $6 per day. About 75,000 
6 in. deep by 7 to 8 in. long and 3 to 4M in. wide paving blocks were obtained. 

Cost of Grouting Granite Block Pavement. — The following matter is given 
in Engineering and Contracting, Nov. 3, 1915. 

The value of grout joint filler for granite block pavement has been much 
discussed with great difference of opinion. Grout filling is extensively 



1000 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

employed and this discussion considers only that fact in presenting methods 
and costs of grouting. As no general and much less no standard practice has 
been determined, information is best given by citing individual examples. 
These do not cover all places in which grouted granite block paving 
is employed but they fairly represent grouting practice. 

Lawrence, Mass. — The method of grouting is as follows: After the blocks, 
3K to 4 ins. wide, 7 to 8 ins. deep and 11 to 13 ins. long are set, they are 
stiffened in place by ramming with a small amount of pea gravel, perhaps 
an inch in depth, in the joints. The grout is a 1 cement and 1 sand mixture 
and is mixed in iron boxes designed and patented by Paul Hannagan, Director 
of Engineering. When thoroughly mixed, the grout is discharged onto the 
pavement and then broomed grout is removed from the tops of the blocks. 
In a test made in 1912, it was found that 0.108 bbl. of cement was used per 
square yard of pavement. The cement cost $1.08 per barrel; pea gravel cost 
about $2.30 per cubic yard and sand cost $1.00 per cubic yard. With wages 
at $2.25 per day, the labor cost of grouting was 6.4 cts. per square yard of 
pavement; the total cost per square yard was 26^ cts. Data reported by 
City Engineer Arthur D. Marble. 

Lowell, Mass. — This city has about SH miles of grouted granite block 
pavement on concrete base. The average cost of grouting joints is 243^ cts. 
per square yard. The amount of material per square yard of 4>^ ins. deep 
blocks is 0.295 bags sand and the same volume of cement. The essentials for 
securing good grouted granite block pavement are stated as follows: 

1.' Have sub-grade well rolled and all soft places eliminated; 6 ins. of 
crushed stone spread over the sub-grade and rolled to a true crown; mixture 
for foundation, 4 parts sand and 1 part cement. 

2. Sand to a uniform thickness of 2 ins. should be spread over the 
foundation. 

3. The blocks, after careful culling, should be well rammed and at the same 
time pea stone should be broomed into the joints. 

4. For the grouting, be sure the cement is good and the sand clean and 
sharp. A small percentage of clay is good to use as a binder. 

5. Be careful to use the correct proportions of sand and cement. Use 1 
part cement and 1 part sand for mixture. 

6. If a mixing machine is not used, keep the mixture constantly agitated in 
the box. Remove the grout from the box with scoop shovels. Never dump 
the contents of the box upon the street. Whenever this is done there will be a 
bare spot in the grouting. 

7. Wet blocks thoroughly before applying grout. 

8. As the grout is poured upon the blocks throw in pea stone and broom it 
into the grout, bringing the whole to an even smooth surface. 

9. Never do any grouting during cold or frosty weather. Good results can 
seldom be obtained after Nov. 15 in New England. 

10. If the grouting is done during very hot weather, precautions should be 
taken to keep grout moist. This can be done if the weather is extremely hot 
by covering it immediately with }^ in. of sand and frequently sprinkhng with 
water. 

11. Do not allow any traffic upon pavement for at least seven days after 
grouting. 

12. For best results use a medium soft granite, similar to New Hampshire 
granite. 

13. If old blocks are used, see that they are thoroughly cleaned before 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 1001 

grout is poured; this mixture being one part cement and two parts sand to give 
best results with old blocks. 

Data reported by Stephen Kearney, City Engineer. 

Worcester, Mass. — Grouted pavement in this city requires per square yard 
about 0.36 cu. ft. of cement and 0.36 cu. ft.^of sand mixed with enough water 
to run freely. The mixture is spread with pails or spout and is broomed into 
place, the brooming being continued until the joints are filled and the surplus 
is largely removed from the tops of the blocks ; trap rock screenings are finally 
employed to prevent tendency of the grout to run. Grouting costs about 24 
cts. per square yard of pavement, including materials and labor. Data 
reported by F. A. McClure, City Engineer. 

Albany, N. Y. — The following information is reported for grouting dressed 
granite block of the following size, length 6 to 10 ins., width 33^ to 4:H ins., 
depth 4^i to 534 ins., end and side joints not exceeding 3'^i n. in width The 
grout or filler is one part of fine, clean, sharp sand and one part cement, no pea 
stone being used in the joints. Preparatory to grouting, the entire gang is 
first put to filling bags with sand, and placing same alternately with bags of 
cement along the curb adjacent to the space to be grouted. This is usually 
done half to three-quarters of an hour before starting the machine. This 
gives a good start. Three men are left filling bags and distributing same, and 
one on cement. The gang on the machine, which is a Marsh-Capron grouting 
mixer, consists of: 

2 men carrying cement and sand to machine. 
1 man carrying water. 

1 man emptying material into machine. 
1 man ahead of spout brooming in grout. 
1 man operating. 

3 men on sand bags. 
1 man on cement. 

10 laborers — total for operation. 

A gang of this size will grout at least 1,100 sq. yds. per day, at the following 
cost: 

10 laborers 8 hrs. each — 80 hrs. at 20 cts. per hr $ 16.00 

1 foreman 4 . 00 

107 bbls. cement at $1.10 per bbl 117.70 

16 cu. yds. sand at $1 per cu. yd 16.00 

$153.70 

Including material and labor, this is a cost per square yard of 13.9 cts. or 
14 cts. The cost of labor per square yard with machine for a total of over 
2,000 sq. yds. has been on an average of $0,015 compared to $0.0525 by hand 
or a saving of over S^ cts. per square yard. For full 4-in. joints without 
pea stone it requires 0.4 bag cement and same amount sand (1 to 1 mix) per 
square yard of pavement. Data reported by Frank R, Lanagan, City 
Engineer. 

Cost of a Wood-Block Pavement, Cambridge, Mass. — L. M. Hastings 
gives the following matter in Engineering News, May 21, 1914. The work 
consisted in repairing with wood block having cement grouted joints a portion 
of Massachusetts Ave., and was done in 1912 and 1913. 

Base. — The base was formed of 5 in. of cement concrete mixed by machine 
in 1:2>^:5 proportions. Bank sand and power-screened gravel stone were 
used for aggregates, the gravel being of excellent quality and somewhat 
cheaper than broken stone. 



1002 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Blocks. — The blocks were of southern long-leaf yellow pine, having 80 per 
cent heart wood of satisfactory texture and containing not less than five annual 
rings per inch. The wood was impregnated with 20 lb. of preservative oil per 
cu. ft. of wood, by any satisfactory process which would give the required 
results. The oil had a specific gravity of not less than 1.12 at 38° C. and con- 
tained not more than 5 per cent of soluble matter and was free from petroleum 
or asphaltic residues. 

During the hot weather of the first year, "bleeding" of the heavy oil from 
the blocks occurred. A heavy coat of sand was spread over the pavement 
where needed, which absorbed the tar and made a tough sheet or scat, some of 
which still adheres to the wood blocks as a kind of wearing surface. 

Laying Blocks. — The blocks were laid on a 1-in. bed of equal parts of 
cement and sand mixed dry, "struck" by a movable board to a true surface. 
After laying, the blocks were given a final inspection and any imperfect 
ones were thrown out. The blocks were finally thoroughly rammed by hand 
rammers. Expansion joints were placed at each curb, and transverse expan- 
sion joints were put in every 30 ft. These joints were ^ in. to ^ in. wide and 
were run nearly full of an asphaltic compound, which was fairly soft and 
elastic, yet did not run in hot weather, making a very satisfactory filler indeed. 
At the first rain after the blocks were laid, many of these joints closed up en- 
tirely and in some a slight raising of the paving occurred. With continued 
traffic, however, most of the joints were forced back into place. 

The joints between blocks were thoroughly filled with a 1 :1 cement and sand 
mixture applied dry in two layers ; afterward the pavement was wet with a hose 
and thoroughly flushed, and the grout broomed into the joints,, the water 
causing the cement in the joints and bed to fill all interstices. 

One portion of Massachusetts Ave. was unusually wide and carried a rather 
heavy traffic; upon this portion, 4-in. blocks were used, the rest of the blocks 
were SH in. in depth. 

Pavement Crowns. — The street has a longitudinal grade of about 0.60 per 
cent. It was found that a crown of 1^^ in. per ft. gave excellent drainage and 
made the most effective looking street. This crown was adopted as standard 
where possible. The crown as actually used varies from H in. to nearly % in. 
per ft. This last seems and looks excessive but as a matter of fact it has not 
been found to make the pavement dangerously slippery. 

With regard to that bugbear of wood-block pavement — its slipperiness — 
experience here indicates that trouble from the cause is usually exaggerated. 
When conditions make the pavement slippery, the remedy is simple, viz., 
sprinkhng with sand. This is not often required. During the two winters of 
1913 and 1914, sanding was required only 8 or 10 times each season. 

Cost Data. — The entire work of excavating, grading, laying the base, laying 
blocks, ramming, grouting, etc., was done by city day labor without much pre- 
vious experience, working 44 hr. per week at $2.25 per day, or at about 3 lets, 
per hr. for common labor. The 4-in. blocks cost by contract $2.59 per sq. yd. 
and the 3K-in. blocks cost $2.29 per sq. yd., delivered on the work. In all 
15, 276 sq. yd. of 4-in. block pavement was laid at a total cost of $4.11 per 
sq. yd., and 12,051 sq. yd. of S^^-in. block pavement was laid at a cost of $3.81 
per sq. yd. 

Cost of Wood Block Pavement in Wenatchee, Wash. — F. J. Sharkey gives 
the following data in Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 20, 1915. 

During the summer and fall of 1913 Wenatchee Ave., the main business 
street of Wenatchee, Wash., was paved with creosoted wood block. The 



• ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 1003 

improvement is approximately ^ of a mile in length, the south H mile being 
62 ft. between curbs and 90 ft. between property lines, the balance being 53 ft. 
between curbs and 70 ft. between property lines, making a total of approxi- 
mately 27,500 sq. yds. of pavement, including intersections. 

Concrete Base and Sand Cushion. — The pavement consists of a 5-in. concrete 
base, a 1-in. sand cushion and 4-in. creosoted, wood blocks. The concrete in 
the base is mixed 1:3:6, the specifications for cement, sand and gravel or 
broken stone being the usual standard specifications for such materials. The 
specifications for gravel or broken stone called for material ranging uniformly 
in size from*that which passed a 2-in. ring to that which was held on a ^i-ln. 
ring. 

Wood Blocks. — Immediately after the preparation of the cushion the wood 
blocks were laid, culled and rolled with a five-ton roller. 

Due to the fact that the blocks were allowed to stand for some time in piles 
at the side of the street, in the hottest part of the summer, before being laid, a 
large number of the blocks curled shghtly, even though kept damp in the piles 
at all times. These blocks split in two when rolled, but a number of the split 
blocks were used as bats at the beginning of courses. The expense of culhng, 
however, was materially increased over what it would have been had the blocks 
been laid and filled immediately upon arriving on the street. 

Five longitudinal rows of blocks were laid next to the curb on each side of the 
roadway for gutter courses, and the remainder were laid perpendicular with 
the curb. Three 3'^-in. expansion joints were placed on each side of the road- 
way. These expansion joints were cast the required thickness, from the 
filler asphalt, by laying a wood strip of the required width and thickness in a 
bed of damp sand, removing the strip and filling the resulting trench with 
asphalt. The expansion strips thus made were SH ins. wide by M in. thick 
and were laid on the cushion between the longitudinal or gutter courses of 
blocks. No transverse expansion joints were provided for. The remaining 
>^-in. between the top of the expansion strip and the surface of the blocks 
was filled with hot asphalt, to seal the surface. 

An asphalt filler with a high melting point was used. It was heated in a 
portable kettle of 400 gals, capacity and was poured over the blocks with hand 
pouring pots. As soon as the asphalt cooled and congealed it was cleaned 
off the blocks with hot shovels, collected in small piles and again placed in the 
heating kettle. Immediately following the filling the pavement was covered 
with a ^^-'in. layer of sand. 

The costs of laying wood block pavement are given in Table XXVIII. 

Maintenance. — Due to the fact that the work of filling was not completed 
until after extremely cold weather set in, the asphalt did not fill the joints 
as thoroughly as was desirable. In the spring of 1914 the pavement was 
cleaned, the sand cover and excess asphalt filler that had been forced out by 
the expansion of the blocks being removed. This was later found to be a 
mistake, as it developed that the blocks were in a more serious condition, from 
being improperly filled, than had been judged. A large percentage of the 
joints had received very little asphalt, and as a consequence the blocks 
became loose in the pavement. To remedy this condition, which was rendered 
more serious from the fact that a loose sand cushion had been used, a 1-inch 
covering of fine sand was spread over the surface and allowed to remain until 
worn off by traffic. This seems to have solved the problem as far as fiUing the 
joints and tightening the blocks are concerned, but it has caused some trouble 
in making the pavement heave, due to lack of proper provision for expansion. 



1004 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



In the spring of 1915 several heaved places were noted. All the trouble 
experienced, however, seemed to be caused by transverse expansion, and 
occurred within 8 ft. of the curbs on each side of the street, affecting approxi- 
mately 300 sq. yds. of pavement in all. This heaving was taken care of in 
two ways: Where the blocks were heaved badly, they were taken up and 
relaid, a good grade of pitch filler being used in refilling the joints; while 
where the heaving was only slight the joints were blown out with dry steam 
from the road roller, at a boiler pressure of 200 lbs., and the blocks were 
rolled down to place and the joints refilled with paving pitch. 

The latter method was in the nature of an experiment, but has accomplished 
the purpose satisfactorily and at a trifling cost. To supplement this work and 
provide against future heaving at the same locations a %-in. expansion joint 
has been dug out with a chisel in the gutter courses of blocks along each place 
where heaving occurred, this joint being filled with paving pitch. Also eight 
courses of blocks have been taken up clear across the street each 400 ft. in 
length of street, and the blocks have been cut off for a 1-in. expansion joint, 
relaid with equal spaces between the blocks and refilled with paving pitch. 
The blocks have also been kept damp all summer by flushing the street at 
night and sprinkling in the daytime when necessary. This has kept the 
blocks from drying out and shrinking and has also kept further sand and dirt 
from the joints. From the present excellent condition of the surface of the 
street, no further heaving is anticipated. 

Table XXVIII. — Distribution of Costs of Wenatchee Avenue Wood 
Block Pavement 



-Materials- 



Division Kind and unit Unit cost 

f Gravel, cu. yd $ 1 . 30 

Sand, cu. yd 1.00 

Base \ Cement, bbl 2. 10 

Water ..... 

1 Mixer (InV. & Depr.) ". . . . . '. '. 

Cushion Sand, cu. yd 1 . 00 

T.^„ /*Blocks, sq. yd 1.794 

^^P • • • 1 Asphalt filler, ton.. . 37.75 

Total per sq. yd 



Units per 

sq. yds. 

.0973 

.0486 

.125 



.0278 
1.0 
.0031 



Division 



Cushion . 



Subdivision 

f Mixing 

\ Placing 



Sq. yds. 
per hour 
foreman 

120.5 

253 



Top. 



[ Laying . . 

I Helping. 

Rolling . . 

[Filling... 



—Labor — 

Sq. yds., 

per hour 

labor 

8.9 

19.9 

21.8 

87.2 

88.0 

73.7 

5.9 



Cost per 
sq. yd. 

$0.1263 
.0486 
.2625 
.01 
.0152 
.0278 
1.794 
.1153 

$2.3997 



Labor cost 
per sq. yd. 
$0.0523 
.0205 
.0141 
.016 
.0435 
.0159t 
.0599 



Total per sq. yd... .... $0.2222 

Labor, $2.50 per 8-hr. day; block layer, $10.00 per 8-hr. day. Block layer 
was foreman of cushion, laying, and filling gangs. *Wood blocks, $1.75 per 
sq. yd., f.o.b. Wenatchee, X $1.10 per M for unloading and hauling (42>i 
blocks per sq. yd.), flncluding roller rent, $3.50 per day. 

Operating Costs of Tractor, Trucks and Sand Screen and Loader in Road 
Maintenance. — Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 1, 1919 publishes the fol- 
lowing information given in a bulletin of the Colorado Highway Department 
by James E. Maloney, Chief Engineer. 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 1005 

In maintaining county roads in the vicinity of Denver the Colorado High- 
way Department is employing a tractor, trucks, and a sand elevator, screen 
and loader. The complete outfit consists of the following: One C. L. Best 
caterpillar gas tractor of 40-h,p. drawbar capacity, weight 28,000 lb., costing 
$6,000; one grader with scarifier a.nd blade attachment, costing $800, and two 
light drags; 2 White 5-ton trucks and a Kelly-Springfield 5-ton truck, costing 
$6,000 each; and a Gallion sand elevator, screen and loader, costing $1,500. 

The tractor, grader and one drag are generally used together and can be 
operated by two men. If the work is simply dragging, or smoothing with the 
grader, a distance of 20 miles might be covered; that is, if one round trip is 
made they would cover IQ miles of road; if two round trips were necessary, 
then 5 miles of road would be covered. The latter figure might be taken as an 
.average in all kinds of materials for the dragging. 

In many places it is necessary to scarify the surface in order to reshape it 
and remove the chuckholes and waves. On work of this latter class the tractor 
and grader are used very successfully, except on macadam or very solid 
gravel roads, where it is found that the scarifier is too light and it is necessary 
to use the heavy-toothed scarifier. On scarifying and reshaping it has been 
found that about ^i mile per day would be an average day's work. 

The sum of $50 per day has been taken as the cost of the operation of this 
particular outfit. This figure is obtained as follows: 
Caterpillar tractor, expense per day: 

Gas and oil $17.00 

Maintenance 9 . 50 

Operator 5 . 00 

Depreciation (based on assumption of life of 4 years for engine 

and 180 working days in each year) 8 . 50 

$40.00 

Grader and scarifier, expense per day: 

Maintenance $ 3 . 00 

Labor 4 . 50 

Depreciation (based on 180 working days per year) 2. 50 

$10.00 

Total $50.00 

Some unsatisfactory features should be noted : The tractor is very heavy and 
an unsafe load on many of the old bridges. It is unwieldy, requiring a cross- 
road intersection or a full width road for turning. The lighter size tractor 
of 25 h. p. at the drawbar is free from these objections, and will do most of the 
work that can be done with the larger size. 

The two trucks and screening and loading plant have been used in resurfac- 
ing some pieces of road with sand and gravel, and the trucks have used the 
drags occasionally. The use of the trucks on anything but the lighter forms 
of drags has not been entirely satisfactory, so the Department employed them 
largely on hauling and spreading materials for repairs of surfacing. The 
trucks are both of the dumping and spreading type and are working 
satisfactorily. 

In charging up the work to the various roads the following has been adopted : 

Expense for the year: 

Operator, 10 months, at $100 $1 ,000 

Maintenance, oil and gas 2 , 000 

Depreciation, 25 per cent of the cost 1 ,500 

Overhead and incidental 900 

Total $5 ,400 



1006 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

For 180 working days this equals $30 per day. This charge for the sand 
elevator and loader is based on the following: 

Operator, 180 days, at $3.50 $ 630 

Gas and oil, 180 days, at $1.50 270 

Repairs and maintenance 450- 

Depreciation, 20 per cent of cost 300 

Overhead, labor, teams and incidentals 2,850 

Total $4 , 500 

For 180 working days this equals $25 per day, and this rate is charged to the 
road upon which the work is being done. 

Cost of Removing Asphalt Pavement with Hammer Drills. — Hand air- 
hammer drills were used by P. J. Moran, a contractor of Salt Lake City, Utah, 
for removing a strip of asphalt and concrete pavement alongside the tracks of a 
street railway so that the rails might be shimmed and new pavement laid. A 
description of the job is given in Mine and Quarry, Dec, 1916 from which the 
following notes are taken. 

In order to reduce time and labor in this work, Mr. Moran purchased two 
Sullivan DC- 19, 40-lb. hammer drills, operated by a small steam-driven air 
compressor. 

A line was laid out a foot from the outside of the rails and the drills were 
equipped with a special channeling bit to cut off the asphalt. When a 
sufficient distance had been channeled a gadding bit was used and the sur- 
facing material was removed, exposing the concrete. The gadding bit was 
again used in breaking up the concrete. This was done by holding the drill in 
a nearly vertical position for wedging off pieces of the concrete. In this man- 
ner pieces from 4 to 8 in. square were broken off. 

One man with the Sullivan drill was able to take up the asphalt and concrete 
at an average rate of 6 lin. ft. in 15 minutes; while the three men, "double- 
jacking," by the old method of hand work, required an average of 40 minutes 
to remove a like amount; that is, hand work required two hours to accomplish 
the same results secured in 15 minutes with the machines. 

The following comparison, based on the job described above, may be 
interesting : 

Machine Work Costs 

(Based on costs and prices in June, 1914) 

Cost of Plant 

1 Sullivan WK-3 portable compressor outfit (20 h.p.) $1 ,780. 00 

2 DC-19 hammer drills 170.00 

Hose, steel, etc 50.00 

Total $2,000.00 

Interest on plant at 6 per cent $ 120. 00 

Depreciation, 15 per cent 300 . 00 

Total $ 420.00 

Operating, 175 days per year, per day $ 2.40 

Engineer, per day 3 . 50 

2 drill operators at $2.50 5. 00 

Gasoline, 20 gal. at 23 cts 4.60 

Oil, waste, etc .50 

Total $ 16.00 

Progress per day, 8 hours 384 ft. 

Cost per foot of work $ . 0416 

Hand Work Costs 

6 laborers at $2.25 $ 13 . 50 

Progress per day, 8 hours 144 ft. 

Cost per foot of work $ . 0937 

Saving on machine over hand work, per foot .0521 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 1007 

Cost of Cutting Pavements with Pneumatic Machine. — The following Is 
taken from Engineering and Contracting, July 24, 1912. 

Trials were made at Los Angeles this spring by the Los Angeles Ry. Co. in 
cutting street pavements with a pneumatic machine. The company used a 
truck equipped by the Rix Compressed Air & Drill Co. with a gasoline engine 
and compressors and by the Hardsocg Wonder Drill Co., Ottumwa, la., with a 
pneumatic machine. The experiment was described by A. S. E. Beall in West- 
ern Engineering. After a number of trials with different cutting devices on 
the asphalt and concrete a chisel tool, 4 ins. wide, and gads of 134 -in. steel, 
18 ins. long, with shanks on each to fit the machines were used. In removing 
grouting or pavement laid under older specifications, the minimum figures of 
actual cost, with hand labor, per lineal foot of trench was 17 cts. In removing 
pavement laid under the latest specifications and consisting of 5 ins. hydraulic 
concrete base, 1 in. asphalt binder and 2 ins. asphalt wearing surface, the 
actual cost per lineal foot of trench by hand labor was 20 cts. These figures 
are based on a trench 18 ins. wide. In the experiments of the Los Angeles Ry. 
Co. the asphalt pavement cut had been laid under the latest specifications. 
The results of the experiment were as follows: 

One Hardsocg machine, with two men at 15 cts. each per hour, cut 46 lin. ft. 
of trench in asphalt per hour, the cost per lin. ft. being .6 ct.; one Hardsocg 
machine, with three men at 15 cts. each per hour, cut 45 ft. of trench in the 
concrete per hour, at a cost of 1 ct. per lin. ft. The cost of the plant to operate 
the three Hardsocg machines was $1,600, and the three machines cost $225, 
making a total of $1,825. Interest on this investment at 6 per cent, and allow- 
ing depreciation at 10 per cent, makes $292 per year. On the basis of 300 
working days in the year interest and depreciation would amount to 97 cts. 
per day or 12 cts. per hour for an 8-hour day. The operating expenses of the 
plant were: 

Per hour 

Engineer, per hour $0. 30 

Feed and lubrication .35 

Total $0.65 

Adding the 12 cts. per hour for interest and depreciation brings the cost to 
77 cts. per hour. The average execution per hour for one machine was 45 K 
ft., and the cost of operating the plant (77 cts ) divided by three (the number 
of machines working) gives a cost of .56 ct. per lin. ft. of trench for plant 
operation. Summarizing we have: 

Per lin. ft. 

Cutting asphalt, 2 men at 15 cts $0 . 0060 

Cutting cement, 3 men at 15 cts . 0100 

Engineer .0022 

Fuel and lubrication . 0024 

Interest and depreciation . 0010 

Total. $0.0216 

In the experiments it was noticeable that several improvements could be made 
to benefit the operating materially. For instance, the men used for this work 
were Mexicans from the track gang. They were pick and shovel men only; 
better labor would give better results. A slight rearrangement could be made 
that would facilitate the work by utilizing the weight of the men, which would 
make the work very light and assist the machine materially. When the work 
was being finished, a run was made with the asphalt cutters in concrete, instead 



1008 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

of using the gads, and it was found that they worked much faster and better. 
No doubt a number of such improvements could be made that would expedite 
the work and so lower the cost. 

Pneumatic Hammers for Tearing Up Street Pavements. — Frank Richards 
in Engineering News, Aug. 10, 1911, states that four men each operating a 
pneumatic hammer accomplished as much work as 16 to 20 men working 
entirely by hand. The work in question consisted of cutting out sohd hard 
concrete along the tracks of The City Tram Co. of Zurich, Switzerland. 

In cutting an asphalt pavement in Brooklyn, N. Y. for opening a trench for 
laying gas mains the following results were obtained. 

From observation of about 3,000 linear feet of cut (1,500 ft. of trench), with 
two men and sometimes three using the hammers, the average asphalt cut was 
20 ft. per man per hour. 

On June 1, 1911, on a 45-minute hand test (hand-held chisel and sledge) we 
cut at the rate of 12 ft. per man per hour, but the men were exhausted and had 
to stop. 

The material under the asphalt was macadam, close and hard, and for 
breaking up this also the "coal picks" did good service. The chisels were 
exchanged for pointed picks for this work. 

Reference to ''Handbook of Cost Data." — On pages 442 to 445, of Gillette's 
"Handbook of Cost Data," quantities of materials required for constructing 
sidewalks are given, and on pages 446 to 457 further cost data on walks and 
curbs may be found. 

Maintenance Cost of Plank and Tar Concrete Sidewalks. — According to 
Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 11, 1916, an investigation by the City 
Engineer of Newton, Mass., shows that an average of 3 per cent of the total 
area of coal tar concrete sidewalks in that city have been repaired each year 
during the past 7 years and that the average cost of maintenance of these 
sidewalks is about 2 ct. per square yard per year. The cost of maintenance 
of the plank sidewalks has been about 14 ct. per square yard per year. 

Cost of Resurfacing Macadam Walks with Asphalt, Lincoln Park, Chicago, 
is given by M. D. Blumberg, Engineering and Contracting, June 9, 1915, as 
follows: 

In Lincoln Park proper there are about 50,000 sq. yds. of walks built prin- 
cipally of cinders, limestone macadam, and gravel macadam. In 1913 the 
attention of the commissioners was drawn to the difficulty of keeping these 
walks in condition for foot travel. In wet weather pools of water would stand 
in the walks, in dry weather the protruding large stones caused a great deal of 
discomfort to the pedestrians, thereby causing many of them to walk on the 
grass, while in winter the removal of snow was unnecessarily difficult. In 
deciding upon what methods to use to eliminate the above difficulties the 
following considerations were born in mind: (1) Low first cost and low main- 
tenance; (2) The walks should be in harmony with the park surroundings; 
(3) The utilization of the foundations of the walks as they stood; (4) The 
walks should be of such a nature as to induce people to use them rather than 
the grass. 

With these considerations in view the choice was narrowed down to building 
Portland cement concrete walks or resurfacing with an asphalt ic mixture. It 
was finally decided to build some experimental sections with an asphaltic top. 
These experiments proved so successful in 1913 that in 1914 enough money was 
appropriated to cover nearly 40,000 sq. yds. of walks with an asphaltic wearing 
surface. 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 1009 

The plant used for this job consisted of one portable asphalt plant of 1,600 
cu. yds. capacity (inch thick; manufactured by the Link Belt Co. and a com- 
bination roller which furnished the power for the plant. The material was 
wheeled in barrows up an elevated platform from which It was dumped into the 
hopper. The plant was centrally located and the binder and top were hauled 
to the job in two-yard dump wagons. The wagons were covered with canvas 
to retain the heat in the mixture. The average haul was one-half mile. Suf- 
ficient teams were used to keep up with the output of the plant. The greatest 
number used per day was five teams. 

About one-third the area, or 13,329 sq. yds. of walk, were sufficiently com- 
pact and rough to pave with a wearing surface only. The balance, or 26,657 
sq. yds., required a binder and top. The binder used was composed of M-in. 
to ^^-in. stone and asphalt. A number of tests showed that the percentage of 
asphalt used by weight was as follows: Minimum 3.85 per cent, maximum 
5.15 per cent, average 4.25 per cent. The binder was laid so that it was 
f^i in. thick after being rolled with a 5-ton roller. The wearing surface mix 
consisted of asphalt, limestone screenings, stone dust and bank sand in the 
following proportions: 

Per cent. 

Asphalt. . 10. 50 

Passing 200-mesh 12 . 50 

Passing SO-inesh 18 . 00 

Passing 40-mesh 36. 00 

Passing 10-mesh 13 . 00 

On 1 0-mesh 10.00 

100.00 

The wearing surface was laid ^ in. thick after being rolled with a 5-ton 
roller. Immediately after rolling Portland cement was brushed over the 
surface and then rolled with the 5-ton roller. The cement fills the minute 
voids in the surface and also improves the appearance of the walks. 

It will be noticed from the cost report. Table XXIX, that there is a torpedo 
sand charge. At the beginning of the work it was found that the mix con- 
tained too large a percentage of coarse material. Limestone dust was sub- 
stituted in place of the torpedo sand and the mix proved very successful. No 
forms of any kind were required for the work. , 

From the cost report it can be seen that asphalt walks can be laid at approxi- 
mately 60 per cent of the cost of concrete walks where both binder and top are 
used, and at about 35 per cent of the cost of concrete where a wearing surface 
only is used. 

Table XXIX. — Cost of Base and Wearing Surface for 26,657 Sq. Yds. of 

Walk, Lincoln Park, Chicago 

Base 

Per 
Labor: sq. yd. 

Shaping bed of walk $0,023 

Mixing 080 

Spreading 020 

Rolling .006 

Total. : $0. 129 

Material: 

Asphalt $0 . 050 

Stone 051 

Coal } 012 

Miscellaneous supplies .002 

Total $0,115 

64 



k 



1010 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Teams: 

Hauling (surplus material after shaping walk) $0. 014 

Hauling (binder) 019 

Total $0,033 

Overhead charges: 

Plant $0,015 

Superintendence 004 

Total $0,019 

Total cost per sq. yd.: 

Labor $0. 129 

Material. 1 15 

Teams 033 

Overhead charges . 019 

. Total. . $0,296 

Wearing Surface 

Per 

Labor: sq. yd. 

Mixing $0 . 054 

Spreading , 021 

Rolling .006 

Total* $0,081 

Material: 

Asphalt $0. 105 

Screenings (limestone) 028 

Stone dust 016 

Sand (torpedo) 001 

Sand (fine) .043 

Cement 001 

Miscellaneous 001 

Coal .013 

Total '. . $0,208 

Teams: 
Hauling $0,018 

Overhead charges: 

Plant $0,019 

Superintendence .004 

Total $0,023 

Total cost per sq. yd.: 

Labor $0,081 

Material 208 

Teams 018 

Overhead charges .023 

Total • $0,330 

* In 13,329 sq. yds. not included in the above there was an additional labor 
charge for "shaping bed of walk" 0.022. The total cost of this section was 
$0.35 per sq. yd. 

Cost of Cement Tile Sidewalk at St. Paul, Minn. — The following data are 
taken Irom an article by E. G. Briggs, Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 6, 
1920. 

The constructing, relaying and repairing of cement sidewalks in the city of 
St. Paul has for several years been done by .contract, the work being let by the 
City Council to the lowest responsible bidder. The volume of work executed 
through the City Department increased approximately 400 per cent during 
the 4-year period prior to the world war, when in 1917 the total cost of side- 
walk work executed by the contractor amounted to approximately $100,000. 

Approximately 98 per cent of all walks constructed are of the pre-cast tile 
method. These tile are constructed under careful city inspection at the shop 
of the successful bidder, generally during the winter months and made in 
sizes, 2 ft. square or 4 sq. ft. and IH ft. square or 2.25 sq. ft., thus allowing 
three squares of one for a 6-ft. walk, designated as a standard width of three 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 1011 

squares of the other for a 4.5-ft. walk, which is often approved for narrow 
streets or where walks are less frequently used. 

The construction cost, of cement tile sidewalks, includes the cost of the tile, 
the cost of excavating 8 in. for foundation, the foundation and finishing of the 
walk. The foundation consists of 4 in. of broken stone, brick, gravel or 
cinders thoroughly rolled and brought to a smooth surface with rammed 
gravel or cinders. On this frost vent a 2-in. layer of 1: 5 mortar is laid and 
upon the foundation thus prepared the tile are laid to a true surface and 
grouted. The tiles are 2 in. thick, the lower three-fourths is composed of 1 
part Portland cement and 4 parts of clean, sharp sand, thoroughly mixed and 
carefully rammed into the molds to a uniform depth. The upper one-fourth 
is composed of 1 part Portland cement and 2 parts of clean, sharp sand, 
placed immediately upon the lower part and thoroughly rammed to the 
proper thickness. 

In the manufacture of the tile according to this specification, it has been 
found that 1 bbl. of cement will average 80 sq. ft. of tile, one bag averaging 
20 sq. ft. or five 2 X 2 ft. tile. The sand required for the 2 X 2 ft. tile totals 
0.66 cu. ft. or 0.165 cu. ft. of sand per sq. ft. of tile. The sand used has been 
screened, not washed, and by analysis the voids approximately equal the 
quantity of cement specified. 

The cost of materials was as follows: 

Material: Cu. ft. Sq. ft. of tile 

Cement, $1.90 per bbl $0,475 $0.0237 

Sand, 0.50 per cu. yd 0.0185 . 0030 

Total cost per sq. ft. for material $0. 0267 

The labor cost, including curing and overhead follows: 

Tile mnfd. Cost 
Item No. sq. ft. per day 

Foreman 1 .... $ 5 . 00 

Tile makers 4 1600 12.00 

Mixers 2 5. 00 

Laborers 4 9 . 00 

Curing, superintendence, overhead, depreciation .... 9 . 00 

$40.00 
Total cost per square foot for labor curing and overhead, . 0250 

The total cost of tile per square foot on racks in yard is therefore: 

Material $0 . 0267 

Labor, including curing and overhead .0250 

Total $0.0517 

For the actual construction of sidewalk the following calculation is ob- 
tained. The tile are generally delivered on the street with a 5-ton motor 
truck averaging four truck loads per day. This has been found to be the 
most economical method of delivery. The average load consists of 320 sq. 
ft., weighing approximately 7,000 lbs. The laborers in the yard at the factory 
with the assistance of the driver, load the truck and the driver is assisted by 
the sidewalk crew in unloading the tile at their destination. It will be noted 
that an average of 1,280 sq. ft. of tile are deUvered on the street during the 
8-hour day. The cost has averaged approximately 1 ct. per square foot of 
tile for this delivery. 

The construction of the walk as calculated on the average of construction 
shows that four men and one foreman average 100 ft. of 6 ft. walk per 8-hour 
day. 



1012 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cindets for the base have been obtained free at the gas plants and other 
places where considerable coal is consumed. The cinders have been deUvered 
at the site of the construction in 3-yd. dump wagons and an average of four 
loads per day have been received. Sand for the concrete between the cinder 
base and the tile has generally been obtained near the place of construction. 
A team with driver is required part time with each crew to plow and assist 
in preparing the base, remove the surplus material, haul sand and move for- 
ward water tanks and form material incidental to the construction. For the 
total field operations to complete the walk, the following table gives an 
average of the costs involved: 

Average Construction Cost 

Total Total Cost per 

Item No. cost sq. ft. sq. ft. 

Delivering tile 1,280 sq. ft. $12.80 1280 $0.0100 

Cinders 12 cu. yd. 6.00 960 .0062 

Concrete sand — Included in price of team. 

Cement 3.75 bbl. 7.12 600 .0118 

Laborers 4 9.00 600 .0118 

Foreman 1 5 . 00 600 . 0083 

Team 1 H ume 3 . 00 600 . 0050 



Total cost per square foot for construction $0 . 0563 

For a tile constructed sidewalk, according to the specifications, we have a 
total estimated cost for the completed work as follows: 

Cost of tile in stack at yard per square foot $0. 0517 

Cost of delivering tile, cinders and constructing walk, per 

square foot . 0563 



Total cost per square foot $0 . 1080 

Table XXX gives the contract prices covering operations for the past four 
years on sidewalk work and incidentals connected with the construction from 
which considerable additional revenue has been received. 

Table XXX. — Contract Prices for Sidewalk Construction and Extras, 
1916 to 1919, St. Paul 

1916 1917 1918 1918 1919 1919 

Item Dist. 1 Dist. 2 Dist. 1 Dist. 2 

Cement blks., new, per sq. ft. $0,094 $0,108 $0,105 $0.12 $0.0975 $0,105 

Cement blks., relay, per sq. ft. 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.07 0.05 0.06 

Resetting curb, per lin. ft 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.05 0,10 

Rubble masonry laid in cement 4.25 4.50 4.50 4.50 4.50 4.75 

Portland cement concrete 6.00 6.00 4.50 7.00 5.00 6.50 

Brickwork, per thousand 15.00 15.00 14.00 15.00 16.50 

Earthwork, per cu. yd 0.50 0.60 0.60 0.70 0.75 0.75 

Lumber, per 1000 ft. B. M.... 35.00 37.00 40.00 50.00 40.00 40.00 

Reinforcing iron and steel, lb. 0.10 0.12 0.11 0.12 0.10 0.12 

Brick paving, including con- 2.35 2.40 2.40 2.75 2.60 2.75 

Crete foundation 

Reinforced concrete 5 in. thick, 

per sq. ft., reinforcing steel 

extra 0.30 0.35 0.30 0.40 0.25 0.40 

9-in. sewer pipe in place, per 

Hn. ft List. List. 0.37 List. 0.55 0.55 

12-in. sewer pipe in place, per 

lin. ft List. List. 0. 40 List. 0. 70 0. 70 

15-in. sewer pipe in place, per 

lin. ft.... List. List. 0.42 List. 0.80 0.80 

Cement walk surfaced in place 0.15 0.16 0.14 0.20 0.15 0.20 

The contracts for 1916, 1917 and district No. 2 in 1918 were executed by one 
contractor. 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 1013 

Cost of Grading and Constructing Sidewalks, Los Angeles, Cal. — E. E. 

Glass in Engineering and Contracting, April 4, 1917, gives the following: 
. The work, consisting of the improvement of the streets in a hilly suburban 
tract by grading and constructing about 7 miles of concrete walks, curbs and 
gutters, was done in Nov. and Dec, 1916. As the soil was a heavy, stiff clay, 
the contractor pushed the work with all possible speed in order to beat the 
winter rains and the excavation was practically complete and the concrete 
work half finished when the first rain fell in Dec. Thereafter some delay was 
experienced because of wet ground. 

Grading. — Two elevating graders were employed for ordinary grading, one 
drawn by a gas tractor and the other by 16 mules (six pushing). A steam 
shovel was used in the heavier cuts and handled about 3,000 cu. yd. of hard- 
pan. As the cut became deeper and the clay harder, the shovel could not fill 
with less than three tries, so blasting had to be resorted to. The maximum 
cut was only 9 ft. Holes were sunk by two men on a churn drill and sprung 
at grade by a stick of 40 per cent dynamite. Trie spacing was about equal to 
the depth of hole and the average load was a half keg of black powder fired 
by an electric battery and a stick of dynamite. The best shots merely heaved 
the ground, but occasionally a hole would "blow up," and as the streets were 
in a residence district it was found necessary to lay old planks over the holes 
to prevent chunks of clay flying and damaging property. 

The business-like handling of earth sales is worthy of notice. When the 
work was awarded, the contractor sent salesmen with blank contracts to the 
owners of property in the district. They received a commission and sold 
excess yardage for as much as 40 ct. per cu. yd. for filling lots. Any reason- 
able terms were considered, with the property as security. This appears to 
be a far better arrangement than the more common wasting of earth where 
the contractor does not get the price he wants and spot cash. 

All hauling was done in 1^ cu. yd. dump wagons. An item which tended 
to increase the cost of the earth-work was the inability of the graders to work 
around power and telephone poles where light cut or fill made their removal 
unnecessary. This required plowing the cut between the pole line and prop- 
erty line and slipping the earth out into the street, where the grader picked 
it up. 

Because of short notice to the local water company, many pipes and some 
mains were broken and work had frequently to be discontinued on a street 
until it could drain and dry out. This water standing in new fills and ditches 
causes much inconvenience on a grading job and is easily avoided. 

Concrete Work. — The curb, walk and gutter gangs began at the same 
point and followed in the order named, about a week apart. 

The county's resident engineer, in charge of the work, had an inspector with 
each of the three gangs. Each inspector filled in the day's run of work in feet, 
size of crew and amount of cement used, on the progress report form shown in 
Fig. 15 which also gives a typical day's run of the curb outfit, hand-mixing. 
The resident engineer worked up the balance of the cost, from which the 
final cost of the job was accurately determined. 

The greater portion of the curb work was made by hand mixing. The 
materials were turned three times dry and three times wet on a 3 ft. X 10 ft. 
sheet iron strips laid together to form a good mixing platform, readily moved 
along the street as the work progressed. Ten-bag batches were mixed, which 
ran about 75 lin. ft. of curb, depending upon the number of openings left for 
driveways and the amount of low grade (giving overdepth of curb). All 



1014 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



concrete on the work was 1:2:4 and mortar was specified 1 part cement and 2. 
parts sand with 1 lb. of lamp black per barrel of cement used. On the curb 
finish, the contractor found it necessary to use more cement in the mortar to 
trowel smoothly. 

Carey expansion joints were placed every 40 ft. in curb, walk and gutter and 
the facing cut through to expose the felt. The curb was 5 in. wide at top, 3 in. 
at base and 15 in. high, with H in. of mortar on top face and 3^ in. of mortar 
on 4 in. of back and 3 in. of the front face. The gutter line was 8 in. below top 
of curb on the greater part of the work, the gutter being 5 in. thick and 2 ft 



Dailij Concrete Report 

Conir. ..^VS:^ i=»n*M«5a 

Date.jl.-?P:i».i{,|n*p..^^r:j:t/^4i 

5topat5ta.Jd.*lo.C.-.. -0. .-...:.... 



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Fig. 15. — Inspector's concrete report with typical day's run of curb crew. 



wide, but Ditman street drains the district and here curbs were given 10 in. 
face and gutters were 5 in. thick by 3 in. wide. All gutters were floated rough 
and marked every 3 ft. to correspond with the curb marks. 

The walk was built 4 in. wide with a 3 in. base of 1 : 2 : 4 concrete and a 3^-in. 
top of 1 : 2 mortar as before described. A Chicago paving mixer was used and 
gave good results. In all the work both sides of the street were carried along 
together, the concrete being wheeled from the platform or mixer to the forms 
in barrows. 

All cement work was promptly covered with earth which was kept moist for 
two weeks. 

The cost of this work is given in Table XXXI, see Fig. 15, for unit costs 
of materials and labor. 



k 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 101,5 

Table XXXI. — Road District Improvement No. 124, Streets in Occidental 
Heights, Los Angeles County Road Department 

Work done — Grading, cement sidewalks, curbs and gutters. 
Total length, 4.2 miles. 
Average haul, 6 miles. 

Actual Cost to Contractor: 

Excavation, 38.563 cu. yd. at $0.279 $10,758.75 

Concrete for culvert, furnishing, hauling and placing, 4 cu. yd. at 

$23.04 92. 17 

Reinforcing steel for culvert, furnishing, hauling and placing, 

330 lb. at 5 cts 19.50 

Sidewalk, S}4 in. by 4 ft., furnishing, hauling and placing, 

141,050 sq. ft. at $0.07 10,402.64 

Detail of Cost of Sidewalk: 

Per sq, ft. 

Cement $0.0244 

Gravel 0147 

Sand 0061 

Lamp black 0009 

Exp. joints 0004 

Water 0002 

Grading 0067 

Moving material 0012 

Mixing and placing 0140 

Covering and watering 0041 

Repairs 0011 

Total $0. 0740 

Glitter, 5" X 2' (17 % is S' wide), furnishing, hauling and placing, 

79,383 sq. ft. at $0.080 6,365.28 

Detail of Cost of Gutter: Per sq. ft. 

Cement $0.0264 

Gravel 0159 

Sand. 0066 

Exp. joints 0005 

Water 0003 

Grading 0099 

Moving materials 0020 

Mixing and placing. 0141 

Covering and watering 0019 

Repairs 0020 

Total $0.0800 

Curbs, 5" X 9" X 15", furnishing, hauMng and 

placing, 35,188 lin. ft. at. $0.211 7,416.33 

Detail of Cost of Curb: Per lin. ft. 

Cement. $0.0581 

Gravel 0350 

Sand 0145 

Lampblack 0008 

Exp. joints 0014 

Water . 0007 

Grading 0320 

Moving material 0051 

Mixing and placing 0474 

Backfilling and watering 0098 

Repairs. 0058 

Total $0.2110 

Total cost of work $35,054.67 

Less 2,910 bb . cement at $1.47 furnished by county 4,277.70 

Actual cost to contractor $30 , 776 . 97 

The above does not include interest, insurance or overhead expense. 



1016 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

One Course Monolithic vs. Two Course Concrete Sidewalks.— Maj. F. S. 
Besison, in Engineering and Contracting, May 4, 1921 gives the comparative 
advantages, costs, etc., of constructing both I and 2 course concrete side- 
walks. In concluding his article Maj. Besson gives the following summary: 
A 5 in. one course walk of gravel concrete, proportioned 1 bag of .cement 
(one cu. ft.), 2>^ cu. ft. sand and SH cu. ft. gravel, presents all the advantages 
of a two course walk and none of its disadvantages. This is accomplished 
with (1) a saving of from 100 to 200 bags of cement, per 1,000 sq. yd. of walk, 
(2) a labor saving of 6 men in an organization capable of approximating 350 to 
400 sq. yd. of walk per day, (3) an increase, with a given type of concrete 
mixer, of from 10 to 12 per cent in daily yardage, and (4) a saving of the first 
cost and maintenance of a mortar mixer. 

Output of Gang in Constructing One Course Concrete Sidewalks (Engi- 
neering and Contracting, Jan. 1, 1919). — The one-course type was decided 
upon for the subdivision of the American Steel & Wire Co. at Donora, Pa., 
where an extensive concrete housing development is being completed. Con- 
tract was let for approximately 25,000 sq. ft. of 5-ft. walk, 4>^ in. thick. 
The work was handled in much the same way as one-course concrete road 
construction. 

Of especial interest are the steel dividing plates used to separate concrete 
into 5-ft. slabs, as the plates must not extend above the sidewalk surface if the 
roller method of finishing is to be followed. 

Where wooden side forms were used, Ke-in. steel plates 5 ft. long by 4^ in. 
in depth were spaced at 5-ft. intervals. Near the top at each end of the plate 
a small hole was provided so that the plate could be removed with hooks. To 
prevent concrete from pushing these plates out of position, they were staked 
near the ends and at the center with steel pins. 

On part of the work the forms were of steel. The type of dividing plate 
used with these patented forms had a projecting part in the shape of a hook 
on each end which fitted over the vertical web of the channel-shaped side form, 
the upper flange being cut through to make that possible. Only one stake on 
level ground, or two on grades, were needed with this type of plate. 

Concrete was mixed in proportions of 1:2:3, using crushed blast furnace slag 
ranging in size from }4 in. to 1>^ in. as coarse aggregate. This gave particles 
larger than are ordinarily used in sidewalk construction, but little trouble was 
experienced from this cause when the concrete was finished with a heavy 
roller. 

Care was taken to make adequate provision for expansion. Every 50 ft. a 
strip of prepared filler >^ in. in thickness was placed across the sidewalk, and 
where the walk abutted a street curb two thicknesses of filler were used. 
Between houses and walks a H in. joint was placed. 

Concrete was deposited directly on the clay subgrade and struck off ^ in. 
high with a template. Following this, concrete was rolled longitudinally with 
a 10-in. roller 5 ft. 5 in. long, which weighed 2K lb. per hneal inch. Since this 
roller rested on the side forms after concrete had been compacted to the 
proper level, it was satisfactory although heavier than is used ordinarily. 
Immediately after rolling the surface was finished with wood floats, dividing 
plates were removed, joints grooved and the sidewalk edged. 

The concreting crew was made up of 14 men, including the superintendent; 
five men were employed in the mixing crew, three wheeled concrete, two set 
forms and three did the finishing. Twenty-one hundred square feet was the 
largest day's work done, while 1,800 sq. ft. was a fair daily average. The 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 1017 

mixer was a two-sack batch side dump machine. Usually it was moved four 
times daily. 

Cost of Constructing a Wide Concrete Sidewalk, Harrisburg, Pa. — Joel D. 
Justin gives the following data in Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 1, 1915. 
In connection with the construction of a series of reinforced concrete retain- 
ing walls along the river front, the City of Harrisburg completed, in 1915, 
a concrete sidewalk 10,600 ft. long and 12 ft. 3 ins. wide. 

The sidewalk which was built by contract under rigid inspection, was con- 
structed in alternate blocks 6 ft. 1}4 ins. square and 6 ins. thick, with 1 part of 
cement, 2>^ parts of sand and 4K parts run of crushed limestone, maximum 
size 1 in. The mixture was made so dry that considerable heavy ramming was 
necessary to bring moisture to the surface. This concrete was then deposited 
in a block compartment and screeded and thoroughly tamped. The top coat 
mixed 1 part cement to IK part quartz sand, was mixed so dry that it is nec- 
essary to squeeze a ball of the mortar in the hand to bring moisture to the sur- 
face. The top coat is then spread over the concrete base and screeded and 
rammed into place, either with tampers or by striking heavily with the 
flat of the shovel. The surface is then finished off hard and smooth with 
floats and metal trowels. 

It is essential that both concrete base and top coat should be placed fairly 
dry, as if either is wet, there is formed a minute layer of laitance between the 
base and the top coat. This causes a dividing plane, which frequently 
explains the peeling, off of the top coat of sidewalk work as generally 
constructed. 

The writer has placed over one hundred thousand square yards of top coated 
concrete in the manner here outlined, where weather conditions are excep- 
tionally severe and none of it has come off. He is firmly convinced that the 
method secures a perfect bond between the concrete and the top coat. Blocks 
placed in this manner have been broken up and removed and it was found 
impossible to separate the top coat from the base, the fracture in every case 
occurring elsewhere. 

The sidewalk was located at the foot of a bank varying in height from 12 to 
15 ft. A two bag batch steam driven mixer of the Milwaukee Paver type was 
stationed on the bank and moved from place to place under its own steam as 
the work progressed. Set ups were from two to three thousand feet apart. 
Sand, stone and cement were delivered by team on an asphalt street within 20 
to 75 ft. of the mixer. The cost of cement delivered on the job was $1.10 per 
barrel net, including deduction for lost and stolen bags. Crushed stone cost 
90 cts. per ton delivered on the job and sand $1.30 per ton. 

After mixing, the concrete was dumped through a chute into Koppel cars, 
running on a narrow gage track beside the sidewalk. From the cars, the 
concrete was dumped directly into place. The top coat was mixed on the 
sidewalk and transported in wheelbarrows to the points required. 

Each block 6 ft. IH ins. square and 6 ins. thick contained 0.695 cu. yds., 
requiring 1.25 bbls. of cement, 0.822 bbls. of this being in the concrete base and 
0.428 bbls. in the top coat. The average was thus 1.8 bbls. per cubic yard 
including the top coat. 

An itemized statement of the organization and cost per unit is given in 
Table XXXII. The average output per 10-hour day was 100 blocks or 
69.5 cu. yds. or 417 sq. yds. 

It should be noted that no allowance has been made for overhead or depre- 
ciation. All other charges to the contractor are included. 



1018 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table XXXII 



Supplying Mixer — 

Cement, 1 man @ $1.50 

Stone, 6 men @ $1.50 per 10-hr. day 

Sand, 2 men @ $1.50 per 10-hr. day 

Mixer Running — 

1 engineer @ $2.50 

1 fireman @ $2.00 

Transporting Concrete — 

2 men on cars at mixer @ $1.50 

3 men on train @ 1.50 

1 horse @ 2.00 

Placing and Ramming Concrete — 

4 men placing, ramming, screeding @ $1.50. 
Mixing Top Coat — 

5 men mixing @ 1.50 

Transporting Top Coat — 

3 men wheeling @ $1.50 

Placing and Screeding Top Coat — 

4 men @$1.75 

Finishing Top Coat — 

1 man @ $3.00. 
1 man @ 2.00. 

1 man @ 2.00 

Setting Templets — 

1 foreman @ $3.00 

3 carpenters @ $2.00 

2 helpers @ $1.75 

Finished Grading — 

1 foreman @ $2.00 

8 men @ $1.50 



Cost 
per 
day 



Per cu. 

yd. 



Per sq. 

yd. 



$ 1 . 50 

9 . 00 

3.00 $0,194 



2.50 
2.00 



3.00 
4.50 
2.00 

6.00 

7.50 

4.50 

7.00 



0.065 

6.i36' 
0.086 
0.108 
0.065 
0.101 



7.00 0.101 



Total labor cost 

Coal for mixer @ $3.10 ton 

Use of mixer, tracks and cars 

Grand total (aside from overhead) . 

Cost of Materials — 

1.4 tons stone @ 90 cts 

.7 ton sand @ $1.50 

1.8 bbls. cement @ $1.10 



3.00 
6.00 
3.50 

2.00 
12.00 


oliso* 
■6!26i' 


$85.50 
0.78 


$1.23 
0.011 
.0444 



$87 .28 $1 . 26 
Per cu. yd. 

$1.26 

.91 

1.98 



$0,032 

o^oii 

0.622 
0.014 
0.018 
0.011 
0.017 

0.017 

'b'.bso 

6.034 

$0,205 
0.009 
0.024 

$0,210 
Per sq yd. 

$0,210 

.152 

0.330 



Cost materials 

Total labor, mixer-coal. 



Total cost 

6 sq. yds. = 1 cu. yd. (6 ins. thick). 



$4.15 
1.26 



$5.41 



$0,696 
0.210 



$0,902 



Cost of Concrete Sidewalk in Chicago. — N. E. Murray gives the following 
in a paper before the Illinois Society of Engineers and Surveyors, Jan. 26-8, 
1910, abstracted in Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 2, 1910. 

The ordinary concrete sidewalk gang in Chicago is usually composed of six 
men paid as follows: 

1 finisher 8 hours at 65 cts $ 5 . 20 

1 helper 8 hours at 473^ cts 3 . 80 

4 laborers 8 hours at 373^ cts 12 . 00 



Total $21 . 00 

Under favorable conditions this gang will construct 900 sq. ft. of walk per 
day. From information furnished me by several of the leading contractors, 
each employing on an average of six gangs of men, a gang of six men will 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 1019 

average only 600 sq. ft. per day for an entire season. This figure will be used 
as a basis for computing the cost of labor in the following table: 

Cinders (allow for 20 % shrinkage), 20.83 cu. yds. at 50 cts $10. 42 

Base 43^ inches thick — Mix 1-2 >^ -5: 

Cement, 9.77 bbls., at $1.20 $11 . 72 

Sand, 3.47 cu. yds., at $1.75 6 . 07 

Gravel, 6.85 cu. yds., at $1.50 10.28 

Total $28.07 

Wearing coat ^ in. thick — Mix 2-3. 

Cement, 5.56 bbls., at $1.20 $ 6.67 

Sand, 1.17 cu. yds., at $1.75 2.04 

Total $ 8.71 

Water at 1 mill per square foot . 60 

Labor, one gang one day 21 . 00 

Use of tools, waste of material, etc., at 2 % 1 . 37 

Supt. and office exp. at 5 % 3.51 

Profit at 10 % 7.36 

Total $81.04 

The average cost per foot when 600 sq. ft. per day are laid divided into unit 
cost per sq. ft. is as follows: 

Cinders $0.0174 

Base: 

Cement $0.0195 

Sand.... 0101 

Gravel .0171 

Total $0. 0468 

Top: 

Cement $0.0111 

Sand .0034 

Total $0.0145 

Water $0.0010 

Labor 0.0350 

Tools, waste, etc., 2 % 0.0023 

Supt., 5 % 0.0058 

Profit, 10% 0.0123 

Total $0. 1351 

In the above the cost of materials and water amounts to 7.97 cts. per sq. ft., 
which will remain constant, while the cost of labor, superintendent, etc., will 
vary according to the number of square feet laid per day per gang: 

Av. sq. ft. per day. 700 800 900 1,000 

Cost of labor, supt., etc $0. 1291 $0. 1248 $0. 1213 $0. 1185 

Cost of Cutting Edge of Concrete Walk. — H. R. Ferris gives, in Engineering 
and Contracting, Oct. 4, 1916, the following: 

During the work on some street widening improvements, it was found 
necessary. In order to make room for a granite curb, to trim about 3 in. off the 
outside edge of a 4-in. concrete walk, and for a distance of 512 ft. 

The work was done by an unusually good workman, using a medium hand 
hammer and ordinary cold chisels. 

The cost follows: 

Foreman marking and lining edge of walk, 2 hr. @ 62.5 

cts $ 1 . 25 

Laborer cutting edge of walk, 24 hr. @ 30 cts 7. 20 

Removing old concrete — 

Labor, 4 hr 1 . 20 

Teams, 1 hr. . . ^5 

$10.30 
Cost per lineal foot 2 cts, 



1020 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Cost of Raising Sunken Concrete Walk. — H. R. Ferris gives the following 
note in Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 4, 1916. 

In the course of some construction connected with street widening improve- 
ments, it was found necessary to raise to its original level 240 ft. of concrete 
walk which owing to defective earth foundation had sunk 5 or 6 in. on the 
outside edge. The walk was 12 ft. wide, 4 in. thick, with a mesh reinforce- 
ment, and although over 15 years old was still in perfect condition. It was 
possible that its settlement had been foreseen by the constructors, as 5-in. 
"I" beams had been placed cross- wise underneath it, at intervals of 8 ft. 

In order to make room for a granite curb, the "I" beams which projected 
beyond the edge of the walk, were cut by hand with a hack-saw. The labor 
cost of cutting these I-beams was 48 ct. each. A concrete pier (see sketch; was 
placed under the outside edge of the walk after it had been raised to its original 
position. Twelve jacks were used for the work. The costs follow: 

Labor — 

Foreman, 3 days @ $4 -. $12. 00 

Labor raising walk, 1 12 hr. @ 30 cts 33 . 60 

Labor concreting, 56 hr. @ 30 cts 16.80 

Labor cutting "I" beams (30), 48 hr. (c^ 30 cts 14.40 

Labor on forms, reinforcement, 14 hr. @ 30 cts 4 . 20 



$81.00 
I^aterials~~~ 

Cement, 16 bbl. @ $2 $32 . 00 

Sand, 6H cu. yd. (^ $1 6.50 

Gravel, 13 cu. yd. @ $1.10 14.30 

Hack saw (frame and blades) 3 . 50 

Reinforcing steel, 500 lb. @ 3 cts 15. 00 

Renting jacks 6 . 00 

$77 . 30 

Cost of Constructing Concrete Combined Curb and Gutter. — Fig. 16 shows 
the dimensions and mix used in constructing the combined curb and gutter 






^"Radius. 







wmmmmmMm^& ^ 



:9" 



""!"" 



I 
.-1- 



S r>'^tS\^V/7c/7l<3Sub-dose ^of^graveUor cinders ^ (\ o q 



Q Ci'' 



>^v 



.^^ 



Fia. 16. — Cross-section of combined curb and gutter. 



at Webb City, Mo. Costs for typical examples of this type of construction 
are given by E. W. Robinson in Engineering and Contracting, May 15, 1912, 
as follows: 

The costs given have been compiled from the daily report blanks turned in 
each day by the city inspectors. It will be noticed that there is considerable 
variation in the cost of the different items for different jobs, though the totals 



b 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 1021 

agree pretty closely. There are several reasons for- this. In the first place 
there was considerable difference in the efficiency of the men and methods 
employed. Also on this kind of work it is not always economical to have a 
gang organized so that each man does only one or two things, and such fre- 
quent switching of men is hard to follow in trying to keep the time on each 
operation. In some cases the foreman made a hand wherever the men got 
behind, in others he did no actual labor. Then the personal equation of the 
inspector entered in no small degree in the manner of the division of labor on 
the different items. However the totals give a fair average of the cost of this 
work in this city for the last two years. 



(1) 6-In. Curb and Gutter, 2,959 Lin. Ft. 

(Concrete mixed by hand. Good foreman and well organized gang. Includes 
setting forms, mixing and placing only. Public contract.) 

Cost per 
Labor: lin. ft. 

1 foreman, 145K hours at $0.333 $0.01637 

1 finisher, 141>^ hours at $0.555 0.02654 

2 asst. finishers and mortar mixers, 72 hours at $0.25, 17 hours at $0,222 . 00736 
1 mortar mixer, 48>^ hours at $0.277 0. 00453 

3 form setters, 9 hours at $0,277, 1003^ hours at $0.25, 147>'2 hours at 

$0.222 0.02040 

4 concrete mixers, 714 hours at $0.22 0.05357 

Total labor $0. 12877 

Material: 

Ce'fnent, concrete and mortar, l,445>t sacks at $0.35 $0. 17097. 

Sand, mortar, 484.1 cu. ft. at $0.08 0.01309 

Gravel, concrete, 338.4 cu. yds at $0.50 0.05717 

Water, 1,838^2 cu. ft. at $0.005 •. 0.00311 

Total material $0. 24434 

Total for labor and material $0 , 373 



(2) 9-In. Curb and Gutter, 2,089.5 Lin. Ft. 

(Concrete mixed by hand. Includes setting forms, mixing and placing only. 
Work interrupted by rain frequently. Foreman did no actual work. Public 
contract.) 

Cost Der 
Labor: lin. ft. 

1 foreman 1153^ hours at $0.666 $0.03687 

1 finisher, 115^ hours at $0.444 0. 02454 

1 mortar mixer, 1153^^ hours at $0.278 0.01535 

2 form setters, 226 hours at $0.25 . 02704 

5 concrete mixers, 544 hours at $0.222 0. 05787 

Total for labor $0. 16168 

Material: 

Cement, mortar and concrete, 1,114^ sacks at $0.35 $0. 18670" 

Sapd, mortar, 361^ cu. ft. at $0.08 0.01384 

Gravel, concrete, 240 cu. yds. at $0.50 0.05744 

Water, 1,169 cu. ft. at $0.005 0.00280 

Total for material $0.26078 

Total for labor and material 0.42247 



1022 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

(3) 9-In. Curb and Gutter,- 1,279.2 Lin. Ft. 

(Concrete mixed with Coltrin continuous mixer part of time, rest with Eclipse 
batch mixer. Includes sub-base, setting forms, mixing and placing only. Does 
not include water and gasoline. Good weather. Public contract. Good fore- 
man, did no actual work.) 

Cost per 

Labor: lin. ft. 

1 foreman, 63 hours at $0.666 $0.0328 

2 finishers, 64 hours at $0,444, 403^ hours at $0.278 0.0309 

2 form setters, 132 hours at $0.222 0.0233 

1 mortar mixer, 62 hours at $0.222 0. 0107 

1 feeding mixer, 62 hours at $0.222 0. 0107 

2 ofT-bearing, 71 hours at $0,222, 5 hours at $0.278 0.0133 

2 placing and tamping, 1103^ hours at $0.222 0.0192 

Total for labor $0. 1409 

Material: 

Cement mortar and concrete, 626 sacks at $0.40 $0. 1957 

Sand, mortar, 217 cu. ft. at $0.08 0.0136 

Gravel, concrete and sub-base, 132.3 cu. yds. at $0.50 0.0517 

Total for material $0 . 2610 

Total for material and labor $0. 4019 

(4) 9-In. Curb and Gutter, 2,900 Lin. Ft. 

(Concrete mixed with Eclipse batch mixer. Includes sub-base, setting forms 
and mixing and placing, but not water or gasoline. Late fall of year and some 
work lost because of frost. Well organized gang. ) 

Cost per 

Labor: lin. ft. 

1 foreinan, 99 hours at $0.666 $0. 0228 

2 finishers, 95 hours at $0.30, 14 hours at $0.50 0. 0123 

2 form setters, 198 hours at $0.2333 0. 0159 

2 mixing and placing mortar, 198 hours at $0.233 0.0159 

5 mixer men, 464 hours at $0.222 0. 0356 

Total for labor $0. 1024 

Material: 

Cement, mortar and concrete, 1,291 sacks at $0.40 $0. 1767 

Sand, mortar, 4573^ cu. ft. at $0.07 0.0116 

Gravel, concrete, 122 cu. yds. at $0.50 0. 0210 

Gravel, sub-base, 161.1 cu. yds at $0.50 0. 0278 

Total for material $0. 2371 

Total for labor and material $0. 3395 

(5) 4-Ft. Sidewalk, 436 Sq. Ft. 

(Concrete mixed by hand. Includes setting forms, mixing and placing only. 
Foreman was also contractor and finisher. Private contract.) 

Cost per 
Labor: sq. ft. 

1 foreman and finisher, 9 hours at $0.50 $0. 0103 

4 mixing and placing concrete, 24 hours at $0.222 0.0122 

1 mixing and placing mortar, 7 hours at $0.222 0.0036 

Total for labor $0.0261 

Material: 

Cement, mortar and concrete, 33 sacks at $0.35 $0.0265 

Sand, mortar, 25 cu. ft. at $0.08 0. 0046 

Water, 6 bbls. at $0.10 0.0014 

Gravel, concrete, 4 cu. yds. at $0.50 0. 0046 

Total for material $0.0371 

Total for material and labor $0. 0633 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 1023 

(6) 4-Ft. Sidewalk, 4,934 Sq. Ft. 

(Concrete mixed by hand. Includes setting forms, mixing and placing only. 
Foreman did some finishing, but was attending to other business most of time. 
Otherwise gang was efficient. Lost 50 ft. of finish by rain. Public contract.) 

Cost per 
Labor: sq. ft. 

1 foreman and finisher, 42 hours at $0.555 $0.0047 

1 finisher, 17K hours at $0.444 0.0015 

3 mixing and placing mortar, 107 hours at $0.222 . 0048 

4 mixing concrete, 151^i hours at $0.222 0.0068 

2 placing concrete, 82 hours at $0.25 0. 0042 

2 setting forms, 58 hours at $0.222 0. 0027 

Total for labor $0. 0247 

Material: 

Cement, concrete and mortar, 414 sacks at $0.40 $0.0336 

Sand, mortar, 444 cu. ft. at $0.08. 0.0072 

Gravel, concrete, 49.6 cu. yds. at $0.50 0. 0050 

Water, 9 tanks at $0.50 0.0009 

Total for material $0.0467 

Total for material and labor $0, 0714 

(7) 4-Ft. Sidewalk, 12,504 Sq. Ft. 

(Concrete mixed with Coltrin continuous mixer. Includes setting forms, 
mixing and placing only, but not gasoline. Efficient gang. Foreman was 
member of firm and helped at all times; 50 lin. ft. lost by rain. Public contract.) 

Cost per 

Labor: sq. ft. 

1 foreman, 18 days at $5.00 $0.0072 

2 finishers, 105K hours at $0,555, 45 hours at $0.333 0.0059 

2 mixing and placing mortar, 262 hours at $0.222 0.0047 

4 mixer men, 505^ hours at $0.222 0. 0090 

1 water boy, 94 hours at $0.111 0. 0008 

Total for labor $0. 0275 

Material: 

Cement, concrete and mortar, 853 sacks at $0.40 $0.0273 

Gravel, concrete, 113 cu. yds. at $0.50 0. 0045 

Sand, finish, 853 cu. ft. at $0.08 0. 0053 

Water, 152 bbls. at $0.10 , 0.0012 

Total for material $0. 0384 

Total for labor and material $0 . 0659 

(8) 4-Ft. Sidewalk, 9,566.7 Sq. Ft. 

(Concrete mixed with a Coltrin continuous, mixer. Includes setting forms, 
mixing and placing only. Does not include water and gasoline. Fairly efficient 
gang. Foreman did no actual work but was a hustler. Was also the contractor. 
Public contract.) 

Cost per 

Labor: sq. ft. 

1 foreman, 543^ hours at $0.666 $0. 0038 

1 finisher, 63>^ hours at $0.444 0.0030 

2 mixing mortar, 104 hours at $0.222 0. 0024 

2 feeding mixer, 109 hours at $0.222 0. 0025 

2 wheeling mortar and concrete, 125 hours at $0.222 0.0029 

2 placing concrete and mortar, 119 hours at $0.222 0.0028 

Total for labor $0. 0174 

Material: 

Cement, concrete and mortar, 748 sacks at $0.40 $0.0313 

Sand, mortar, 467 cu. ft. at $0.08 0.0039 

Gravel, concrete, 97 cu. yds. at $0.50 0.0051 

Total for material $0 . 0403 

Total for labor and material $0. 0577 



1024 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Cost of Laying Granite Curb. — Engineering and Contracting, June 5, 1918, 
gives the following: 

Granite for the 5108 ft. of curb was delivered on the work, in blocks from 
5 to 8 ft. long, of the dimensions shown on the sketch. The stones were 
bedded in 1:3:5 concrete as required by the specifications, laid to a true line 
and grade, and joints exceeding 34 in. were not permitted. 

A good working foreman, with an indifferent Italian crew, performed the 
work. Stones were placed entirely by hand, with the aid of crow-bars, jacks, 
etc. The contractor thinks it probable that considerable economy might 
have been effected by using a small portable derrick. 

The costs follow: 

Per lin. ft. 

Curb, setter, 307 hours at 50 cts $0. 030 

Helper, 307 hours at 40 cts . 024 

Labor, 1,850 hours at 30 cts .108 

Total $0. 162 

A snatch team was used at odd times for moving around stones which had 
not been conveniently distributed. This cost is not included in the figures 
given above. 




SO'' -' 

Fig. 17. — Sketch showing dimensions of granite curb. 



Labor Costs of Laying Curved Granite Curbs at Street Intersections. — H. 
R. Ferris gives the following data in Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 3, 
1917. 

The costs cover the labor of laying 44 returns (630 lin. ft.; of curved granite 
curb at 11 street intersections. The stones were 20 in. deep, 6 in. wide 
at top and dressed for 5 in. on the face. At the bottom they were generally 
7 or 8 in. wide. Each piece came in lengths varying from 4 to 7 ft. and were 



ROADS AND PAVEMENTS 1025 

conveniently delivered within a few feet of their final location. The bottom 
12 in. of the curb were imbedded in 1 :3 :6 concrete. 

The work was done by an energetic and competent curb-setter and helper 
who handled their part of the work well. The common labor, which included 
the excavation of the trench, moving stones, mixing concrete, etc., was very 
inefficient, however, and probably 35 per cent of this cost could have been 
saved with first class laborers. 

The curbs were laid under strict inspection. No joints over ^ in. were 
allowed, and the bottom of all curbs had a true setting bed in order to "secure 
a uniform depth throughout." The workmen were required to set the stones 
so that they would be "free of depressions and wind, and true to line and 
grade." The stones were set to a 9-ft. radius. 

The labor costs follow: 

Cost of Laying 630 Lin. Ft. Of Curved Granite Curb 

Curb setter, 84 hours @ 40c $ 33 . 60 

Helper, 56 hours @ 35c 19 . 60 

Labor, 342 hours @ 25c 85. 50 

$138.70 
V Total cost per lin. ft. of labor 22 cts. 

Cost of a Cobble Lined Gutter, California. — E. Earl Glass gives the follow- 
ing in Engineering and Contracting, Jiine 6, 1917. 

To prevent cutting by storm water, the Los Angeles County Road Depart- 
ment recently constructed a cobble lined gutter on each side of a steep hillside 
road. The adjoining property owners furnished the cobbles and gravel, 
which they hauled from a nearby stream bed. 

The gutter (3 ft. wide and 7 ins. deep at center) was roughed out with plow 
and shps and shaped with shovels. The soil being a very sandy silt furnished 
an excellent bed for the stones. Excepting the team work on rough grading, 
all the work was done by three laborers with part of the time of a road 
foreman. 

The best stones for this work are hard, clean, stream cobbles, about 6-in. X 
lO-in. faces and 4 or 5 in. thick. Cobbles are often laid vertically or at a 
slight angle as on street pavements, but we laid this work flat, thus effecting 
a great saving in time and material, and getting practically the same 
results. 

After 400 ft. of gutter had been laid, one of the men would go back and wet 
the gutter until water showed between the stones. He then tamped every 
stone with a sledge. He mixed half-bag batches of coarse mortar (1:3:5) in a 
mortar box and shoveled the soupy grout onto the wet stones. Another 
laborer swept the mortar along with a street broom, fiUing all voids between 
the stones with the concrete and leaving the gutter section smooth but showing 
all rock faces. As soon as the mortar was sufficiently set, an inch depth of 
earth was spread over the finished gutter and kept damp for a week. 

At all driveways and in front of residences where a deep, open gutter would 
be objectionable, the property owners provided 14-in. concrete pipe which 
were laid in shallow trenches with open joints. The gutter was flared to 
connect with these pipe culverts, providing substantial and artistic head 
walls, with generous capacity for entry and delivery of a full stream of storm 
water. 

65 



1026 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



The cost of the improvement was as follows: 

Pipe Gutter Total 

Length, ft 224 4 , 656 4 , 880 

Excavating and backfilling $ 16. 50 $218.75 $235.25 

224 lin. ft. of 14-in. concrete irrigation pipe @ 

33 ct. delivered 74 . 00 74 . 00 

30 tons (25 cu. yd.) of bank gravel for grouting 8 . 00 8 .00 

367 tons of clean, granite cobbles for paving 

gutter 103.00 103.00 

Laying stone for pipe end walls and paving 

gutter. 17.50 243.50 261.00 

Grouting end walls and gutter 4.50 60.70 65.20 

Cement for end walls and gutter, 283^ bbl. 

@ $2.00 3.50 53.50 57.00 

Supervision 18. 00 87 . 00 105. 00 

Total $134 . 00 $774 . 45 $908 . 45 

Total cost per lin. ft $ 0.60 $ 0.166$ 0.186 

Total cost per sq. ft. of paved surface $ 0.04^^ 

Note — Labor, $2.50 per 8-hour day. 



Twenty-three yards of 1 :3 :5 concrete were used in grouting, which is a rate 
of 0.14 cu. yd. per 100 sq. ft. of cobble-gutter surface. Labor only for laying 
and grouting (no grading) was $6.60 per 100 hn. ft., or the three men finish 114 
lin. ft. per day, exclusive of excavation. 



CHAPTER XVI 
HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 

This chapter contains costs and other economic data relative to construct- 
ing highway bridges. In the following chapter other data will be found which 
may also prove of value in connection with highway bridge construction. 
Many data on this subject are also given in the voluminous section on bridges 
in Gillette's " Handbook of Cost Data." 

Economic Highway Bridges and Culverts. — The following is taken from an 
abstract, published in Engineering and Contracting, July 28, 1920, X)f a 
paper presented at the Canadian Good Roads Convention at Winnipeg, 
June, 1920, by M. A. Lyons. 

In selecting the type of structure three factors will influence this choice, viz., 
economy, service and appearance, and of these the first two will generally, but 
not always rightly, be the deciding factors. It is impossible to estimate the 
value of the aesthetic in design, and, as this value cannot be expressed in con- 
crete symbols, it is frequently not understood, and, consequently, beauty of 
appearance is not given full value in deciding on the type of structure. It is a 
question as to how much additional money should be spent in order to achieve 
a pleasing appearance. The cost of a bridge is, however, soon forgotten, but 
an unsightly bridge cannot be forgotten, for it remains as a constant unpleas- 
ant jar on the senses. 

Comparative Costs of Timber, Steel and Concrete Bridges. — In selecting the 
most economical type of bridge, first-cost upkeep and value of non-interrup- 
tion of traffic must be considered. The timber structure is in about every case 
the cheapest in first cost, but in the long run it does not generally prove to be 
as cheap as steel or concrete. A wooden pile bridge, if suitable for the site, is 
no doiibt the cheapest bridge in direct cost. 

For example, a 50-ft. pile bridge will cost today about $1,500. Allowing 6 
per cent interest, a yearly payment of $270 would be required to keep this 
bridge in condition, made up as follows: Flooring to be renewed every 3 years, 
first cost $270, yearly payment for 3 years $101 ; stringers to be renewed every 
6 years, first cost $270, yearly payment $55; remainder of bridge to last 12 
years, first cost $960, yearly payment $114; total yearly cost $270. Indirect 
costs, such as delay to traffic during repairs, loss of traffic through neglect of 
repairs, liability to accident or fire may run the total cost far beyond the direct 
costs. At best, the pile bridge is very unsightly and only to be considered 
where first costs are of prime importance, as they sometimes are. 

In many cases stream conditions are such that it is not perniissible to have 
piles in the stream bed and a clear opening of long span is required. The type 
of structure may then be a choice between a wooden span, a steel span or a 
concrete span. Unless the wooden span is to be placed on piles, which, in 
many cases, is not feasible, the cost of the substructure for the three types will 
be about the same, so that it will only be necessary to compare the relative 

1027 



1028 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

costs of the superstructure. Again selecting a 50-ft. span for comparison, and 
assuming wooden flooring to be renewed every three years, wooden stringers 
to be renewed every six years, painting wood and steel to be carried out 
every four years, the life of concrete and steel to be over 30 years and the life 
of a wooden truss to be over 15 years, we have the following relative costs: 

FiBST Costs 
Wooden Truss — 

12,400 ft. B. M. timber at $100 per M $1 ,240 

3,000 lb. steel at 15 cts. per lb 450 

Painting , . 250 

$1,940 
Steel Bridge — 

17.6 tons steel at $220 $2,772 

4,600 ft. B. M. timber at $80 per M 368 

$3,140 
Concrete Bowstring— 

68 cu. yd. concrete at $35 per cu. yd $2 , 380 

11,600 lb. steel at 10 cts. per lb 1 , 160 

1,850 sq. ft. mesh at 20 cts. per sq. ft 370 

1,000 lb. structural steel (bearings, etc.), 20 cts. per lb 200 

Crosby clips and handrail 200 

$4,310 
Yearly Costs 
Wooden Truss — 

Flooring 2,800 ft. B. M. at $80, cost $224, yearly payment based on 

3-year life $ 84 

Stringers, 3,200 ft. B. M. at $80, cost $256, yearly payment based on 

6-year life • •• , 54 

Remainder of bridge $1,210, yearly payment based on 15-year life. . 125 

Yearly cost of painting every 4 years 72 

Total yearly cost $ 335 

Steel Truss- 
Timber, 4,670 ft. B. M. at $80, cost $374, yearly payment based on 

3-year life $ 140 

Yearly payment on steel truss for 30 years (cost $2,772) 201 

Yearly cost of painting every four years 36 

Total $ 377 

Concrete Bridge — 

Yearly payments on concrete bridge for 30 years (cost $4,310) $ 311 

It thus appears that the concrete superstructure, for spans of this length at 
least, is cheaper than either wood or steel. It must also be noted, in the case 
of steel and concrete bridges, that at the end of 30 years the bridge is paid for 
and the yearly payments cease (except for the repairs on the steel bridge), 
while in the case of the wooden bridge the yearly payments still go on. 

Every Bridge a Problem in Itself. — For bridges of any size it is impossible 
to make any general statement that one class of bridge is cheaper than another, 
as every bridge is a problem in itself, and the foregoing is given as an example 
of a method of obtaining relative costs. The question of the nature of the 
foundations, cross-section of the stream-bed, condition of stream flow, water- 
way required, availability of inaterials, relative cost of materials, relative 
costs and availability of labor, relative cost of substructure to the super- 
structure, ice conditions and economical and suitable length of span must be 
taken into accpunt when deciding which is the economical bridge. 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 1029 

Wooden bridges are confined chiefly to two types, the pile trestle and the 
Howe truss. For steel bridges of clear span of 30 ft. or under, simple stringer 
spans are cheapest; from 30 ft. to about 45 or 50 ft., plate girders; from 50 ft. 
to 80 or 90 ft., low or pony trusses; 400 or 500 ft., trusses with subdivided 
panels; beyond this, cantilever or suspension bridges, with steel arches, coming 
in any place in the hst. 

Every concrete bridge is a study in itself. In Manitoba there have been 
constructed, or are under way, slab and girder bridges up to 30-ft. span, 
through girders up to 50-ft. span, barrel arches up to 100-ft. span, open- 
spandrel arches up to 60-ft. span, through arch or rainbow type up to 90-ft. 
span and bowstrings up to 90-ft. span. These aie, however, only given as an 
example of different types of concrete bridges. 

Culverts, Types and Costs. — Coming to the small but important culverts, 
there are, in general, four types in common use: First, wooden culverts; 
second, steel or iron culverts; third, concrete pipes; and fourth, concrete 
culverts cast in place. The wooden culvert is undoubtedly the cheapest, but 
the objection to this is that it is out of commission or unsafe about most of the 
time. In point of cost, concrete pipe culverts come next. These, however, 
must be placed where no water will freeze in or around them, and they must 
have a good, solid bed. Considerable saving has been effected in Manitoba 
by the use of concrete pipe, and the results have been quite satisfactory. 
The cost of manufacture last year ran about as follows: 

Per lin. ft. 

10-in. diameter 36 cts. 

12-in. diameter 45 cts. 

15-in. diameter 50 cts. 

18-in. diameter 83 cts. 

24-in. diameter $1 . 22 

30-in. diameter 1.75 



The breakage in handling ran about 1 per cent. 

Corrugated steel or iron pipes have been used extensively where lack of 
suitable materials or labor prevent the making of concrete pipes. These can 
be laid in places where it would not be suitable to lay concrete pipes. We 
have also used semi-circular reinforced culverts cast in place with success. 
These cost about the same as the corrugated iron pipes. We seldom use pipe 
culverts of over 30-in. or 36-in. diameter. Above that we advocate reinforced 
concrete box culverts. 

Diagrams for Estimating Materials Required for Standard Steel and 
Concrete Spans of the Illinois Highway Department. — The following is 
given by G. F. Burch in Illinois Highways, June, 1915, abstracted in Engi- 
neering Record, July 7, 1915. 

These diagrams give the weight of steel and the amount of concrete in steel 
truss spans from 50 to 160 ft. long, with a 4-in. concrete floor, in reinforced- 
concrete girder spans from 30 to 60 ft. long, and in reinforced-concrete slabs 
from 5 to 30 ft. long. In addition curves are given for the amount of concrete 
in the abutments, both plain and reinforced. 

Material in Superstructures. — The steel trusses are of the ordinary Pratt 
truss type with parallel chords and riveted connections. The design provides 
for a 4-in. concrete floor, with a wearing surface assumed to weigh not less 
than 50 lb. per square foot. On account of the weight and rigidity of the con- 
crete floor no allowance is made for impact. Floor systems are designed to 



1030 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



carry a 15-ton traction engine in addition to the dead load. Trusses are 
designed to carry a uniform load of 100 lb. per square foot of road surface 
for spans from 60 to 150 ft., and a uniform load of 85 lb. for spans exceeding 
150 ft. long. The usual A. R. E. A. unit stresses are used in the design. 
Pony trusses are used for spans of from 50 to 85 ft., and through trusses for 
spans of from 90 to 160 ft. 

Reinforced-concrete through girders are used for spans of from 30 to 60 
ft. This type of structure is designed to carry either a uniform load of 125 lb. 
per square foot, or an engine load of 24 tons. 

Plain Concrete Abutments. — In preparing curves to show the quantities in 
abutments it was found that there were many variables which might be con- 




^-40 



60 



SO 100 /20 
Span in Feet 

Fig. 1. — Steel truss superstructures. 



/40 160 



sldered, but which if used would produce such complex formulas as to make the 
curves of little use in the field. It was found that curves giving reliable results 
might be obtained by plotting the cubic yards of concrete in two abutments 
against a formula which represented a measure of the quantities desired. 
The variables in this formula are H, height of abutment from bottom of 
foundation to top of roadway; 72, clear width of roadway on superstructure, 
and PT, length of average wing wall. For plain concrete abutments the best 
results were obtained by using the term ti"^ (Ji -\- 2W) . 

Plain concrete abutments for steel bridges are designed with a footing width 
of one-third of the height over all, and the thickness of the footing is usually 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 



1031 



from 18 to 24 in. The width of the base of the abutment and wing walls at the 
top of the footing is made approximately one-quarter of the height of the walls. 
The back of the abutment wall is vertical and the face of the wall is battered 
to a top width of from 30 to 38 in. The wing walls are battered on both sides 
and have a top width of 12 in. Fig. 4 shows the curves from which the 
yardage of plain concrete abutments for steel bridges may be obtained. When 
field measurements are made to determine the necessary height of abutments, 
and the width of roadway is decided upon, it is easy to estimate the length of 
wing walls which will be required. These figures are then used in the formula 
and the yardage of concrete is read directly from the curve. 



J40 




JO 40 50 60 

Span in Ft. 

Fig. 2. — Reinforced concrete through girder superstructures. 



The design of plain concrete abutments for girder bridges is similar to the 
design for steel bridges, except that the wing walls are battered on the face side 
only, and the top width of the abutment wall is 18 in. Plain concrete abut- 
ments for slab bridges differ slightly from the preceding design. The width 
of footing on the abutment wall is limited only by the safe bearing capacity 
of the soil, with a minimum of 3 ft. This width may sometimes be less than 
one-third. 

Curves for Estimating Steel Bridge Quantities. — Engineering and Con- 
tracting, April 25, 1917, abstracts the curves shown as Figs. 5 and 6 from a 
Bridge Manual prepared under the direction of John H. Lewis, State Engi- 
neer of Oregon, for the State Highway Commission. They are intended for 
handy reference, to determine within reasonable limits the approximate quan- 



1032 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



titles or weights of the materials which enter into the construction of the 
types of bridges for which the curves were prepared. 

The diagrams are based on through Pratt bridges, designed according 
to the standards of the Oregon State Highway Department for the loadings 
given. 

They are in no way intended as a substitute for careful estimating when the 
question of any crossing enters the contract and construction stage. The 
final estimates should always be made up on accurate plans and details 
worked out for the particular bridge in question to cover any special 
conditions. 




J5 20 25 

Span in Feet 

Fig.- 3. — Reinforced concrete slab superstructures. 



Men in the field, however, are often called upon to prepare an estimate on 
short notice upon which definite construction programs may be authorized 
without further delay. After the quantities of materials are obtained, prices 
and labor costs can be judged in the field on the basis of local conditions, per- 
haps better than anywhere else, and the rough estimate be made up in a short 
lime. 

The curves give the weight of steel in both medium and heavy traffic 
bridges of spans ranging from 60 to 260 ft. 

The bridges are of the pony or low truss type, from 60 to 90 ft., and through 
Pratt trusses from 100 to 260 ft. 

Roadways are taken at 16 ft. 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 1033 



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Fig. 4. — Plain concrete abutments for three types of bridges. 

















































































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SPAN \W FE£T 

Fig. 5. — Quantity estimates for medium traffic steel bridges. 



1034 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Live loads for medium traffic were assumed at 60 lb. for spans up to 150 ft., 
and 50 lb. for spans over that length. Resultant live load stresses in the 
trusses were increased for impact. 

For heavy traffic the live loads were assumed at 100 lb. for spans up to 150 
ft., and 75 lb. for greater lengths, the loads given including provision for 
impact. 

Medium traffic bridges are designed for wood floors and joists: heavy 
traffic bridges to eventually carry a concrete floor. 



































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Fig. 6. — Quantity estimates for heavy traffic steel bridges. 



Costs of Substructure of the Double-Leaf Trunnion Bascule Bridge at 
Chicago Ave., Chicago, 111. — Carl O. Johnson gives the following detailed 
labor costs in Engineering and Contracting, Nov. 4, 1914. The reader is 
referred to the Oct. 24th and the Nov. 4th, 1914 issue of this paper for many 
additional cuts which are here omitted from lack of space. 

The new Chicago Ave. Bridge, which spans the Chicago River at Chicago 
Ave., Chicago, is a double-leaf trunnion bascule structure with a clear span of 
161 ft. 3 ins. and a length, center to center of trunnions, of 188 ft. 9 ins. 
The bridge has a clear roadway of 36 ft. and two 12-ft. sidewalks. 

Unit Bidding Prices and Actual Quantities Placed. — Table I gives the unit 
bidding prices, the actual quantities of materials placed, and the total costs of 
each item of the substructure work. 

In addition to the successful contractor's bid of $105,346.20, three other 
bids were received, the total amounts of these bids being $106,137.50, $107,- 
100.00 and $116,950.00. 

Contract and Contractor's Equipment. — The contract between the city of 
Chicago and Byrne Bros. Dredging and Engineering Co. was signed Dec. 2, 
1912, and notification to begin work was given by the city Dec. 13, 1912. The 
time limit for this work was nine months. Construction work was actually 
begun March 17, 1913, and the work was finished March 23, 1914. 

The contractor was required to furnish all labor, material and plant neces- 
sary for the construction work, and was made responsible for all damages due 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 



1035 



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1036 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

to the construction of the substructure. The construction plant consisted 
of the following equipment : 

One 6-cu. yd. "Marion" dipper dredge. 

Two dump scows, 500-cu. yd. capacity each 

Two dump scows, 250-cu. yds. capacity each. 

One derrick scow equipped with a 12-in, sand pump. 

Two deck scows. 

One floating pile driver. 

One shore pile driver. 

One stiff-leg derrick with 40-ft. wood mast and 80-ft. boom. 

One stiff-leg derrick with 40-ft. steel mast and 90-ft. boom. 

One 22-HP. hoisting engine. 

One 30-HP. hoisting engine. 

One 80-HP. locomotive firebox boiler. 

One 3^-in. cu. yd. concrete mixer. 

Three 8-in. centrifugal pumps. 

One 6-in. submerged centrifugal pump. 

One 4-in. piston pump. 

Rates of Wage and Division of Labor. — The following rates of wages were paid 
the rates being regulated principally by agreement with the labor unions: 

Superintendent, $200 per month. 

Timekeepers, from $1.50 to $3.75 per day; average rate, 35.9 cts. per hour. 
Watchman, $2.50 per day. 

Hoisting engineers, 75 to 80 cts. per hour; average rate, 76.2 cts. per hour. 
Firemen, 46 cts. per hour. 
Winchmen, 523^ cts. per hour. 

Signalmen, from 40 to 50 cts. per hour; average rate, 45^^ cts. per hour. 
Carpenter foremen, 75 cts. per hour. 
Carpenters, 65 cts. per hour. 
Carpenters' helpers, 48 cts. per hour. 
^ Labor foremen, from $4.50 to $7.00 per day; average rate, 53-2 cts. per hour. 
Laborers, from 25 to 60 cts. per hour; average rate, 44.2 cts. per hour. 
Iron worker foreman, $1.14 per hour. 
Iron worker straw boss, 93^ cts. per hour. 
Iron workers, 68 cts. per hour. 
Machinists, 65 cts. per hour. 
Sewer brick layers, $11.00 per 8-hour day. 

Pile driver crew, 10 men at 8 hours each, $43.76 per day (ordinary work). 
Pile driver crew, 10 men at 8 hours each, $53.08 per day (driving steel sheeting) 
Dredge crew, 7 men at 12 hours each, $33.00 per day. 
Dredge crew, 10 men at 12 hours each, $38.46 per day. 
Derrick scow engineer, 75 cts. per hour. 
Derrick scow fireman, 30 cts. per hour. 

A day, or shift, was 8 hours. The superintendent, timekeepers, and labor 
foremen worked 8 to 12~hour shifts. The average rate of wage for all classes 
of labor for the entire job v/as 53 cts. per hour. 

Table II gives the division of labor on the work, classified both as to time 
and cost. 

Table II. — Drs^isiON of Labor on Job 

Percentage Percentage 

of total of total 

Kind of labor. hours worked cost of work 

Superintendent, timekeeper, watchman, etc 8.5 8.2 

Engineers and firemen. 12 . 4 15.7 

Carpenters 10.6 13.2 

Laborers 50 . 5 43 . 4 

Iron workers 0.8 1.2 

Machinists 0.1 0.1 

Bricklayers 1 0.2 

Pile driver crew 14.4 16.2 

Dredge crew 2.4 1.7 

Derrick scow crew 0-2 0. 1 

Total labor 100.6 100.0 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 1037 

Time and Cost Data for Various Labor Items. — In all the cost data given in 
this article, only actual job labor costs have been considered. No charge has 
been made for tug service, plant rental or depreciation, interest, or central 
office overhead charges, etc. 

Tables III to IX, inclusive, contain accounts which were prorated among 
the contract items as shown. These tabular data give essential information 
on the cost and the time required to complete various parts of the work. 

The average rate for the work indicated in Table III was 54 cts. per hour. 
The items given in Table III were prorated among all items where the pile 
driver crew was used according to the number of hours worked, as follows: 

Total Total 

Item hours cost 

Cofferdams 875 $ 474 . 00 

Steel sheeting for concrete caissons 454 245. 00 

Miscellaneous. 41 22 . 30 

Pine timber 41 22. 30 

Oak timber 11 4.66 

Test piles 11 4.55 

Pile driving for foundation 289 156.00 

Removal 247 137 . 00 

To Table VIII 82 44. 60 

To Table IX 11 4.55 

Total... 2,062 $1,114.86 

Table III, — Pile Driving Equipment 

Total Total 

Item hours cost 

Rigging floating pile driver No. 1 60 $ 32 . 86 

Unloading and erecting shore pile driver No. 2 193 109.37 

Rigging and erecting shore pile driver No. 3 730 360.89 

Removing wrecked pile driver 164 90.98 

Rebuilding shore pile driver 535. 5 313. 15 

Removing steam hammer for another job 11.5 7. 51 

Wrecking old pile driver 112 56. 86 

Repairing pile driver scow 216 121 . 36 

Storing pile driver 40 21.88 

Total 2,062 $1,114.86 

Unloading the steel cofferdam sheeting, the steel caisson sheeting and the 
reinforcing bars for the concrete work, hauling this material from the cars to 
the scow, towing the same about 1,500 ft., and unloading the material on 
the docks required 344 hours, at a cost of $171.50, the average rate of wage for 
this work being 50 cts. per hour. These items were prorated according to the 
amount of steel used for the various parts of the work as given in Table IV. 

Table IV. — Handling Steel 

Total Total 

Item hours cost 

Cofferdams 189 $ 94.41 

Steel caisson sheeting 100 49 . 70 

Reinforcing bars 55 27.40 

Total 344 $171.51 

Unloading coal for the plant on the west side of the Chicago River required 
643^^ hours, at a total cost of $28.57, the average rate of wage being 45 cts. per 
hour. This item was prorated as given in Table V. 

Table V. — Handling Coal 

Total Total 

Item hours cost 

Pumping water from cofferdam 58 $25 . 71 

Excavation QH^ 2.86 

Total 64>^ $28. 67 



1038 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The cost and the time required to sort the old lumber used in the cofferdams 

are given in Table VI. The average rate of wage for this work was 47 cts. per 

hour, and the work was prorated 50 per cent to each cofferdam. 

Table VI. — Sorting Lumber 

Item Total hours Total cost 

Sorting lumber 2813-^ $131.42 

The time and cost data on the labor which may be classified as super- 
intendence is given in Table VII. This item includes the work of the super- 
intendent, timekeepers, watchman and the unclassified time of the carpenter 
and labor foremen. It amounts to 12.1 per cent of the net pay roll, the 
average rate of wage being 53 cts. per hour. 

Table VII. — Superintendence 

Item Total hours Total cost 

Superintendence 9,612 $5,010.01 

Table VIII gives the cost and the number of hours worked on items per- 
taining to the work of the derricks. 

Table VIII. — Work Pertaining to Derricks 

Total Tota 

Item hours cost 

Clearing space for west plant 47 $ 18 . 80 

Driving five 28-ft. piles for derrick foundation 85 46! 50 

Framing west derrick, 40-ft. mast, 80-ft. boom 40 26! 00 

Rigging and erecting west derrick 1953-^ 106! 91 

Housing boilers 3713^^ 189 ! 84 

Wrecking west derrick and plant 114 57 . 82 

Cleaning up site of plant 30 12 ! 00 

Prorated amount from Table III . 55 29 ! 74 

Total (average rate of wage, 52 cts. per hour) 938 $ 487. 61 

Driving three 45-ft. and two 30-ft. piles for foundation of 

east derrick 40 $ 21 . 88 

Cutting and framing bent to above piles 12 7! 80 

Building crib for foundation of derrick sill 36 14 ! 40 

Rigging and erecting east derrick, 40-ft. mast. 90-ft. boom. 291 153! 91 

General work on east plant 1 , 0943^ 628 . 49 

Prorated amount from Table III 27 14 ! 86 

Total (average rate of wage, 56 cts. per hour) 1 ,5003^ $ 841 , 34 

Unloading east and west plants 74 $ 33 . 35 

General work on east and west plants 154 92! 92 

Total (average rate of wage, 55 cts. per hour) 226 $ 126 . 27 

Grand total 2,666^ $1,455.22 

As the items given in Table VIII were charged principaUy to the derrick 
plant, they were prorated among the contract items according to the " derrick 
engineer" hours charged against these items, as follows: 

Total Total 

Item hours cost 

Cofferdams 320 $ 174 . 57 

Miscellaneous 160 87 . 34 

Excavation 480 260 ! 12 

Concrete 58634 320 . 04 

Mortar 134 73.78 

Caissons above El. — 45 320 174 . 57 

Caissons below El. — 45 533 291 . 02 

Setting substructure steel 133 73 . 78 

Total 2,6663-^ $1,455.22 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 1039 

The cost and the time charged to the concrete plant are given in Table IX. 

Table IX. — Concrete Plant 

Total Total 

Item hours cost 

Loading and unloading sand scow 357>^ $ 151 . 00 

Placing protection over east pit floor 8 3 . 60 

Cleaning rubbish and concrete from east pit floor 144 73 . 40 

Clearing space for east concrete mixing plant 20 8. 15 

Erecting east concrete mixer and 853^-ft. tower for same, 

using 4,454 ft. B. M. lumber 965 549 . 89 

Handling concrete chutes. 270 139. 53 

Removing east concrete mixing plant 100 50 . 00 

Removing east concrete tower 62 32. 55 

Prorated amount from Table III 11 4. 55 

Unloading stone scows 332 144 . 98 

Clearing storage space for sand and stone on west side of 

river 37 14 . 80 

Setting west concrete mixer and running water pipe line.. . 723^^ 43.24 

Resetting concrete mixer in second position 138 70.08 

Resetting concrete mixer in third position 141 74 . 22 

Changing concrete chute to west side 93 45 . 20 

Removing west concrete mixing plant 25 10 . 00 

Building and removing platform for stone storage on west 

side 332 144.98 

Unloading stone from canal boats on west side 373 191.50 

Clearing rubbish and concrete from west pit, etc 438 J^^ 207 . 33 

General repairs to concrete plant 270K 122. 72 

Miscellaneous, moving of cement 153 69. 19 

Total (average rate of wage, 50 cts. per hpur) 4 , 182 $2 , 117 . 03 

The items given in Table IX were charged against "concrete" items, as 
follows: 

Total Total 

Item hours cost 

Concrete 3,027.35 $1,532.44 

Mortar 243.33 123.10 

Concrete caisson foundations between El. — 20 and El.— 45 501 . 97 254 . 25 

Concrete caisson foundations below El. — 45 409 . 35 207 . 24 

Discussion of Construction and Cost Data and Unit Costs. — A description 
of the work done under each subdivision of the contract, together with a dis- 
cussion of the cost data will now be given. Each item is referred to by the 
reference letter given in the specifications and shown in Table I. 

*' A " — Removal of Obstructions. — This item included all work done in remov- 
ing obstructions which interfered with the Construction of the substructure. 
The work consisted principally of removing a rubble masonry pier containing 
103 cu. yds., timber and pile approaches, parts of brick sewers, and concrete 
walks. The lump sum bid for this work was $650. The construction plant 
used consisted of a pile driver, a derrick scow and a deck scow. The actual 
labor costs for this work were divided as follows: 

Total Total 

Item hours cost 

Removal of timbers, piles, etc 1 ,733 $ 831 .38 

Removal of stone, brick, concrete 748 282 . 05 

Prorated charge 247 137 . 00 

Total 2,728 $1,250.43 

Superintendence, etc., 12.1 per cent 330. 1 151 . 30 

Grand total 3,058. 1 $1 ,401.73 

Average labor cost, 46 cts. per hour. 



1040 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

"5" — Cofferdams. — The cofferdams, which were of the single-wall type, 
were built of steel and wooden sheeting, and entirely enclosed the main piers 
and small walls. The lump sum for building, maintaining, protecting and 
removing the two cofferdams was $22,300. 

The west cofferdam had maximum dimensions of 86.7 ft. by 55.3 ft., enclos- 
ing an area of 4,424 sq. ft. The maximum depth of water outside of this dam 
was 19.9 ft. 

The east cofferdam had maximum dimensions of 91.9 ft. by 56.3 ft., inclos- 
ing an area of 4,655 sq. ft. The maximum depth of water outside of this dam 
was 20.9 ft. 

The excavation (all soft clay) was carried down to a general elevation of 

— 20.0 (the river being at elevation about +0.8), from which depth four 
caissons were sunk to bed rock, which lies at an average elevation of —81.1.^ 
The sites of the cofferdams were first cleared with dipper dredges, the west 
cofferdam being dredged from an original average depth of 2.3 ft. to an average 
depth of 10.7 ft., and the east cofferdam, from an average depth of 4.3 ft. to an 
average depth of 11.7 ft. The excavated material was dumped into scows 
and towed to dumping grounds in Lake Michigan. The only dredging paid 
for consisted of that enclosed by the cofferdams, although considerable 
dredging was done outside of the cofferdam walls. After the site was cleared 
the foundation piles and the cofferdam sheeting were driven. " Lackawanna " 
arched web sheeting, weighing 35 lbs. per square foot and having a length of 
40 ft., was used in the river and also up to a point about 10 ft. inland where it 
connected with 6 X 12-in. X 28-ft. "Wakefield" sheet pihng. At the east 
side of the river the steel sheeting was extended along a nine-story reinforced 
concrete building and a one-story freight house where their foundations 
appeared to be in danger. 

Six brace piles were also driven in each cofferdam to support temporarily the 
system of bracing. The waling timbers were of 12 X 12-in. pine and were 
suspended by cables which passed through holes in the top of the steel sheet- 
ing. A 12 X 12-in. post was set on top of the upper tier of waling and bolted 
to the steel sheeting, the cables and posts preventing any movement of the 
waling due to the changing elevation of the water level within the cofferdam. 
The remaining timbers were either 12 X 12-in. pine or waste pieces of piles. 
Where timbers butted against waling pieces a 4 X 12-in. X 3 ft. oak block was 
used. Corner braces were used in the cofferdam pockets over the caissons, 
Four sets of bracing wer6 placed in each dam — at elevations +0.5, — 6.O.- 
— 10.0 and — 14.0, the bottom of the main excavation being at elevation 

— 20.0. The tiers of bracing were separated by 12 X 12-in. posts and were 
tied together with double ^i-in. tie rods. They were also bolted to the brace 
piles where convenient. 

One 12-in. and three 8-in. centrifugal pumps were required to pump the first 
6 ft. of water from the west cofferdam, this pumping requiring abouttwo 
hours. From this level a 6-in., or an 8-in. pump, operated from time to time, 
was sufficient to remove the water from the cofferdam. When the pumping 
began, fine ashes were distributed along the outside of the steel sheeting, which 
proved very effective in stopping leaks. No other means were employed to 
make the sheeting watertight. 

At the completion of the work all the material composing the cofferdams and 
bracing was recovered except the "Wakefield" sheeting and 43 pieces of the 
"Lackawanna" steel sheeting. 

The high cost of pumping given in Table X was due to the fact that it was 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 1041 

necessary to pump part of the time both day and night, which necessitated the 
employment of hoisting engineers as pumping engineers for 24 hours each day. 

Tables X and XI give cost data, for the west and east cofferdams, on the 
driving of wood and steel sheet piling, the pumping of water from the coffer- 
dams, the bracing of the cofferdams, and removing them. 

Table XII gives a summary of the labor costs of constructing and removing 
the two cofferdams. 

Table X. — Foece Account and Labor Cost Data for West Cofferdam 
Driving Wood Piles and Wood Sheeting 

Rate, 
Total cts. Total 

Item hours per hr. cost Remarks 

Sorting old piles and 

lumber 140.8 .. $ 65.71 

Driving 11 22-ft. piles at 

back and side of dam. 200 .. 109.40 Rate, 4.4 piles per 8-.hr. 

day. 
Driving 6 30-ft. brace 

piles 25 . . 13. 67 Rate, 19.2 piles per 8- 

hr. day. 
Driving and chaining 2 
12-pile clumps, 45-ft. 
piles, and 2 protection 

piles 85 . . 46^37 Rate, 26.0 piles per 

8-hr. day. 
Building 7 6X12-in. X28 
ft. Wakefield sheeting 

corners 43 .. 25.95 

Driving 127 6X12-in. X 
28-ft. Wakefield sheet- 
ing with shore driver. 451 .. 244.35 Rate 223^ sheets per 

8-hr. day. 
Prorated charge 136 . . 73. 00 

Total 1,080.8 54 $ 578.45 

Superintendence, etc., 

12.1 per cent 130.7 .. 69.99 

Grand total 1,211.5 54 $ 648.44 

Driving Steel Sheeting 
Preliminary handling of 

steel sheeting 55 . . $ 27 . 67 

Loading steel sheeting 

from dock to scow,. 80 . . 53.08 

Driving steel sheeting, 

138 pieces 40-ft. long 

and 3 pieces 25-ft. long 

= 115.13 tons 617 . . 404.72 Rate, 18.3 pieces per 

8-hr. day. 
Prorated charge 132 . . 71 . 00 

Total 884 63 $ 556.47 Cost, 7.2 hrs. per ton = 

• $4.83, or $3.94 per 
sheet; av. sheets per 
. day =13. 
Superintendence, etc., 

12.1 per cent 107 .. 67.34 

Grand total 991 63 $ 623. 81 Cost, 8.6 hrs. per ton = 

$5.40, or $4.44 each; 
av. sheets per 8-hr. 
day=ll>^. 



1042 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Installing pumps 

pumping water 5 , 433 . 5 

Handling coal for pumps 58 

Placing ashes to water- 
proof sheeting 1 , 096 . 5 

Plugging extraordinary 

leaks in dam 192 . 5 

Tending boiler plant for 

pumping 449 



Table X. — (Continued) 

Pumping Water from Cofferdam 
and 



Total 7,229.5 

Superintendence, etc., 

12.1 per cent 874.8 



Grand total 8,104.3 



57 



57 



$3,222.30 
25.71 

447.41 

111.33 

284 . 58 

$4,091.33 

495.05 

$4,586.38 



Unloading timber from 
scow to cofferdam .... 

Placing first set of brac- 
ing 

Placing second set of 
bracing 

Placing third set of brac- 
ing , 

Placing fourth set of 
bracing 

Prorated charge 

Total (timber used = 
58,526 ft. B. M., of 
which 44,776 ft. B. 
M. was 12 X 12-in. 
waling and bracing. 
Area of cofferdam = 
4,424 sq. ft.) 



Bracing Cofferdam 



58 

230^i 

430^i 

313 

313 
- 14 



32.33 

149.24 

246.08 

195.81 

195.28 
7.60 



1,3593^ 61 $ 826.34 



Superintendence, 
12.1 per cent. . 



e t c, 



164>^ 



Grand total 1,525 



99.99 



61 



$ 926.33 



Removing braces of cof- 
ferdam. . . . . .^ 

Removing pit timbers. . . 

Pulling 141 pieces steel 
sheeting = 115.13 tons 



Removing Cofferdam 

$ 



Prorated charge. 



209 
301 



800 



146 



108.15 
146.84 



521.48 



Total 1,456 

Superintendence, e t c, 

12.1 per cent 176.2 

Grand total 1,632.2 



59 



59 



79.30 

$ 855.77 

103.55 

$ 959.32 



58,526 ft. B. M. at 23.2 
hrs. per M = $14.20, 
or 44,776 ft. B. M. at 
283^^ hrs. per M = 
$17.40. 100 sq. ft. 
area in 31 hrs. = 
$18.70. 



58,526 ft. B. M. at 26 
hrs. per M = $15.90, 
or 44,776 ft. B. M. at 
32 hrs. per M = 
$19.40. 100 sq. ft. 
area in 35 hrs. = 
$21.00. 



Pulled, 14.1 pieces per 
8-hr. day = $3.70 
each, or $4.53 per 
ton. 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 



1043 



Table XI. — Force Account and Labor Cost Data for East Cofferdam 



Item 

Handling Wakefield 
sheeting 

Driving 101 pieces Wake- 
field sheeting, 6 X 12- 
in. X 28-ft 

Driving 10 20-ft. piles at 
back wall . . ' 

Driving and chaining 2 
12-pile clumps of 45- 
ft. piles and 4 protec- 
tion piles 

Driving 9 brace piles. . . . 

Sorting old piles and 

lumber 

Prorated charge 



Total. 

Superintendence, 
12.1 per cent. . 

Grand total. 



Driving Wood Piles and Wood Sheeting 

Rate, 

Total cts. Total 

hours per hr. cost 



Remarks 



e t c, 



12 

375 

60 

130 
30 



140.75 
108 



855.75 
103.55 



4.80 



204.80 Rate, 2i>^ pieces per 
8-hr. day. 

32.82 Rate, 13 piles per 8-hr. 
day. 



53 





71.11 
16.41 


Rate, 17 piles per 8-hr. 

day. 
Rate, 24 piles per 8-hr. 

day. 




65.71 
59.00 




$ 


454.65 
55.01 





959.3 53 



$ 509.66 



Loading steel sheeting 
from dock to scow. . . . 

Driving 179 pieces of 
steel sheeting 40-ft. 
long and 3 pieces 25- 



Driving Steel Sheeting 



258 



$ 171.08 



ft. long = 149.73 tons 695 






461.13 


Rate, 21 pieces per 8- 
hr. day. 


Prorated charge 172 


63 




93.50 




Total 1,125 


$ 


725.70 


Rate 13 pieces per 8-hr. 










day = $4.00 each. 










7}4 hrs. per ton = 










$4.86 per ton. 


Superintendence, etc., 










12.1 percent 136.1 


63 




87.81 




Grand total.. 1,261.1 


$ 


813.51 


Rate, 11}4 pieces per 8- 










hr. day =$4.48 each. 










8}4 hrs. per ton = 










$5.40 per ton. 


Pumping Water From Cofferdam 




Installing pumps and 










pumping water 4 , 366 




$2 


,623.56 




Handling coal for pumps 34 






18.15 




Placing ashes for water- 










proofing sheeting 467 






191.47 




Plugging extraordinary 










leaks in dam 48 






27.86 




Puddling parts of cof- 










ferdam. 182.5 






83.13 




Prorated charge 52 


57 




28.00 




Total 5,149.5 


$2 


,972.17 




Superintendence, etc.. 








• 


12.1 per cent 623.1 


57 




306.03 




Grand total 5,772.6 


$3 


,278.20 





1044 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table XI. — (Continued) 

,, , , Bracing Cofferdam 

Unloading timber from 
scow 

Waling and mud sills for 
back wall 

Placing first set of brac- 
ing 

Placing second set of 
bracing 

Placing third set of brac- 
ing 

Placing fourth set of 
bracing 

Prorated charge 

Total (lumber used, 
62,845 ft. B. M., of 
which 50,646 ft. B. M. 
was 12 X 12-in. waling 
and bracing. Area of 
cofferdam = 4,655 sq. 
ft.) 1,568 



105 


$ 55.57 


45 


24.16 


322 


209.30 


467.5 . 


290.23 


270 


170.65 


339.5 . 
19 


213.26 
10.50 



62 



Superintendence, 
12.1 cent 



etc., 



Grand total. 



189.7 
1,757.7 



62 



$ 973.67 



117.81 
$1,091.48 



Removing Cofferdam 

Removing bracing of cof- 
ferdam 401 $ 233.66 

Removing timbers from 

pit 139 .. 67.85 

Sawing off back line of 

Wakefield sheeting. .. . 38 .. 15.20 

Burning off 43 pieces 
steel sheeting at 
ground 32 .. 16.66 

Pulling 138 pieces steel 

sheeting = 1133^ tons 558 .. 357.23 

Prorated charge 96 . . 52. 10 

Total 1 , 264 59 $ 742. 70 

Superintendence, etc., 

12.1 per cent 152.9 89.87 

Grand total. 1,416.9 59 $ 832.57 



62,845 ft. B. M. at 24H 
hrs. per M. =$15.50. 

50,646 ft. B. M. at 31 
hrs. per M. =$19.60. 

100 sq. ft. area in 33.2 
hrs. = $21.00. 



62,845 ft. B. M. at 28 
hrs. per M. =$17.70. 

50,646 ft. B. M. at 34.7 
hrs. per M. =$21.50. 

100 sq. ft. area in 37.7 
hrs. = $23.40. 



Burn about 7 per hr. 
The 32 hrs. includes 
helpers' time. 

Rate 20 pieces per 8-hr. 
day. $2.59 each = 
$3.14 per ton. 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 1045 

Table XII. — Summary of Labor Costs of East and West Cofferdams 

West dam • East dam— Both dams 

Per Per Per 
cent cent cent 
Total of Total of Total of 
Item cost total cost total cost total 
Driving piles and 
sheeting for coffer- 
dam $1,272.25 16.4 $1,323.17 20.3 $ 2,595.42 18 

Pumping water from 

cofferdam 4,586.38 59.2 3,278.20 50.2 7,864.58 55.4 

Bracing cofferdam... . 926.33 11.95 1,091.48 16.7 2,017.81 14 

Removing cofferdam.. 959.32 12.45 832.57 12.8 1,791.89 12.6 

Total.. $7,744.28 100 $6,525.42 100 $14,269.70 100 

" C" — Miscellaneous Work. — The miscellaneous work included the following 
items: Making preliminary borings; furnishing scows and other supports for 
steel tapes during the taking of measurements across the river; making tem- 
porary sewer diversions; building and removing shed for storage of cement; 
protecting, supporting, maintaining, and restoring adjacent buildings affected 
by the construction of the cofferdams and substructure (no work required as 
buildings were not damaged) ; providing oflflce space and temporary telephone 
service during construction. Thelumpsumbidfor this work was $910. The 
borings were made by the city. One of the offices given below was 12 X 
20 X 10 ft. high and the other, 10 X 20 X 9 ft. high. 

The actual labor cost for this work was divided as follows: 

Total Total 

Item hours cost 

Twice diverting 5-ft. east sewer into 140-ft. wooden 

flume 1.522.8 $ 759.32 

Diverting 4-ft. west sewer into 146-ft. wooden flume . . . 427 . 1 186 . 59 

Constructing two offices, 3, 100 ft. B. M. lumber used ... 170 . 39 102 . 91 

Miscellaneous work 973 . 59 439 . 49 



Total (average wage rate, 48 cts. per hour) 3 , 093 . 88 $1 , 488 . 31 

"D" — Excavation. — The price bid for excavating the site of the piers, tail 
pits and abutments, including the necessary back-fill, was $1.29 per cubic 
yard. 

The excavation naturally divides itself into three classes: that removed by 
dredging; the excavation outside of the cofferdams; and the excavation within 
the cofferdams. Before excavation was commenced soundings were taken so 
that the river bottom at the bridge site could be accurately plotted. The 
sites of the cofferdams were then dredged and the dams constructed. Later, 
another set of soundings was taken, and the actual quantity of material 
removed from the cofferdams by dredging was computed to be 2,651.5 cu. yds., 
which was about 39 per cent of the total excavation. The material within the 
cofferdams was soft, blue clay and this was excavated by hand, the material 
being handled in buckets by derricks into dump scows and towed to the 
dumping grounds in Lake Michigan. The excavation outside of the coffer- 
dams, principally at the site of the abutments, was also clay. The labor of 
cutting off the foundation piles was included in that classified under excava- 
ion. The total and unit labor costs of excavation are given in Table XIII. 






1046 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Table XIII. — Labor Cost of Excavation 

Total Rate, cts. Total 

Item hours per hr. oost 

Dredging Within Cofferdams 

Dredging, 2,651.5 cu. yds 2,168 .. $ 712.43 

Prorated charge. , 95 . . 37 . 31 

Total 2 , 263 33 $ 749 . 74 

Cost per cu. yd. (0.815 hrs.) = $0,268 
Superintendence, etc., 12.1 per cent 273.8 . . 90.72 

Grand total 2,536.8 33 $ 840.46 

Cost per cu. yd. (0.96 hrs.) = $0.32 

Excavation Outside of Cofferdams 
Excavation for east and west abutments, 

1,389.7 cu. yds 1,660 48 $ 800.03 

Prorated charge 75 . . 42 . 00 

Cost per cu. yd. (1.2 hrs.) = $0.58 

Total 1 ,735 . . $ 842.03 

Superintendence, etc., 12.1 per cent 209.9 .. 101.89 

Grand total 1,944.9 48 $ 943.92 

Cost per cu. yd. (1.4 hrs.) = $0.68 

Excavation Outside of Cofferdams 

Excavation, 2,949 cu. yds " 6 , 258 . . $3 , 136 . 53 

Prorated charge 280 . . 166. 31 

Total 6 , 538 51 $3 , 302 . 84 

Cost percu. yd, (2.2) hrs. = $1,065 

791.1 .. 399.64 

Superintendence, etc., 12.1 per cent — 

Grand total 7,329.1 51 $3,702.48 

Cost per cu. yd. (2.5 hrs.) = $1.25 

Back-fill 

Back-fill 667 43 $ 289. 55 

Prorated charge 30 . . 14. 50 

Total 697 $ 304.05 

Superintendence, etc., 12.1 per cent , 84 . 3 . . 36. 67 

Grand total 781.3 43 $ 340.72 

Grandtotal, all items, 6,990.2 cu. yds. . . 12,592.1 46 $5,826.58 

Cost per cu. yd. (1.8 hrs.) = $0.83 

•' E'* — Oak Timber in Place. — The price bid for the oak timber, used in 
constructing docks and pier protection, bumping timbers in tail pits and 
permanent sheet piling, including all labor, timber, tools, bolts, nuts, washers, 
spikes and other appurtenances, was $62.40 per M. ft. B. M. in place. The 
quantity of oak lumber placed was 5,564 ft. B. M. 

Table XIV. — Labor Cost of Placing Oak Timber 

Rate, Per 1,000 ft. 

Total cts. Total B. M. 

Item hours per hr. cost Hours Cost 

Placing 5,564 ft. B. M. oak 375 63 $236. 17 68 $42. 50 

Prorated charge 11 . . 4 . 66 

Total 386 .. $240.83 69 $43.00 

Superintendence, etc., 12.1 per 

cent 46.7 .. 29.14 

. Grand total 432.7 63 $269.97 78 $48.50 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 1047 

The high cost of this work, given in Table XIV, is mainly due to the small 
quantity of timber used and to the large amount of cutting and fitting 
required. The excavation required for a part of the sheeting also increased 
the cost considerably. 

*'F" — Pine Timber in Place. — The price bid for the pine timber used in 
constructing docks, pier protections, etc., including all labor, timber, tools, 
bolts, nuts, washers, spikes and appurtenances, was $39.00 per M. ft. B. M. 
The amount of pine timber placed was 5,128 ft. B. M * 

The high cost of placing this timber, given in Table XV, was due to the same 
causes as were given for placing the oak timber. 

Table XV. — Labor Cost of Placing Pine Timber 

Rate, Per 1,000 ft. 
Total cts. Total B. M.- 



Item hours per hr. cost Hours Cost 

Placing 5, 128 ft. B. M. pine 496 57 $284 . 48 97 $55 . 50 

Prorated charge 41 . . 22 . 30 ... 



Total 537 .. $306.78 105 $60.00 

Superintendence, etc., 12.1 per 

cent 65 .. 37.12 



Grand total 602 57 $343.90 117 $67.00 

**(?" — Test Piles. — The price bid for furnishing and driving four 60-ft. 
test piles was $120. These piles were located so as to be used later as pro- 
tection and foundation piles. The plant used was one pile driver. The actual 
labor cost for this work was divided as follows: 

Total Total 

Item hours cost 

For driving four 60-ft. test piles (cost per foot, 11 H cts.; rate 

per 8-hour day, 6.4 piles) 50 $27 . 35 

Prorated charge 11 4 . 55 

Total 61 $31.90 

Superintendence, etc., 12.1 per cent 7 . 38 3 . 86 

Grand total 68. 38 $35. 76 

Average labor cost, 52 ct. per hour; rate per 8-hour day, 4.7 piles. 

" H** and "J" — Furnishing Oak and Norway Pine Piles. — The piles under 
the abutments were only about 25 ft. long, this short length being used so as 
not to interfere with the future subway construction at this location. The 
remaining foundation- and protection piles were about 45 ft. long. The cost 
of these piles delivered was as follows: 

Oakpiles, 7,182Un. ft. atl8cts $1,292.76 

Norway pine piles, 5,100 lin. ft. at 16 cts 816.00 

Total $2,108.76 

*'/** — Driving Piles. — The bidding price below cut-off for driving piles in 
foundations, piers, pier protections, abutments, outside walls and dock lines 
was 11^^ cts. per linear foot. There were 320 piles, 9,902 lin. ft., actually 
used, the bidding price for this item being $1,138.73. 



1048 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The actual labor cost of driving these piles was divided as follows : 

Total Total 

Item hours cost 

Driving piles (320 piles, 9,902 lin. ft., below cut-off) .... 1 , 466 $ 799 . 90 

Prorated charge 266 144 . 00 

Total 1,732 $ 943.90 

Superintendence, etc., 12.1 per cent 209.45 114.21 

Grand total 1,940.45 $1,058.11 

Cost (exclusive of prorated charge and superintendence), 8 cts. per linear foot 

below cut-off; rate, 17.4 piles per 8-hour day. 

Cost (including prorated charge and superintendence), 11 cts. per linear foot 

below cut-off; rate, 13 piles per 8-hour day. 

" iiC" — Concrete in Tail Pits, Outside Walls, Sewers, Abutments and Foot- 
ings. — The price bid for the concrete in the piers, tail pits, outside walls, 
sewers and sewer outlets, abutments, footings, etc., including all labor, 
materials, forms, etc., was $7.25 per cubic yard. This concrete work did not 
include that in the caissons, which was let under a separate item. The 
quantity of concrete placed was 3,604 cu. yds. 

The concrete used for this work and also for the caissons was a 1 :3 :5 mix. 
Part of the sand used was bank torpedo, hauled in by cars and teamed to the 
site; the remainder was Lake Michigan torpedo sand, brought to the site by a 
sand sucker and unloaded by two clam-shell buckets onto a moving belt 
attached to a 60-ft. boom. By this arrangement the sand was placed prac- 
tically where it was wanted. The crushed stone used was brought in by 
teams and boats; that delivered in boats being loaded on skips at the quarry 
and unloaded at the site by a derrick. 

The mixer on the west side of the river was set on top of the approach and 
the concrete chuted into place. The materials were measured in wheel- 
barrows, a batch being about 3^ cu. yd. The capacity of the mixer was H 
cu. yd. Most of the chutes were built of 2 X 12-in. plank and were unlined. 

At the east side of the river an 85-ft wooden tower was used. The sand 
was delivered by boat. The tower was 4 ft. 9 ins. by 6 ft. 3 ins., and was 
built of 6 X 6-in. posts and 2 X 6-in. braces. The main distributing chute 
was set at an angle of about 30° with the horizontal. The same mixer was 
used as for the west side. 

The forms were built of 2 X 8-in. planks and 4 X 6-in. studs placed about 
3 ft. apart. The forms on the inside of the pit and on the outside above the 
water line were D and M lumber. 

Table XVI gives the labor costs for the concrete work under item "K." 

"L" — Cement Mortar for Facing and Waterproofing. — The price bid for 
furnishing and placing the Portland cement mortar used for facing and for 
waterproofing the courses in the tail pits was $11.00 per cubic yard. The 
quantity of mortar placed was 357 cu. yds. 

The mortar used for this work was a 1 :2 mix. A 6-in. horizontal mortar 
course was placed at elevation — 18, or about in the center of the tail pit floor, 
and extended from this course on the outside of the tail pit walls to eleva- 
tion — 2, where the thickness was reduced to 4 ins. From elevation -\-2 to the 
tops of these walls the thickness of the mortar course was 2 ins. The inside 
of the pit had a 3-in. mortar finish on the floor and a 2-in. course on the sides. 
The small walls on the outside of the main piers were merely spaded, as were 
the abutments. 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 1049 

Table XVI. — Labob Costs of Concrete Under Item "K" 

Rate, Unit-costs 

Total cts. Total Per cu. yd. 

Item hrs. per hr. cost Hrs. Cost 

Mixing and Placing Concrete, 3,604 Cu. Yds. 

Labor 7,228.5 46 $3,343.71 2.00 

Prorated charge 570. 5 258 . 00 



Total 7,799 46 $3,601,712.16 

Supt., etc., 12.1% 943.7 .. 435.81 

Grand total 8,742.7 46 $4,037,52 2.44 

Building Forms, 38,340 sq. ft. * 

Labor 3,929 60 $2,337.49 1.09 

Prorated charge 303 186.00 



Total 4 , 232 60 $2 , 523 . 49 1 . 17 

Supt., etc., 12.1 % 512. 1 . . 305.34 



Grand total (38,340 sq. ft., 3,604 

cu. yds.) 4,744.1 60 $2,828.83 1.32 

Stripping Forms 

Labor 1,004.5 50 

Prorated charge 77.3 



Total 1,081.8 50 

Supt., etc., 12.1 per cent 130.9 



Grand total 1,212.7 50 



$ 


505 
39 


28 
06 


0.28 


$ 


544 
65 


34 

87 


0.30 


$ 


610 


21 


0.34 



$0 


93 






$1 


00 


$1 
$0 


20 
65 






$0 


70 






$0 
$0 


73 
14 






$0 


15 


$0 


17 


$2 


10 



Grand total, all items 14,699.5 51 $7,476,56 2.9 

* The unit costs per sq. ft. of forms were about one tenth of the cost per cu. yd. 
being $0,061, 0.066 and 0.075. 

The same plant was used for this work as for the concrete work. The mor- 
tar was held in place by 1-ft. mortar boards. These boards were set up against 
the forms, and the concrete was placed up to their tops. The mortar was 
then placed in the space between the forms and the mortar boards. The 
boards were then raised, and the operation was repeated. The concrete was 
thus placed in 1-ft. horizontal layers and the mortar placed against the con- 
crete while the latter was still green. 

Table XVII gives the labor costs of mixing and placing the mortar courses. 

Table XVII. — Labor Costs of Mixing and Placing Mortar Courses 

Rate, 

Total cts. Total Per cu. yd. 

Item hrs. per hr. cost Hrs. Cost 
Mixing and placing mortar, 357 cu. 

yds 1,612 44 $ 706.92 4.5 $1.98 

Prorated charge 411.6 .. 212.40 



Total 2,023.6 45 $ 919.32 

Superintendence, etc., 12.1 per cent. 244.9 .. 111.24 



Grand total 2,268.5 45 $1,030.56 6.3 $2.90 

"M" — Concrete Shaft Foundations from Elevation —20 to Elevation —45. 
The price bid for completed conc^rete shaft foundations below elevation — 20 
and above elevation —45 was 393^4 cts. per cubic foot (net volume). This 
price included cost of excavation, removal of water, removal of boulders of 
less than 20 cu, ft. each, and furnishing of all labor, materials, tools, ma- 



1050 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



chinery, etc., necessary to do the work (except steel sheeting and reinforcing 
bars). The quantity of concrete placed was 18,648 cu. ft., making the price 
bid for this item $7,319.34. 

The concrete caisson foundations were divided into two parts, the rec- 
tangular portion from elevation —20 to elevation —45 and the circular 
portion from elevation —45 to bed rock. The upper was already hned with 
steel sheeting ; therefore it was only necessary to place the bracing, which con- 
sisted of 6 X 12-in. and 12 X 12-in. pine spaced about 5 ft. apart, as the 
excavation proceeded. The material encountered, down to elevation —45 
was blue clay and could be removed with shovels. It was first hoisted by 
means of tripods and windlasses and later with the derrick, the latter being 
more economical. The waste material was towed in dump scow to Lake 
Michigan for disposal. The price bid, 393^ cts. per cubic foot, included the 
concrete work. The concrete plant is described under item " K." 

Table XVIII gives the labor costs for the concrete shaft foundations be- 
tween elevation —20 and elevation —45. 



Table XVIII.- 



-Labor Costs of Concrete Shafts Between Elevations 

-20 AND -45 



Rate, 
Total cts. Total 

Item hrs. per hr. cost 

Preliminary Work and Excavation 
Loading and unloading from scow 

the lumber for bracing 32 

Excavating and bracing caissons from 

El. -20 to El. -45 2,470.5 50 

Prorated charge 320 



Per cu. yd.* 
Hrs. Cost 



16.88 

1,244.28 
174,57 



3.58 



4.1 



Total... 2,822.5 51 $1,435.73 

Superintendence, etc., 12.1 per cent 341.5 .... 173.72 

Grand total 3,164.0 51 $1,609.45 4.6 

Concreting between Elevation — 20 and Elevation — 45 
Concreting of upper part of caisson . 1 , 392 . 3 47 $ 649 . 41 2.0 
Prorated charge 60. 1 26. 90 



Total 1,452.4 

Superintendence, etc., 12.1 per cent. 175.7 



47 



$ 



676.31 
81.83 



Grand total 1 , 628. 1 47 



$ 758.14 2.36 



Grand total, excavating and 

concreting 4 , 792 . 1 

♦Per cubic foot; 0.258 hrs.; $0,127. 



49.5 $2,367.59 6.96 



$1 


80 






$2 


08 


$2 
$0 


32 

94 










$1 


10 


$3 


43 



" 0" — steel Sheeting /or Concrete Shafts. — The price bid for the steel sheet- 
ing used for the shaft foundations, including furnishing of same, driving and 
leaving in place was 2.5 cts. per pound. It was specified that the sheeting 
must weigh at least 35 lbs. per square foot. The length of the steel sheeting 
was 25 ft. its top being at elevation —20.5 and its bottom at elevation —45.5. 
"Lackawanna" arched web sheeting, weighing 35 lbs. per square foot was 
used. The size and shape of the top portions of the sub-foundation piers 
were changed to 10.5 ft. square for the river caissons and 8 ft. 2 ins. by 9 ft. 
4 ins. for the anchor pier shafts, to accommodate the sheeting and at the same 
time give the same area as called for in the original plans. The sheeting was 
all driven with a floating pile driver, before the cofferdams were closed, so as 
iipt to blockade the river. The method of procedure was as follows: 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 1051 

A corner sheet was first placed. This sheet was then plumbed very care- 
fully in one direction with a transit and in the other by a hand level. It was 
driven into the mud far enough so that its top was just above the water. The 
remaining sheets on this side of the shaft were then placed, particular atten- 
tion being given to the other corner to insure its being vertical. The two 
adjacent sides of the caissons were set simultaneously, care being taken 
to keep the correct distance between them. The opposite wall was then set. 
(It should be noted that the. sheets were merely set in place in the mud, all 
their tops being above water.) The sheeting was then driven by using another 
25-ft. steel sheet as a follower. Two steel lugs were bolted to the sides of the ■ 
follower at the bottom, to keep it in place on the first sheet. The " Worth- 
ington" steam hammer used for this work was an additional help in keeping 
the follower in place. A total of 264 pieces, weighing 139.74 tons, was used. 
Table XIX gives the labor cost for this work. 

Table XIX. — Labor Cost of Driving Steel Sheeting for Shafts 

Rate, 

Item Total cts. Total 

hrs. per hr. cost 

Preliminary handling of sheeting 125 . . $ 66. 89 

Placing lugs on followers 50. 5 . . 21 . 14 



Total 175.5 50 $ 88.03 

Superintendence, etc., 12.1 per cent 21 . 2 . . 10. 65 



Grand total 196.7 50 $ 98.68 

Driving Steel sheeting 

Driving steel sheeting 2,560.5 . . $1,675.08* 

Prorated charge 454 . . 245. 00 

Total 3,014.5 64 $1,920.08 

Superintendence, etc., 12.1 per cent 364.8 . . 232.33 

Grand total 3,379.3 64 $2,152.41t 

Grand total, preliminary and driving 3 , 576 63 $2 , 251 . 09 J 

* Av. 8.2 pieces per 8-hr. day; 18.3 hrs. per ton; $11.99 per ton. 

t 24.2 hrs. per ton, or $15.50 per ton. 

i Av. 5.6 pieces per 8-hr. day; 26.9 hrs. per ton; $16.80 per ton. 

" P" — Reinforcing Bars for Concrete. — The price bid for furnishing and plac- 
ing the steel reinforcement in the concrete cylinders, shafts, foundations, piers, 
pit constructions, outside walls, and abutments was 2 cts. The amount 
placed was 72.85 tons. 

The labor costs of this work are given in Table XX. 

Table XX. — ^Labor Costs of Placing Reinforcing Bars 

Rate, 
Total cts. Total —Per ton — 
Item hrs. per hr. cost Hrs. Cost 

Unloading, sorting and miscellaneous 

handling of bars 1 60 . . $ 7'6 . 53 .... 

Placing bars, 72.85 tons 927. 5 . . 437. 68 



Total 1,087.5 47 $516.21 14.9 $7.07 

Superintendence, etc., 12.1 per cent 131.6 .. 62.46 

Grand total 1,219.1 47 $578.67 16.8 $7.95 



1052 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

" Q" — Handling and Setting Substructure Steel.- — The price bid for handling 
and setting substructure steel (furnished by contractor for the superstruc- 
ture) was 3 cts. per pound. The amount of steel set was 102.27 tons. 

The steel set consisted principally of four " knocked down" trusses spanning 
the caissons, two anchor columns, one floorbeam connecting these columns, 
and four large anchor bolts for each side of the river. The cofferdam bracing 
was designed so as to avoid interfering with the erection of these substructure 
trusses. The pieces were all handled by the derrick, being fastened together 
with turned bolts. These trusses were set in place before any part of the 
main piers was concreted. When the concrete reached the proper height 
the anchor columns and floorbeam were set, particular care being taken to set 
them accurately. 

Table XXI gives the labor costs of handling and setting the substructure 
steel. 

Table XXI. — Labor Costs of Placing Substructure Steel 

Rate, 
Total cts. Total —Per ton- 

Item hrs. per hr. cost Hrs. Cost 

Handling steel from cars to site 177 

Bolting and erecting 1 , 154 

Total 1,331 

Prorated charge 133 



Total 1,464 

Superintendence, etc., 12.1 per cent.. . 177. 



$ 93.76 1.7 $ 0.92 
803.83 11.3 7.90 

$ 897.59 13.0 $ 8.80 
73.78 



971.37 
117.54 



Grand total 1,641.1 67 $1,088.91 16.0 $10.65 

Note. — Derrick and derrick scow were used about 10 days each. 

" R" — Furnishing and Erecting Structural Steel.— -The price bid for furnish- 
ing and erecting structural steel was 2.5 cts. per pound. The quantity 
placed was 9,136 lbs. 

This steel was principally chains for the pile clumps, and the work was so 
closely allied to the pile driving that its labor cost was merged with the cost 
of pile driving. 

"S" — Diverting and Extending Sewer. — The price bid for diverting and 
extending the 5-ft. sewer (two-ring brick construction), including excavation, 
was $9.60 per linear foot. 

As the sewers on each side of the river were located in the center of the street, 
it was necessary to make a temporary diversion to the side while construction 
was being carried on. The above price, $9.60 per linear foot, included the 
connection from the original sewers to the new outlets. The cost of the 
temporary diversion was included in item " C." On the west side of the river 
50.1 ft. of new sewer were built, and on the east side 19.5 ft. were constructed. 
Practically all of this construction was on a curve and through a 15-ft. cut. 
The cost of this work is given in Table XXII. 

Table XXII. — Labor Cost of Constructing 5-Ft. Sewer 

Rate, 
Total cts. Total Per linear ft. 
Item • hrs. per hr. cost Hrs. Cost 

Excavating in clay, bracing trench, 
pumping, laying 2-ring, 5-ft. sewer, 

and backfilling 1,498 52.5 $787.41 22 $11.31 

Superintendence, etc., 12,1 per cent. ... 181 . 3 95. 28 

Total 1,679.3 52.5 $882.69 24 $12.70 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 1053 

" U" — Concrete Shafts Below Elevation —45. — The price bid for completed 
concrete shafts below elevation —45 was 47H cts. per cubic foot. This 
price included the cost of excavation, removal of water, removal of boulders 
of less tban 20 cu. ft. each, furnishing and placing all lagging and iron or steel 
rings, and all equipment for doing this work. This price did not include 
reinforcing bars. The total quantity of concrete placed was 14,601 cu. ft., 
the concrete being a 1 :3 :5 mix. 

The part included in this item is the circular portion of the shaft foundation, 
the river pier and the anchor pier cylinders being 8 ft. and 7 ft. in diameter, 
respectively. These diameters were adhered to as closely as possible. The 
material down to elevation — 60 could be removed with shovels ; but from this 
elevation to bed-rock, at an average elevation of —81, it first had to be 
loosened with grubs. The clay overlying the rock was impregnated with 
gravel and small boulders, and directly above the rock there was a thin layer 
black sand, slightly water-bearing. The excavated material was disposed of 
in the same manner as in the upper part of the shaft, tripods and windlasses 
being first tried only to be discarded for the derrick, which hoisted the material 
from the four caissons. The lagging used was 3 X 6-in. tongue-and-groove 
lumber, in 3-ft. and 6-ft. lengths. The lagging was held in place by^-in. by 
4 and 5-in. iron rings spaced about 3 ft. apart. 

Table XXIII gives the labor costs for constructing the concrete shaft 
foundations below elevation —45. 

Table XXIII. — Labor Costs of Concrete Shafts Below Elevation —45 

Excavation 

Rate, 
Total cts. Total Per cu. yd.* 

Item ^ hrs. per hr. cost Hrs. Cost 

Setting windlasses and building 

material platforms 483 . . $ 200. 31 

Excavating caissons from El. — 45 to 

rock 5 , 250 50 

Prorated charge 533 



Total 6,266 50 

Superintendence, etc., 12.1 per cent.. 758.2 



Grand total 7,024.2 50 

Concreting 

Concrete shafts below El. - 45 1, 168.4 47 

Prorated charge 408 



Total 1,576.4 48 

Superintendence, etc., 12.1 per cent.. . 190.7 



Grand total 1 , 767 . 1 47 



2,644.10 
291.02 


9.7 $4.90 


$3,135.43 
379.39 


11.6 $5.80 


$3,514.82 

$ 544.37 
206.62 


13.0 $6.50 
2.16 $1.00 


$ 750.99 
90.87 


2.92 $1.38 


$ 841.86 


3.27 $1.55 



Grand total, excavating and concre- 
ting 8,791.3 50 $4,356.68 16.27 $8.05 

* Per cubic foot; 0.6 hrs.; $0.30. 

Cost of Abutment Masonry and Slope Paving for Highway Bridge Founda- 
tions Illinois and Mississippi Canal.— The following matter, compiled from 
data collected by Fred W. Honens, U. S. Engineer's Office, Kansas City, Mo., 
is given in Engineering and Contracting, April 20, 1910. 

To carry highways across the Illinois & Mississippi Canal required 67 
bridges. Except for one swing bridge, three lift bridges and two special 
bridges at locks, these bridges are fixed truss bridges on concrete abutments. 
Three types of structure were employed. 



1054 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

1. On the eastern section generally the abutments were U shaped and the 
superstructures were pony Warren trusses of 100-ft. spans and 14-ft. clear 
roadway. 

2. On the western section generally the abutments were wing abutments 
and the superstructures were 110-ft. Pratt trusses. The wing abutments 
were 23 ft. long and 16 ft. high, with 18-ft. wings at an angle of 30°. 

3. On the feeder canal a three-span structure carried on straight abut- 
ments and two-tower piers was employed. The main 75-ft. spans were pony 
Pratt trusses and the two approaches were stringer spans of 21 ft. 

On the main canal the bridges had a clearance of 17 ft. over the water. On 
the feeder canal the clearance was reduced to 12 ft. The following data 
relate to the structures used on the western section of the main canal. 

The wing abutments contain for each bridge (two abutments) 190 cu. yds. 
of natural cement concrete in the footings and 248 cu. yds. of Portland cement 
concrete in the abutments proper. The parapets are oak timbers 12 ins. wide 
and 22 ft. long. The slopes of the canal in front of each abutment for a dis- 
tance of from 60 to 120 ft. are paved with hand laid rubble for the first bridges 
built and with concrete about 10 ins. thick for the bridges built later. 

The steel superstructures were designed to carry a live load of 100 lbs. per 
sq. ft. or an engine load of 8 tons on axles 7 ft. c. to c. The trusses are 110-ft. 
spans, 20 ft. high and spaced 19 ft. 1 in. c. to c, having a clearance of 16^ ft. 
between guards. These guards are 6 X 8 in. pine raised 3 ins. above the floor 
and having on the wearing side 3 X 3 X M-in. angles. 

The embankment approaches are 21 ft. wide on top, with side slopes of 1 on 
ly^ and with grades running from 3 to 6 per cent. The roadways are surfaced 
with gravel or crushed rock and have board railings extending from bridges to 
foot of slope. 

The costs given here relate to the substructure, that is, the concrete abut- 
ments and footings and the adjacent slope paving. The forms for the abut- 
ments were simple, consisting of opposite posts tied through the walls at 
bottom and mid height with bolts and at the top above the wall with 3 X 
12-in. plank with short knee braces. The concrete was mixed in a Smith 
mixer charged by one-horse dump carts and was hauled to the work in cars 
and hoisted by horse elevator and dumped into the forms. 

The following is the detailed cost of the substructure for highway bridge 
No. 34. Excavation and back fill cost as follows: 

Per 
Total cu. yd. 
Excavation (576.6 cu. yds.): 

Labor $ 151 . 52 

Stakes 3.00 



Total $ 154.52 $0,268 

Back fill (256.4 cu. yds.): 

Labor $ 55.88 $0,220 

There were 190 cu. yds. of natural cement concrete in the footings which 
cost as follows: 

Per 
Total cu. yd. 
Concrete Materials: 

Cement $ 208 .80 $1 . 099 

Crushed stone 289 .02 1 . 521 

Sand 113.00 0.594 

Total $ 610.82 $3,214 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 1055 

Receiving Concrete Materials: 

Hauling cement $ 23. 50 $0,214 

Unloading cement 2, 65 0.014 

Hauling crushed stone 94. 98 0.499 

Freight on gravel 7 . 50 0. 039 

Total $ 128. 58 $0. 676 

Labor mixing and placing 218. 39 1 . 149 

Grand total $ 955.79 $5,039 

Form Materials: 

Lumber $ 28.50 $0,150 

Stakes 3.00 0.016 

Hardware 1 . 65 0. 008 

Total $ 33. 15 $0. 174 

Form Labor: 

Hauling and unloading lumber $ 3.70 $0,019 

Labor constructing 17. 16 0.090 

Labor wrecking 2.00 0.011 

Total $ 22.86 $0,120 

Grand total 56.01 0.294 

Miscellaneous : 

Labor receiving materials $ 15.48 $0,081 

Miscellaneous labor 8 . 72 . 046 

Total $ 24 . 20 $0. 127 

Grand total 1,038.00 5.460 



The cost of 248 cu. yds. of Portland cement concrete in the abutments 
proper was as follows : 

Per 
Total cu. yd. 
Concrete Materials: 

Cement $ 496.32 $2,001 

Crushed stone 378. 00 1 . 524 

Sand 135.52 0.546 

Total $1,009.84 $4,071 

Receiving Concrete Materials: 

Hauling cement $ 23 . 87 $0 . 096 

Unloading cement 3.40 0.013 

Testing cement. 29. 50 0. 118 

Hauling crushed stone 114.78 0.462 

Freight on gravel 9 . 50 . 038 

Total $ 181.05 $0,727 

Concrete labor. . r ; 265. 67 1 . 071 

Running mixer labor 22. 00 0. 081 

Total $ 287. 67 $1 . 152 

Grand total $1,478.56 $5,952 

Form Materials: 

Lumber $ 59 . 50 $0 . 239 

Hardware 11 . 35 0. 045 

Total. $ 70. 58 $0,284 

Form Labor: 

Hauling and unloading lumber $ 50.82 $0,205 

Labor constructing 119.86 0.483 

Labor wrecking 15 . 75 . 063 

Total $ 186.43 $0,751 

Grand total, forms 257 .28 1 . 035 



105f) 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Miscellaneous : 

Labor receiving materials $ 19. 39 $0,078 

Miscellaneous labor 15. 42 0. 062 

Coal 19.19 0.076 

Total $54.00 $0,216 

Grand total $1 , 789 . 84 $7,217 

The cost of 313 sq. yds. of rubble stone paving was as follows: 

Per 

Item X Total sq. yd. 

Rubble stone $406.78 $1,299 

Hauling rubble stone 83 . 44 . 266 

Labor paving 180. 32 0. 576 

Labor receiving material 13. 94 0. 044 

Miscellaneous labor 7 . 86 . 025 

Total $692.34 $2,210 

The following expenses were charged against the whole work : 

Engineering and inspection $153.43 

Traveling 4 . 08 

Chicago office expenses 69 . 84 

Total $227. 35 

The grand total cost of the whole work was $3,957.93. 
The work described was done by day labor and the wages paid were about as 
follows : 

Carpenters, per day $2. 50 

Laborers, per day 1 . 75 

Teamsters with team 3. 00 

An 8-hour day was worked. 

In Table XXIV are given the masonry and slope paving costs of 20 other 

bridges of the same type as that described. 

Table XXIV. 

National cement, Portland cement, 

concrete concrete Slope paving 

No. of No. cu. Per cu. No. cu. Per cu. No, sq. Per sq. 

bridge yds. yd. yds. yd. yds. yd. 

17A 200 $7. 10 248 $8. 97 

18A 200 6.20 248 8.64 ... 

20 234 5.99 248 8.24 

21 252 6.54 248 8.73 340 $2.04 

22 304 6. 39 248 8. 86 ... 

23 200 • 5.38 248 7.52 340 1.95 

24 156 6.31 248 7.93 340 1.82 

25 190 5.85 248 7.59 340 2.39 

26 201 5.66 248 8.21 340 2.32 

27 156 6.05 248" 7.71 348 1.94 

28 190 5.41 248 7.94 343 1.92 

29 156 5.93 248 7.39 339 1.94 

30 156 5.89 248 8.21 339 1.92 

31 190 5.18 248 7.40 313 1.94 

32 190 5.62 248 7.83 313 2.28 

33 200 5.90 248 8.12 313 2.20 
35 190 5.11 248 6.96 304 2.31 

37 190 4.98 248 7.21 345 1.91 

38 133 6.32 248 7.07 276 2.63 

39 ... 248 7.05 270 2.36 

Cost of Dismantling an Old Highway Bridge and Erecting New Truss and 
Girder Spans. — George Harper gives the following data in Engineering and 
Contracting, Dec. 24, 1913. 

The following data apply to the dismantling of an old highway steel truss 
bridge, with roadway and sidewalks, and to the erection in its place of a new 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 1057 

structure with a 60-ft. roadway and an 8-ft. sidewalk. The new bridge 
consists of a deck truss span over the Mahoning River and two through girder 
spans over six railroad tracks of three different trunk lines, at Youngstown, 
Ohio. The work was done in 1910. 

The span across the river has a length of about 180 ft. and that across the 
railroad tracks has a length of about 84 ft. The old structure was used by the 
sub-contractor as falsework during the erection of the new bridge; and as it 
was taken down after the completion of the connection, its weight is included in 
the tonnage given in Table I, being about 35 per cent of the total for this span. 
The dismantling and removal of it cost about 35 per cent of the total cost 
shown in the table for the river span. 

The sub-contractor for the work was a first-class bridgeman, who took 
personal charge of the work and who had gathered an efficient crew of skilled 
men. He was, however, subjected to many delays, which were due to no 
fault of his and which served seriously to hinder the progress of the work. 

The weight of steel in the two girder spans over the railroad tracks is about 
198 tons. The erection cost for these spans is higher than that for the river 
span, as it was necessary to use a Lucius erector to set them. One span was 
set in about five minutes and the other in about eight minutes, without any 
delay to traffic. 

The total erection cost of $8,136, shown in Table XXV, was within three per 
cent of the actual erection and other costs to the sub-contractor. The paint- 
ing of the structure, the railing, roadway paving, and the cement sidewalks 
were let under separate contracts. The data shown in the table are only for 
the dismantling of the old highway bridge, the erection of the new structure, 
and the placing and riveting of the buckle plates for the roadway. The best 
type of hoisting engines and general apparatus were used on this work. The 
dismantling of the old structure was hindered somewhat and the cost of the 

Table XXV. — Data on Dismantling Old Tkuss Bkidge and Erecting New 

Spans 

Erection 
cost per 
Cost ton on 
per ton girder 
Time, Rate per Labor Total* (560 spans 
days day cost cost tonsf) (198 



River span 

Foreman 773-^ $ 6.00$ 465$ 535 $ 0.96 

Bridgemen and laborers 890 4.50 4,005 4,606 8.22 

Stationary engineers 68 4.50 306 352 0.63 

Watchmen 51 2.50 128 147 0.26 



tons) 



Total $5; 640 $10.07 

Spans Over RailroacJ Tracks 

Foreman 35 $ 6.00$ 210$ 242 $1.22 

Bridgemen and laborers 27'3 4.50 1,229 1,413 7.14 

Engineers 7 4.50 31 36 0.18 

Watchmen 19 2.50 48 55 0.28 

Lucius erector 3 250.00 750 750 3.78 



Total $2,496 $12.60 

Grand total 8 , 136 

* Total cost is made up of labor cost plus 15 per cent to cover plant cost. 
t The 560 tons consisted of 374 tons of new steel erected and 186 tons of old 
steel taken down and used as falsework. 
67 



1058 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



work was increased due to the difficulty of removing the old piers, which were 
in bad condition. The time required, the rate of wage, and the cost of the 
work, exclusive of materials, are shown in Table XXV. 

The work on the river span was done during May and August and that on 
the span over the railroad tracks during October and November, 1910. 

Cost of Erecting the St. Paul, Neb., State Aid Bridge. — Geo. K. Leonard 
gives the following data in Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 28, 1917. 

The contract for this bridge was let in September, 1915. It is located one 
mile from the town of St. Paul, Neb., and extends over the Middle Loup River. 
The right of way adjoins that of the Union Pacific R. R. and the same length 
of spans was used so that the piers in the two bridges would fall in the same 
line. The entire bed of the river at this point is composed of fine sand with 



-To Grand Island 




Middle Loup River 



m 



^ 




Spur- (gravel', 

♦4 



Union Pacific Bridge 






D 



-X- 



-XL 



State Aid Bridge 



3: 



cfge N ^ X ,-|x 

Street Pilinq for protection workvy 

lllllf 



Tool and Cement House 




Materia/ Abut.// Pier/ \ 2 (3/4 '■ 5 { Abu 

Concrete 50yd'dyd48yd46yd6Zyd'46yd.62yd'46yd6Zyd 46yd 62yd 46yd 55yd. 
Reinforcing 3560''954'250'7230*25(y7250'230' 7250" 230' 7230* 230* 7230* SSdO* 
Stee/5h P//e5(i^l-20'-l220' 50-25'^l250'} I440sa ft ) CI4l-20'=2e20'd8-25'^2200'l2930sqft) 
Wood Piles (5-35)nO-200 14-35' 19-25' 19-35' 19-35' 19-35' 25-35' 

Fab Steel 4475*64214'' 64214" 64214* 34214* 64214' 

R/wets 678 678 678 678 678 

Excavation 60yd 26 ud 50 yd 60 yd 25 yd 50yd 6yd 
Cofferdams Driven 12' 16' ir 10' TO' 

Sq.Ft 812 1278' I26Q 1076 1000' 



Fig. 7. — General layout of St. Paul, Neb., state aid bridge and material quan- 
tities involved. 

some gravel too deep to excavate economically for concrete. During the 
summer the river is practically dry with the exception of one channel under 
Span No. 5. Tl^e general layout of the structure is shown in Fig. 1. The 
material quantities also are shown in this cut. 

The superstructure is composed of five 8-panel 145-ft. pin-connected curved 
chord trusses and one 20-ft. I-beam span, all with a 16-ft. roadway, carrying a 
6-in. concrete floor. It was designed to carry a live load of 75 lb. per square 
foot, or a 15-ton traction engine. 

The substructure includes five mass concrete piers and two reinforced 
concrete abutments resting on 35-ft. cypress piles. A row of 7-in. Lacka- 
wanna steel sheet piling 20 ft. long is driven under the whole length of each 
abutment and adjoining these on Abutment No. 2 additional piling are driven 
for protecting the approach. The concrete extends to a depth of 3 ft. below 
the low water level and the piles are embedded in the. footings 2 ft. 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 



1059 



At the start of the work the contractor made arrangements with the Union 
Pacific R. R. for the construction of a spur to the end of the highway bridge. 
All material with the exception of the form lumber, which was hauled from 
St. Paul, was delivered to the bridge site on this spur. The cost of the spur 
was charged to. the various materials according to their tonnage as follows: 



Material Amount 

Steel Sheet piles 7 ,490 lin. ft. 

Wood piles 4 ,330 lin. ft. 

Falsework piles 4 , 315 lin. ft. 

Cement 977 bbls. 

Gravel. , 

Reinforcing steel 

Fabricated steel 

Coal... 

Plant 



Total tonnage 

Total cost spur 

Total cost spur ton of material 32.7 cts. 





Amount 


Tonnage 


charged 


47.00 


$ 15.32 


64.95 


21.25 


64.73 


21.20 


195.40 


64.00 


1,096.00 


358.60 


22.71 


7.43 


212.77 


69.60 


166.20 


54.40 


25.00 


8.20 


1,894.76 





$620.00 



These amounts which are charged to the material from the spur will here- 
after be charged to hauling, since the spur did away with the hauhng costs. 
Labor Organization. — The labor organization was as follows: 



Pile driving: 

1 foreman 

1 fengineer 

1 niggerhead man. 

1 fireman 

1 jet man 

3 laborers 

Concrete: 

1 mixer man 

5 cart pushers 

2 tampers 

1 cement man 

4 gravel wheelers. . 
Steel erection: 

1 foreman 

1 engineer 

1 niggerhead man. 

1 fireman 

2 laborers 



Per hour, 
cents 

40 
40 
35 
30 
30 
30 . 

35 
30 
35 
30 
25 

40 
40 
35 
30 
40 



Per hour 
cents 



2 laborers 

4 laborers 

Riveting (two gangs): 

1 foreman 

1 compressor man . . . 

1 fireman 

2 rivet heaters 

1 gun man 

1 gun man 

2 buckers 

2 rivet catchers. .... 
2 fitting-up men. 



35 
30 

423^ 

35 

30 

421.^ 

40 
35 
35 
35 



1 supply man 25 



General foreman. 
Night watchman. 
Water boy 



45 
20 
15 



Plant. — Piles were driven and a platform built from the spur to the end of 
the bridge. On this the plant was erected and part of the material unloaded. 
For the pile driving a traveler carrying a stiff-leg derrick and a steam hoisting 
engine, operating a 1,600-lb. hammer in swinging leads, was used. A small 
jet pump assisted greatly in all the pile driving. 

The cofferdam at Pier No. 1 was first driven, using the sheet piling, which 
were afterward driven under the abutments. The excavation was done with 
an orange-peel after which the wood piles were driven. Next the falsework 
of Span No. 1 was driven, the floor beams being placed on each successive bent 
and enough joists to carry the traveler bolted to the beams. The work 
progressed in like manner across the bridge. 

Concreting followed the pile driving and after the footings were poured the 
traveler returned and pulled the cofferdam. 

In Abutment No. 2 the sheet piling served for both cofferdam, and forms 



1060 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

around the face and wood forms had to be sunk around the rear. Abutment 
No. 1 was finished last. 

At the start a 34 -yd. mixer was used, being run by a gas engine. Later a 
steam engine and boiler were used. In mixing for Piers Nos. 1 and 2 the 
mixer was set over the forms, but it was then moved to the end of the bridge 
and the rest of the concrete was mixed there and hauled to the forms in Koppel 
cars. 

The cost of the plant and its distribution is as follows: 

Making working platform $ 85. 00 

Making tool and cement house 30. 00 

Unloading and erecting derrick 88 . 00 

Erecting and moving concrete plant 164.90 

Repairs on derrick 194 . 89 

Wrecking and loading out plant 178. 75 

Hauling 8.20 



Total $749. 74 

This was charged to the various branches of the work according to the time 
spent on same. If the unit costs are desired without the plant included it is 
very easily found. 

Following is the distribution of the plant cost to the various branches: 

Total 

Kind of work Repairs charged 

Driving falsework. $ 53. 52 $ 27.35 $80.87 

Driving sheet piling 12 . 05 12 . 05 

Driving wood piling 165.56 80.47 246.03 

Driving cofferdam piling 74. 00 78. 32 15^. 32 

Steel erection :. 84.82 8.75 93.57 

Concreting 164 . 90 164 . 90 

Totaling $554.85 $194.89 $749.74 

Goal: Cost per ton Total cost 

166.2 tons $6.43 $1,068.66 

Unloading .185 30. 74 

Hauling 3.27 54.40 

Total $6,942 $1,153.80 

Construction Costs 

SUPERSTEUCTURE 

Falsework: 

Labor driving $ 711 , 55 

Labor removing 112.15 

Coal (18 tons) 125.00 

Plant 80. 87 



Total $1,029.57 

Cost per span 205.91 

Cost per Un. ft. bridge 1 . 42 

Cost per ton steel 4 . 90 

These units include laying floor beams and enough joists to carry the traveler. 
Erecting (excluding approach): 

Labor erecting $ 936 . 85 

Coal (28 tons) 194.20 

Plant 93.57 

Total $1,224.62 

Cost per span 244. 92 

Cost per lin. ft. bridge 1 . 69 

Cost per ton steel 5. 83 

Labor erecting approacli 5 . 40 

Cost per ton 2.61 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 1061 

Riveting : 

Labor riveting $ 936. 85 

Setting compressor 88 . 88 

Coal (16 tons) 111.00 



Total $1,136.73 

Cost per span 227 . 34 

Cost per ton steel 5.41 

Cost per rivet . 330 

Painting (one coat): 

Labor painting $ 233.96 

Cost per span 46 . 79 

Cost per ton steel 1.12 

Falsework piles: 

1 , 875 lin. ft. at 15 ct $ 281 . 25 

140 lin. ft. at 15^^^ ct 21 . 70 

2,300 lin. ft. at 133-^ ct 310.50 



Totaling 4,315 lin. ft ^. . . $ 613.45 

Hauling 21.20 

Total. $ 634 . 65 

Cost per span 126.94 

Cost per lin. ft. bridge .88 

Cost per ton steel 2 . 98 

— Cost per ton — Total cost— 

Fabricated steel: 

Hauling $ 0. 327 $ 69 . 60 

Unloading 623 131.97 



Total 

161 ton trusses (est.) 

49.7 ton j oist (est. ) 


.' $55.00 
. 39.00 

12.00 


$ 0.950 

$8,855.00 
1,938.30 

2,528.40 


$ 201 . 57 


210.7 tons ft. (est.).; 




Average 




59.50 


13,421.70 


Total 

Total per span 


$60.45 


$13,623.27 
2 , 724 . 66 


2.07 tons approach at $51.00. . . 






105.57 



Paint (one coat): 

110 gal. at $1.00 $110.00 

Cost per span 22 . 00 

Cost per ton steel . 518 

Paint per ton . 518 



SuMMAEY SUPEKSTKUCTURE 



Falsework $205.91 

Steel 244.92 

Riveting 227.34 

Painting 46.79 



or 

Ton 




— Material 

Span Ton 




Total- 
Span 


Ton 


$ 4, 
5 
5 


.90 
.83 
,41 
,12 


$ 
2 


126. 
,724. 


94 
66 


$ 2 
60 


.98 
.45 


$ 
2 


332. 
,969. 
227, 

68. 


,85 $ 7. 

58 66, 
,34 5 

79 1, 


.88 
.28 
,41 
,64 


1, 




22. 


00 




.52 



Total $724.96 $17.26 $2,873. 60 $63.95 $3,598.56 $81.21 

Total cost of five spans $17, 992 . 80 

Total cost of approach llo!91 

Total cost of superstructure 18 , 103. 71 



1062 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Substructure 

Wood piles (top of piles driven 12 in. below low water) : 

Per lin. ft. Per pile Total 

Labor pointing and carrying to position .. . $0.0313 $ 1.059 $ 135.61 

Labor driving 1159 3.925 502.31 

Coal (56 tons) 0897 3 . 035 388 . 50 

Plant 0569 1.908 246.03 

Hauling 0049 . 166 21 . 25 

Total $0.2987 $10,093 $1,293.70 

4,330 lin. ft. piling 155 5.42 671.15 

Total cost piling $0.4537 $15,513 $1,964.85 

Steel sheet piles (top of piles driven to water line) : 

Per sq. ft. Per lin. ft. Per pile Total 

Labor carrying to position $0.01762 $0.01014 $0,244 $ 75.95 

Labor driving 0835 .048 1.059 359.55 

Coal (4 tons) 00644 .00371 .082 27.76 

Plant .0028 .00161 .035 12.05 

Hauling .00356 .00204 .045 15.32 

Total....' $0.11392 $0.06550 $1,445 $ 490.63 

Piling 4618 .27 5.93 2,018.15 

Total cost piling $0 . 57572 $0 . 33550 $7 . 375 $2 , 508 . 78 

Lumber: 

31,5 M ft. B. M $861.55. 

Cost per yard concrete 1 . 35 

Forms: 

Abutments — 

Labor placing $333 . 99 

Labor removing 36 . 90 

Total $370.89 

Cost per yard concrete 3 . 53 

Piers (including placing small amount of steel) — 

Labor placing $279 . 74 

Labor removing 55.00 

Total. $334. 74 

Cost per yard concrete 1 . 13 

Floor — 

Labor placing $290. 70 

Labor removing , . 1 13 . 20 

Total $403.90 

Cost per yard concrete 1 . 70 

Cement: 

Per bbl. Total cost 

977 barrels.... $1.80 $ 1,758.60 

Unloading .062 $ 60. 37 

Hauling. . .065 64 . 00 

Total $1,927 $ 1,882.97 

Barrels per yard (foundation) 1 . 45 

Cost per yard concrete $2 . 80 

Barrels per yard (floor) 1 . 65 

Cost per yard concrete $3. 18 

Gravel: 

Per ton Total cost 

1,096 tons $1.21 $1,327.02 

Unloading 157 171 . 53 

Hauling 327 358.60 

Total .' $1 . 694 $1 , 857 . 15 

Tons per yard concrete 1.715 

Cost per yard concrete $2 . 90 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 1063 

Concrete: 

Plant $ 164.90 

Cost per yard concrete .26 

Foundations — 

Labor placing $ 715.42 

Coal (10 tons) 69 . 40 

Gasoline (250 gal.) 53 . 13 



Total $ 837 . 95 

Cost per yard concrete 2 . 09 

Floor — 

Labor placing $ 484 . 80 

Coal (9.7 tons) 67 . 30 



Total $ 552. 10 

Cost per yard concrete 2 . 32 

Cofferdams (5 piers only): 

Preparing site $ 32 . 40 

Driving piles 24 1 . 1 1 

Pulling piles . 575.22 

Excavating 160. 32 

Plant 152. 32 

Coal (24.5 tons) 170.03 

Total $1,331.40 

Cost per yard concrete 4 . 50 

Summary Concrete 
Abutments — Piers Floor- 



Total Per yd. Total Per yd. Total Per yd. 

Lumber $ 141.35 $ 1.35 $ 399.10 $ 1.35 $ 321.10 $ 1.35 

Forms 370.89 3.53 334.74 1.13 403.90 1.70 

Cement 294.00 2.80 829.80 2.80 759.17 3.18 

Gravel 304.50 2.90 858.40 2.90 694.25 2.90 

Mixing 246.55 2.35 694.90 2.35 613.50 2.58 

Cofferdams 1,331.40 4.50 



Total. $1,357.29 $12.93 $4,448.34 $15.03 $2,791.92 $11.71 

Total charged to concrete $8 , 597 . 55 

Reinforcing 

Per ton Total cost 

45,410 lb $60.00 $ 1,362.30 

Unloading .382 8 . 67 

Hauling .327 7.43 



Total $60,709 $ 1,378.40 

Placing in abutments 19 . 28 

Cost i^er ton 8 . 55 

Placing in floor 90 . 60 

Cost per ton 6 . 74 

Summary Substructure 

Wood piles $ 1 , 964 , 85 

Steel sheet piles 2 , 508 . 78 

Concrete 8 , 597 . 55 

Reinforcing 1 , 488 . 28 



Total $14,559.46 

Total Cost of Bridge 

Superstructure $18,103.71 

Substructure 14 , 559 . 46 

Miscellaneous material 535 . 00 

General foreman v 810 . 00 

Night watchman 260 . 00 

Water boy 47 . 75 



Total $34,315.92 



1064 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cost of a Steel Highway Bridge in Texas. — William C. Davidson gives the 
following costs in Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 25, 1916. 

The bridge was built in McLennan County, Texas, about 10 miles from 
Waco. It spans Aquilla Creek, one of the larger tributary streams of the 
Brazos River. The structure has a total length of 273 ft., consisting of 120 ft. 
of main span and 153 ft of timber trestle approaches. 

The work was handled under direct supervision of the county engineer. 
An experienced steel bridge foreman was employed to superintend the con- 
struction work, which was in direct charge of the writer as assistant engineer. 
Foundation excavation was commenced about July 1, 1915, and two months 
later the road and bridge were opened to traffic. To obtain a more direct 
alignment the site of the new bridge was moved several feet upstream from 
the site of the old structure. 

Labor for handling the work was obtained locally with the exception of a 
form-builder who was obtained from Waco. Common labor was obtained at 
$1.50 to $1.75 per day of eight hours each. The form builder was paid at the 
rate of $3 per day. Practically all the hauling was done under contract. 
Miscellaneous teaming was paid for at the rate of $0.40 per hour. The fore- 
man was employed at $4 per day straight time, no overtime being allowed 
for more than an eight-hour day. Laborers were paid overtime for all work 
exceeding eight hours per day. It was necessary to haul a part of the material, 
such as form lumber, tools, equipment for camp outfit and other miscellaneous 
supplies, from Waco. This teaming was done by one of the county mainte- 
nance outfits, at a cost of $3 per day. 

The nearest railroad spur was situated a distance of five miles from the site 
of the bridge. Cement, structural steel, bridge lumber, piling and wood pre- 
server for treating certain portions of the wood work, were shipped to this 
point. The hauling of this material to the site was contracted to a local 
teamster at the following prices: Cement, QH ct. per sack; bridge lumber, 
25 ct. per 100 ft. B. M.; structural steel, $1 per ton. The piling and wood 
preserver were hauled to the site at a cost of $0.40 per hour for man and team. 
Gravel for the pile footings and concrete piers was also hauled under contract, 
from local pits situated two and five miles from the site, respectively. From 
the pit located two miles distant, 130 cu. yd. were obtained at a cost of $0.50 
per yard for the hauling and $0.10 per yard for the gravel. Added to the 
above cost was that of stripping the pit which amounted to $0.11 per yard, 
making a total cost per yard at the site of $0.71. Owing to the fact that the 
above pit would not supply sufficient gravel to construct the piers and footings, 
it became necessary to haul 39H cu. yd. from another local pit situated five 
miles from the site. This gravel was contracted at $1.15 per cubic yard for 
loading and hauhng and $0.10 per cubic yard for the gravel, making a total 
cost at the site of $1.25 per cubic yard. No stripping was necessary at this 
pit. Tickets were issued to the teamsters by the foreman for each load of 
gravel as it was received at the site, and payment was made upon the basis 
of these tickets. The invoices of the material companies were taken as the 
basis of payment for the haul of cement, steel and lumber. 

The concrete used in the construction of the piers was mixed in the propor- 
tion of one part of cement to six parts of pit run gravel. A form finish was 
given the outer surface of the piers. Vertical and horizontal reinforcing rods 
were used as shown on the pier detail. The steel was designed for what was 
designated in the standard specifications as a " Class B Loading." This con- 
sisted of a load of 80 lb. per square foot of total floor surface, befng the equiva- 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 1065 

lent of a 10-ton traction engine having axles 8 ft. on centers and a 6-ft. gage, 
two-thirds of the load to be carried on the rear axles and distributed over 
12 ft. in width. 

The following is an itemized statement of the cost of the bridge, including all 
material and labor: 

Material: 

Structural steel, f. o. b. cars at factory, 42,770 lb. @ $3.14 per 100 

lb $1,325.87 

Freight on steel, 42,770 lb. @ 55c per 100 lb 235.24 

Bridge lumber, 25,335 ft. B. M 426. 56 

Cement, 425 sacks @ 32c per sack net 178. 50 

Reinforcing steel, 4,455 lb. @ $2.75 per 100 lb 122. 51 

Form lumber, 3,900 ft. B. M 104 . 39 

Piling, 454 lin. ft. @ 73'^c per foot 34.05 

Nails, 2 kegs 60d and 1 keg 6d 7 . 85 

2 rolls, No. 9 wire for forms 4 . 90 

Gravel, 169H cu. yd. @ 10c 16.95 

Paint, 14 gal. @ $1.95 27.30 

Linseed oil, 4 gal. @ 85c 3. 40 

Machine bolts 19 . 64 

Misc. tools and hardware 29 . 98 

Paint brushes 1.15 

Wood preserver 5 . 00 

Total $2,643.29 

Labor: 

Clearing of bridge site $ 8.90 

Foundation excavation 57 . 35 

Mixing and placing concrete 78 . 40 

Building of forms. 165 . 05 

Removal of forms 16 . 75 

Hauling form lumber .' 12 . 00 

Hauling cement, 425 sacks @ 6i^^c 28 . 33 

Hauling gravel, 169^^ cu. yd. (130 cu. yd. @ 50c, 393^ cu. yd. @ 

$1.15)... 110.43 

Hauling reinforcing steel 8 . 00 

Extra cutting of steel .75 

Hauling bridge lumber 65 . 42 

Erection of steel, including decking of main span and approaches . 207 . 20 

Construction and removal of false work 51 . 50 

Building approaches (not decking) 42. 55 

Painting steel span (one coat) 14 . 90 

Rent on storage house : 3 . 00 

Miscellaneous hauling: 

Moving concrete mixer from R. R. to site 2 . 00 

Stripping gravel pits 14 . 80 

Hauling cement from storage house to site 3 . 60 

Hauling piling from R. R. to site 8 . 00 

Unloading piling at R. R 4 . 80 

Unloading bridge lumber at R. R 3.75 

Moving lumber at bridge .40 

Foreman's time (60 days @ $4.00 per day) 240. 00 

Structural steel workman (connecting span) 25. 00 

Total $1,172.68 

Cost of material 2, 643. 29 

Grand total cost, material and labor $3,815.97 

Unit Costs. — On the basis of the foregoing cost data, unit costs on the 
several items of material have been computed. The foundation excavation 
was entirely pick and shovel work and consisted of alluvial deposits and a 
firm clay. The depth of the excavation was 12 ft. and a double handling of 
material was required near the bottom of the piers. There was a total of 
85.7 cu. yd. of material taken from both piers, at a total cost of $57.35 or a 



1066 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

unit cost of $0.67. Mixing and placing of concrete cost $78.30. The total 
cubic yardage of concrete in the piers and pile footings amounted to 125.7, 
from which is deduced a cost of $0.62 per cubic yard. Water used in mixing 
the concrete was obtained from the creek at the site by means of a hand 
pump. It was pumped into barrels to an elavation of about 20 ft. above the 
creek, from which it was conveyed by means of buckets to the mixer. The 
piers were poured to an elevation slightly above the ground, then the ap- 
proaches were built and the mixer placed upon them, from which the re-' 
mainder was poured without difficulty. 

The piers being of rather unusual design, involved expensive form work 
from the standpoint of labor, the total cost being $165.05, or a unit cost per 
yard of concrete, of $1.33. The lumber, wire, nails, removal of forms and 
the hauling of form lumber amounted to $140.79, with a resultant unit cost 
for material of $1.12 per cubic yard. Therefore the total unit cost for forms 
was $2.45 per cubic yard, which is somewhat higher than is to be expected for 
form work on piers. 

The total cost of the cement at the site, including first cost, hauling and 
storage, was $215.43, from which it is estimated that the cost for cement per 
cubic yard of concrete amounts to $1.70. The concrete gravel cost at the 
site $142.18, including first cost, hauling and stripping of pits. This results 
in a unit cost of $1.13 per cubic yard. The cost of water for the concrete was 
included in the item "mixing and placing" and the cost of placing reinforcing 
steel was not separated from that of building forms. From the foregoing a 
summary of cost per cubic yard of concrete is as follows : 

Cement $1.70 

Gravel 1 . 13 

Forms 2.45 

Mixing and placing 62 

Supplies for mixer 02 

Foreman 38 

Total $6. 30 

The bridge was erected at a total cost for labor on superstructure and false 
work of $258.50, which cost included the erection of steel and the decking of 
main span and approaches. A cost of $0.95 per linear foot of bridge is 
deduced from the foregoing. It required material amounting to $31.85 to 
paint the steel work, with a corresponding cost per ton of steel of $1.49. 
Labor required amounted to $14.90 or a cost per ton of steel of $0.70. The 
total cost, therefore, per ton of steel for labor and material was $2.19. 

Unit Costs of Constructing Plate-Girder Bridges with Concrete Sub- 
structures in Chicago. — The following data are taken from an article in 
Engineering News, Aug. 27, 1914, by Harry J. McDargh. 

In erecting seven plate girder bridges on west fork of the North Branch of 
the Chicago River the work was carried out by the use of day labor. The 
field organization consisted of an engineer (Mr. McDargh) acting as general 
superintendent; an instrument man as time-keeper and material clerk; a 
foreman of carpenters, cement mixers and laborers and in charge of substruc- 
ture construction, and a foreman of bridge and structural-iron workers in 
charge of erection of the superstructure. The rates of wages (union scale) 
were as follows: 

Foremen 80 cts. per hour. 

Engineman (for hoisting) 723^^ cts. per hour. 

Carpenters 65 cts. per hour. 

Laborers 40 cts. per hour. 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 



1067 



Material costs under contracts made by the city were as follows: 

Material: Cost 

Cement $ 1 . 20 per bbl. net. 

Torpedo sand 1 . 70 per cu. yd. 

Stone and gravel 1 . 65 per cu. yd. 

Lumber (average) $29. 00 per M. ft. B. M. 

Superstructure steel 2, 61 cts. per lb. 

The plant consisted of a 10-ton stiff-leg derrick with a 42-ft. boom, a 16-hp. 
steam-hoisting engine, four 1-yd. self-dumping steel buckets, a steam pump, a 
gasoline-driven concrete mixer of 8-ft. batch capacity, and the other necessary 
smaller equipment. 

The superstructure design is shown in Fig. 8. The main girders are 75 ft. 
8 in. long, with the floor system designed to carry the heaviest city traffic. 
The roadway is 24 ft. between curbs, paved with 4-in. creosoted-wood blocks 
on 2-in. creosoted subplanking laid tight on 4 X 6-in. creosoted sleepers 
spaced 9 in. c. to c. The two 8-ft. walks are of reinforced-concrete flat-slab 
construction. The sidewalk railing on the bridge is of ornamental iron 
construction, and joins the concrete parapet walls carried on the wing walls of 
the substructure. 






7.21. 



■->i<- 



— /J' H 

■kSo/fehlF i .-JB^rs, 8"C.ioC/ (<-/p?^ ".I" Expansion f/£f/f^'^ 2 Creoso+ed Planks-^ 

ficJi^>.:;o>-y'V! LJ.^..^^ Ooinf /SlSW ,..4"Cr^osof^d Wood Blocks \ 




" ^■]L,eW4'ki5" 



Fig. 8. — Half cross-section of plate-girder bridges over the west fork of the 
North Branch of the Chicago River. 



The wing walls of the substructure end in a circular return and come to 
within 2 ft. of the property line. All streets are 66 ft. wide. The esthetic 
treatment of both the substructure and superstructure was recommended 
by the Chicago Plan Commission, and the resulting structure is quite effective 
in appearance. Excavation for the substructure was made through loam, 
gravel and stiff blue clay to a depth of at least 83^ ft. below low water to allow 
for a possible future dredging of this stream. 

The average depth of excavation was 26 ft. below the curb grade, and each 
pit was sheathed tight to blue clay, due to the water-bearing gravel and the 
proximity to the river. No extraordinary conditions were encountered. 
Excavation of the blue clay was laborious, however, as it could only be 
loosened in small chunks by the use of mattocks. Keeping the clay water- 
soaked was found advisable. 

Cost and Progress of Work. — The substructures at N. 40th Ave. and N. 48th 
Ave. were started during the fall of 1912, but all work was suspended before 
the end of the year. Work was again started May 9, 1913, and three other 



1068 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

substructures (at Central Park Ave., Kedzie Ave. and 56th Ave.) were com- 
pleted during the year. The substructure at Forest Glen Ave. was 90 per 
cent completed on Dec. 31, and was entirely completed Jan. 29, 1914. 

The superstructure steel for N. 40th Ave. was delivered on the site July 2, 
the erection completed Aug. 12 and the roadway opened to traffic Sept 1. 
Erection of 48th Ave. superstructure was started July 31, completed Sept. 
3, and the roadway opened to traffic on Oct. 1. 

The next superstructure steel arrived Oct. 21, and was erected at Central 
Park Ave. and this bridge opened to traffic on Dec. 20. 

The steel for the Kedzie Ave. superstructure arrived on Dec. 4, erection was 
completed Dec. 27, and the roadway opened to traffic Feb. 14, 1914. Erec- 
tion of the superstructure at 56th Ave. was started Dec. 29, completed Jan. 
28, and the roadway opened to traffic Feb. 26. At Forest Glen Ave. the 
delivery of the steel was started Feb. 9, but was tied up until Feb. 20 by a 
strike on the company furnishing the material. Erection was completed Mar. 
12, and the roadway opened to traffic on Apr. 7, 1914. 

The erection of the steelwork was done without the aid of power machinery 
and all riveting was by hand. The cost varied from 0.75 to 0.77c. per lb. 

The creosoted wood-block pavement with sub-planking and sleepers cost 
for material $4 per sq. yd. ; the labor for placing averaged 813'^c per sq. yd. for 
roadways without car tracks and $1.40 on the roadway with car tracks. 

The widths of the roadways leading to the bridges were in most cases about 
18 ft. and these were widened to meet the approaches of the new bridge at a 
cost varying from 74.7 to 95. lets, per cu. yd. 

For excavation, backfill, cofTer-dam, sheathing and pumping, the cost on the 
several jobs varied from $1.23 to $1.55 per cu. yd. The substructure con- 
crete (1:3:6) varied in cost as follows: 

Labor for handling sand, stone and cement to mixer, mixing and placing in 
forms, $1,291 to $1,408 per cu. yd. Part of this variance in the cost of labor 
was due to the uneconomical method necessary in handling the material, 
as it was compulsory to keep the narrow roadways open and the material was 
scattered along the side of the road for a distance of 600 ft. from the bridge on 
each side of the river. 

Material cost $3,778 to $4,558 per cu. yd. of concrete. This variance was 
due to difference in length of haul for delivery. 

Forms, including labor and material, cost $1,580 to $1,986 per cu. yd. of 
concrete. 

Cost of Moving Small Highway Bridge in Chicago. — In replacing a bridge 
at Kedzie Ave. over the west fork of the North Branch of the Chicago River in 
1914, it was decided that the bridge could be moved to Foster Ave., an unim- 
portant thoroughfare, and that it would serve 10 yrs. or more at this, its third 
place of usefulness. Harry J. McDargh in Engineering News, Aug. 27, 1914 
gives the cost of moving the bridge as follows: 

The old structure was a wrought-iron through-truss bridge, 63 ft. long and 
36 ft. wide over all and weighed 35 tons. The truss while being "house 
moved" was carried on two sets of 12 X 12-in. timbers 6 ft. c. to c, placed 
symmetrically to the center of the bridge. Using wood rollers on a timber 
runway and a crab, the truss was moved 4,300 ft. and set upon bents for 
$383.50. The rates of wages (union scale) were as follows: 

Foreman 80 cts. per hour 

Carpenters 65 cts. per hour 

Laborers 40 cts. per hour 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 1069 

Cost of 105-Ft. Strauss Bascule Bridge over the Sabine Neches Canal at 
Port Arthur, Texas. — According to Engineering Record, Aug. 19, 1916, this 
bridge was completed by the contractor in 1913 at a cost of $35,000, the 
steel being fabricated at Beaver Falls, Pa. 

The main span of the bridge is 105 ft. center to center of channel piers; 
six-panel through riveted Warren trusses, 24 ft. apart on centers, provide a 
21-ft. clear roadway and two 6-ft. clear sidewalks are carried on cantilever 
brackets. The roadway has 3-in. wooden planking supported on steel 
stringers and provides for a double-track electric street railway. 

Cost of Jacketing with Concrete the Underwater Portions of a Bridge 
Subsfructure. — Three masonry piers and an abutment founded on stone-filled 
cribs were repaired in 1911 by building jackets of concrete around the under- 
water portions. The old piers had been in use some 65 years. The portions 
above low water were of squared granite laid in mortar probably of lime or a 
mixture of lime and natural cement. Below low water the piers were closely 
framed hewn pine cribs filled with field stone and were well preserved. The 
strengthening work was considered necessary to fit the piers to carry a steel 
superstructure being built to replace the original wood spans. The conditions 
encountered in this work and the method and cost of doing the work are 
described by E. E. Greenwood, engineer in charge, in the Proceedings, Maine 
Society of Civil Engineers, from which Engineering and Contracting, gives the 
following abstract in the issue of June 26, 1912. 

The river bed at this point consists of boulders and at some points ledge 
crops out. The depth of water at low tide is from two to 18 ft., averaging 
about 12 or 14 ft. at the piers, and the ordinary rise of the tide is about 16 ft. 
The old piers were protected by a heavy riprap deposited about the base, this 
riprap coming up above low water in a few places. 

The nature of repairs decided upon was to put a jacket of reinforced concrete 
'around each structure up to the high water line, connecting this jacket with the 
old work, above low water, by means of anchor rods inserted in holes drilled 
into the old piers about 3 ft. apart vertically and horizontally. Above high 
water the old work was to be thoroughly pointed up with rich cement mortar. 
The thickness of this concrete jacket was in general from 3 to 6 ft., finishing off 
at the top two and one-half feet thick. 

On account of the uncertainty of what we should have to contend with as 
the work should progress it was thought impracticable to make specifications 
under which a contractor could be expected to make a reasonable bid on the 
work, either by unit prices or a lump sum. It was therefore decided to do the 
work by the day under the supervision of a competent foreman. 

The first step was to remove a large part of the old riprap about the piers 
and prepare a foundation for the concrete jacket. As a cofferdam of sufficient 
depth was impracticable it was decided to do this work with divers. There- 
fore twp divers' outfits were organized and set to work, and the old riprap and 
debris were removed to such a depth as to secure a suitable foundation. 

It was found that the old riprap was so closely packed that it was not nec- 
essary to go down to the old river bed in most places. The depth was gen- 
erally from 3 to 10 ft. below low water, with some points deeper. 

Our next step was to devise the most practicable method of building a form 
for the concrete, and it was decided to build a timber crib 8 ft. wide entirely 
around the pier, leaving the space between the crib and pier to correspond 
with the required thickness of concrete, which was generally about 6 ft. 
below low water. 



1070 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

This crib was built of 8 X 8-in. hemlock timber and divided into checks 
about 8 ft. square, each alternate check being floored over to contain rocks 
for sinking it. The crib was built up to 2 or 3 ft. above water at low tide, 
thus giving something on which to work while the tide was out to build the 
forms in the ordinary manner above that height. After the crib was grounded 
all the checks were filled with field stone and a quantity of the larger sized 
stones was deposited outside the crib as an extra precaution against scour. 
The inner side of the crib was then lined with vertical matched spruce plank 
driven as much as possible in the bed and all holes at the bottom thoroughly 
chinked by divers, thus giving an almost water-tight form for the concrete. 
The concrete was then deposited in the water, partly by means of the bottom 
dump bucket and partly by means of the flexible chute method, always 
endeavoring to deposit the mixture with the least possible wash. After reach- 
ing the height of low water the work was mostly done by working a few hours 
at a time while the tide was out The concrete in general was a 1 : 2 : 4 mixture 
of Portland cement, sand and crushed rock. In the abutment where the work 
was all above water a 1 : 3: 6 mixture was used. This piece constituted about 
one-sixth of the entire .job. A Smith mixer of 1 cu. yd. capacity was used on 
all of the work. 

The cement was delivered on the work by the local dealers for $1.73 per 
barrel. Sand was delivered for $1.50 per load of about 1^ cu. yds. or at 
about $1.20 per cubic yard. Crushed rock cost delivered on the work $2.25 
per cubic yard. Labor cost $2 per day of nine hours. Hemlock lumber cost 
$18 per thousand and spruce lumber $22 per thousand delivered. 

An accurate account was kept of the total cost but the exact division 
between the different classes as given below is something of an estimate but is 
believed to be quite near the facts. The total amount of concrete built 
assuming that 5 per cent of the total entered the cavities of the old work was 
2,190 cu. yds. 

Lumber for crib work and forms cost $ 1 , 922 

Tools bought and hired 800 

Field stone for filling cribs 356 

Teaming 112 

Cement 4 , 249 

Sand 1,059 

Crushed rock 3, 582 

Liability insurance 125 

Coal 112 

Incidentals and office expenses 575 

Labor on cribs, forms and concrete 5,337 

Preparing foundations under water 5, 100 

Making anchor connections with old work. 400 

Iron for reinforcing and for protecting corners 490 

Pointing up old work above concrete jacket 300 

Riprapping outside of cribs 200 

Engineering 1 , 350 

Total $26,069 

Less estimated salvage on tools and lumber 500 

Net cost ...r $25,569 

This gives a cost of $11.68 per cubic yard for the whole job. But if we 
omit the last six items above mentioned as not usually chargeable to the yard 
price of concrete, we have $8.32 as the net yard price which includes the cost 
of all crib work and forms. 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 



1071 



The work was done between July 5 and October 13 and was under the direct 
supervision of Joseph Mullen. 

Cost of Forms for Concrete Bridges and Culverts. — The following is taken 
from Engineering and Contracting, March 26, 1919. 

It has been found in bridge and culvert work in Kentucky that a fair 
approximation of the cost of forms for the different classes of reinforced con- 
crete superstructures or culverts in state work may be estimated per cubic 
yard of concrete (if the forms are not to be used the second time) by allowing 
100 ft. B.M. of lumber per cubic yard and four hours' time each for the car- 
penter and helper for the erection ; and for the substructures of slabs or girder 
bridges, 2}^^ hours' carpenter's time and 2^^ hours' helper's time for the plain 
concrete. These figures were given by Charles D. Snead, Bridge Engineer 
of the State Department of Public Roads, in an address at the Kentucky 




/2 /4 Kfi 18 20 ZZ 24 2(o 28 S) 3Z 34. 36 28 40 4Z 

Span Lengfh tn Fkei 

Fig. 9. — Quantities of concrete in three standard types of reinforced concrete 
superstructures — Iowa Highway Commission. 



Road School, and are based upon actual work done with the ordinary type of 
labor available in the state. Where the forms are used twice it has been found 
that it requires about one-half the time, estimated for buildings, to re-erect 
them. ^ 

Relative Economy of Slab, Through Girder and Deck Girder Types of 
Concrete Bridges. — The following matter is taken from an abstract, pub- 
lished in Engineering and Contracting, March 24, 1915 of a paper by C. B. 
McCuUough, presented at the 11th Annual convention of the American Con- 
crete Institute at Philadelphia, Pa. 

The slab type of superstructure consists of a simple beam or slab, rein- 
forced for main and diagonal tension by longitudinal rods, and for lateral 
distribution, shrinkage and temperature stresses by transverse rods. 

The deck girder type (see Fig. 10) depends for its economy on the fact that 
the carrying capacity of a beam varies as the square of the depth but only as 
the first power of the width. Thus the use of deep narrow girders operates to 



1072 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



reduce the amount of material and consequently cuts down the cost. The 
stresses arising in the superstructure are transmitted into the girders by means 
of a thin doubly reinforced floor, which acts as a beam partially fixed and 
partially continuous. The girders themselves are reinforced for main and 
diagonal tension both by bent up rods and by stirrups. 

In the through type of girder construction (see Fig. 11) two main side girders 
support the floor, which is hung or suspended between them. The main 



/S'0"C/ee7r/^d^ay. 




Fig. 10. — Cross section of standard 24-ft. reinforced concrete deck girder 
bridge — -Iowa Highway Commission. 

girders act as simple beams and the floor as a partially fixed beam, the point 
of contraflexure being taken at about 12 ins. from the girder, this distance 
being based upon experiment. A comparison of quantities for the three 
types of superstructure is graphically shown in Fig. 9. , The economy of cost 
of the deck type over the through type is probably represented by the relative 
position of the quantity curves, the form work being equally difficult for both 
types. The cost of slab construction is, on the other hand, somewhat cheaper 



18-0' l^oadwag. 




Fig. 11. — Cross section of standard 30-ft. reinforced concrete through girder 
bridge — Iowa Highway Commission. 



than the quantitites would indicate, on account of the simple form work, 
and this type of construction is probably the economical one for spans below 
20 or 22 ft. The economy of the through girder and the slab over the deck 
type is one of headroom rather than of cost. 

Cost of 113-Ft. Reinforced Concrete Girder Bridge Near Douglas, Ariz. — 
During 1915-1916 the State Highway Department of Arizona constructed a 
113-ft. concrete bridge over the Whitewater River near Douglas, Ariz. The 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 1073 

structure was of the through girder type, and consisted of two spans 37 ft. 6 in. 
each and one span 38 ft. It replaced a 90-ft. frame bridge. Very complete 
cost data on the work are given in the recently issued annual report of Lamar 
Cobb, State Engineer, from which the matter that follows is given in Engineer- 
ing and Contracting, Dec. 27, 1916. 

The bridge was constructed by day labor under the direction of J. C. Ryan, 
Division Engineer of the State Highway Department. Laborers were paid $3 
per 8-hour day and carpenters $4 per day. Teams and drivers were hired 
for $5 per day. 

Gravel was secured from the Fairbanks beds. A few cars of screened sand . 
were bought, but most of it was run-of-bank gravel and was screened on the 
ground. This gravel shows a very low voidage content. 

Although this gravel was expensive, the superior results secured from it on 
account of its low voidage content, and general good qualities for mixing, 
compensate for the increased cost. The gravel cost $1 per ton f . o. b. Douglas, 
or $1.39 per yard. The average cost of unloading and hauling to site was 
54 ^^c per yard. The cost of the sand was the same. The sand shows a 
decided break in graduations from fine to coarse, and the coarse grains are 
sharp and angular. 

Cement used was the "El Toro" brand, shipped from El Paso in carload 
lots. Water was secured from the pipe line of the local water company, 
distant about 600 ft. from the site. 

The bridge was designed by the State Engineer's office, which also prepared 
the plans for the falsework and forms, and ordered all lumber and steel and 
cement prior to beginning construction. The amount of lumber ordered 
proved inadequate and extensive purchases were made in the local 
market. 

Subaqueous Foundations. — The subaqueous foundations required 236.5 cu. 
yd. of excavation and 223.7 cu. yd. of concrete. The detailed cost of this 
work was as follows: 



Excavation 

Total 

$ 200 

649 


Per cu. yd. 

excavation 

(236.5 cu. yd.) 

$0.85 

2.74 

.21 

.10 

.65 

.30 


Per cu. yd. 

concrete 

(223.7 cu. yd.) 

$0.90 

2 91 


51 
24 


.23 
.11 


153 


.68 


71 


.32 






1, 148 


$4.85 

$0,118 
.85 
.121 
.200 
.605 


$5 15 


.... $ 28 
200 


$0,125 
.90 


29 


.129 


48 


214 


148 


.660 






$ 453 


$1,914 
.077 


^2 . 028 


18 


083 







Foreman 

Laborers 

Drivers 

Teams 

Miscellaneous . 
Tools 



Pumping — 

Foreman 

Laborers 

Fuel 

Miscellaneous 

Tools 

Total 

Less chargeable to concreting. 

Net total $ 434 $1,837 $1,945 

68 



1074 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Shoring 
Sheet piles driven, 340; average length, 10 ft. Cost per lin. ft., 3,380 lin. ft. 
at 20H cts. Board feet driven, 8.88 M. ft. at $78.60. Cost per lin. ft. labor 
only, 14.6 cts. 



Total 

Foreman $45 

Carpenters 8 

Laborers 182 

Lumber 255 

Nails 4 

Miscellaneous 114 

Tools 63 

Teams and drivers 29 

Total $698 





Per cu. yd. 


Per cu. yd. 


Per M ft., 


excavation 


concrete 


B. M. 


(236.5 cu. yd.) 


(223.7 cu. yd.) 


$ 5.05 


$0.19 


.$0.20 


.87 


.033 


.035 


20.35 


.773 


.820 


28.80 


1.085 


1.146 


.42 


.002 


.003 


12.80 


.480 


.507 


7.07 


.265 


.281 


3.24 


.122 


.128 



$78.60 



$2.95 



$3.12 



Piling 
Excavation, 69.9 cu. yd. at $1.45. Concrete, 7.10 cu. yd. at $1.41. Number 
piles driven, 17; length, 8 ft.; cost per lin. ft.; $0.7362. Penetration, 5 ft.; 
cost per ft. penetration, $1,145. Board feet driven, 0.896 M. B. ft. Cost per 
M. B. ft., $111.50. Lumber per lin. ft., $0.2275. Lumber per M. B. ft., $34.40. 
Cost driving only, per lin. ft., $0.5075. Cost driving only, per M. B. ft., $77.00. 

Per cu. yd. 
concrete 
Total (223.7 cu. yd.) 

Foreman $ 4.00 .$0,017 

Laborers 29 . 00 .129 

Teams 8.00 .034 

Drivers 8 . 00 .034 

Tools. 17.00 .074 

Miscellaneous 5 . 00 .022 

Total labor. . $ 69. 16 $0,310 

Lumber 30 . 85 .138 

Total $100.01 $0,448 



Concreting Materials to Mixer 
Yardage, loose material, not including slag: 143 cu. yd. 

Cost per 
yd. of loose 
Total material 

Foreman $8 . 63 

Miscellaneous 3. 68 $12. 00 

Laborers 65. 00 

Tools 3.00 

Total $80.00 



Concreting Mixing — Operation 



Total 

Foreman $ 6 . 00 

Laborers 45 . 00 

Miscellaneous T . . . . 158 . 00 

Repairs. . .-. 57 . 00 

Tools 33 . 00 

Fuel, 22 gal. at 17 cts 4 . 00 

Water, 20,715 gal. at $1.42 per M. gal 29 . 00 

Total $332.00 



.086 


.$0,055 


.449 


.289 


.018 


.012 


.553 


$0,356 


Per 


cu. j'd. 


concrete 


(223. 


7 cu. yd.) 


$0,024 




.202 




.708 




.253 




.147 




.017 




.132 



$1,483 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 1075 

Concreting Mixing — -Materials 

Number sacks cement per yard concrete, 3.43 sacks; net cost per sack cement, 
$0.75; cu. yd. sand per yard concrete, $0,412 cu. yd.; cu. yd. sand per yard con- 
crete, $0,412 cu. yd.; cost per yard of sand, $2,135; cu. yd. slag per yard concrete, 
$0,613 cu. yd.; cost per yard of slag, $1,105; cu. yd. gravel per yard concrete, 
$0,232 cu. yd.; cost per yard of gravel, $2,100; per cent of slag to total concrete, 
61.25 per cent; average gallons water per yard concrete, 90}^ gal.; cement, 
$648.76—767 sacks; less sacks returned, $72.05. 

Per cu. yd. 
concrete 
Total (223.7 cu. yd.) 

Net cost of cement $ 577 . 00 $2 . 58 

Sand, 91.9 cu. yd. at $2.135 196.00 .878 

Slag, 136.9 cu. yd. at $1.105 151.00 .676 

Gravel, 52.0 cu. yd. at $2.10 109.00 :488 

Total $1 ,033.00 $4,622 



Concreting Forms 

Foreman $9 . 37 

Miscellaneous 4. 58 $ 14 . 00 $0. 062 

Laborers 86.00 .385 

Tools 9 . 00 .039 

Total '. $109.00 $0,486 



Concreting — Placing 

Foreman $3.61 

Miscellaneous 1 . 46 $ 5 . 00 $0 . 023 

Laborers 26.00 .119 

Tools 4 . 00 .019 

Total . $ 35.00 $0,161 

Add cost of pumping. 18 . 00 . 081 

Grand total placing $ 54 . 00 $0. 242 



Summary 

Total subaqueous excavation, $2,280.90 — cost per yard excavation, $9,637 
per cu. yd.; concrete, $10,215; total subaqueous concrete, $1,607.53 — cost per 
yard concrete, $7,183; total subaqueous piling, $100.01 — cost per M. ft., $111.50; 
lin. ft., $0.77; yard concrete, $0,448; grand total subaqueous foundations, 
$3,988 — cost per yard concrete, $17,846. 

Subaqueous Foundations: Comparisons of Cost — Excavation 
The following figures are for costs per yard excavation: 

East West 

abut- abut- Pier Pier 

ment ment No. 1 No. 2 

Excavation $1 . 65 $ 8 . 00 $4.71 $2 . 90 

Pumping 76 3. 03 1 . 46 1. 54 

Shoring 3.67 2.89 2.93 2.68 

Piling 1 . 45 



Total $5.98 $15.37 $9.10 $7.12 



1076 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Subaqueous Foundations: Comparisons of Costs — Concrete 

The following figures are for costs per yard concrete: 

East West 

abut- abut- Pier Pier 

ment ment No. 1 No. 2 

Excavation $1,375 $7.75 $5.50 $3.48 

Pumping 63 2.90 1.77 1.845 

Shoring 2.965 2.77 3.49 3.205 

Piling 1.41 



Total excavation $4.97 $14.83 $10.76 $8.53 

To mixer 324 .339 .42 .31 

Mixing operations 1.855 1.346 1.475 1.42 

Mixing materials 5.05 4.36 4.56 4.81 

To forms 143 .329 .86 .42 

Placing 138 .478 .055 .24 



Total concreting $7.52 $6,852 $7.37 $7.20 



Grand total $12.48 $21,682 $18.13 $15.73 

Superaqueous Foundations. — The original design, which called for rein- 
forced concrete walls and columns resting on 24-in. footings at the bottom of 
the subaqueous excavation, was not followed in the construction. The 
successful placing of the reinforcing and concrete as in the original design 
would have required a water-tight sheet-piling, and a concrete seal at the 
bottom, and a type of sheeting that would stand without bracing. Sheet-steel 
piling would have served this purpose, but was not obtainable, so the original 
design was abandoned. Instead, that part of the foundations that were 
below water level were cast in mass-concrete, and that part of the foundations 
that were above the water level were put in according to the plans. This 
required that the reinforcing steel be cut to new lengths. The East abutment 
did not extend to sufficient depth to establish a firm foundation, and an extra 
subfooting was put under it, although the plans did not call for that depth. 
The only difficulty experienced in pouring this part of the foundation was that 
the forms for the columns were not strong enough to stand the weight of the 
concrete, and they bulged in spite of all that could be done to tie and brace 
them in place. The columns were on a skew, and the concentration of pres- 
sure on the sharp angles overcame the pressure on the flat angles, so that the 
columns deformed along the sharp angles. One column skewed so badly it 
was torn down and replaced, while all of them showed more or less deformation 
on the sharp angles. It is thought that if a heavy piece of timber had been 
placed along the sharp angles, and tied in securely, the trouble might have 
been prevented, but no provision had been made for such timber in the plans 
of the forms. The parapet placed on the abutments as a continuation of the 
curb on the girders did not allow sufficient play to take care of the expansion 
and cracks have developed in the parapet, especially on the east end. 

The superaqueous foundations required 810 cu. yd. of excavation and the 
placing of 87 cu. yd. of concrete. 

The yardage as to excavation, represents the dry excavation for the abut- 
ments. The excavation on the west end was through clay, while on the east 
end it was through hard gravel, requiring blasting to loosen it. Both excava- 
tions, after loosening, were taken out with scrapers. The yardage as to 
concrete is for the two abutments only. 



Per cu. yd. 


Per cu. yd. 


excavation 


concrete 


$0,066 


$0,613 


.295 


2.740 


.114 


1.059 


.114 


1.059 


.017 


.161 


.077 


.715 . 


.045 


.426 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 1077 



Total 

Foreman $ 53 . 00 

Laborers 239.00 

Drivers 92 . 00 

Teams 92.00 

Explosive 14. 00 

Miscellaneous 62 . 00 

Tools 37.00 

Total $589.00 $0.7280 $6,773 

Forms — Framing and Erecting 

Yardage, concrete, 120 cu. yd., based on total concrete in superaqueous 
foundations; board ft. framed, 4,720 M. B. ft. at $81; square feet covered, 2,488 
sq. ft. at $0.1535; board feet actually used, 2,360 M. B. ft., $162; cost of lumber 
actually used, 2,360 M. B. ft. at $28.40; ratio feet framed to feet used, 2:1 ; labor 
cost only, per sq. ft., $0.03; per M. B. ft., $78.90, framed. 

Per cu. yd. 
Total concrete 

Foreman $ 20.00 $0.1709 

Carpenters 91 . 00 . 7625 

Laborers 88.00 .7310 

Miscellaneous 104 . 00 . 8640 

Tools 3. 00 .0228 

Total labor $306.00 $2.5512 

Lumber 67.00 .5580 

Nails 9.00 .0760 

Total materials $ 76. 00 $0. 6340 

Total labor and materials $382. 00 $3. 1852 

Forms — Stripping 

Cost per M. B. ft., framed, $14.00; cost per square foot, $0.0265 

Foreman $ 11.00 $0.0887 

Carpenters 4 . 00 . 0334 

Laborers. . . . : 48.00 . 3965 

Miscellaneous 3 . 00 . 0267 

Tools 1 . 00 . 0081 

Total $66.00 $0.5534 

Total Forms: Framing and Erecting and Stripping 

Total cost, $449; cost per cu. yd. concrete, $3.7386; cost per M. B. ft., $95; 
cost per square foot, $0.18; cost for labor only, per M. B. ft., $78.80 framed; cost 
for lumber only, per M. B. ft., $16.20 framed, net cost; per sq. foot, $0,035 (net 
cost of lumber); actual B. ft. lumber used, 2.360 M. B. ft.; first cost of lumber 
used, $93.05 per M. B. ft., $39.40; less credits for scrap recovered, $26 per M. B. 
ft., $11; net cost of lumber, $67.05 per M. B. ft., $28.40; ratio first cost to credits, 
1:0.279. 

Concreting: To Mixer 

Yardage, concrete, 120.0 cu. yd. at $0.5689; loose materials, 130.4 cu. yd. at 
$0.5225. 

Per cu. yd. 
Total concrete 

Foreman . : $7.47 

Miscellaneous 3.22 $ 11.00 $0.0892 

Laborers 55. 00 . 4580 

Tools 3.00 .0217 



Total , $ 69.00 $0.5689 



1078 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Concreting: Mixing — Operation 

Total 

Foreman $ 4 . 00 $0 . 0295 

Laborers 24 . 00 . 1990 

Miscellaneous 108.00 .8980 

Repairs. 38 . 00 . 3125 

Tools 20. 00 . 1656 

Fuel, 143-^ gal. at $0.169 2.00 .0205 

Water, 13,435 gal. at $1,308 M 17 . 00 . 1463 

Total $210.00 $1.7714 

Concreting — Mixing Materials 

Number sacks cement per yard concrete, 4 sacks; net cost per sack cement, 
$0.74; cu. yd. sand per yard concrete — 0.37 cu. yd.; cost of sand per yard sand, 
$2.18; cu. yd. gravel per yard concrete, 0.72 cu. yd. cost of gravel per yard gravel, 
$2,145; average gal. water per yard concrete, 120 gal.; cement, 478 sacks at 
$0,833, $398.67; less credit for sacks returned, $44.95. 

Per cu. yd. 
Total concrete 

Net cost of cement at $0.74 $354 .00 $2 . 945 

Sand, 44.3 cu. yd. at $2.18 97.00 .806 

Gravel, 86.1 cu. yd. at $2.145 184.00 1.535 

Total $635.00 $5,286 

Concreting Forms 

Foreman $7 . 98 

Miscellaneous 3.02 $11.00 $0.0916 

Laborers 39.00 .3220 

Tools 4 . 00 . 0346 

Total $54.00 $0.4482 

Concreting — Placing 

Foreman $3 . 22 

Miscellaneous 1.29 $ 5.00 $0.0375 

Laborers $ 25 . 00 . 2055 

Tools • 0015 

Total. $ 30.00 $0.2445 

Reinforcing — Bending 

Yardage, concrete, 120.0 cu. yd.; pounds steel bent, 13,141 lb. 

Per cu. yd. Per lb. 
$0.0427 $0.00039 
.2330 .00212 

. 0405 . 00037 



Foreman $ 5.00 

Laborers 28 . 00 

Tools 5.00 

Totals $38 . 00 

Reinforcing — Placing 

Foreman $ 33 . 00 

Laborers 43.00 

Tools 1.00 

Miscellaneous 24 . 00 

Total labor. $101.00 

Steel ••• 297.00 

Total $398.00 

Add cost of bending 38 . 00 

Total cost of reinforcement $436.00 



$0.3162 



$0,278 
.358 
.001 
.209 

$0,846 
2.475 

$3,321 
.3162 

$3.6372 



$0.00288 



$0.00254 
.00327 
. 00006 
.00185 

$0 . 00772 
. 02260 

$0.03032 
.00288 

$0.03320 



j 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 1079 

StTMMABY 

Per yard 
concrete . 

Total excavation $ 5S9:44 $ 4.92 

Total forms 448.86 3.74 

Total concreting 996.09 8.32 

Total reinforcing 436. 19 3. 63 

Grand total $2,470.58 $20.61 

Recapitulation — Substructure 

Pctg. of total 

cost of Cost per 
Account Cost bridge Cu. yd. yard 

Subaqueous foundations $3 , 988 . 44 33 . 25 223 . 7 $17 . 85 

Superaqueous foundations 2 , 470 . 58 20 . 55 120 . 20 . 61 

Total substructure $6 , 459 . 02 53 . 80 343 . 7 $18 . 80 

Cost per yard subaqueous concrete, $17.85; cost per yard superaqueous 
concrete, neglecting reinforcements, $16.98. Average mix used in subaqueous 
concrete: 1 part cement, 3.2 parts sand, 4.8 parts gravel, 1.8 slag. Average 
mix used in superaqueous concrete; 1 part cement, 2 parts sand, 4 parts gravel. 

SUPERSTRUCTURE 

Falsework. — The original plans for falsework did not allow of any adjust- 
ment between the posts and caps, and it was necessary to make hard- wood 
wedges, and purchase additional timbers to serve as bottom caps. Twenty 
piles were also driven over the channel of the creek. 

Girder Forms. — The failure of the girder forms to stand up under the strain 
of the pouring of the concrete caused the resulting girder to have a decidedly 
wavy appearance. The cause of this lay in the fact that the inside forms 
had no direct support, but relied on the outside forms to prevent any motion 
of the inside forms without a corresponding movement of the outside forms, 
but did not prevent both forms from moving laterally together. Not suffi- 
cient lumber was provided to prevent such lateral movement and when the 
concrete was poured, and the short legs under the inside forms were of necessity 
removed, the whole girder warped as a result of the unsupported weight on the 
inside. On the second and third spans, the brackets were left off the cross- 
pieces since they served no useful purpose. On these spans, the inside forms 
dropped, as on the first, but without pulling the outside forms so badly out of 
place. If it had been possible to pour the floor first, and then set the girder 
forms on the floor, this trouble might have been prevented, but the nature of 
the reinforcement did not allow casting the floor and curb-line separately from 
the girders, and that method was impracticable. If sufficient timbers had 
been provided to allow hanging both the girder forms from cross-timbers 
supported on posts resting on the falsework, it would again have been possible 
to avoid the trouble, but such timbers were not available. 

An effort was niade to put the forms up in sections, in order to save expense, 
but this plan failed because of the recessed corners at the top and bottom of 
the inside panels where the panels joined the coping and the curb. The 
forms caught in these recesses and prevented swinging the forms away after 
pouring. Because of this, each inside post had to be torn down before the 
panels could be moved. The same applies to the outside posts, but in a lesser 
degree, since the outside posts were of one piece, while the inside posts were in 
three pieces. 



1080 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Concreting, — The first span was poured by dumping the buggies into a chute 
and shoveUng from the chute to the forms, in an effort to save the forms from 
vibration as much as possible. Since this did not seem to have any effect, the 
rest of the bridge was poured by constructing a trestle work level withHhe 
tops of the forms and dumping directly into the forms. 

Reinforcing. — The reinforcing presented some difficulty on account of its 
complexity, which ran up the cost of placing. The bars were spaced by small 
concrete bricks, and every effort was made to conform to the cross-section 
shown on the plans. In bending, the only trouble encountered was in the 
stirrups. The Bates Tyer used worked in a satisfactory manner, but the ties 
furnished were too light for the heavy steel, and broke easily under strain. 

Forms — Framing and Erecting 

Yardage concrete, 171 cu. yd.; board feet framed, 10.221 M. B. ft.; actual 
board feet used, 7.679 M. B. ft., $27.65; square feet covered, 5,330 sq. ft.; total 
cost per M. B. ft. actually used, $110; labor cost only per M. B. ft. actually used, 
$80; ratio feet framed to feet used, 1.34:1. 

Per cu. yd. Per M. B. Per 

Total concrete ft. framed sq. ft. 

Foreman $65.00 $0,382 $6.47 $0.0123 

Carpenters 184.00 1.078 18.00 .0346 

Laborers 281.00 1.645 27.50 .0528 

Miscellaneous 74.00 .432 7.30 .0139 

Tools 9.00 .049 .84 .0016 

Total labor $614.00 $3,587 $60.11 $0.1152 

Lumber 212.00 1.250 20.75 .0399 

Nails 20.00 .110 1.92 .0037 

Totalforms $845.56 $4,947 $82.78 $0.1588 

Forms — Stripping 

Cost of stripping per M. B. ft. framed, $10.51 ; cost of stripping per square foot, 
$0.02014. 

Foreman $ 14.00 $0.0805 $ 1.345 $0.00258 

Carpenters 7.00 .0408 .685 .00131 

Laborers 79.00 .4610 7.725 .01480 

Miscellaneous 4 . 00 . 0239 . 400 . 00077 

Tools 3 . 40 .0212 .355 . 00068 

Total $107.00 $0.6274 $10,510 $0.02014 

Total Forms — Framing, Erecting and Stripping 

Total cost, $952.99; cost per cu. yd. concrete, $5.5744; cost per M. B. ft. 
framed, $93.29; cost per square foot covered, $0.17894; cost of labor only, per 
M. B. ft. framed, $70.50; materials per square foot, $0.1350; cost of materials 
only, per M. B. ft. framed, $22.79; per square foot, $0.04394; first cost of lumber 
used, $300.10; per M. B. ft., $39.05; less credits for scrap recovered, $88; per 
M. B. ft., $11.40; net cost of lumber, $212.10 per M. B. ft., $27.65; ratio first cost 
to credits, 1 :0.292. 

The above costs are for the costs of framing both the girder, forms and the 
floor. Complete figures as to cost of the floor were not kept, but an estimate, 
based on the labor distribution for the first span shows the following costs per 
square foot: 

Floor, 2,500 sq. ft. at $0.07 $175.00 

Girders, 2,830 sq. ft. at $0.2330 671 . 00 

From which; 

Cost of laying floor, per sq. ft « $ 0.0700 

Cost of forms for plain surfaces . 1535 

Cost of forms for paneled surfaces . 2330 

These figures are for framing and erecting only, and do not include cost of 
stripping. 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 



1081 



I 



Falsework: Framing and Erecting: Bents 

Yardage, concrete, 171 cu. yd.; board feet framed, 12.919 M. B. ft.; board feet 
actually used, 8.902 M. B. ft. 

Per cu. yd. Per M. B. 

Total concrete ft. framed 

Foreman $ 13 . 00 $0 . 0760 $ 1 . 0075 

Carpenters 37.00 .2160 2.8650 

Laborers 74.00 .4320 5.7300 

Miscellaneous 17 . 00 . 0977 1 , 2800 

Tools 2.00 .0108 .1348 

Total labor $142.00 $0.8325 $11.0173 

- Lumber 260.00 1,5150 20.10 

Nails 19.00 .1150 1.46 

Total bents, F. and E $421.00 $2.4625 $32.5773 

Falsework: Bents: Stripping 
Cost of stripping per M. B. ft. framed, $4.2470; cost of stripping per cubic 
yard, $0.3207. 

Per cu. yd. Per M. B. 

Total concrete ft. framed 

Foreman 8 . 00 $0 . 0480 $ . 6350 

Carpenters 8 . 00 . 0467 . 6200 

Laborers... 37.00 .2145 2.8400 

Tools .0028 .0360 

Miscellaneous 2.00 .0087 . 1160 

Total $ 55.00 $0.3207 $ 4.2470 

Falsework: Piles: Driving 
Board feet driven, 1 ,280 B. f t. ; linear feet driven, 320 lin. ft. 

Per cu. yd. Per 

Total concrete M. B. ft. Per lin. ft. 

Foreman $ 9.00 $0.0543 $ 7.28 $0.0290 

Carpenters 9.00 .0555 7.43 .0297 

Laborers 56.00 .3300 44.10 .1765 

Miscellaneous 12.00 .0690 9.25 .0370 

Tools 36 . 00 . 2125 28 . 40 . 1135 

Teams 9 . 00 .0512 6 . 84 . 0274 

Drivers 9.00 .0512 6.84 .0274 

Total labor.. $141.00 $0.8237 $110.14 $0.4405 

Lumber 44.00 .2580 34.45 .1380 

Nails (drift pins) 5.00 .0295 3.95 .0155 

Total piling $190.15 $1.1112 $148.54 $0.5940 

Total Falsework, Framing and Erecting, Stripping and Piling — 
Total cost, $665.66; cost per cu. yd. concrete, $3.8944; cost per M. B, ft. framed 
and driven, $57.88; board feet framed and driven, per M. B. ft., 11.5; cost of 
labor only, per M. B. ft., $29.40; per yard, $1.98; cost of materials only, per 
M. B. ft., $28.48; per yard, $1.9144; first cost of lumber used, $394.99; per M. B. 
ft., $38.99; less credits for scrap recovered, $91.27; per M. B. ft., $8,975; net cost 
of lumber, $303.72; per M. B. ft., $29,925; number of piles driven, 20; length, 16 
ft.; size, 8X8. 

Reinforcing: Bending 

Yardage, concrete, 171.0 cu. yd.; pounds steel bent, 30,947 lb. 

Per cu. yd. 

Total concrete Per lb. 

Foreman $ 21 . 00 $0. 1235 $0. 00068 

Laborers 152 . 00 . 8900 . 00492 

Tools 26 . 00 . 1 530 . 00085 

Miscellaneous 11-00 .0642 .00035 

Total $211.00 $1.2307 $0.00680 



1082 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Reinforcing: Placing 
Yardage, concrete, 171.0 cu. yd.; pounds steel placed, 30,947 lb. 

Per cu. yd. 

Total concrete Per lb. 

Foreman $ 27.00 $0. 1595 $0.00089 

Laborers $ 195.00 1.1385 .00630 

Tools 19.00 .1085 .00060 

Miscellaneous 79.00 .4630 .00256 

Total labor $ 320.00 $1.8695 $0.01035 

Steel 875.00 5.1105 .02825 

Total placing . $1,195.00 $6,9800 $0.03860 

Add cost of bending 211.00 1.2307 .00680 

Total cost of reinforcement $1,404.00 $8.2107 $0.04540 

Concreting: to Mixer 
Yardage, concrete, 171.0 cu. yd.; loose materials, 235.5 cu. yd. at $0.6280. 

Per cu. yd. 

Total concrete 

Foreman $ 23.00 $0.1345 

Laborers 117 . 00 . 6820 

Tools 63 . 00 . 3690 

Total $203 . 00 $0 . 8675 

Concreting: Mixing Operation 

Foreman $ 6 . 00 $0 . 0363 

Laborers 45 . 00 . 2665 

Water, 22,900 gal. at $1.41 per M 32. 00 . 1900 

Fuel, 6 gal. oil at $0.80 5.00 .0281 

80 gal. gas at $0.188 15. 00 .0879 

Repairs 62 . 00 . 3640 

Miscellaneous 97 . 00 . 5670 

Tools 63 . 00 . 3690 

Total $326. 00 $1 . 9088 

Concreting: Mixing Materials 

Yardage, concrete, 171.0 cu. yd.; number sacks cement to one yard concrete, 
5.14 sacks. 

The number of sacks to one yard of concrete is more than usual. This is due 
to the fact that the floor on the first span was resurfaced, being improperly placed 
first running. 

Net cost per sack cement $0 . 7775 

Number sacks used 880 

Cu. yd. sand per yard concrete 0.4825 

Cost of sand per yard sand $2,415 

Cu. yd. gravel per yard concrete . 8950 

Cost of gravel per yard gravel $2,410 

Average gal. water per yard concrete 134 

Cement, 880 sacks at $0.8750 $769.83 

Less credit for sacks returned ' 85.29 

Per cu. yd. 

Total concrete 

Net cost of cement at $0.7775 $ 685.00 $4.00 

Sand, 82.5 cu. yd. at $2.415 199.00 1.165 

Gravel, 153 cu. yd. at $2.41 369 . 00 2 . 160 

Total $1 , 253 . 00 $7 . 325 

Concreting: to Forms 

Foreman $18.00 $0.1081 

Laborers 90.00 .5275 

Tools 14 . 00 . 0808 

Total $122.00 $0.7164 

Average length of haul, 60 ft. Cost per foot per yard, $0.01194. 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 1083 

Concbeting: Placing 

Foreman $ 18.00 $0. 1047 

Laborers 90. 00 . 5230 

Tools 2 .00 . 0182 

Total $110.00 $0.6459 

Concreting — Miscellaneous 

Per cu. yd. 
Total concrete 

Finishing: Cost of labor only $ 68. 17 $0. 3990 

The surface was never completely finished with carborundum brick, as was 
originally intended, hence costs per square foot of area is not available. 

Per cu. yd. 

Total concrete 

Expansion joints — Labor only $ 10. 00 $ .0615 

Plates and rockers 65 . 00 . 3820 

Asphaltum, 40 gal. at 50 cts 20.00 . 1170 

Tar paper, four rolls 9. 00 . 0526 

Proportion miscellaneous and office 4.00 .0283 



$110.0 $0.6414 

Recapitulation: Superstructure 

Per cu. yd. 

Total concrete 

Forms $ 953.00 $5.5744 

Falsework 666.00 3.8944 

Reinforcement ; 1,405.00 8.2107 

Concreting 2,137.00 12.5040 

Total. $5,161.00 $30.1835 

Costs of the McKinley Ford Bridge, La Salle County, Illinois. — The follow- 
ing data are from a detailed account of the construction of this bridge pub- 
lished in Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 24, 1915. 

The McKinley Ford Bridge is located in Sarena township. La Salle county, 
Illinois. It consists of two 50-ft. reinforced concrete through girder spans 
on a concrete pier and abutments. The clear width of roadway is 16 ft., 
and the height of the pier and abutments, from bottom of footing to bridge 
seat, is 16 ft. 11 ins. The bridge was designed under the " General Specifica- 
tions for Bridge Work" of the Illinois State Highway Department. It 
is a standard type, and was built during the latter part of 1913, at an actual 
cost of $3,893. 

Pier. — The center pier has a thickness of 3 ft. and a width of 23 ft. I in., 
under coping; a thickness of 4 ft. 2 ins. ; and a width of 24 ft. 3 ins. at the base; 
and a height, from bridge seat to bottom of footing of 16 ft. 11 ins. The cop- 
ing has a width of 3 ft. 8 ins., a length of 23 ft. 9 ins , and a thickness of 15 ins. 
The footing has a width of 8 ft., a length of 25 ft., and a thickness of 2 ft., and 
it is reinforced with a layer of ^^-in. square bars, spaced 12 ins. on centers. 
At the top, near each end of the pier, there is a recess 20 X 25 ins. X 15 ins. 
deep for the cast iron rockers. A concrete mixture consisting of 1 part cement, 
3 parts sand, and 5 parts gravel was used. The pier extends 4 ft. 6 ins. below 
the bed of the stream. 

Abutments. — The concrete abutments, which have a height, from bridge 
seat to bottom of footings, of 16 ft. 11 ins., are reinforced and are of the wing- 
wall type, the wing-walls being of the cantilever type. The abutments 
have a thickness of 12 ins., with vertical faces, this thickness being increased 



1084 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

to 18 ins. under the girders. The footings have a width of 4 ft. 6 ins., a thick- 
ness of 20 ins., and extend to the same depth as the pier. 

The wing-walls have a top thickness of 12 ins., and a bottom thickness of 
18 ins. Their footings have a width of 6 ft. 3 ins. and a thickness of 20 ins. 
A concrete mixture consisting of 1 part cement, 23^ parts sand, and 4 parts 
gravel was used for the abutments and wing-walls. 

Girders. — The girders have a depth of 5 ft. 6 ins., a thickness of top flange of 
26 ins., and of web of 23 ins., and are paneled as shown in Fig. 1. They are 
spaced 18 ft. 2 ins. on centers. All exposed edges of the girders are beveled 
with a ^-in. triangular molding, and all edges of panels have a 45° bevel. 
The girders are heavily reinforced, the main reinforcing bars being arranged in 
four rows, spaced 5 ins. on centers. The concrete mixture for the girders and 
floor system consists of 1 part cement, 2}4 parts sand, and 4 parts gravel. 
Floor System. — The bottom of the reinforced concrete floor slab is flush 
with the bottoms of the girders, while the top is crowned to conform with the 
finished roadway. The thickness of the floor slab at the crown is 13 ins., and 
at the curb 10 ins. Drainage of the roadway is secured by placing 3-in. tile 
drains through the slab and near the curb on 8-ft. centers. The wearing surface 
(which is not included in this contract) consists of a 6-in. layer of macadam. 
Cast Iron Rockers. — Cast iron rockers are used under the ehds of the girders 
which rest on the center pier; they are not used under the abutment ends of the 
girders. These segmental rockers have a thickness of 3H ins., a depth of 14 
Ins., and a length of 2 ft., the top and bottom surfaces of which are turned to a 
diameter of 7 ins. 

Steel bearing plates, 9 ins. wide, 1 in. thick and 2 ft. long, are placed at both 
the top and bottom of the rockers. 

Expansion Joint. — ^A 3<4-in. tar paper expansion joint is provided between 
the two girder spans. Tar paper is also placed on the top of the piers between 
the rockers and the edges of the piers. The space around the rockers is filled 
with asphalt. 

Summary of Materials Required 
Reinforcing steel: Lbs. 

In pier 160 

In abutments 6 , 360 

In superstructure 36 , 080 

Total 42,600 

8 steel bearing plates 490 

4 cast iron rockers 1 , 190 

Concrete: Cu. 

yds. 

Class B, in pier 60 . 4 

Class A, in abutments 103. 8 

Class A, in superstructure 140.4 

Total Class B 60.4 

Total Class A. .... 244.2 

Total concrete in bridge 304 . 6 

As actually constructed there were used in the construction of this bridge 
308.3 cu. yds. of concrete, the extra 3.7 cu. yds. being placed in the substruc- 
ture. Square twisted bars were used for reinforcement. 

Construction Features. — Construction work was started Sept. 13, 1913, and 
the bridge was completed Nov. 28, 1913. The bridge is located about four 
miles from the railroad station, and the materials, with the exception of the 
sand and gravel, were hauled that distance. The sand was removed from the 
creek and was transported in wheelbarrows a distance of 150 ft. The gravel 
was also obtained near the site, being hauled about 400 ft. About 125 cu. yds. 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 1085 

of the total of 187.4 cu. yds. of gravel required were screened. The prices of 
the materials are given under "Cost Data." 

The pier was located in the bed of the stream, and the abutments, one on 
each bank. About 500 ft. B. M. of sheet piling were required for the coffer- 
dam of the center pier. Of the 240 cu. yds. of excavation required, about 108 
cu yds. were classified as dry excavation and 132 cu. yds. as wet excavation. 
Foremen were paid 65 cts. per hour and workmen 25 cts. per hour. The rate 
of pay for teams was 45 cts. per hour. 

Cost Data. — The data in Table XXVI give the quantities of materials used, 
the unit prices, the cost of each item, and the total actual cost of the bridge to 
the contractor. 

Table XXVI. — Quantities of Matekials, Unit Prices and Total Costs 

Cement, 416 bbls. at $1.25 $ 520. 00 

Hauling cement 4 miles 65 . 84 

Sand, in place, 117.2 cu. yds. at 30 cts 35. 16 

Hauling sand 150 ft. in wheelbarrows from creek 98. 40 

Gravel, in place, 187.4 cu. yds. at 30 cts 56. 22 

Screening 125 cu. yds. of gravel 78. 20 

Hauling gravel 400 ft 187 . 18 

Form lumber, 6,000 ft. B. M. at $22.67 136. 00 

Falsework lumber, 3,000 ft. B. M. at $15 45.00 

Wire, nails, etc., 240 lbs. at 5 cts 12. 00 

Hauling form lumber 4 miles 15. 00 

Hauling falsework lumber 4 miles 7 . 00 

Reinforcing steel, 42,600 lbs 816. 80 

Hauling steel 4 miles 32 . 00 

Rockers and plates, 1,680 lbs. at 2 cts 33. 60 

Asphalt, 50 gals, at 15 cts 7 . 50 

Hauling rockers and asphalt at $4.50 per day 3. 50 

Sheet piling, 500 ft. B. M. at $20 10.00 

Cost of driving sheet piling 8. 00 

Cost of removing sheet piling 5 . 00 

Labor on 108 cu. yds. dry excavation: 

Foreman, 40 hrs. at 65 cts $ 26.-00 

Laborers, 344 hrs. at 25 cts 86.00 112.00 

Labor on 132 cu. yds. wet excavation: 

Foreman, 130 hrs. at 65 cts ! . $ 84. 50 

Laborers, 1 ,272 hrs. at 25 cts 318 . 00 402 . 50 

Cost of pumping during excavation: 

Foreman, 9 hrs. at 65 cts $ 5.85 

Laborers, 104 hrs. at 25 cts 26.00 31 . 85 

Cost of pumping during concreting: 

Foreman, 4 hrs. at 65 cts $ 2. 60 

Laborers, 34 hrs. at 25 cts 8.50 11. 10 

Labor, building forms: 

Foreman, 115 hrs. at 65 cts $ 74.75 

Laborers, 1,146 hrs. at 25 cts 286. 50 361 .25 

Labor, building falsework: 

Foreman, 35 hrs. at 65 cts $ 22.75 

Laborers, 350.5 hrs. at 25 cts 87.63 110.38 

Labor, bending and placing steel: 

Foreman, 36 hrs. at 65 cts $ 23. 40 

Laborers, 361 hrs. at 25 cts . 90.25 113.65 

Labor, mixing and placing concrete: 

Foreman, 115 hrs. at 65 cts. $ 74.75 

Laborers, 1,142 hrs. at 25 cts 285. 50 360. 25 

Labor, removing forms: 

Foreman, 20 hrs. at 65 cts $ 13.00 

Laborers, 231 hrs. at 25 cts 57.75 70.75 

Traveling expenses of men from Chicago and back.. . . 100.00 

Gasoline, oil and incidentals 97.00 

Total ' $3,943.13 

Salvage on lumber and falsework 50. 00 

Total net cost to contractor $3 , 893 .13 



1086 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Table XXVII^ives the unit costs of the various items of the bridge. There 
were 308.3 cu. yds. of concrete and 42,600 lbs. of steel placed. There were 
used on this work 416 bbls. of cement, 117.2 cu. yds. of sand, and 187.4 cu. 
yds. of gravel. The costs given do not include the cost of removing the old 
bridge. 

The cost of the excavation per cubic yard of substructure concrete was 
$5,435, and the cost of the falsework per cubic yard of superstructure concrete 
was $1,278. 

Table XXVII. — Unit Costs of Various Items 

Cost per 

cu. yd. of 

Item concrete 

Cement $ 1.971 

Sand 0.448 

Gravel 1 . 125 

Labor on forms 1 . 525 

Form materials 0,315 

Labor on falsework . 421 

Falsework materials 0.161 

Steel, in place 3 . 241 

Mixing and placing concrete 1 . 379 

Excavation 1 . 897 

Miscellaneous, not included in above 0. 145 

Total $12,628 

Cost of Concrete Viaduct at Fort Worth, Texas. — The viaduct which carries 
an extension of North Samuels Ave. across the Trinity River in Fort Worth, 
Texas consists of nine spans of 50 ft. 

The following data are given in a description of the methods and costs of 
constructing this viaduct by E. W. Robinson, published in Engineering and 
Contracting, April 29, 1914. 

Contractor's Equipment. — The plant Used on the job consisted of both 
new and second-hand machinery, which invoiced at the beginning of the job 
at $4,852. It consisted of the following: One 5-ton "A "-frame derrick car 
with a 60-ft. boom, operated by a 7 X 10-in. D. C. D. D. hoisting engine; a 
concrete chuting plant with an 18-cu. ft. bucket and 121 ft. of steel chutes; a 
single-drum mine hoist ; a 9-cu. ft. gasoline-driven mixer with a self -loader ; a 
3-cu. ft. gasoline-driven mixer; 25 ft. of swinging leads and a 2,500-lb. drop- 
hammer which was operated from the boom of the derrick; two 1-cu. yd. turn- 
over dirt buckets and a- 1-cu. yd. clam-shell bucket; and two pumps, one 
steam-driven and the other gasoline-driven. The small mixer was used to 
mix the concrete used in the railing at the opposite end of the bridge from the 
main plant, which made it unnecessary to operate the main plant for the small 
amounts of concrete required for that work. The chuting plant was moved 
twice, the second move being back to the first location. 

In addition to the above mentioned equipment there were the usual petty 
tools and supplies for a job of this kind, on which depreciation is not far from 
100 per cent. The total amount expended for petty tools and repairs for this 
job was $1,642, and these tools will likely invoice at about $200, showing a 
depreciation of 87 per cent, which is 5.9 per cent of the pay roll. 

Materials and Proportions. — The concrete for the substructure was mixed 
in the proportions of 1 :2^^ :5, and for the superstructure, in the proportions of 
1:2:4. The top '^i in. of the sidewalks was surfaced with a 1 :1 cement mortar, 
which was floated and troweled to a smooth finish. The sand was bank sand 
from local pits. It was delivered on the job for $1.20 per cubic yard. The 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 



1087 



stone used was crushed limestone from a nearby town. It was required to 
pass a 1-in. ring for the 1 :2 :4 concrete, and to pass a 2-in. ring for the 1 : 2H : 5 
concrete. The stone cost $1.26 per long ton of 2,240 lbs. f. o. b. cars at a 
team track located about H mile from the work. It was unloaded by contract 
for $0.25 per long ton. One-man stone cost practically the same on the job 
as the crushed stone. About 250 tons of this were used in the abutments and 
pier shafts, but little saving was effected by its use, owing to the high cost of 
placing it, as the yardage in each place did not warrant much outlay for 
hoisting, etc. 

Mixing and Placing. — All of the concrete, except a small yardage in a part 
of the railing, was mixed and placed through the central plant at the tower. 
The whole superstructure between curbs for one span was poured in one 
continuous operation, the sidewalk stringer, the curb stringer and the sidewalk 
slab being poured a few days later. The reason for this was because of the 
difficulty of supporting the side forms for the curb stringers to line and grade 
while the concrete on the roadway slab was still green. 




.y-9f. 



. 5'.0'- ^ 



'i 






^te 




- 7-6' 



'i^^^^^^with'reaul'ar^Jllb -r. P'ransverse slab bars i'*- 



.Every thi r 



ill 



}-• /-'//'"W 



rd bar sf-raight 

, . . . . !•♦; 






ipStir 'MP 






^11^ A -A 



(■■5-aPly-pStirrups 




Fig. 12. — Cross-section of roadway — Fort Worth Viaduct. 



The main towers, which were approximately 110 ft. high, were so designed 
that the concrete would reach all points on a grade of not less than 1 in 4. 
However, the arrangement was not always followed as intended, and occa- 
sionally this slope was flattened. The maximum distance which the concrete 
was chuted was 250 ft.., and no trouble was 'experienced except when a dry 
batch was run through, which caused the following batch to spill over the 
sides of the chutes. 

The stone and sand were dumped as near as possible to the mixer, and were 
conveyed from the piles to the hopper of the self -loader in wheelbarrows. 
Although at times of short duration the concrete was properly mixed and 
deposited at the rate of 30 or 35 cu. yds. per hour this rate could not be main- 
tained for any great length of time. A good average for the whole day's run 
was 20 cu. yds. per hour. A Jiigh-speed mine hoist was used for raising the 
bucket in the tower, and there were no delays from that source. The typical 



1088 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

organization of the concrete gang for a day's run was 3 men on the sand, 6 men 
on the stone, 2 men bringing and emptying the cement into the mixer, 1 man 
each to run the mixer and hoister, and 4 men on top placing and working the 
concrete around the reinforcement and shifting the chutes. However, the 
above organization would vary according to the location and condition of the 
stone and sand piles. 

Cost Data. — The general foreman, or timekeeper, was required to make out 
daily reports showing the number of hours spent each day on each item of 
work, together with the wage rate. These reports were filed in the office, 
together with the progress charts and photographs, and constitute a complete 
record of the progress of the work as well as furnishing a method of determining 
the cost of the various classes of work done. The man who made out these 
reports was required to make the totals check with the total time turned 
in for the pay-roll. In this way the total cost of labor is absolutely correct, 
although the different items may be in error to some extent. 

Eight hours constituted a day's work except in an emergency. For the 
first week or two common laborers were paid $1.75 per day, but for practically 
the whole work these laborers were paid $0.25 per hour. For the last month 
or two the price paid to the common laborers was cut to $0.20 per hour, with 
the exception of a few of the more energetic ones. Colored labor was used 
largely throughout the job, and proved to be fairly efficient, with competent 
supervision. Carpenters were paid the union scale of $0.50 per hour, with 
time and a half for overtime and with Saturday afternoons off. Skilled 
laborers, such as riggers and hoisting engineers, were paid from $0.35 to $0.50 
per hour. Foremen were paid from $0.50 per hour to $25 per week straight 
time. The average price per hour for all labor, including general labor, on the 
whole job was $0.34 per hour. The item "General"* amounted to 13.4 per 
cent of the total labor cost, and it has been apportioned to the different items 
to obtain the unit costs given in Table XXVIII. 

Table XXVIII. — Quaniities and Unit Costs of Various Items 

Unit 

Item and quantity cost 

Dry excavation, 1,819 cu. yds $0,383 

Wet excavation, 920.6 cu. yds 2. 196 

Erecting substructure forms, 38,876 sq. ft 0.086 

Erecting substructure forms, 3,413.6 cu. yds 0.971 

Wrecking substructure forms, 38,876 sq. ft 0.017 

Wrecking substructure forms, 3,413.6 cu. yds 0. 190 

Erecting superstructure forms, 44,460 sq. ft 0. 149 

Erecting superstructure forms, 1,237.2 cu. yds 5.346 

Wrecking superstructure forms, 44,460 sq. ft 0.025 

Wrecking superstructure forms, 1,237.2 cu. yds. 0.928 

Bending and placing reinforcing steel, 123.9 tons 13-42 

Driving foundation piles, 200 2.995 

Preparing concrete plant, 4,650 .-8 cu. yds.. . 0.302 

Mixing and placing concrete, 4,650.8 cu. yds 0.823 

Railing, complete, 906 lin. ft 1 • 395 

Railing, complete, 76.9 cu. yds 16.44 

Placing rip-rap, 690 cu. yds 0- 129 

* The item " General" is intended to cover all labor which is general in its 
nature and cannot be charged to any particular class of work, such as that of 
the superintendent, general foreman, night watchman, and water boy. 
This cost is kept as a separate item, and is distributed to all other items in 
proportion to their total costs. 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 1089 

Miscellaneous Data. — The following quantities of lumber were delivered and 
used on the job: 

Size Ft. B. M. 

1-in 60, 161 

2-in. and 3-in * 98 , 848 

4 X 4-in. to 8 X 12-in 37 , 840 

Miscellaneous and second-hand 20 , 800 

Total, various sizes 217 , 649 

Of this amount betwfeen 7,000 and 8,000 ft. B. M. of the 1-in. lumber had a 
salvage value of from one-half to two-thirds its cost price. There was also 
about the same amount of 2-in. and 3-in. lumber which could be used again or 
sold as second-hand lumber. Practically all of the large timbers were in good 
shape at the end of the job, but in the smaller sizes the loss approximated 50 
per cent or more. 

The quantities of materials given below are reduced to the amounts used 
per cubic yard of concrete or per square foot of forms, as the case may be: 
Nails, 0.104 lbs. per sq. ft. of forms. 
Wire, 0.107 lbs. per sq. ft. of forms. 
Cement, 1.207 bbls. per cu. yd. of concrete 
Sand, 0.504 cu. yds. per cu. yd. of concrete. 
Crushed stone, 1.04 long tons per cubic yard of concrete. 

The wire used is reduced to the amount per square foot for the total area 
formed, although it should be borne in mind that no wire was used on the 
bottom area of all slabs and beams. 

The daily record of the quantity of cement used in all the different members 
showed that 98.9 per cent of the total amount delivered on the job was used 
and that 1.1 per cent was lost, wasted or otherwise not accounted for. The 
quantity of cement per cubic yard of concrete given above includes this waste, 
or loss, which was added to the amounts taken from the record. The number 
of empty sacks for which no credit was given at the mill, due to loss and 
damage, amounted to 8.3 per cent of the total number ordered. 

In determining the quantity of sand and stone used per cubic yard of con- 
crete, deduction was made from the total yardage for the actual volume of 
one-man stone used therein. No record was kept of the quantity of sand and 
stone used in the separate members. 

Construction was started the latter part of May, 1913, and the work was 
completed in January, 1914. 

The total bidding price of the viaduct was $54,339.63, but owing to increases 
in the quantities over the engineer's estimate, due to changes in the plans, the 
final contract price was $57,303.48. Although all of the work never ceased, 
except during the very heaviest rains, the whole progress was delayed several 
weeks on account of high water. Some material was lost by floods during 
September and December. Fortunately, each time the water rose to an 
unusual height it happened that there were no newly poured spans on the 
falsework in the channel. 

(The cost per sq. ft. was about $3.07, based upon the contract price of 
$54,339.63 and the total area of the viaduct.) 

Cost of Main Street Concrete Viaduct, Fort Worth, Texas. — The contract 
cost of the Main Street Viaduct, Fort Worth, Tex., given in Engineering and 
Contracting, March 10, 1915 in an abstract of a paper by S. W. Bowen in 
Proceedings A. S. C. E., Vol XL, follows: 
69 



1090 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



The viaduct has a 54-ft. clear roadway and two 8-ft. sidewalks. The 
general dimensions and type of construction are shown in Fig. 13. 

Because of the sudden, large and rapid rises to which the Trinity River is 
subject it was thought advisable to use, at least for the arch spans, a method 
of construction that would not require falsework in the stream. 

After a careful consideration of various types, it was decided to use, for the 
main spans of the viaduct, three-hinged, ribbed arches, with structural steel 
reinforcement designed to support the weight of the forms and the plastic 
concrete of the ribs and braces during construction. For the approach spans 
and for the river spans of the smaller viaducts girder spans were adopted. 

The three-hinged arch was selected because it would not be strained by 
unequal settlement, because the stresses are statically determinate, and 



, Preseni Ground Line 
/ ,* Fin ished Ground Line 



rf.eoe. 5K. Ef.605■50^. 




L.J®JJlii^§7:£.. 



5@ 37-6-/87-6 



13 /2, // 10 9 8 1 

7 Panels e 50'-350'-0"' 



Fig. 13. — General elevation of Main Street viaduct. Fort Worth, Tex. 



Table XXIX. — Quantities of Materials and Cost of Viaduct 

Item Unit Per- 

No. Description Quantity price Cost centage 

1 Grading 4,720 cu. yds. $ 0.35 $ 1,652.00 0.43 

2 Foundation excava- 15,227 cu. yds. 1.00 15,227.00 3.96 

tion 

3 Rock excavation 444 cu. yds. 2.00 888.00 0.23 

4 (a) Concrete No. 1 

(1:2:4) 10,611 cu. yds. 10.25 108,762.75 28.16 

(b) Concrete No. 2 

(1:2H:5) 14,880 cu. yds. 6.85 101,928.00 26.40 

(c) Concrete No. 3 

(1:3:6) 438 cu. yds. 6.25 2,737.50 0.71 

5 Railings 3,875 lin. ft. 2.00 7,750.00 2.01 

6 Structural steelwork. 1 ,537,400 lbs. 0.05 76,870.00 19.90 

7 Steel reinforcing bars. 1,375,150 lbs. 0.035 48,130.25 12.46 

8 Steel castings 205 , 460 lbs. . 07 14 , 382 . 20 3 . 72 

9 Iron castings 11,173 lbs. 0.04 446.92 0.11 

10 Anchor-bolts and T. 

P. casings 21,311 lbs. 0.06 1,278.66 0.33 

11 Steel dowels 98 3.00 294.00 0.08 

13 Rip-rap 836 cu. yds. 1.50 1,254.00 0.32 

14 Manholes 2 50.00 100.00 0.03 

15 Removing old bridge 2 , 500. 00 0. 65 

17 Timber piles 194 10.00 1,940.00 0.50 

Total $386,141.28 100,00 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 



1091 



because the temperature stresses are eliminated. Ribbed construction was 
adopted as being light and best adapted to the use of hinges, and also 
because no waterproofing would be required. Structural reinforcement for 
the ribs and braces was used in order to dispense with falsework, as far as 
possible. 

The cost of the viaduct, per linear foot, was $244.60; the cost, per square 
foot of horizontal projection, was $3.66; the cost, per square foot of vertical 
projection, was $6.34; and the cost, per cubic foot of volume, between finished 
ground line and crown of roadway, was $0,091. The total estimated cost of 
the viaduct, including paving, lighting and engineers' fees, was $428,882. 

The cost per square foot of ver- 
tical projection is based on the area 
of the projection of the viaduct be- 
tween the finished ground line and 
the top of the roadway. For the 
horizontal projection, the extreme 
width over the copings or stringer 
moldings was taken. In computing 
the cost per cubic foot the volume 
included between vertical planes 
through the copings and between the 
finished ground line and the top of 
the roadway was taken. The total 
cost on which the above unit costs 
' are based is the cost of the structure 
based on the contractor's unit prices 
and the quantities as given in the 
table, to which has been added the 
cost of the paving, lighting, and 
engineers' fees. 

Economic Height-Limit of Retain- 
ing Wall as Compared with Viaduct 
Construction for Hill Side Road. — 
In constructing the side-hill road 

called Beardsley St., in Kansas City, comparative cost studies were made to 
determine at what height (from foundation to grade) viaduct construction 
would be more economical than retaining walls with fills. 

The following cut reproduced from Engineering News-Record, June 13, 
1918, shows the general method used. The solution in this particular case 
gave the economic height-limit of the retaining wall construction as 26 ft. 

In applying this method to other conditions it would be, of course, neces- 
sary to make a new diagram plotted from estimates for those conditions. 

Cost of Steel Highway Bridges and Floors. — The following data, given 
in Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 1, 1915, are taken from a paper by 
Clifford Older (Bridge Engineer, Illinois Highway Commission) presented at 
the annual convention of the American Road Builders' Association in Chicago, 
Dec. 14-18, 1914. 

Maintenance of Bridge Floors. — Definite statistics in regard to the number 
and length of highway bridges for any considerable mileage of highways are 
difficult to obtain and are not at present availa,ble. In some states, however, 
we are able to ascertain the amount of the total expenditure for bridge work 
of all kinds. Available information of this kind seems to indicate that 




12 



Fig. 



14 le Id 20 22 24 26 2d 30 32 
Total Height in Feet 

13A. — Economic height-limit of 
retaining wall. 



1092 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

approximately one-half of the funds raised for ordinary road and bridge pur- 
poses are expended in the renewal and maintenance of bridges. 

It is evident, therefore, that if maintenance expenditures are to be reduced 
to the minimum highway bridges and bridge floors should receive careful 
consideration. 

Judging from conditions in Illinois it is probable that at least 90 per cent of 
all existing highway bridges are provided with nothing better than plank 
floors, and that the maintenance of these floors costs approximately 15 per cent 
of the total expenditure for road and bridge maintenance, or about $10 per 
mile of road per annum. 

. Floors for New Bridges. — It is a simple matter to provide sufficient strength 
in the design of a new bridge to accommodate any of the various modern types 
of floors or wearing surfaces. 

It seems desirable to select a type of floor which will permit the use of a 
wearing surface of the same kind as that on the adjacent highway, so 
that the same method of maintenance may be used on the bridge floor as 
elsewhere. 

The difference in weight of vaious types of floors h£is but little effect on the 
design and cost of concrete bridges. Steel bridges, however, are materially 
affected, both in design and cost, by a comparatively small variation in the 
weight of the floor. The saving in the weight and cost of the steel in the trusses 
and floor system for the lighter floors may out-weigh the advantage of 
having the same wearing surface on the bridge as elsewhere on the highway. 

Floors for steel bridges only will be considered in this discussion. 

It is desirable to provide an independent wearing surface so that even 
though the pavement may be worn practically through, the bridge will still 
carry traffic with safety. 

The bridge floor should then preferably consist of two elements : The sub- 
floor, which should be as permanent as the bridge superstructure, and should 
provide the necessary strength to transmit the highway loads to the floor 
supports; and a wearing surface of such character as to permit of economical 
maintenance. 

In considering construction materials for both of these elements the matter 
of weight increases in importance with the length of span. For sub-floors of 
the more permanent type buckle-plates with concrete covering, reinforced 
concrete, and creosoted plank cover the field. For wearing surfaces, brick, 
concrete, creosoted blocks, macadam gravel, mixtures of bituminous mate- 
rials with sand, gravel or stone, plank, ordinary soil, and practically all other 
varieties of surfacing materials have been used. 

In comparing costs it is necessary to consider, not only the cost of the fioor 
and its maintenance, but also the effect of the weight of floor selected on the 
design and cost of the remainder of the bridge. 

Classification of Floors. — For the purpose of considering the effect of the 
weight of the fioor on the design of the superstructure the various types of 
floors are herein grouped in four classes, as follows: 

Class A Floors. — Floors which weigh approximately 100 lbs. per square foot 
of roadway surface are included in Class A. Floors consisting of a reinforced 
concrete sub-floor, assumed to weigh 50 lbs. per square foot, on which is placed 
a wearing surface of concrete, brick, macadam or gravel, are of this class. 
The wearing surface is assumed also to weigh 50 lbs. per square foot of road- 
way surface. 

Class B Floors. — Floors which weigh approximately 65 lbs. per square foot 
of roadway surface are included in Class B. Floors consisting of a concrete 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 



1093 



sub-floor, with a creosoted block wearing surface, and floors consisting of 
creosoted plank sub-floors with a brick wearing surface, are of this class. 

Class C Floors. — Floors which weigh approximately 32 lbs. per square foot 
are included in Class C. Floors consisting of a creosoted plank sub-floor, 
with a creosoted block wearing surface, are included in this class. 

Class D Floors. — Floors which weigh approximately 26 lbs. per square foot 
are included in Class D. Floors consisting of a creosoted plank sub-floor, 
with a wearing surface about ^ in. thick and composed of a mixture of gravel 
and bituminous material, are of this class. 

Buckle-plate floors are not considered, as they weigh as much and cost 
more than concrete sub-floors. 



/4 Bituminous Felf 

■[ .4" Concrete Wearing Surface i i 3? 



6r/ 



.d Concrete Sub-Floor I £3? Trowel Smooth 



{ S ^Bars 6'Ctrs-/' ,--^"Bors 



*---.-— {--^—: .' t6-0 — *. 

If Shim dfShi'm ' 3 Shfm 

,- . Class A .-Trowel Smooth 

,.-'4 Bituminous Felt 1 rS'Creosoted Block 




4 Concrete 
■'' Sub-Floor 



A Bolts Each 
\ 5 . Block 



Class B 



.- • ,- 3''-6"''/^ Scupper Blocks $ Ctrs i^ Crepsoted^ Blocks 
i-^-fi'^'tummousFelt • v 2 ^^P-^oijnf 




Class C 

.'3''6'>' 12' Scupper BJocks 6 Ctrs 
) x" . I'*6" Retaining 

f' A Bituminous Surface '"iSfrii 





yS^^^e Ret Strip 
-6 'S'Naifmq 

=?==-=, , Piece' 
'"■[-\ 6 Log Screws 

='=^§"Bolt5S'Ctrsi 



^. 4 *6 Felloe 
Guard 



I^-. JU-->. JU-'^ X 1 l^^lo p Sub- Plank 



'if Shim'" ^i Shim ^'3"Shim 

16-0" ->» 

Class D 

Fig. 14. — Standard types of bridge floors, Illinois Highway Department. 



Standard Types of Floors. — Figure 14 shows standard designs used by the 
Illinois Highway Department for the floors above mentioned. 

The creosoted plank sub-floors (Class C and Class D) are crowned by bend- 
ing the plank over the stringers and anchoring the ends to the nailers by means 
of lag-screws. 

The creosoted blocks (Class B and Class C) are laid on a ^i-in. bituminous 
felt cushion, which is coated with asphalt immediately before laying the blocks. 

Ship-lap sub-plank are used for floors having a bituminous gravel wearing 
surface. The use of this form of sub-plank has been found to be the cheapest 
and most effective method of preventing the leakage of the bituminous 
material. 



1094 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTTON COST 



Explanation of Curves. — The curves shown in Fig. 15 give the weight 
of the structural steel in bridge superstructures as a percentage of the weight 
of the steel in superstructures having Class A floors, that is, the weight of 
superstructure steel in bridges having floors weighing 100 lbs. per square foot 
is taken as 100 per cent and the weight of steel required for the lighter floors 
is expressed as a percentage of this weight. 




Fig. 



_ 100 izo m 160 

Span in Feet 

15. — Relative weights of steel in superstructures of bridges having different 
types of floors — class A taken as 100 per cent. 



These curves are based on the weight of steel in spans which conform to the 
. standard designs of the Illinois Highway Department. The designs used 
provide for 16-ft. roadways. The curves were checked at a number of 
points, however, for 18-ft. roadway designs, and were found to conform very 
closely. These curves are sufficiently accurate to enable a designer to deter- 
mine the relative cost of steel superstructures having floors of various types 
and weights. 



.SO c 



4.5 



4.0 



3.5 



60 60 100 IZO 140 160 

Span in Feet 



Fig. 16. — Variation in weight of steel for 10-lb. variation in floor weight. 



The curve shown in Fig. 16 is based on the curves of Fig. 15, and it shows the . 
average per cent variation in weight of steel for a variation of 10 lbs. per 
square foot in the weight of the floor. 

Figure 17 shows the average contract prices for the Illinois Highway Depart- 
ment standard 15-ft. roadway steel spans with floors complete. For spans up 
to 80 ft., inclusive, riveted pony trusses are used, and for spans from 90 to 160 
ft., riveted Pratt trusses are used. This range of span length covers at least 
90 per cent of the highway bridges in Illinois. 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 



1095 



"A." — Sub-floor concrete, surface concrete. 
"B." — Sub-floor concrete, surface blocks. 
"C." — Sub-floor plank, surface blocks. 
|]D." — Sub-floor plank, surface bituminous. 

*'Di." — Sub-floor plank, surface bituminous — includes capitalized mainte- 
nance. 

"E." — Untreated plank floor — includes capitalized maintenance. 

Total Cost of Supersfrucfure in Dollars 




Fig. 17. — Average contract prices for Illinois Highway Department standard 
16-ft. roadway steel spans having various types of floors. 

The average contract price of materials is as follows: 

Structural steel complete in place, per lb $ 0.03>^ 

Concrete sub-floors, including reinforcing steel, per cu. 

yd 12.00 

Concrete wearing surface, 4 ins. thick, per sq. yd 0.90 

Creosoted sub-plank (12-lb. treatment), complete in 

place, per M ft. B. M 70. 00 

Creosoted block wearing surface, per sq. yd 1 .80 

Bituminous gravel wearing surface, per sq. yd . 60 

The average cost of sub-floor and wearing surface per linear foot of 16-ft. 
wide roadway (1.78 sq. yds. including curbs) is as follows: 

Per lin. ft. 
. of bridge 

Concrete sub-floor with concrete wearing surface (wt. 100 lbs. per 

sq. ft.).. $4.25 

Concrete sub-floor with creosoted block wearing surface (wt. 65 lbs. 

per sq. ft 5 . 80 

Creosoted plank sub-floor with creosoted block wearing surface 

(wt. 32 lbs. per sq. ft.) 7.30 

Creosoted plank sub-floor with bituminous gravel wearing surface 

(wt. 26 lbs. per sq. ft.) 5.15 

It seems probable that under average conditions the length of life ol the 
floors represented by the upper three full-line curves of Fig. 17 may equal 



1096 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

that of the remainder of the superstructure and that the cost of mainte- 
nance for this period would be small. 

The experience of the Illinois Highway Department seems to indicate that, 
under average conditions, the bituminous wearing surface requires a light 
treatment of oil and stone chips or screened gravel at intervals of about four 
years, at a cost of about 10 cts. per square yard, and a probable complete 
resurfacing once in about twelve years, at a cost of approximately 60 cts. per 
square yard. This amounts to 73'^ cts. per square yard per annum. Adding 
to the first cost of the bridge the maintenance charge capitalized at 6 per 
cent there results the values represented by curve Dl, Fig. 17. The position 
of this curve indicates that it would be preferable to use creosoted block or 
other floor in building new structures. 

Probably 95 per cent of existing steel highway bridges were originally 
designed for ordinary plank floors. Under average conditions, and at the 
present price of yellow pine, which is the material now quite generally used, 
the annual cost of maintaining such floors is about 35 cts. per square yard. 
The first cost plus the maintenance charge capitalized at 6 per cent gives the 
results represented by curve E, Fig. 17. 

Conclusions. — It is evident that ordinary plank floors, having an average 
life of not more than S}^ years, are to be avoided whenever possible. 

It is to be noted that, with the exception of the floor with the bituminous 
surface, the cost of the floor increases as the weight decreases, yet the cost of 
the entire superstructure decreases as the weight of floor decreases. 

The saving in cost for the lighter floors increases with an increase in the unit 
cost of structural steel in place, and decreases with an increase in the cost of 
the materials used in such floors. 

In re-flooring old steel bridges of satisfactory design, creosoted sub-planks 
with a bituminous wearing surface have been found to give reasonable service. 
The weight is somewhat greater than that of a plank floor, but the effect of the 
added weight is probably offset by the reduction of impact, due to the com- 
paratively smooth and yielding surface. 

The cost of maintaining the bituminous surface is only about 20 per cent of 
that of an ordinary plank floor. 

There seems to be no place in the economic design of new highway bridges 
for floors consisting of a creosoted plank sub-floor with a brick wearing 
surface, as the life of such a floor could hardly be greater than that of Class C, 
Fig. 14, while the cost of the complete superstructure would be greater than 
that represented by curves B and C, Fig. 17. 

The floors listed under Class A seem hardly to be justifiable, except for short 
spans, unless other considerations outweigh first cost. 

Economic Panel Length for Bridge Floors of Concrete Slabs on Steel 
Beams. — William Snaith gives the following data in an article "Standard 
Bridge Floors of Concrete Slabs on Steel Beams" published in Engineering 
News-Record, July 12, 1917. 

The floor systems investigated have been designed to meet the usual stand- 
ard specifications as to construction. The dead-load D is taken to include 
the weight of the concrete slab, the supporting steel and two hand-rails each 
weighing 200 lb. per lin. ft. The live-load L is either a 15-ton road roller or a 
uniform load of 100 lb. per sq. ft., whichever gives the greatest stresses. The 
roller is assumed to consist of two back wheels with 20-in. face and 5-ft. center 
to center and of one front wheel with 40-in. face, the axles being 10 ft. center 
to center and the load on each of the three wheels being 10,000 pounds. 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 



1097 



The effect of impact is calculated from the formula: 



Impact 



2{D + L) 



no 



260 



250 



240 



?230 



220 



t 2.10 



■2P0 



-c 190 
<u 
4- 
O 

u 

\J0 

1.60 
1.50 

140 

• e & 10 12 14 \b 15 20 22 24 26 2d 30 32 54 36 

Panel Length in Feet 

Fig. 18. — Estimated costs of floors per square foot, including floor-beams, 
stringers, slab and curb. 

This impact formula will give uniformly better results than a straight per- 
centage of the live-load or a formula based only on live-load and panel length. 
Average prices for steel beams in place in bridge floors and for concrete in 
place were assumed, and the total cost of one bay (slab, curb, stringers and 































r 


























































/ 


/ 




























1 






























1 


[, 






















1 
j 




1 


1 

1 i 
ll 
Pi 


1' 

1 






















f 




1 


HI 






















1 


V 


N 




11 






















\ 


r/ 




t — t 
























/ i 


y 


^ 


1 
1 






















/ 


K'Jl 






















~ 


t 




























1 


/, 


























tvf 


VI 






















































/" ' 


1 
























/ 


\ii 


V 


^ 




















/ 


\ 


/ 




// 


/ 


















hs. 


/ 


s 


/ 


1 /' 




















\\\ 

\ V' 




/ 




rs 


/I 




















\/ 


-V-H 


41 

1! 

1 








Hoac 
IZ' — 

m — 


wa 


ys: 







\ 




/ 




V 










Id 

20 


/p 


— 


— " 


— 













1098 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

floorbeam) was calculated. These values were divided by the area of floor 
supported (nominal width multiplied by panel length), and the results were 
expressed in curves, Fig. 18. 

Owing to the use of commercial sizes and abrupt changes in loading, when, 
for example, the whole roller is taken into account instead of only two back 
wheels, or when the uniform live-load replaces the roller load in the calcula- 
tions, these curves are not smooth and actually cross over one another. It is 
not to be understood that the figures represent actual probable costs; they 
are approximate only and will be affected by changes in cost of materials and 
locality. However, they are of value for purposes of comparison and clearly 
indicate the economic panel length when the floor systems only are considered. 

Alternative floor systems were carefully calculated by the same methods as 
those adopted and proved to be more expensive in every case. An interesting 
comparison was made in the case of the 16-ft. roadway system. Five systems 
were investigated out with various thicknesses of slab and were plotted simi- 
larly to Fig. 18. The four-stringer system shows a notable economy at all 
spans. The seven-stringer system. is almost as economical at 10-ft. panel 
length as the four-stringer system and least so at 35-ft. panel length. Exactly 
the reverse is true of the six-stringer system. The way in which the curves 
crossed one another would show that no general statement would be war- 
ranted that the fewer the stringers the greater the economy. Each case 
must be settled on its merits. 

The amounts of the errors due to the various assumptions* were carefully 
investigated. They are inconsiderable and invariably on the side of safety 
The expression of the dead-load figures in multiples of 25 lb. will not in any 
case involve an error of more than 1 per cent in the total, and the effect of the 
round figures adopted for the roller loadings on the side stringers does not 
exceed the actual loadings by more than 4 per cent of the total results at 
35-ft. panel lengths. The sum of the three errors above will hardly amount 
to 4 per cent for panel lengths less than 20 ft. and not more than 6 per cent at 
35 ft. in any instance. 

Particulars of Standard Floor Systems Considered in Analysis of 
» Stresses 

Dimensions of standard 

floor systems 

Clear width of roadway, in ft 12 14 16 18 20 

Number of stringers 3 4 4 4 5 

Thickness of slab, in in 8 8 8 8 8 

Spacing of middle stringers, in ft 5 5 5 5 

Distance middle to side stringers, in ft. and in. .... 5-0 3-9 5-0 5-0 4-6 
Distance side stringers to end of floor-beam, in ft. 

and in 2-0 1-9 1-6 2-6 1-6 

Dead-load in lb. per lin. ft. on middle stringers: 

Panels 6 ft. to 19 ft 550 550 550 550 550 

Panels 20 ft. to 35 ft 575 575 575 575 575 

Dead-load in lb. per Hn. ft. on side stringers: 

Panels 6 ft. to 19 ft 675 600 625 725 600 

Panels 20 ft. to 35 ft 700 625 650 750 625 

•The assumptions were as follows: 

1. Max. bending moment equals the sum of the Max. L.L. and D.L. moments. 

2. D.L. per lin. ft. per stringer taken in round numbers to nearest multiple of 

25 above the actual. • 

3. L.L. from the roller on side stringers taken in even thousands of pounds. 

4. Wt. of each wheel acts at a point (in stringer and floor beam calculations). 

5. In stringer calculations the slab is assumed not to be continuous. 

6. Length of floor beam (between center line of trusses) is assumed to be 2 ft. 

greater than width of roadway. 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 1099 

The Economic Design of Culverts for Various Depths of Fill. — In a paper 
before the Ohio Engineering Society, an abstract of which is published in 
Engineering and Contracting, March 31, 1915, P. K. Sheidler of the Ohio 
Highway Department points out the advantages of using a standard design 
for culverts with a constant height for the head walls and providing for 
different depths of fill by changing the length of barrel. The following 
matter is taken from the abstract of Mr. Sheidler's paper. 

Under ordinary conditions the headwalls of highway culverts, should have 
the same length and height, irrespective of depth of fill over them — unless 
some special condition exists, as mentioned later. This design allows the 
use of standard plans in the construction of culverts To use a standard plan 
one has only to determinethe proper length of barrel for the given depth of fill 
at a certain location. In getting out a set of plans where standards are used, 
one blue print of a certain type of structure can be used for more than one 
structure, if the necessary length of barrel be indicated for each particular 
structure. 

It is a fact that there are cases where headwalls must be designed higher 
and necessarily longer than ordinary circumstances would demand. These 
are: 

1. Where the end or ends of the culvert would come outside of the right- 
of-way line, and it would either be impracticable or impossible to procure addi- 
tional right-of-way. 

2. Where the additional filling material would cost more than the extra 
masonry in the larger walls. While this case is rare it is possible — such as 
in rock cut, or where filling material would have to be hauled an excessive 
distance, and materials for masonry construction easily obtained. 

3. On side hill slopes where the grade of flow line is as great or greater than 
the side slopes of the road improvement, calling for a wall to be built as close 
to roadway as clearance will allow. 

4. Where the structure occurs in a V-shaped ravine of practically constant 
width, in which the grade of flow line is very steep. 

In planning culverts another important feature must be kept in mind. I 
refer to the necessity in future years of providing more roadway for increased 
traffic. Today we are replacing bridges of 12 and 14-ft. roadway with those 
of 16, 18 or even 24 ft. If a culvert had been constructed 25 years ago with a 
high, massive headwall, instead of a long barrel and low headwall, today it 
becomes necessary for us to destroy all of this large wall — or at least to remove 
part of it and cover it over — in order to carry a wider roadway across. Ex- 
tending a culvert that has been built with long barrel and low headwall can be 
done at a much less cost. 

To show graphically the difference in cost between the two kinds of designs, 
a curve has been drawn for each. In the upper left-hand corner of Fig. 19 is 
shown in full lines the culvert used as a base — 30 lin. ft. of 18-in. cast iron pipe 
with gravity headwalls designed to hold a 1^^ to 1 slope. Superimposed on 
this section is shown in dotted lines the two methods discussed of increasing 
the structure to provide for the increased depth of fill above flow line. 

Two tables were computed to obtain data for plotting the curves and are also 
shown. The table marked "A" gives total costs of culverts whose barrels are 
kept a constant length of 30 ft. and whose headwalls are raised and lengthened 
for different depths of fill varying by 1 ft. 

Table " B" shows the cost of culverts whose headwalls are kept of constant 
dimension, and whose barrels vary in length to fit the road section. 



1100 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table A 


. — Estimated Quantities ani 


Costs of Culverts with High Head 












Walls 










1 

bD 




II -i^ 


i 





6 
a 


'3 






^1 
^ a 






11^ 


" o 




C3 


11 


S^ 


6^ 





3 


5'-0" 


r-9" 


2. 


6 


30 




$ 20.80 $60.00 




$ 80.80 


4 


8'-0" 


2'-2'' 


5. 


8 


30 




46.40 


60.00 




106.40 


5 


11 '-0" 


2'-6'' 


10. 


4 


30 


20 


83.20 


60.00 


$26.66 


163.20 


6 


14'-0" 


2'-9" 


16. 


3 


30 


26 


130.40 


60.00 


26.00 


216.40 


7 


17'-0" 


3'-2" 


24. 


7 


30 


32 


197.60 


60.00 


32.00 


289.60 


8 


20'-0" 


3'-6" 


34. 


9 


30 


38 


279.20 


60.00 


38.00 


377.20 


9 


23'-0" 


3'-9" 


46 


4 


30 


44 


371.20 


60.00. 


44.00 


475.20 


10 


26'-0" 


4'-2" 


62. 


2 


20 


50 


497.60 


60.00 


50.00 


607 . 60 


11 


29'-0" 


4'-6" 


79. 


8 


30 


56 


638 . 40 


60.00 


56.00 


754.40 


12 


32'-0" 


5'-0" 


103. 





30 


62 


824.00 


60.00 


62.00 


946.00 


Table B 


. — Estimated Quantities and 


Costs of Culverts with Low Head 












Walls 
















:3 

o 




6 
a 


4 
>> 






c3 


^ 






3 s 


-M 

£ 
s « 








l^ 







la 


II ^ fl 


II ^ 


St3 




c 




02 03 


oo 03 


to 


if 


W"^^ 


^^ 


6>^ 




J^ 


s 


O > 


6^ 


6 





3 


5'-0" 


l'-9" 


2.6 




30 




$20.80 $60.00 




80.80 


4 


5'-0" 


l'-9" 


2.6 




33 




20.80 


66.00 




86.80 


5 


5'-0" 


l'-9" 


2.6 




36 


5 


20.80 


72.00 


$2.66 


94.80 


6 


5'-0" 


r-9" 


2.6 




39 


10 


20.80 


78.00 


4.00 


102 . 80 


7 


5'-0" 


l'-9" 


2.6 




42 


25 


20.80 


.84.00 


10.00 


114.80 


8 


5'-0'' 


l'-9" 


2.6 




45 


45 


20.80 


90.00 


18.00 


128.80 


9 


5'-0" 


l'-9'' 


2.6 




48 


60 


20.80 


96.00 


24.00 


140.80 


10 


5'-0" 


l'-9" 


2.6 




51 


100 


20.80 


102.00 


40.00 


162.80 


11 


5'-0" 


r-9" 


2.6 




54 


125 


20.80 


108.00 


50.00 


178.80 


12 


5'-0" 


l'-9" 


2.6 




57 


175 


20.80 


114.00 


70.00 


204.80 



The curve " C" was plotted to show the cost of fill that would be necessary 
to cover the barrel of the long culverts and to occupy the space taken up by 
the high headwalls, if they were to be removed. The area between the 
curves "B" and "C" represents this cost — the ordinates being plotted from 
the curve "B." 

The sudden jump in the upper curve is caused by adding the cost of hand- 
rail to this type of culvert at the point where top of the wall is five feet above 
flow line in order to comply with the state law governing this. The assumed 
prices used are: 

Concrete, cu. yd $8. 00 

18-in. cast iron pipe, lin. ft 2 . 00 

Handrail, lin. ft 1 . 00 

Earth fill, cu. yd 40 

In order to show a specific example from these tables, we have selected the 
two types of culverts that would be necessary for a fill of ten feet above the 
flow line — the two types are superimposed to make the comparison more 
striking. This is shown in Fig. 19. The cost of the culvert with the high 
walls is $607.60, while that of the other is only $162.80, representing a saving 
of $444.80. 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 



1101 



Cost of Concrete Arch and Pipe Culverts, Using Collapsible Steel Forms, 
Menominee County, Mich. — In extending the Bay Shore Road in 1911 a 
number of culverts were required. The costs of these culverts as built 
by force account are given in an article by K. I. Sawyer in Engineering and 
Contracting, March 13, 1912, from which paper the following data are taken. 

Three sizes of concrete culverts were adopted for use on this road, standard 
sizes being used in batteries when necessary capacity required. The sizes 
adopted were 24 in. round tile and 48 and 96 in. diameter full arch culverts. 




-i^J*~T 



5-0 



CURVES SHOWING COST OF CULVERTS 
lOOO- 




r- 



N. ^,- 



V, 



:-o%i 



'O''' 



i4 



y] 



AS. 



y 



\^ 



END VIEW 



Depth of flow line bdow grade -feet 



Fig. 19. — Curves showing the difference in cost under various depths of fill of a 
typical road culvert. 

The so-styled culvert crew put in all the 4 and 8 ft. arches on this road and 
two arches on No. 1 road this season. The crew was equipped with Blaw 
collapsible steel centering, lumber and miscellaneous tools. The crew lived 
in tents, taking its own cook with it, and moved from creek to creek. All 
culverts are designed for 25 ton engine, live load; they are of monolithic 
pattern and without reinforcement. This latter requirement was not to the 
satisfaction of the engineer, but was necessary on account of local sentiment. 
The crew was inexperienced when started and the engineer lived practically 
on the job for the first two structures. Better success was had, however, 
than a year previous, when a culvert was installed by a crew of experienced 
sidewalk and street concrete workers. 



1102 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



The schedule of wages 



Costs and data on culverts are given in Table XXX. 
of this culvert crew was : 
Foreman, 30 cts. per hour. 
Teams, 45 cts. per hour 
Labor, 20 cts. per hour. 

Table XXX, — Mass Concrete Culverts — No Reinforcement 



^^ ,^ oj g ■ tn PQ ." h 

Name of creek — m pqpqp^M-a^fPP^^ 

Hard 

Foundation Clay Clay Clay sand Sand Sand Clay Ledge Ledge 

Clear span, f t . . . 16 8 8 8 8 4 8 24 16 

No. arches ...... 2 1 1.1 1 1 1 3 2 

Cu. yds. concrete. 60 60.3 38 46 49 15 43 108 56 
Total cost cul 

vert. $ 505 $409 .$387 $372 $364 $98 $340 $929 $683 
To t a 1 cost 

concrete 358 266 200 227 230 62 205 489 345 

Unit Cost Concrete: 
Labor, mix and 

place 1.70 1.44 1.64 1.38 1.54 1.35 1.22 1.55 1.66 

Cement 2.85 1.88 2.16 2.04 1.89 1.42 1.78 1.91 2.16 

Aggregate 1.41 1.10 1.46 1.51 1.25 1.36 1.77 1.07 2.13 

Total per cu. 

yd $5.96 $4.42 $5.26 $4.93 $4.68 $4.13 $4.77 $4.53 $6.15 

The 24-in. concrete tile were made by the grade crew and some of same 
installed on wet days. Two men worked at the tile molds, the aggregate 
being taken from the sand gravel pockets in the pit. A 1: SH mix was used, 
the tile having 4-in. walls, lap joints, and being reinforced with steel car wire 
so spaced as to have rings 8 ins. c. to c. when the tile are installed. The 
labor cost on the tile was about 50 cts. each or 25 cts. per ft. Further data on 
the work of the tile crew follow: 

Making Tile 

Total Per tile Per ft. 

Number 425.00 

Labor cost* $209.76 $0,493 $0,246 

Cement cost 170.50 0.401 0.201 

Total cost $380.26 $0,894 $0,447 

Installing Tile 

Number 214 

Cost* $331.56 $1.55 $0,775 

*Labor rates were the same as for the culvert crew. 

Cost of a 4 X 5-Ft. Reinforced Concrete Box Culvert. — The following cost 
data on the construction of a 4 X 5-ft. concrete box culvert, 26 ft. long, 
given in Engineering and Contracting, Dec. 4, 1912, are taken from a bulletin 
on culverts and small bridges issued by the North Carolina Geological and 
Economic Survey. The culvert was constructed by a regular county concrete 
gang, composed of a foreman, seven men and two teams and drivers. It was 
completed in four days of 10 hours each. The excavation was light, but the 
soil was of a hard, black nature that was hard trimming. Water for mixing 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 1103 

had to be hauled two miles. Sand gravel was used for aggregate in the 
concrete. The gravel contained a slight excess of sand. Mixing was done 
by hand with negro labor. Twisted square steel bars were used for reinforc- 
ing. The quantities were as follows : 14M cu. yds. of 1 :3 :5 concrete ; 4 cu. yds. 
of 1: 2M: 4 concrete; 432 lbs. of ^-in. steel; 640 lbs. of K-in. steel; and 1,000 
ft. B. M. of lumber. The cost of the culvert was as follows: 

Per cu. yd. 

Labor — ^ Total concrete 

Foreman, 40 hours at 25 cts $ 10.00 $0. 541 

Culvert excavation, 9 cu. yds. at 80 cts 7 . 20 . 389 

Labor on forms 14.00 0.756 

Mixing and placing, 120 hrs. at 15 cts 18. 00 0. 973 

Hauling water, 20 hrs. at 30 cts 6. 00 0. 324 

Cutting and placing steel, 10 hrs. at 15 cts 1. 50 0.081 

Cleaning up and removing forms, 10 hrs. at 15 cts 1 . 50 0.081 

Total $58.20 $3,145 

50 per cent salvage on form lumber 7 . 00 . 378 

Total, less salvage '. $ 51 . 20 $2. 767 

Moving on and off job 10 . 00 . 541 

Total labor at culvert r $ 61 . 20 $3. 308 

Material laid down at Qulvert — 

Cement, 26 bbls. at $1.80 $ 46.80 $2,529 

Hauling cement, 12>^ hrs. at 30 cts. 3. 75 0.203 

Gravel, 18^^ cu. yds. at $1.10, f. o. b. cars Ennis, Texas 20.35 1.100 
Hauling, 18M cu. yds., 46 hrs. at 30 cts. (75 cts. per cu. 

yd.; 13.80 0.746 

Steel, 1,072 lbs. at 2^ cts 26.80 1.449 

Hauling steel, 2 hrs. at 30 cts .60 0. 032 

Lumber, 1,000 ft. B. M. at $25 : 25.00 1.351 

Hauling lumber, 3 hrs. at 30 cts .90 . 048 

Total $138.00 $7,459 

75 per cent salvage on form lumber 18.75 1.013 

Total cost of material on job $119.25 $6,446 

Grand total cost of job $180. 45 $9. 754 

Cost per cu. yd. of concrete in place, exclusive of culvert excavation. . $9.37 
Cost per cu. yd. of concrete in place, exclusive of excavation and steel. 7.85 

Cost of Concrete Culverts Under Canal in Sevier County, Utah. — The fol- 
lowing table, rearranged from data given by James Jenson in Engineering 
and Contracting, April 23, 1913, gives the costs of construction of reinforced 
concrete culverts to carry flood waters under the canal of the State Board 
of Land Commissioners-, in Sevier county, Utah. The length of canal along 
which these culverts were distributed is ten miles. No two culverts were 
constructed from the same setting. On account of the comparatively small 
units in which this work had to be done, and the ruggedness of the country 
with reference to the moving of machinery and mixers, all concrete was mixed 
by hand. Sand and gravel for these structures was hauled by team an average 
distance of three miles, and constitutes the sole cost in column headed " Sand 
and Gravel." Water for mixing and camp purposes was also hauled by team 
a distance of two to three miles, and is included in the column headed " Haul- 
age and Moving," which column also includes the cost of hauling cement, 
reinforcing steel, and form material from the railroad station, a distance 
averaging about eight miles. This column also includes the cost of moving 
apparatus and mixing boards from one setting to another; also moving the 
construction camp three different times. 



1104 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The column headed "Hand Excavation" represents the cost of digging the 
trenches for the footing walls, and leveling the main trench for the culvert 
after it had been cut down practically to grade by team and scraper work. 

The column headed " Form Material" is obtained from taking the total cost 
of all form material, including timber, wire, nails, etc., and dividing it up in 
proportion to the number of cubic yards of concrete in each structure. No 
deductions have been made from these averages on account of any salvage 
value of form material still on hand. 

Two mixing gangs were used, each provided with its own accompaniment of 
apparatus and teams for hauling purposes. The work was done during the 
months of February, March and April, 1912, under extremely adverse weather 
conditions. During the major portion of this time all green concrete had 
to be covered up to keep it from freezing. No account was kept of this, but is 
included in the column headed "Mixing and Placing Concrete," 

Table XXXI. — Cost Per Cu. Yd. of Culvert Construction 

TUBULAR CULVERTS 

No C 18 3 7 1 

Diam. ins 18 18 18 18 24 

Length, ft 49 49 .52 68 30 

Sacks of cement used 49 50 * 65 ... 90 

Lbs. of reinforcement used 200 180 200 217 272 

Total concrete, cu. yds 9.8 10 13 13.6 18 

Cost per cu. yd. : 

Cement $ 3.102 $ 3.200 $ 3.200 $ 3.210 $ 3.200 

Reinforcement at 3 cts. per lb . . 0.612 0.540 0.461 0.479 0.453 

Sand and gravel 2.857 1.960 1.723 1.815 1.400 

Mixing and placing concrete ... 2 . 929 2 . 507 2 . 962 1 . 822 2 . 7 56 



Total concrete $ 9 . 500 $ 8 . 207 f 8 . 346 $ 6 . 326 $ 7 . 809 

Form material 2.022 2.023 2.023 2.022 2.023 

Building and moving forms 0.535 0.512 0.404 0.354 0.458 

Total forms $ 2. 557 $ 2. 535 $ 2.427 $ 2.376 $ 2.481 

Haulage and moving 1.523 1.333 1.333 1.333 1.333 

Hand excavation 0.447 0.447 0.447 0.445 0.447 

Grand total $14,027 $12,522 $12,553 $10,480 $12,080 

BOX CULVERTS 

No B 24 9 10 21 

Dimensions, ft 2X2 2X2 3X3 3X3 3X3 

Length, ft 47.5 48 48 48 47.5 

Sacks of cement used 66 69 130 138 141 

Lbs. of reinforcement used 335 335 1 , 369 1 , 369 1 ,369 

Total concrete, cu. yds 13.2 13.8 20.6 27.6 28.2 

Cost per cu. yd.: 

Cement $ 3.200 $ 3.200 $ 4.039 $ 3.200 $ 3.200 

Reinforcement at 3 cts. per lb . . 0.761 0.728 1.993 1.489 1.456 

Sand and gravel 2.121 2.434 0.679 0.820 1.192 

Mixing and placing concrete... 2.683 2.283 2.961 2.075 2.406 

Total concrete $ 8. 765 $ 8. 645 $ 9.672 $ 7.584 $ 8.254 

Form material $2,022 $2,022 2.022 2.023 2.023 

Building and moving forms... . 0.719 0.681 0.582 0.407 0.412 

Total forms $ 2.741 $ 2.703 $ 2.604 $ 2.430 $ 2.435 

Haulage and moving 1 . 333 1 . 333 1 . 333 1 . 333 1 . 333 

Hand excavation 0.447 0.447 0.447 0.447 0.447 

Grand total $13,286 $13,128 $14,056 $11,794 $12,469 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 1105 

BOX CULVERTS (cont'd) 

No 16 6 13 20 23 

Dimensions, ft 3X4 4X4 4X4 4X4 4X4 

Length, ft 46 47 49 50. 5 48 

Sacks of cement used 144 146 163 167 179 

Lbs. of reinforcement, used 1 , 490 1,617 1 , 617 1 , 626 1,617 

Total concrete, cu. yds 28.8 29.2 32.6 33.4 35.8 

Cost per cu. yd.: 

Cement $ 3.200 $ 3.200 $ 3.200 $ 3.200 $ 3.200 

Reinforcement at 3 cts. per lb . . 1.552 1.661 1.488 1.460 1.355 

Sand and gravel 0.833 1.151 1.032 1.089 1.173 

Mixing and placing concrete. . . 2.317 2.231 2.496 1.997 2.162 

Total concrete $ 7.902 $ 8.243 $ 8.216 $ 7.746 $ 7.890 

Form material 2.023 2.022 2.022 2.023 2.023 

Building and moving forms 0.455 0.613 . 552 . 392 . 503 

Total forms $ 2.478 $ 2. 635 $ 2. 574 $ 2.415 $ 2.526 

Haulage and mo%dng 1.333 1.333 1.333 1.333 1.333 

Hand excavation 0.447 0.447 0.447 0.447 0.447 

Grand total $12,160 $12,658 $12,570 $11,943 $12,196 

ARCH CULVERTS 

No 22 8 12 11 5 

Dimensions, ins 14 X 14 14 X 14 14 X 14 14 X 14 14 X 14 

Length, ft 48 52 60 66 52 

Sacks of cement used 50 52 56 62 65 

Lds. of reinforcement used 183 182 248 272 200 

Total concrete cu. yds 10 10.4 11.2 12.4 13 

Cost per cu. yd. : 

Cement $ 3.200 $ 3.200 $ 3.200 $ 3.200 $ 3.200 

Reinforcement at 3 cts. per lb . . 0.549 0.526 0.664 0.658 0.461 

Sand and gravel 2.240 1.076 1.250 1.353 1.713 

Mixing and placing concrete ... 2 . 080 4 . 985 3 . 062 2 . 879 3 . 236 

Total concrete $ 8.069 $ 9.787 $ 8.176 $ 8.040 $ 8.610 

Form material 2.023 2.023 2.022 2.022 2.023 

Building and moving forms 0.825 0.793 0.602 0.484 0.635 

Total forms $ 2.848 $ 2.816 $ 2.624 $ 2. 506 $ 2. 658 

Haulage and moving 1.333 1.336 1.333 1.333 1.333 

Hand excavation 0.447 0.447 0.447 0.448 0.450 

Grandtotal $12,697 $14.39 $12,584 $12,327 $13,051 

The chief item of interest as shown by these cost data, aside from the general 
value for comparison with other structures of a similar nature and built under 
like conditions, is the inverse proportion of the labor costs to the size of the 
unit constructed, which emphasizes the importance of knowing not only 
total yardage of concrete to be installed, but also its distribution in various 
units, and the variation of size in these units. 

Wages per day paid were as follows: Teams with driver, $4; foreman, $4: 
laborers, $2.25. 

SUMMARY 

A total of 3,093 sacks of cement and 22,640 lbs. of reinforcement was used 
in the 28 culverts, and an automatic spill, waste gate and waste valve. Total 
concrete, 613.1 cu. yds. 
70 



1106 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Item Total 

Cement «1,979.06 

Reinforcement at 3 cts. per lb 679 . 20 

Sand and gravel 810.51 

Mixing and placing concrete. 1 , 566 . 20 

Total concrete $5,034.97 

Form material 1 ,240. 17 

Building and moving forms 270 . 53 

Total forms.... $1,510.70 

Haulage and moving 748 . 43 

Hand excavation 274 . 21 

Grand total $7 , 568. 31 



\v. 


per 


cu. 


yd. 


$ 3 


23 


1 


.11 


1 


32 


2 


55 


$ 8 


21 


2 


02 





51 


$ 2 


53 


1 


22 





44 



$12.40 



Construction Cost of 5-ft. Combination Corrugated Pipe and Concrete 
Culvert. — The following data are taken from an article in Engineering and 
Contracting, Jan. 1, 1913, by John N. Eddy. 




{ Rods itig. \ 
:H'.| f X to'- Rodsi __ 4'0'crr5j 



f-— /5' 



*^^^ {ROCt5-5'0'Ctrs. 



Eng.8cContQ 

Fig. 20. — Combination corrugated pipe arch and reinforced concrete invert 

culvert. 



Fig. 20 represents a section of a 40-ft. combination iron pipe and concrete 
culvert built by force account for the City of Billings, Mont, in the summer of 
1912. This design assumes the use of a half-section of corrugated pipe 
for the arch only, which rests on side walls of concrete as shown. While it was 
found that the concrete portion cost approximately the same as a half-section 
of pipe, it was possible to secure slightly greater culvert area. The plan was 
adopted primarily as an experiment, and seems to have possibilities worthy 
of consideration. The figure showing the details of this design is self- 
explanatory. 

In constructing the combination culvert, the side wall footings were placed 
first, after which the reinforced concrete floor was laid on a gravel base. Wall 
forms were then built and concrete poured. The setting and bolting of the 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 



1107 



iron arch completed the work with the exception of the end walls, which were 
then built. The cost of this culvert was as follows: 

20 lin. ft. of 60-in. No-co-ro culvert pipe, at $5.44 per lin. 

ft $108.80 

Cement, 62 bbls., at $2.10, net 130.20 

Gravel, 37.5 cu. yds., at $1.25 per cu. yd 46.90 

Lumber, 1,024 ft. B. M 28.70 

Reinforcement, 183 lbs., at 5 cts. per lb 9. 15 

Backfilling, 248.5 cu. yds., at 17 cts. per cu. yd 42.25 

Foreman, $4 per day of 8 hrs. \ 

Labor, $3 per day of 8 hrs. / 401 .30 

Miscellaneous (hardware, power and wiring for pump, 

drayage, etc.) 27. 00 

Total cost $794. 30 

Cost of Reinforced Concrete and Vitrified Pipe Culvert. — F. M. Balsey 
gives the following in Engineering News-Record, June 13, 1918. 







^-.fBcrrs./2''CfoC 
■■JO'-'--^ .10-... 

Bcrrs,/d"C.toC. 



/iim-^'''^ Chamfer "^^'^^"'-'^^^ 
^ ^'^ Corners.. 




End Elevation 

Fig. 21. — Special culvert for roads built in rolling country. 



Drop-inlet culverts to convey water from the upper ditch to a point of dis- 
charge very much lower on the other side of the road are often necessary on 
highway work in rolling country. The design shown in Fig. 21, was worked 
up to meet a condition where the point of discharge was 24 ft. lower than the 
flow line of the upper ditch. 

If a conventional drop-inlet culvert had been installed at this point it would 
have necessitated the excavation of a well at least 22 ft. deep and the driving 
of a tunnel from the bottom of this well to the point of discharge. Another 
alternative would, of course, have been to cut through the entire bank. In 



1108 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



either case the excavation would have been difficult and expensive. The 
special design is considerably cheaper and in other ways much to be preferred. 
Reference to the drawing will show that the ditch was cut to a slope of about 
1>^ to 1, and of a width to take the 24-in. sewer pipe which was used in place of 
concrete because no economical method could be devised by which the con- 
crete could be poured on so steep a slope. Tile of this size could not be found 



0. 



^ or 






o 

■■ ^ 

f3 --30 

CL 
UJ 



5 -5 K 



' r 

8 -'Q"^ 



20-' -"^ 






• -9 UJ 



y 



y 



X 



JO - 


-Jo / 


50 - 


•5o 


60 - 


-Go 


70 - 


- 


SO- 


. 


SO - 


• 


100 ^ 

A 


6 



*n f So 
o ^ 

I 

J ■ • 3ooo 



20 rt 

3oM 
'■ - SoFT"/' 

:: / 



■f ZOOH 
3ooM 



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-S 



"7 
-■8 
'■» 

'-to 



y- 



(Ll 

bJ 
UJ 

< 



--50 
-60 
-70 
--80 
--90 
..,00 



CD E ^ 

CHART I 

Fig. 22. — Chart for determining weight of steel sheeting required for circular 

cofferdams. 

in stock in the neighborhood, and the necessity for ordering it specially added 
somewhat to the cost of the work, which was $227.61, distributed as follows: 

Reinforced concrete, 10 cu. yd. at $11 $110. 00 

24-in. sewer pipe, 39 lin. ft 52. 71 

Freight on pipe 31.40 

Labor installing pipe *; 15.31 

Contractor's fee, at 15 % 15.34 



HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 



1109 



A total of 146 lb. of steel was required for the reinforcement exclusive of the 
'hog-wire" used in the apron. A complete bill of material follows: 

Steel, 

2^^ in. sq. bars 16 ft. long 
22 >^ in. sq. bars 2H ft. long 

6^ in. sq. bars 93^ ft. long 

3>^ in. sq. bars 14 ft. long 
Cement, 15.5 bbl. 
Sand, 4.3 cu. yd. 
Stone, 8.6 cu. yd. 



z 
r 1 ? 

p4 --4. J 



6 -f6 

7 



IT).. 
O 

Z 

£ 



llJ - -100 



J5^ 



» --9 ^ 

♦♦---« 



10 - -J.0' 



50 - 


-so 


60 - 


-eo 


70 - 


. 


80 - 


- 


90 - 


- 


«00 - 


. 



eon 
3oM 



toon 

3©«M 
500 H 






it: 

O ' 

r- 
o 

J -+20 



--60 

--70 
--80 
--90 

..|0O 



-.400 
--500 
--&00 
.-700 
--800 
--90O 

4-I000 



CHART 2 

Fig. 23. — Chart for determining weight of steel sheeting required for straight- 
wall or irregular cofferdams. 

The design can easily be modified in dimension or in slope of barrel to fit 
almost any condition found in the field. In many cases it will be found that 
considerable saving will result. 

Weight of Steel Sheeting for Round or Box Cofferdams. — In Engineering 
.Record, Oct. 7, 1916, N. G. Near gives the following nomographic charts 



1110 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

which save considerable time in calculating the quantity of steel sheeting 
required for a given wall or cofferdam, especially in the case of a circular 
structure. Chart No. 1 (Fig. 22) is for computing the weight of such coffer- 
dams, and its use may be illustrated by supposing that it is desired to find the 
weight of steel sheet piling required to construct a cofferdam 40 ft. in diameter 
and 20 ft. deep, assuming that a section weighing 40 lb. to the square foot is 
used. To solve this problem, connect 20 on scale A with 40 on scale E and 
locate the intersection with scale D. Connect the point thus found with 40 on 
column B. The weight, 100,000 lb., is then read at the intersection of this 
last line with column C. 

The second chart (Fig. 23), which is for straight-wall or irregular structures 
where the total length is known, is used in a similar manner. For example, to 
find the weight of steel sheeting required to build a wall 30 ft. long and 10 ft. 
deep, using a section which weighs 21.5 lb. per square foot, connect 10 on scale 
A with 30 on scale E, locate the intersection with scale D and connect this 
point with 21.5 on scale B. The total weight, about 6500 lb., is read at the 
intersection of this line with scale C. 

The range of these charts is wide enough to cover almost any sheet-pile 
structure. The weight per square foot of the type sheeting which is to be 
used can, of course, be taken from the handbooks of the steel companies which 
make piling. 



CHAPTER XVII 
RAILWAY BRIDGES 

This chapter is made up of cost and other economic data relative to the 
construction of railway bridges. Further data which may be useful in con- 
nection with this subject will be found in Chapter XVI on Highway Bridges 
and Culverts. Many additional data on this subject are also given in the 
section on bridges in Gillette's "Handbook of Cost Data." 

Deduction of a New Rational Formula for the Economic Length of 
Each of a Series of Bridge Spans. — The following article by H. P. Gillette was 
published in Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 4, 1911. 

Up till 20 years ago, the common rule for determining the approximate 
length of bridge span, where a crossing consisted of a series of spans supported 
by piers, was to design the spans so that the cost of the substructure would 
equal the cost of the superstructure. In 1890 J. A. L. Waddell, M. Am. Soc. 
C. E., deduced the following rule: 

For any crossing, the greatest economy will be attained when the cost per lineal 
foot of the substructure is equal to the cost per lineal foot of the trusses and lateral 
system. 

The mathematical demonstration of Mr. Waddell's rule is reprinted in the 
1910 edition of Gillette's "Handbook of Cost Data," page 1489. It will be 
noted that the rule omits the cost of the floor system, the cost of which, as 
Mr. Waddell correctly pointed out, is practically independent of the length of 
the span, and therefore not a factor in determining the economic span. 

So far as we know, the correctness of Mr. Waddell's rule has never been 
disputed. Nevertheless it usually gives results farther from the truth than 
the old rule that the cost of superstructure should equal the cost of the sub- 
structure for a series of spans. The reason why this is so lies in the fact that 
Mr. Waddell's rule fails to take into account the cost of maintenance and 
renewals of the superstructure, which is an item of very considerable impor- 
tance in every steel railway bridge and by no means negligible in any steel 
bridge whatsoever. Mr. Waddell's rule, like its predecessor, involves the 
assumption that both the substructure and superstructure are equally per- 
manent which is rarely the case. 

ENGiNEEKiNG-CoNTRACTrNG, Oct. 7, 1908 (reprinted in Gillette's "Hand- 
book of Cost Data," page 1490), gave data showing that the average life of 
steel railway bridges has been less than 20 years on the main lines of American 
railways. J. E. Greiner has also stated that the life of iron or steel railway 
bridges " has been scarcely 25 years " in America. The cause of this short life 
has been the rapid increase in the weight of locomotives and cars. Perhaps 
we have reached the limit of weight or rolling stock, but, if we are to judge the 
future by the past, we certainly have not reached the limit ; and, if we have not, 
the life of steel bridges built today will probably be little if any greater than 
was the life of steel bridges built 20 years ago — at the time that Mr. Waddell 
deduced the rule above quoted. 

Our object is to present a rational formula for determining the economic 

1111 



1112 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

pan of each of a series of bridges, taking into consideration not only first 
cost but maintenance and depreciation. We shall show that, when these 
important factors are considered, a correct rule ( = equation 17 deduced below) 
to be applied is as follows: 

For the economic span, where a series of spans rest on piers^ the length of 
span must be such that the first cost plus the capitalized cost of (innual mainte- 
nance and depreciation of the longitudinal trusses {or girders) and the lateral 
system must equal the first cost plus the capitalized cost of annual maintenance 
and depreciation of the piers and other substructure. 

We shall also deduce a general formula (eq. 16) that will give the economic 
length of span, for any class of bridge, upon substitution of proper values 
for the constants. 

Proceeding now to the demonstration the following symbols will be used: 

L = length, in feet, of span. 

K — cost, in dollars, of each pier. 

S = cost of substructure, in dollars, per lineal foot of bridge. 

T = cost of trusses, in dollars, per lineal foot of bridge. 

y = cost of entire bridge (piers and superstructure) per lineal foot. 

p = price, in dollars, per pound of steel trusses in place. 

w = weight of steel, in pounds, per lineal foot of entire superstructure. 

C = a constant in the straight hne formula for bridge weight (w = CL -\- 
F), the value of C depending on the type of bridge and the loading. 

F = weight of steel floor system, in pounds, per lineal foot of bridge. 

M = capitalized cost of annual repairs and renewals of steel trusses, ex- 
pressed as a percentage of the first cost of the trusses. 

N = capitalized cost of annual repairs and renewals of the pier, expressed 
as a percentage of the first cost of the pier. 

B = width, in feet, of floor of a highway bridge. 

The weight per lineal foot of a steel bridge, whether plate girder or truss 
bridge, may be expressed by the following general formula: 

w = CL + F (1) 

Hence the cost of the steel per lineal foot of bridge is 

7 = -Mjp = pCL + pF (2) 

When the cost of a pier is not affected by increasing or decreasing the length 
of bridge span, as is usually the case, then 

S=f (3)- 

But 

y = I + S ".(4) 

y=pCL + pF + ~ (5) 

To determine the minimum value of y (= cost per lineal foot of entire 
bridge), differentiate eq. (5), remembering that L and y are the only variables. 

KdL 

dy = pCdL —- (6) 

L2 

dy 
Placing the first differential coeflBcient — = 0, we have 

dL 

K 

"^=1-^ (^> 



RAILWAY BRIDGES 1113 

K 
Substituting for —its value in eq. (3), we have 

Ju 

S 
pC = - (8) 

pCL= S (9) 

But pCL is the cost of the trusses per Hneal foot of bridge, hence 

T = pCL (10) 

T = S (11) 

Hence, for the economic span, the cost of the trusses per lineal foot of 
bridge must equal the cost of the pier per lineal foot of bridge, provided there 
is no annual expense for maintenance and depreciation. 

If eq. (7) be solved fbr L, we have 



= VI- 



'^Svc '''' 

If eq. (7) be solved for K, we have 

K = pCL2 (13) 

Equation (12) is to be used only where there is no annual expense for repairs 
or renewals of either substructure or superstructure, which is rarely the case- 

If a steel bridge has a life of 20 years, and if money is worth 5 per cent per 
annum to the investor, a sinking fund table shows that $3 must be put in the 
fund annually to amount to $100 at the end of 20 years. This $3 is the annual 
cost of renewals. Capitalizing it at 5 per cent, we have $3 -^ 0.05 = $60, 
which is the capitalized cost of renewals on every $100 of first cost of bridge 
steel in place. Hence the value of M in this case is 60 per cent, or 0.60. In 
other words the total cost of the steel per pound is p + Mp, or (1 + M)p, or 
1.6p in this case, if we include not only the first cost but the capitalized cost 
of renewal. ' 

In addition there is the annual cost of painting the steel. If it costs $2 a ton 
to scrape and paint the steel, and if this is done every 5 years, we have $0.40 
as the annual cost of painting, which capitalized at 5 per cent is $8 per ton. 
If steel costs $80 per ton in place, the capitalized cost of painting the steel is 
10 per cent, or 0.10, of its first cost. This 0.10 also is a part of M, hence the 
total value of M in this case is 0.6 + 0.1 = 0.7. Hence in this case the entire 
cost of the steel per pound is its first cost plus its capitalized cost of renewal and 
painting, or 1.7 p. Therefore, if the ^teel in a bridge has a limited life, we 
must substitute for p, in eqs. (9) and (12) its entire cost, namely 1.7p in the 
particular case just discussed, or (1 -\- M)p in any case. This gives us, 
instead of eqs. (9) and (12), 

(1 + M)pCL = S, or (1 + M)T = S (14) 



\(1 + ili 



L = X (15) 

f(l + M)pC 

Assuming money to be worth 5 per cent per year, we can readily derive the 
capitalized cost of steel renewals for any given life of steel bridge, by the 
method above indicated, and adding 0.10, or 10 per cent, as the capitalized 
cost of painting, we have the total value of M as in Table I, 



1114 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

TABLE I 

Life in years Value of M 

20 0.60 

25 0.52 

30 0.40 

35 0.32 

40 0.27 

50 0.20 

Values of C may be derived from formulas giving the weight of steel per 
lineal foot of bridge. Using the formulas given on pages 1471, 1474 and 1478 
of Gillette's "Handbook of Cost Data," 2nd edition, we have Table II. 

Table II 

C = 7, for single track railway truss bridges, Cooper's E-50 loading. 

C = 12, for plate girder bridges, ditto. 

C = 1)^, for single track electric railway truss bridges, loaded with 30-ton cars, 

oi 2,000 lbs. per lin. ft. 
C = 5, for plate girder bridges, ditto. 

C = — — = 0.09 B, for highway riveted steel truss bridges, with sidewalks, 

wooden floor system, loaded 80 lbs. per sq. ft., with sidewalks (B being 
width in feet of floor, including width of sidewalk). 

= ^-z = 0.11 B, for ditto without sidewalks. 

C = r-w^ = 0.24 B, for through plate girders, ditto. 

j> 

C = -z- = 0.20 B, for deck plate girders, ditto. 
5 

T> 

C = — = 0.25, for truss highway bridge with solid floors (assumed dead weight 
4 



being 150 lbs. per sq. ft. of floor). 

B_ 

2.4 

B 

2.6 



C = — - = 0.42 B, for through plate girders, ditto. 
C = ^r-^ = 0.38 for deck plate girders, ditto. 



There are some rivers and river beds of a character that necessitate con- 
siderable expenditures for riprap and other pier protection at frequent inter- 
vals. In such cases, the annual cost of pier protection should be capitalized 
and added to the first cost. Thus, if $50 is the average annual expenditure for 
pier protection and maintenance, we have $50 4- 5 per cent = $1,000, which 
is the capitalized cost of pier maintenance. If the first cost of the pier is 
$2,500, this $1,000 is 40 per cent, or 0.40, of the first cost. Hence N = 0.4, 
and in eq. (15) we must substitute (1 + N)K for the value of K there given, if 
we are to take into consideration the capitalized maintenance cost of the pier 
as well as its first cost. Then we have 



\(i + 



^>^ (16) 



M)pC 
In like manner, eq. (14) becomes 

a + M)T == a -{- N)S (17) 

Eq. (17) is the rule printed above in italics. 



RAILWAY BRIDGES 1115 

EXAMPLES 

Example I, — ^Assume a first cost for a bridge pier of $2,500, a first cost of 
$0.04 per lb. for steel in place, a life of 30 years for the steel, of a single t^ack 
railway truss bridge, Cooper E-50 loading. What is the economic span 
when there are a series of spans? 

In eq. (15) substitute the above values, and we have 

i= J— ^— = JI ^^^"" (16) 

\ (1 + M)pC \ (1 + M) X 0.04C 

Table I gives M = 0.4 for a life of 30 years. 
Table II gives (7 = 7 for a truss railway bridge. 
Therefore, 



-Vrr 



2'50» 80ft (17) 



X 0.04 X 7 



Hence the economic span is 80 ft. 

Example II. — Assume a solid floor highway truss bridge with floor width 
(B) of 24 ft., a cost of each pier of $3,600, a first cost of $0.04 per lb. for steel 
in place, a life of 40 years for the steel. What is the economic span? 



\(1 + M)pC \(1 + 



^'^^^ 109 (16) 



0.27) X 0.04 X 6 



Hence the economic span is 109 ft. 

Example III. — A series of railway truss bridge spans consists of 150 ft. 
spans; the loading is Cooper E-50; steel costs 4 cts. per lb. in place. What, 
should be the cost of each pier to justify such a span, even assuming that the 
steel requires no repairs and renewals? 

Eq. (13) gives the desired value for K, hence 

K = pCL^ = 0.04 X 7 X 150 X 150 = $5,300 (17) 

A concrete pier containing 200 cu. yds. and costing $12.50 per cu. yd.includ- 
ing cost of cofferdam, excavation and foundation piles, costs $2,500. Such a 
$2,500 pier is fairly typical, and railway spans of 150 ft. may be frequently 
seen on piers of no greater size and cost, showing that a much shorter span than 
150 ft. should have been used. In fact, as was shown in Example I, a span of 
80 ft. is the economic where piers cost $2,500 each, and where the life of the 
steel bridge is 30 years, money being worth 5 per cent. 

Discussion. — It will be noted that Mr. Waddell's rule (eq. 11), or its equiva- 
lent as given in eq. (12), results in a considerably longer span than.is obtained 
by the use of the correct rule (eq. 17), or its equivalent as given in eq. (16). 

A study of eq. (16) or (17) shows that an engineer should make the surveys 
for and designs of the piers of a bridge crossing, and should carefully estimate 
the cost of piers before attacking the problem of designing the span. The 
size and cost of a pier are usually not materially affected by the cost of the 
span, whereas the length and cost of the span are functions of the cost of 
the pier. Many bridge engineers have attacked such problems wrong end to, 
selecting span lengths in advance of determining the probable cost of piers. 
Witness to this may be had by studying published costs of bridge crossings, as 
well as by even cursory examination of many crossings. 



1116 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Rules for Designing Bridge Spans, the Cost of Whose Supports Varies with the 
Span Length. — In the deduction of the preceding formulas it has been assumed 
that the cost of each pier, K, was not affected by the length of the span. This 
usually holds true of piers in rivers, for their cross-section is designed to resist 
the thrust and impact of ice, logs, boats, etc., and is, therefore, far in excess 
of a cross-section required merely to support the bridge spans and their loads. 
But when a bridge is built over the land, or in still water where boats do not 
ply, or wherever the piers (or their equivalent) are given a cross-section suffi- 
cient merely to support the load, the preceding formulas can not be used 
without modification. 

When a pier becomes merely a supporting column, its cross-section varies 
directly with the load. Hence doubling the span doubles the load on the 
column, and therefore doubles its area of cross-section and approximately 
doubles its cost. In brief, the total cost of columns is practically a constant 
for any given length of crossing, regardless of the lengths of individual spans. 
Such columns are like the fioor system in that their cost per lineal foot of 
bridge is unaffected by changes in the span lengths. Hence, the formulas 
above given can be applied to a series of spans supported by columns, only upon 
condition that the cost of the columns be entirely ignored. In the case of an 
elevated railway, for example, K (in the above formulas) , becomes merely the 
cost of the foundations, or, more correctly, the cost of that part of the founda- 
tion not appreciably affected by the load upon the column. The same holds 
true of viaducts. 

A study of the detailed cost of a nmnber of steel viaducts, given in Gillette's 
"Handbook of Cost Data," page 1620 et seq., shows that several viaducts 
approximate closely to eq. (17), but that many of them fall wide of the eco- 
nomic mark, so wide, in fact, that it is quite clear that the designers made 
little or no advance study of the cost of the foundation and pedestals. 

Cost of elevated railways, in the same book, page 1376 et seq., show similar 
errors of economic design, if no account is taken of the fact that close spacing 
of columns on city streets is often prohibitory, because of damage, or alleged 
damage, to property. This last factor, however, is one that frequently 
operates to produce longer spans of elevated railway girders than would 
otherwise be economically permissible. 

It is evident that in applying eq. (17), the designer must bear in mind that 
no part of the cost of the substructure which is a function of the load of the 
span and its live load should be regarded as being a part of K. When this 
provision is held clearly in mind, eq. (17) furnishes a correct solution not only 
for bridge spans on masonry piers, but for viaducts and elevated railways. 

Deduction of a Formula for the Most Economic Span of Timber Trestles. — 
The following is an article by H. P. Gillette in Engineering and Contracting, 
April 17, 1912. 

The calculation for timber trestle spans differs mainly from that for steel 
spans in that the masonry piers for steel spans have a much longer life than 
that of the steel spans, whereas the bents of a trestle usually have a life that 
is the same as that of the stringers or beams. The economic effect of a life of 
masonry piers that is longer than the life of the supported steel spans is fully 
discussed'in the preceding pages. In the same article it is shown that the cost 
of the floor system does not enter as a factor in the problem of most economic 
steel span. Similarly, of course, the cost of the "deck" of a railway trestle 
or the cost of the floor plank of a highway trestle does not enter the problem 
before us. 



RAILWAY BRIDGES 1117 

Let 

C =s total cost (in dollars) of beams or stringers in a span. 

c - cost of beams per lin. ft, of trestle. 

K = total cost of a bent. 

k ~ cost of bents per lin. ft. of trestle. 

?/ = combined cost of beams and bents per lin. ft. of trestle. 

W= total safe load (dead and live) in lbs. at center of a span 

F = constant for any given kind of timber = 70 for southern yellow pine. 

b = aggregate breadth, in inches, of beams in a span. 

d = depth of beam, in inches. 

L = length of span, in feet. 

M== number of 1,000 ft. B. M. of beams in a span. 

p = price (in -place) per M. of timber in beams, in dollars. 

(1) C = pM. 

vM 

(2) c = 







L 




(3) 


k = 


K 

l' 




(4) 


y = 


pM 


K 
L 


(5) 


w = 


Fbd^ 

= (See the 

L 


!on 


(6) 


hd = 


WL 
Fd' 




(7) 


M = 


hdL 
12.000 




(8) 


hd = 


12.000M 
L 




Combining (6) and (8) 




(9) 


WL 

Fd 


12,000M 
L 





TFL2 

(10) M = 

12,000Fd 

Substituting in (4) . 

pWL K 

(11) y = + — 

To solve for a minimum unit cost (?/), differentiate and place the first 
differential coefficient equal to zero. 



(12) dy 



pWdL KdL 



12,000Fd L2 



dy pW K ^ 

' (13) — = =0. 

dL 12,000Fd L2 



(14) K = 



pTFL2 
12,000Fd* 



1118 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Substituting value of M (see eq. 10) in eq. (14). 

(15) K = pM. 

But by eq. (1), pM « C, henc^ 

(16) K ^ C. 

Hence the most economic trestle span is secured when the cost of a single bent 
equals the cost of all the beams or stringers in a single span. 

To arrive at a formula that will give the length of the most economic span 
directly, solve for L in e. (14). Then: 



(17) L2 


12,000KFd 
pW 


(18) L 


= V r>w 



4 



no J^. 

pW 



nearly. Equation (18) is the desired formula by which to determine the most 
economic span for a timber trestle. 

It will be observed that the first step in solving for L in eq. (18) is the 
determination of the cost (K) of a bent. It will also be noted that K is 
assumed not to be affected by the length of the spans between bents, which 
is essentially true in all ordinary railway and wagon trestles, for the posts are 
commonly made of some standard cross-section (as 12 X 12 ins.) regardless of 
the height of the bents, and so large a factor of safety is used for the posts that 
the number of posts in a bent is not altered by ordinary changes in the spacing 
of the bents; that is, in the span of the beams. If, however, change is made in 
the amount of timber in the bents because of increased live load per bent due 
to longer spans, then, although there is an increase of material in the posts per 
bent, there is no increase in the total material of all the posts in the whole 
trestle. In other words, changes in the amount of material in posts of a bent 
resulting from increased spans cause no change in the material in all the posts 
per lin. ft. of bridge; hence we must confine our attention, in solving for K, 
to such costs of a bent as remain unaffected by changes in spacing of bents. 

For any given type of trestle and loading, the cost per bent (K) is mainly 
a function of the height of the bent and the price of timber in place . Hence 
the economic span L varies approximately as the square root of the height of 
average bent in the trestle. This is a point that is seldom given enough con- 
sideration by designers of trestles. 

The ordinary limitations as to commercial length (L) and depths (d) of 
timber beams do not permit any great refinement in solving for the most 
economic span in trestles. But on the Pacific coast, where very long and 
large timbers are available at low cost, trestle designers can use eq. (18) to 
great advantage. The writer has seen any number of wagon road and rail- 
way trestles on the Pacific coast that were uneconomically designed, appar- 
ently because "standard designs" worked out for eastern conditions had been 
adopted. Highway trestles with bents spaced 16 ft. apart are far from being 
economic in a country where timbers 30 ft. long are available and cheap; 
yet a 16 ft. spacing of bents is often used for wagon road trestles, merely 
because it is " standard." Standard designs are money savers when standard 
conditions exist, but otherwise standard designs are frequently causes of great 
waste of money. 

Equation (18) makes it evident that before the spacing of bents is decided 
upon, the average height of bents should be determined. It also shows that 



RAILWAY BRIDGES 



1119 



the unit price (p) of timber is an important factor when the unit price of tim- 
ber in the beams exceeds that in the bents, as often happens where very long 
beams are required. 

The safe center load {W) should of course include the load of the beams and 
deck, and this is readily allowed for by remembering that a uniformly dis- 
tributed load is equal in effect to half as great a center load on a beam. 

Equation (18) contains the element d, or depth of beam; d is usually made 
as great as possible, having regard to commercial sizes of timber and the 
effect of d upon the unit price of timber (p) , In any given market the relation 



6 
5 

A 


















^ 



























Fig. 



3456789 10 

5pon Lengths in Hundred Feet 

1. — ^Uniform live load equivalent to class R bridges. 



of p to d (the depth) and L (the length) of beams can be determined and 
expressed in the form of an equation, so that the value of v thus determined 
can be substituted in eq. (18) , thus permitting a direct solution of the problem 
without resorting to the clumsier method of successive approximations. 

A Comparison of Carbon Steel and High-alloy Steels for Bridges. — The 
following data on " High-alloy Steels for Bridges," abstracted and rearranged 
from a paper by J. A. L. Waddell, in Proceedings, American Society of Civil 
Engineers, Vol. XL, p 669, and from the discussion of this paper on p. 1613 of 



1" 

•J 
^ 44 

^40 






























































^ 






























^ 


^ 


^ 
















































































— 


-J 


5 t 


/ 


? U 


? U 


i l( 


5 li 
5pon 


3 £ 

Lenqt 


£ 
hs in 


2 ^' 

Hund 


r-ed Ft 


6 £ 


3 J 


J 


? 3 


4 36 



Fig. 2.— Uniform live load equivalent to class U bridges. 

the Proceedings, were published in Engineering and Contracting, June 17, 
1914. 

A condition which at present militates seriously against the use of nickel 
steel in bridge building is that the manufacturers ask for it an additional 
price of about 2 cts. per pound, as compared with ordinary carbon steel, 
although but little more than one-half that would be a sufficient excess price. 
As the future development of America will necessitate the construction of 
many long-span bridges it is almost a necessity that there be found an alloy 
of steel of great strength, high elastic limit, workable under all necessary 



1120 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



manipulations in the shops, and of moderate cost. It is realized that the 
discovery of such an alloy will require much study and exhaustive experi- 
ments, but the saving in cost of a single large bridge might easily exceed the 
entire expenditure for such experiments. 

The basis of the following investigation is a mass of diagrammed and tabu- 
lated data on the weights of metal in simple spans and cantilever bridges of 
carbon steel, up to a limit of 600-ft spans for the former and 1,800-ft. main 
openings for the latter, accumulated by the writer and his firm during the last 

1 





V 














8 


N, 


^ 


^- 


^ 










7 














"~^ 










4 5 6 7 6 9 10 

Span Lengths in Hundred Feet 



Fig. 3. — Uniform live loads equivalent to class R bridges plus impact. 

25 years, together with the weights of nickel-steel bridges and of mixed 
nickel-steel and carbon-steel bridges computed by the writer in the prepara- 
tion of a previous paper on "Nickel-Steel for Bridges." As the weights of 
metal per linear foot in simple truss bridges were limited to lengths of 600 ft. 
in the former paper they have here been extended to 1,000 ft. by making 
actual calculations of stresses, sections, and weights of metal for several long 
spans, using the various kinds of steel assumed. The weights for bridges of 
carbon steel are based on the standard specifications given in the writer's 
"De Pontibus." They are quite accurate up to the limits of 1,000 ft. for 



\ 
































\ 


^ 










































































— 

















~~ 


6 i 


J 10 I 


' u 


l( 


5 li 


J ^ 


2 


^ £ 


4 Z 


5 «? 


5 3 


3 


Z 3^ 


J Z6 



5pan Lengths m Hundred Feet 
Fig. 4. — Uniform live loads equivalent to class U bridges plus impact. 

simple spans and 1,800 for the main openings of cantilever bridges. Figs. 1 

and 2 give the equivalent uniform live load per linear foot of single track 

assumed in computing the weights of trusses. The impact percentages were 

obtained from the writer's formula. 

40,000 
I = ' where I is the percentage of impact, and L is the loaded 

L -f- 500 

length, in feet, required to give the maximum stress. Figs. 3 and 4 give a 
combination of the equivalent uniform live loads and the impact loads. The 
loads obtained from these curves added to the dead loads give the total loads 
per linear foot used for the bridges. 



RAILWAY BRIDGES 



1121 



Tables III to VIII, inclusive, give the approximate weights of metal, in 
pounds per linear foot of span, for the floor system, lateral system and on 
piers for simple and cantilever bridges, for various spans and elastic limits, 
E. From these tables and the diagrams shown in Figs. 5 and 6 (which will be 
explained later) there can be determined the weights for the trusses. 

(The author develops reduction formulas for determining the weights of 
floor systems, lateral systems and on piers of alloy-steel bridges from the 
known weights of carbon-steel bridges, but we have omitted these in our 
abstract.) 



Table III. — Weights of Metal in Floor Systems of Simple Spans 

Weight of metal per lin. ft. 

span, lbs. 

Metal mainly For 350- For 600- For 1,000- 

used in span ft. span ft. span ft. span 

Carbon steel 1,400 1,550 2,000 

E= 50,000 lbs 1,150 1,300 1,750 

E= 60,000 lbs 1,000 1,150 1,600 

E = 70 , 000 lbs 900 1 , 050 1 , 500 

E= 80,0001bs 850 1,000 1,400 

E = 90,000 lbs 800 950 1 ,300 

E= 100, 000 lbs 750 900 1,200 



of 



Table IV. — Weights of Metal in Lateral Systems of Simple Spans 

Weight of metal per lin. ft. of 

span, lbs. 

Metal mainly For 350- For 600- For 1,000- 

used in span ft. span ft. span ft. span 

Carbon steel 450 600 1 , 200 

E= 50,000lbs 450 600 1,150 

E= 60,000lbs 450 600 1,100 

E= 70,000lbs 450 600 1,050 

E = 80,000 lbs 450 600 1 ,000 

E = 90 ,000 lbs 450 600 950 

E= 100,000 lbs 450 600 900 

Table V. — Weights of Metal on Piers for Simple Spans 

Weight of metal per lin. 

ft. of span, lbs. 

Metal mainly For 350- For 1,000- 

used in span ft. span ft. span 

Carbon steel 250 400 

E = 50,000 lbs 200 300 

E= 60,000 lbs 190 280 

E= 70,000 lbs 180 260 

E = 80,000 lbs 170 240 

E = 90,000 lbs 160 220 

E = 100,000 lbs 150 200 



Table VI. — Weights of Metal in Floor Systems of Cantilever Bridges 



Metal mainly 600-ft. ft. ft. 

used in span span span span 

Carbon steel 1,600 1,800 2,000 

IE= 50,000 lbs 1,200 1,450 1,650 

E= 60,0001bs 1,000 1,200 1,400 

IE = 70,000lbs 950 1,150 1,300 

E = 80,000 lbs 900 1 ,050 1 ,200 

E = 90 ,000 lbs 850 950 1 , 100 

E = 100 ,000 lbs 800 900 1 ,000 

71 



Weight of metal per lin. ft. of span, lbs. 

1,200- 1,800- 2,400- 3,000- 3,600- 
ft. ft. ft. 

span span span 



2,400 
2,100 
1,850 
1,700 
1,600 
1,500 



2,200 
2,000 
1,900 



2,400 



1122 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Table VII. — Weights of Metal in Lateral Systems of Cantilever Bridges 

Weight of metal per lin. ft. of span lbs. 

1,200- 1,800- 2,400- 3,000- 3,600- 
Metal mainly 600-ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. 

used in span span span span span span span 

Carbon steel 800 1 , 100 1 , 400 

E= 50,000 lbs 800 1,050 1,300 1,800 

E= 60,000lbs 800 1,000 1,200 1,600 

E= 70,000lbs 800 1,000 1,200 1,600 2,000 ..... 

E= SO.OOOlbs 800 1,000 1,200 1,600 2,000 .:... 

E= 90,0001bs 800 1,000 1,200 1,600 2,000 2,400 

E=100,0001bs 800 1,000 1,200 1,600 2,000 2,400 

Table VIII. — Weights op Metal on Piers for Cantilever Bridges 



Weight of metal per lin. ft. of span, lbs, 

1,200- 1,800- 2,400- 3,000- 3600- 



Metal mainly 
used in span 
Carbon steel 


600-ft. 

span 

700 


ft. 
span 

1,100 
900 
860 
820 
780 
740 
700 


ft. 
span 
2,100 
1,700 
1.600 
1,500 
1,400 
1,300 
1,200 


ft. 
span 

2;266 

2,100 
2,000 
1 , 900 
1,800 


ft. 
span 

3^506 
3,200 
2,900 
2,600 


ft. 
span 


E = 50 , 000 lbs ... 


600 




E = 60,000 lbs 


580 




E = 70,000 lbs 


560 




E = 80,000 lbs 


540 




E = 90 , 000 lbs 


. 520 


3 900 


E = 100,000 lbs 


500 


3,600 



The weight in pounds per linear foot of the trusses of simple carbon steel 
spans may be expressed by the formula, 

T = K + Ti -{■ Cc -\- Cw, 
where K is the part of the total truss weight per linear foot which is inde- 
pendent of the quality of the metal and of the stresses ; Ti is the weight of the 
main portions of the tension members and of their details which are directly 
affected by the stresses ; Cc is the weight of the main portions of the compres- 
sion chords and inclined end posts and their details which are directly affected 
by the stresses; and Cw is that of the main portions of the compression web 
members which are directly affected by the stresses. From experience in 
designing large bridges it may be stated that, as an average, K = 0.2T', 
Ti = O.ST; Cc = 0.3 T; and Cw = 0.2 5". 

It is well known that in trusses with parallel chords and of economic depths 
the weight of the chords is equal to the weight of the web; but in trusses with 
polygonal chords, having center depths less than the theoretically economic 
ones, as do those of all long-span bridges, the weight of the chords is much 
greater than that of the web. As a general average for long spans the ratio of 
weight of chords to that of webs is about 6 to 4. 

Fig. 5 gives the total weight of metal per linear foot of span in simple-truss 
bridges for "Class R" live load, for carbon steel and for alloy steels having 
various elastic limits. An inspection of these curves shows the great saving 
in weight of metal which may be obtained by using alloy steels instead of 
carbon steel. This difference is most apparent between the weights for alloy 
steel having an elastic limit of 50,000 lbs. (the nickel steel which the manu- 
facturers are willing to furnish) and that having an elastic limit of 60,000 lbs. 
The gradual reduction in the saving of metal with the increase of elastic limit 
is strikingly noticeable; and the conclusion may be drawn that, unless the 
extremely high-alloy steels can be obtained with only a moderate increase in 
cost, there will be no economy in using them for simple-span bridges. 

Fig. 6 gives the average, total weights of metal per linear foot of span for 



RAILWAY BRIDGES 



1123 



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3pan Lengths in Hundred Ft 

Fig. 5. — Total weights of metal per linear foot of span for double-track, simple- 
span bridges of carbon steel and alloy steels of various elastic limits. 




a 



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r. 6 c. 



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Lengths of Main Spans m Hundred Feet 

Fig. 6. — Total weights of metal per linear foot of span for double-track, canti- 
lever bridges of carbon steel and alloy steels of various elastic limits. 



1124 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

cantilever structures having main openings of various lengths. The live loads 
used are "Class R" and "Class S" for the floor systems and "Class U" for 
the trusses. The proportional dimensions of typical, through, cantilever 
bridges are as follows: a main span, I, having a suspended span of %l, two 
cantilever arms each of Hel, and two anchor arms of the same length as the 
cantilever arms. Any reasonable variation from these proportions would 
not change materially the average weight of metal per linear foot of span 
given by the curves of Fig. 6. The superiority of alloy steels over carbon 
steel is just as clearly shown as it was in the curves for the simple spans, but 
the advantage of using very high steels is greater. 

If it is assumed that a limit of 36,000 lbs. of metal per linear foot of span is as 
high as it is either economical or practicable to go in the construction of double- 
track cantilever bridges (and the curves show this to be a logical limit), the 
following limiting lengths of main openings will be approximately as follows : 

Maximum 
length, in 
Kind of steel ft. 

Carbon steel 2 , 030 

Steel with 50,000 lbs. elastic Umit 2 , 340 

Steel with 60,000 lbs. elastic Umit 2 , 590 

Steel with 70,000 lbs. elastic Hmit 2 , 780 

Steel with 80,000 lbs. elastic Umit 2 , 910 

Steel with 90,000 lbs. elastic Umit 3 , 030 

Steel with 100,000 lbs. elastic Umit 3 , 140 

The assumption of 36,000 lbs. of metal per linear foot of span as a maxi- 
mum means that, for carbon steel, there would be required at this limit 
4.35 lbs. of metal to support each pound of live load (exclusive of impact 
allowance) ; and that for the alloy steels of various elastic limits the corre- 
sponding values are 4.37, 4.39, 4.40, 4.41, and 4.42, respectively, the average 
of which is 4.4 lbs. From the appearance of the curves at their upper ends one 
may draw the conclusion that, in the case of very high-alloy steels, the limit 
of weight of metal per linear foot of span can legitimately be raised beyond the 
36,000-lb. limit. The more nearly these curves approach the vertical the 
more uneconomical it would be to extend the limit beyond 36,000 lbs. per 
linear foot. It is plainly evident that there is no adv^antage in carrying the 
carbon-steel bridges beyond the limit of 2,000 ft. for the main opening, but it 
is otherwise for the 100,000-lb. elastic limit steel. Continuing the curve for 
the latter it is found that the weight would reach 46,000 lbs. per linear foot for 
a span of 3,400 ft.; and that the inclination from the vertical at that point is 
greater than that for the carbon-steel curve at its limit of 36,000 lbs. with a 
main opening of 2,030 ft. Perhaps therefore it would be more correct to 
assume the extreme economic limit of main opening to be 3,400 ft. or even 
3,500 ft. For this last length the average weight of metal per linear foot of 
bridge shown by the 100,000-lb. elastic Hmit curve would be 52,000 lbs/ which 
means that it would require 6.38 lbs. of metal to support each pound of live 
load, exclusive of the elTect of impact. Although this is an excessive quan- 
tity, it is nevertheless conceivable that conditions might exist which would 
render it advisable to adopt this extreme limit of main opening, although at 
such a length a suspension bridge would undoubtedly be cheaper. If it is 
admitted (as is maintained by some bridge engineers) that the impact of the 
live load on the main members of long-span trusses is immaterial, the practical 
limit of length of the main opening wiU be somewhat increased. Moreover, 



RAILWAY BRIDGES 



1125 



such a contention is not far from correct, as the latest experiments on impact 
from live loads in bridges show that its effect on moderately long spans is 
much less than engineers in general have been assuming. It is unlikely that 
the impact ever reduces to zero, but for openings of 1,200 ft. or greater it is 
true that its amount is so small as to be negligible, in view of the fact that the 
live load stresses in the main truss members will never be quite as large as 
they are computed. The latter statement is true, because (a) the trains on 
two tracks never advance together so as to produce maximum web stresses; 
(b) such trains are not hkely ever to cover entirely the bridge or even any 

56 



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IS ZO tZ Z4 £6 23 30 3Z 34 
L engfhs of Main 5pans in Hundred Ft 



36 



Fig. 7.— Total weights of metal per linear foot of span for double-track, canti- 
lever bridges of carbon steel and alloy steels of various elastic limits when impacts 
are assumed as zero. 



individual part of it, except, perhaps, the central span; and (c) it is improbable 
that any load of cars — unless they are ore or coal cars — will ever be uniformly 
full or loaded to the assumed limit. 

Fig. 7 shows the curves of weights for cantilever bridges of the same type 
and loading as those used in preparing the curves in Fig. 8 except that the 
Impact on main members of trusses is assumed to be zero. These curves 
begin at main openings of 1,200 ft. and extend to the greatest practicable 
limiting lengths of such openings. A comparison of the curves of Figs. 6 and 
7 shows that by neglecting impact on trusses there is an average saving of 



1126 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



30Zr 



to% 



about 700 lbs. of metal per linear foot of span, for all spans and all kinds of 
steels. With a few exceptions this difference is comparatively uniform for all 
the curves, over their entire lengths. 

Under the assumption that the limit of weight of metal is 36,000 lbs. per 
linear foot the greatest practicable span lengths have been increased on the 
average only about 20 ft. by neglecting impact on trusses. By comparing 
the extensions of the curves for steel having an elastic Umit of 100,000 lbs. it is 
found that, for an assumed limit of 52,000 lbs. of metal per linear foot of span, 
the extreme practicable length of main opening has been increased only 25 ft. 
These comparisons indicate that there is little gain, either in economy or 
increase of practicable limit of opening, in neglecting the effect of impact. 

Figs. 8 and 9 show the percentages of 
carbon steel in structures of mixed nickel 
and carbon steels. The curves are ac- 
curate for simple spans up to 600 ft. and 
for cantilever bridges with openings up 
to 1,800 ft., and beyond these limits 
they have been continued by deflections. 
Span Lengths in Hundred Feet These curves were prepared from dia- 
FiG. 8. — Percentages of carbon grams of weights of metal in bridges of 
steel in simple-span bridges of mixed mixed nickel and carbon steels, and the 
nickel and carbon steels. diagrams are the result of careful, 

detailed computations of actual designs. The percentages are, of course, 
subject to great variation, because no two designers would agree exactly as 
to what minor parts of an alloy-steel bridge should be made of carbon steel. 
The following abstract from the discussions of the foregoing paper contains 
pertinent data: 

Discussion by Henry W. Hodge. — The length of bridge spans in general use 
has been increasing steadily, and we have reached limits where the dead weight 
of the structure has become the largest portion of its carrying capacity, so 
that some method of keeping down the weight is a necessity for the construc- 
tion of the great spans now contemplated. The only way to reduce the dead 
load materially is by the use of metal of higher carrying capacity than our 



jo'A 



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Fig. 



/3 /5 17 19 Bl 23 25 
3pon Lengths in Hundred Feet 

9. — Percentages of carbon steel in cantilever bridges of mixed nickel and 
carbon steels. 



present materials, and an important step has been made in this direction by 
the use of nickel steel, which has 50 per cent greater carrying capacity than the 
carbon steel in general use. 

The trusses of the three 668-ft. spans of the St. Louis Municipal Bridge were 
designed for nickel steel throughout, except certain minor sub-members. 
Nickel-steel eye-bars and carbon-steel compression members were also used, 
the floor system and bracing being of carbon steel in each case. 

The weights of each span were: 

With complete nickel-steel trusses, lbs 9,200,000 

With nickel-steel bars, and the rest of carbon steel, lbs. 10 , 900 , 000 



RAILWAY BRIDGES 1127 

As the dead load of railways, tracks, etc., was 5,500 lbs. per linear foot, the 
total average dead load was: 

With nickel-steel trusses, lbs. per linear foot 19,300 

With nickel-steel bars, and the rest of carbon steel, lbs. per 

linear foot 21 ,800 

Thus, the nickel-steel compression members in the trusses made a differ- 
ence in weight of 2,500 lbs. per linear foot, or 13 per cent. 

The average live* load on the two decks was 16,600 lbs. per linear foot, thus 
the use of nickel-steel compression members made a saving of 7 per cent in the 
total load on the structure. 

The average unit prices for the two classes of material in this structure, 
erected in place, were: 

Nickel steel, per pound 5.6 cts. 

Carbon steel, per pound 3. 95 cts. 

The difference in cost of the two materials was 1.65 cts. per pound or 42 per 
cent of the price of the carbon steel; but the elastic limit required for the 
nickel steel was 50 per cent higher than for the carbon steel, so that the nickel 
steel was the cheaper, considering the strength. 

-The nickel steel had 3K per cent of nickel, but manufacturers are now 
commercially producing, at a very much reduced price, an alloy steel with not 
more than IH per cent of nickel, together with small percentages of chromium 
and vanadium, which has all the properties of this steel, so that there is at 
present a readily obtainable material, which is 50 per cent stronger than the 
carbon steel in general use, at a comparatively small increase in cost. 

The increase of elastic limit to 50,000 or 60,000 lbs. per square inch will 
help greatly in the construction of spans of considerable length; but, for the 
very long spans now being planned, a still stronger material is needed, and it 
can economically be used at a very considerable increase in price. 

Formula for Erection Cost of a Bridge Superstructure. — The following 
formula, given by C. E. Fowler is taken from the abstract of his discussion of 
Mr. Waddell's paper (see preceding pages) in Engineering and Contracting, 
June 17, 1914. • 

200 , 

C = a +\/l + Hh + —- + sp - H y/w- 500 
a 

where C = cost of erection, in cents per 100 lbs. ; 

a = a constant for each type of structure; 

= 15 cts. for railway pin trusses; 

= 25 cts. for railway riveted trusses; 

= 20 cts. for railway girders; 

= 20 cts. for highway pin trusses; 

= 30 cts. for highway riveted trusses; 

= 15 cts. for highway girders; 
I = span length, in feet ; 
h = height of falsework, in feet ; 

d — daytime temperature, average, in degrees Fahrenheit, 
p = number of coats of paint ; 
■w * weight in lbs. per lin. ft. 

Taking the case of a riveted railway span 225 ft. long, height of falsework 
48 ft., average temperature 40°, 2 coatff of paint, and weighing 2,100 lbs. per 



1128 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

linear foot, we find the probable erection cost to be 83 cts. per 100 lbs., or 
$16.60 per ton. 

A railway pin span of 144 ft., height of falsework 36*ft., average tempera- 
ture 50°, 2 coats of paint, and weighing 1,400 lbs. per linear foot, would have 
an erection cost of 62 cts. per 100 lbs., or $12.40 per. ton. 

These two examples show what an influence a change in any one of the 
factors will have on the unit erection cost. The formula was deduced to fit 
certain conditions, which to a large extent were due to the personal equations 
of the designer and the erector; and, with plans prepared by some designers, 
the cost of erection would exceed very greatly the values found from the for- 
mula, it being only too common on the part of many designers to forget that 
structures must be erected at a reasonable cost, and still others seem to forget 
the process of erection entirely. Many erection costs, of course, will exceed 
greatly what they should, due to unforeseen causes. 

Cost of Concrete Abutments and Pedestals on Track Elevation Work. — 
Charles G. Huestis gives the following data in Engineering and Contracting, 
Feb. 21, 1912. 

At the point where the following described work took place two streets 
intersect at the exact place crossed by four tracks of the railroad proposed to 
be elevated. On one of these streets are two tracks of a very busy street 
car line and steam tracks on both streets. On account of heavy traffic the 
railroad company was obliged to use at least two of its tracks during construc- 
tion and at least one of the trolley tracks had to be kept in service. Team 
traffic also had to be maintained on at least one side of the street. Overhead 
along the railroad line were twenty or more telegraph and telephone wires and 
along the streets were electric light wires and trolley wires. 

The masonry consisted of a heavy concrete abutment on each side of the 
street and 23 pedestals in the street. It was impossible to find place in the 
street for machinery so that all the working room allowed was the space of two 
tracks and outside the outer track about 20 ft. in width and back as far as 
required. 

The railroad company abandoned two of its tracks, and the stub end on each 
side of the street was allowed the contractor for construction sidings. A stiff- 
leg derrick with a 40-ft. boom was set up, with one leg parallel to the face of 
the abutment and in such a position that the boom would reach pedestals in 
the center of the street. One track of the street railway company with its 
trolley wire was taken out of service and by working a low boom the derrick 
was able to avoid other wires almost entirely. The stiff-leg parallel to the 
abutment necessarily crossed the siding track but was high enough to allow 
cars to move under it so that excavated material from the pedestal pits might 
be loaded by derrick and taken away by the railroad company. 

A K-cu. yd. Smith mixer was set up near the end of the siding and far 
enough ahead of the derrick to allow the boom to reach the mixer when very 
high. When the siding was not in use for cars to remove excavated material 
the cars containing materials for concrete were placed alongside and back of 
the mixer and derrick. Plank staging was built alongside the cars and to the 
mixer, so that wheelbarrows might be loaded over the sides of cars and wheeled 
to the mixer. The excavated material as well as the concrete were handled in 
1-cu. yd. dump buckets by the derrick. When several pedestals had been 
built the excavated material from others was used as backfilling for the ones 
completed. 

The derrick was first erected near the face of the abutment and when the 



RAILWAY^ BRIDGES 1129 

pedestals in the street were completed it was necessary to move the entire 
rig, derrick and mixer, backward about 40 ft. in order to build the abutment. 
This was accomplished by drawing the engine on rollers by its own power, and 
sliding the derrick on plank, still erect, using the engine for power. 

Exactly the same method was followed on the opposite side of the street, 
two derricks and two mixers being used on the entire work. 

Excavation. — The excavation for the abutments was about 16 ft. in depth 
and for the pedestals from 16 to 22 ft. The material, beside the street paving 
and sidewalk on top, was about 5 ft. of clay and the remainder gravel, all 
perfectly dry. Excavaton, as covered by the contract, was measured only to 
the foundation lines of the concrete footings though as a matter of fact much 
more was necessarily excavated in deep pits. The entire payroll for excavat- 
ing, sheathing and bracing, backfilling to original ground or loading on cars 
was the sum of $2,292.58 for 2,832 cu. yds., engineer's measurement. (This 
gives a unit cost of slightly over 80 cts. per cubic yard. — Editors.) 

Concrete. — The concrete materials were crushed stone and gravel taken 
from cars direct as described above. Water was piped to the mixers from a 
nearby hydrant, and cement was carried from box cars back of gravel and 
stone cars. The cost of unloading materials as described and wheeling them 
to the mixer, together with mixing and placing them and the finishing of the 
face after the forms were removed, was as follows for a total of 1,598 cu. yds.: 

46}4 hrs. foreman at 40 cts $ 18. 60 

20 hrs. foreman at 37 cts * . . . 7 . 40 

52 hrs. foreman at 383^ cts 20.02 

138 hrs. foreman at 32 >S cts 44.85 

144 hrs. hoist runner at 30 cts 43. 20 

3 hrs. carpenter at 273^^ cts .73 

54 3^^ hrs. straw boss at 25 cts 13. 63 

2,186>i hrs. labor at 20 cts 437.30 

781 hrs. labor at 17^^ cts 136.67 

51 hrs. labor at 15 cts 7.65 

Total $730.05 

(This total gives a cost per cubic yard of concrete of 45.7 cts., say 46 cts. — 
Editors.) 

Forms. — The coHcrete forms were extremely easy to build and set. There 
were no sloping wings and nothing but straight work except that one end of 
each abutment was turned at an angle of about 30°. The other ends of the 
abutments were left for future extension. There were three expansion joints 
in one abutment and two in the other, where a full stop in each case was made 
and key ways put in for bonding. It took 30,500 ft. B. M. of lumber to form 
the neat work of abutments and the formed part of pedestals, if all had been 
formed at once. Two-inch yellow pine boards were used and 4 X 6-in. yellow 
pine for uprights. The total payroll for building forms, oiling with paraffine 
oil, removing forms and cleaning lumber was as follows: 

233^^ hrs. foreman at 40 cts $ 9.40 

58>^ hrs. foreman at 383^^ cts 22. 52 

7 hrs. foreman at 37 cts 2 . 59 

18 hrs. foreman at 32^ cts 5 . 85 

56 hrs. hoist engineer at 30 cts. . 16.80 

4513^^ hrs. carpenters at 27>^ cts 124. 16 

4793'^ hrs. carpenters at 25 cts 119.88 

693^^ hrs. carpenters at 22>^ cts 15. 63 

4633-^ hrs. labor at 20 cts 92.70 

25>^ hrs. labor at 173^^ cts 4. 46 

4 hrs. labor at 173^^ cts .60 

Total .' '. $ 414. 59 



1130 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

(On a basis of 1,598 cu. yds. of concrete the cost of forms per cubic yard was 
25.9 cts. or say 26 cts. As a matter of fact not all of the concrete work 
required built forming, so that this unit cost is indicative only — Editors.) 

Rigging. — The total payroll for setting up and taking down, together with 
moving each plant once as described above, also the building and moving of 
stagings alongside of cars, for two derricks and two mixers, was as follows: 

40 hrs. foreman at 383^ cts $ 15 . 40 

31 hrs. foreman at 40 cts 12 . 40 

119 hrs. rigger at 323^ cts 38. 68 

57 hrs. hoist engineer at 30 cts 17 . 10 

45>^ hrs. carpenter at 273-^ cts 12. 43 

157K hrs. carpenter at 25 cts 39 . 38 

41 hrs. carpenter at 223^ cts 9 . 23 

3 hrs. carpenter at 23 cts. .69 

4793^ hrs. labor at 20 cts 95. 90 

1493^ hrs. labor at 173^ cts 26. 16 

303^ hrs. labor at 15 cts 4 . 57 



Total $271 . 94 

The payroll for setting up one derrick only, unloading and setting one mixer, 
together with building platform and stagings once only, was as follows: 

8 hrs. foreman at 40 cts $ 3 . 20 

10 hrs. foreman at 383^ cts 3 . 85 

30 hrs. rigger at 323^ cts 9.75 

20 hrs. hoist engineer at 30 cts 6 . 00 

100 hrs. carpenter at 25 cts. 25. 00 

3 hrs. carpenter at 23 cts .69 

30 hrs. carpenter at 223^ cts 6.75 

29 hrs. labor at 20 cts 5. 80 

35 hrs. labor at 17>^ cts 6. 12 



Total $67. 16 

The other items of payroll not mentioned in the above were as follows: 

Building and repairing tool house. $ 28. 71 

Loading and unloading tools and lumber 133. 87 

Night watch, Sunday watch and other general expense. . 158. 97 

Repairs to machinery 12. 66 

Total $334.21 

Total payroll for. the work $4,043.36. 

The ledger accounts for this work show other expenses as follows : 

Premium on bond 

Liability insurance 

General and sundry expenses ~r 

Office and timekeeper 

Materials for repairs 

Small tools 

Lumber for foundations 

Form lumber 

Wire and nails for forms 

Paraffine oil for forms 

Oil waste, etc 

47 . 04 tons of coal 

Water, lump sum 

Paid railroad company for unloading cars of excavated 
material 

Total ledger accounts $1 , 404 . 42 

The coal consumption amounted to about H ton per day per boiler. Only 
20 h.p. upright boilers were used. 



$ 20 


00 


98 


72 


48 


65 


275 


00 


11 


29 


34 


49 


274 


04 


267 


70 


40 


20 


3 


70 


37 


70 


141 


13 


75 


00 


76 


80 



RAILWAY BRIDGES 



1131 



Fig. 10 shows the character of the 
masonry. In constructing the abutment 
2 X 2-in. molding was used to bevel top 
and bottom edges of the coping and to 
mark expansion joints. There were 
eleven square pedestals of the dimensions 
shown; ten pedestals 18 ins. less in 
height and 9 X 8 ft.' on the bottom, and 
two pedestals irregular in shape on 
account of being set close to the side- 
walk. These were five courses in height. 

Labor Cost of Piers and Abutments 
for Viaduct of the Fort Dodge, Des 
Moines & Southern (Electric) Ry. — In 
Engineering and Contracting, March 
19, 1913, C. J. Steigleder describes the 
methods of constructing the piers and 
abutments for the steel deck plate^girder 
viaduct, 784 ft. long and 156 high, 
which replaced a wooden trestle. The 
following data are taken from Mr. 
Steigleder's article. 

Fig. 11 shows the general arrangement 
of the work. 

Specifications called for a concrete 
mixture of 1:3:6, except for the coping 
course. The coping course was con- 
sidered the top foot of the pedestal 
and was made of 1:2:4 concrete. The 
stone used with the 1:3:6 measure was 
from 1 to 2 ins. in the largest dimen- 
sions, and for the 1:2:4 mixture not more 



.•<-5-5->) 




•<- 11-6. >J 

Fig. 10. — Section of concrete abutment. 




1132 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

than 1 in. in the largest dimensions. All stone was screened, no crusher run 
being used, and was a good grade of limestone rock. The sand used was 
taken from the Des Moines River, about five miles above the site of the 
bridge. Hawkeye brand cement was used, and water was secured from a 
creek in the ravine. A 7-h.p. gasoline pump was used to force the water up 
the hill into storage barrels at the mixer. 

The mixing was done with a Ransom mixer, driven by a 6-h.p. Stover 
engine, the engine and mixer both being mounted on the same frame. Owing 
to the steep slope of the hill, it was impracticable to move the mixer down 
the slope, or to wheel the concrete to place. The most efficient way was to 
spout it and this was the method used One-half of the piers were poured 
from the north end of the bridge and the other half from the south. The mixer 
was mounted on blocks and a platform built up around it so that the hopper 
was above the platform, just about the height of a wheelbarrow The chute 
used to convey the concrete was made of No. 23 sheet steel, circular in form, 

10 ins in diameter, and in lengths of 10 and 12 ft. The pipe was attached to 
a small wooden chute <at the end of the hopper,, and from here run to any 
desired point. It was supported at joints by wooden cross-frames, or by 
brackets tacked tc the batter posts on the existing bridge. At the end of 
the pipe, a curved connection was used to turn the concrete down into the 
forms. 

This type of spouting proved very satisfactory where the distance was not 
greater than 250 ft., nor the grade less than 24° with the horizontal (about 1 ft. 
vertical to 2.3 ft. horizontal). When on a less grade than this, the concrete 
clogged in the pipe and caused considerable trouble. A better type of chute 
would be one open at the top so as to give access to the concrete. Fig. 

11 shows the location of the concrete mixer and how the piping was carried to 
the piers. 

The concrete gang was composed of 12 men and a foreman; 2 were used in 
spading the concrete as it was placed, 1 on water and dumping cement, 1 
taking care of the mixer, 6 on sand and rock, and 2 carpenters. As far as 
possible, the concreting on a footing or pedestal was continuous, and only in 
one or two cases were joints made in either. From four to six footings were 
run at a time. As soon as the first two of these footings had set, the forms for 
the pedestal were placed aiM securely braced. After being braced, the 
template for the anchor bolts was centered and tacked to the top of the pier 
form. The anchor bolts were then placed in the template, plumbed and wired 
to the form. 

The total amount of concrete in the foundation was 932 cu. yds. The time 
required to place this amount was 40 days. The unit costs of concrete and of 
excavation were as follows : 



Excavation 

Per 
cu. yd. 

In cut, steam shovels $0 . 22 

In cut, teams . 36 

For foundations 0.48 



RAILWAY BRIDGES 1133 

Concrete 

Per Per cent 
cu. yd. 

Cement $1.16 21.3 

Rock 0.93 17.1 

Sand 0.80 14.7 

Water 0.014 0.3 

Lumber . 40 7.3 

Pipe for spouting 0.25 4.6 

Train service .' 0.19 3.5 

Labor* 1.65 30.3 

Incidentals 0.05 0.9 

Total $5.44 100.0 

* The average daily output was 23.3 cu. yds.; with the gang as given above, the 
rates of pay would be about as follows: 

1 Foreman $ 5.00 

2 Carpenters @ $4.00 8 . 00 

1 Engineman 3 . 00 

9 Laborers @ $2.50 22. 50 

$38.50 

The excavation was done by the railroad company ; the foundation work by 
contract. 

Cost of Cofferdam for a Small Bridge Pier in the Potomac River. — The 
following data are taken from a more detailed description of the work by 
Elliott Vandevater in Engineering and Contracting, May 24, 1916. 

The work was begun in October, 19 10* and was finished about the last of 
December of the same year. It consisted of building a new pier in the center 
of the Potomac River about ten miles above Cumberland, and of reinforcing 
the old stone abutments, so that the old truss bridge could be replaced with 
plate girders of one-half the span. The river at this point is about 80 ft. wide 
in times of ordinary flow but it rises very rapidly and at flood times covers 
more than twice this width. At the point selected for the pier the river is 
about 8 ft. deep normally and the current is very swift as the rocks on the east 
bank throw the current to the center of the stream. The foundation was 
30 X 14 ft. and a step of about 18 in. was made on all sides before the neat 
work was started. The batter on three sides of the pier was the same and was 
about l}i in. to 1 ft. Of course that on the nose or cut- water was much 
greater. A heavy coping about IK ft. deep, and with 6-in. overhang all 
around, capped the pier. The pier was 20 ft. high from top of foundation to 
top of coping. 

Laborers were paid $1.75 for ten hours, foremen $100 per month, carpenters 
35 cts. per hour and firemen 25 cts. per hour. 

Costs* 
Breakwater — 

Building, placing and sinking — Labor $ 43. 19 

Material. 22.00 

Total $ 65.19 

Cofiferdam — h 

Labor $516.76 

Labor, digging and hauHng 55 yd. clay for puddle 20. 01 

Lumber, 8.34 M. B. M. at $20 . 166.80 

(Only labor charge for lumber cut in woods.) 

Total $703.57 

* Do not include cost of pumping, for which an 8-in. and a 4-in. centrifugal 
pump were used. 



h34 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Trestle for Unloading Materials — 

Labor $ 45.83 

Lumber, .5 M. B. M 10.00 

Total. $ 55.83 

Concrete Trestle — 

Labor $ 75 . 62 

Material, 2 M. B. M. at $20 40.00 

Total $115.62 

Excavating Cofferdam — 

Labor $196.97 

Coal, oil, etc 15.00 

Total $211.97 

Two Mixing Boards, 10 X 14 Ft. — 

Labor $ 7.71 

Material 12.00 

Total $ 19 . 71 

Unloading stone cost 12 cts. per ton. 
Unloading sand cost 3 cts. per ton. 

Unloading 15,000 bd. ft. lumber cost 65 cts. per 1,000 ft. B. M. 
Unloading cement (carried about 50 ft.) cost 2.5 cts. per bbl. 
Mixing, hauling and placing concrete cost $1.05 per cu. yd. 
Forms, including material, building, erecting and stripping, cost $1.74 
per cu. yd. 

The breakwater consisted of a V-shaped crib which was sunk about 10 ft. 
above the nose of the location of the foundation and was so placed to make it 
possible to examine the bottom of the river at the pier site. 

The cofferdam consisted of a crib 3 ft. wide and with dimensions about 2 ft. 
larger than those of the foundations. The crib was built out of 6 X 6-in. 
timber with cross pieces of the same size about 4 ft. apart. On top of the 
bottom course of 6 X 6-in. timbers a 2-in. flooring was laid to hold the stone 
used in sinking the crib. Sheet piles of 2-in. lumber were driven on the outside 
and inside of the crib and the bottoms were cut to conform as closely as 
possible to the rock underlying the river bed. It was found necessary to 
drive an additional row of sheet piles 4 ft. outside of the crib and fill the 
space between the crib and this outer row of piles with clay. 

The railroad approached the bridge from the east on a 15-ft. fill about 100 ft. 
long. A switch for unloading materials had been put in at the end of the fill. 
A one-legged trestle was built on the side of the fill and the track from the 
siding extended out on it, so that cars could be run out there and dumped by 
gravity. The bents were 7 ft. apart, the caps 10 X 10 in. and the stringers 
were two pieces of 6 X 6 in. laid symmetrically with respect to the rail. 
The legs and battered braces were cut in the adjoining woods and were at least 
8 in. in diameter and not over 7 ft. long. The cement was unloaded on a 
level with the switch and stored in a tent. From here it was dropped through 
a chute directly onto the mixing board. Two mixing boards were placed 
together. Five men were kept mixing, four turning and one attending to 
cement and water. After mixing a b.tch on one board they changed to the 
other while four men loaded the mixed batch into a car and hauled it out to the 
foundation and dumped it. One man was kept busy loading wheelbarrows 
with stone and sand. As the distance was very short the mixing gang wheeled 
the material onto the board, dumped it and returned the wheelbarrows to 
place. This was found to work very satisfactorily, as the mixing gang mixed 
the concrete a little faster than it could be hauled away. When they had 



RAILWAY BRIDGES 1135 

both boards full the mixing gang was put to work getting out cement until the 
hauling gang had caught up with them. 

The concrete was deposited in the forms, built inside of the crib, from a 
light track supported by a trestle hanging from the bottom chords of the 
existing bridge. 

Erection Costs for a Double-track Railway Bridge. — In Engineering 
News, Feb. 20, 1913, M. A. O. Stilson gives the erection costs of a bridge 
consisting of three double-track through spans, each 154 ft. 6 in. long c. to c. 
The trusses are of lattice type. The piers are square to the track and trusses. 

There were in place two old spans (single-track) , which were taken out as the 
work progressed. For cutting apart they were blocked up on the falsework 
put in for the new spans. The grade of the new track was that of the old, the 
pier height above high-water allowing for the extra depth of the new floor- 
beams. The use of a derrick car enabled this work to go forward while the 
first new span was erected. 

An overhead traveler (see Fig. 12) was used for the erection. It was assem- 
bled and raised from the old truss. The raising of a traveler becomes a simple 
and rapid task when old spans are in place to erect from, as the assembling 
can be in a position not far from the vertical, letting the upper frame of the 
traveler rest on the top chord of the old spans and finally pulling the small 
distance to a perpendicular with tackle just prior to joining the bents of the 
traveler. The traveler could also be raised from the flat floor of the falsework, 
by means of a jack- frame erected at the foot of the traveler legs. This takes 
nearly twice the time of the other method, and costs (a gang of 12 men can 
have a traveler framed and ready for use in three days with the help of a 
hoisting engine) about $300. 

The piers of the new three-span bridge were so located that the masonry 
could be all completed, with the exception of a few bridge-seat stones to carry 
track stringers, before the arrival of the bridge steel, thus allowing the new 
shoes to be placed at once. A temporary trestle at the upstream side of the 
main line cared for the train movement, allowing the erection to proceed 
undisturbed by the traflBc. Therefore, the falsework had to be proportioned 
for the trusses alone. 

The height of the piers above mean low water was about 27 ft. The river 
bottom was a well washed gravel, into which a pile could be driven to a pene- 
tration of 5 ft. only with difficulty. 

The sequence of operations in the erection of the bridge was as follows: 
(1) Ship equipment and materials to bridge site; (2) unload; (3) place bolster 
and compressor and house them; (4) put in falsework; (5) erect traveler and 
wreck old spans; (6) place and block floor-system and bottom chord, cam- 
bered; (7) erect web-members; (8) place end posts; (9) place top chord; (10) 
place bottom and top laterals, with portals and other small members, or 
release traveler to second span; (11) rivet up; (12) strike falsework and 
traveler; (13) load material and equipment. 

Cost of Shipment. — The cost of shipment of equipment and material to the 
bridge site is an item varying in each case, and also depending on the terms of 
the contract with the company owning the bridge. If a railway company, the 
contract may include transportation and work-train service during erection, 
though these items are properly a part of the cost, no matter by whom paid. 
It is not unusual, however, for a charge of $25 per day to be incurred for a 
locomotive, flat-cars and crew, especially where the bridge members have had 
to be unloaded at a distance. The economy effected through the use of a 



1136 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

derrick car capable of propelling itself and loaded flat-cars thus becomes 
apparent. 

Cost of Unloading. — The unloading of the material and bridge members at 
the site or some adjacent point, while variable, will generally be covered by 
the expense of a derrick and bolster, its erection and a possible shift, if the 
ground available makes this necessary. In the present case the material for 
the three spans was unloaded in about three weeks, including delays, by a 
gang of eight men, one engineer and one foreman, about $200 per week for 
labor cost. 

Hoist. — Placing the holster, compressor and their boilers is comparatively 
a small item unless considerable falsework be necessary for support. In this 
case three bents of six piles each, capped and braced, with plank floor, were 
placed, and the power set, by 12 men and one foreman in four days, costing 
$200. 

Falsework. — The erection of the falsework, consisting of pile bents, capped 
and braced, floored with timbers parallel with the bridge and some plank, can 
go forward during the same period. The equipment of scow, pile hammer and 
bolster engine was able to drive 15 bents of 10 piles each (150 piles) in four 
days. The piles were delivered into the water above; they were of 25 to 
27 ft. lengths, and were driven to a penetration of 5 ft. This gang consisted 
of one foreman, one engineer and four men, a labor cost of about $23 per day, 
according to rate of wages paid. The cost was, therefore, $92, or practically 
62cts. per pile in place. The piles cost 10c. per lin. ft. delivered above the 
work, or $2.50 to $2.70 apiece, making $482 the total cost of piles in place. 
(This figuring assumes that the equipment can leave the work in good condi- 
tion, so as to be available at full value for other work.) Cutting off the piles, 
capping, boring and bracing, was completed in eight days by a gang consisting 
of one foreman and eight carpenters, at a cost for labor of $23.50 per day, or 
$188 total. This includes placing the timbers to carry the trusses, drifting 
them in place, and laying floor-plank and traveler track. 

The labor cost of one span of falsework in place is thus $280. The cost of 
piling is $390, and of timber as follows: 

30 caps 12 X 12 in. X 25 ft 9,000 ft. B. M. 

12 saddles 12 X 12 in. X 8 ft 1 , 152 

50 stringers 12 X 12 in. X 25 ft 15,000 

120 braces 3 X 12 in. X 30 ft 10,800 

80 blocks 8 X 8 in. X 8 ft 3,411 

240 plank 2 X 12 in. X 12 ft 5 , 760 

Cost: 

40 M at $30 $1200 

6 M at 25 150 

$1350 

Total Cost of Falsework: 

Lumber $1350 

Piles 390 

Labor 280 

$2020 

This gives $2020 cost of falsework of one span in place ready for setting 
steel. In the three-span bridge in question, the riveting of Span No. 1 was 
completed early enough to release the falsework for use under Span No. 3, 
except for piling. 

Traveler. — The traveler, as shown in Fig. 12 consisted of two bents suitably 
braced, supporting four timbers 12 X 16 in. by 30 ft., two over each truss, to 



RAILWAY BRIDGES 



1137 



carry the blocks of the main falls and smaller tackles. The erection of the 
traveler has been stated to cost about $150. It followed the placing of the 
falsework, using the old spans to erect from. The cost of the traveler Itself 
was as follows: 



1 foreman, $4. . . 
6 carpenters, $3. 



.$ 



4 
18 



4 days at ^22 

4 legs 12 X f2 in. X 48 ft 2,304 ft. B. M. 

4 batters 12 X 12 in. X 40 ft. . . .^ 1,920 

2 bott. chords 12 X 12 in. X 36 ft 862 

4 top chords 12 X 12 in. X 30 ft •• . . J ,440 

4 top timbers 12 X 16 in. X 30 ft. 1 ,920 



$ 88 



16 braces 3 X 12 in. X 20 ft 960 

24 braces 3 X 12 in. X 12 ft 864 

4 diagonals 3 X 12 in. X 36 ft 432 

4 sills 8 >( 16 in. X 30 ft 1.280 

12 doz. l-in. bolts, etc., at 60 lb 

4 flanged wheels, at 100 lb 

4 sets axles, bearings, etc., at 40 lb 

Cost of traveler: -__^ 

Lumber, 10 M at $35 $350 

Lumber, 3 M. at $25 75 

Hardware 2q 

Labor ^^ 



.05, $36 
.03, 12 
.03, 5 



$567 



^^^^^^ 



■-z/2'x/e" 




l^i^x/z" 



IM—M— 




Fig. 12. — Sketch of bent of wooden traveler. 

Removing Old Spans.— The wrecking of the two old spans occupied one 
foreman with 12 men two weeks, the pieces of the members being taken away 
by the derrick car. 
72 



1138 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Erecting New Trusses. — The floor-system of one span, including bottom 
chords, was put in place, blocked up, and bolted, by a gang consisting of two 
foremen, 18 men and one engineer in five days, assisted by a derrick car with 
one engineer, one foreman and eight men, who brought the bridge members 
from the storage yard in proper order. 

The truss members and hanger posts were placed in two days, and the 
shoes, end posts, and top chords in two days, the pins being driven and the 
connections fitted up. The portals and lateral bracing; top and bottom, were 
placed in two days, fitted up ready for riveting. 

The riveting was by pneumatic hammers acting under a pressure of 90 to 
100 lb. from a FrankHn air compressor. A gang consisted of four men, eight 
gangs being operated during the major portion of the work, with one foreman 
and one supply man.. The riveting of the three spans was completed in 39 
days, or an average of 13 days to a span. A total of 60,000 rivets were driven 
in the three spans, with an average of less than 3 per cent cut out and redriven. 

Striking and Loading. — The striking of the falsework followed the riveting 
of its span. The material was then loaded for shipment. The equipment, 
including traveler, pile-driver, and scows with bolster, was then loaded, freeing 
the hoisting engine, air compressor with tank, pipe and boiler. 

Appended hereto are tabulated the labor and lumber items, showing at a 
glance the approximate cost per span and per ton. In a bridge of three or 
more spans the progress of one span's erection so laps that of the succeeding 
one, under good management, that the inference that the erection cost of a 
single-span bridge is 33 per cent would lead to some error, as several of the 
general charges would be unchanged for one-third the number of spans. 

Erection Cost of Three-span Double-track Railway Bridge 

First cost of equipment: 

Air compressor $ 800 

Tank and pipe 200 

3-drum bolster 1 , 900 

8 coils rope 400 

Blocks, etc 550 

Pile driver, scows and conductor 500 

Hammer, falls, etc • 150 

2-drum bolster 1 ,000 

Derrick car (est.) 4 , 000 

Traveler. 600 

Total ;. $10, 100 

i year interest, 6 % $ 202 

i year depreciation, 10 % 343 $545 

I for one span $182 

Labor cost of erecting span No. 3: 

Superintendent 30 days at $8 $ 240 

Foreman 38 days at $4 152 

Men 832 days at $3 2,904 

Engineer 43 days at $3 150 

$3,446 

Unit cost (weight of span 587 tons). . . $ 5.50 per ton 

Total erection cost of span No. 3: 

Labor erecting $ 3 , 446 

i cost of erecting boist 70 

i cost of erecting traveler 50 

I cost unloading material, etc 200 

^ interest and depreciation 182 

Total erection cost for 587 tons $ 3 ,948 

6 . 72 per ton 



RAILWAY BRIDGES 1139 

The assumption has been made that an equipment such as has been de- 
scribed was in the hands of the erection company. But since it would be 
proper to add a charge not only for depreciation, but for interest on the 
invested funds, a value on which to base such is also given, the items of which 
are mostly estimated, although some are actual costs. 

Costs of the Richelieu River Bridge, Lacolle Junction, Quebec. — The 
methods and costs of renewal, under traffic, of the Richelieu River Bridge at 
Lacolle Junction, Quebec, by the Grand Trunk Railway are given in Engi- 
neering and Contracting, Dec. 9 and 23, 1914. This bridge, which spans the 
Richelieu River, the northern outlet of Lake Champlain, originally consisted 
of a 180-ft. swing span (providing two clear channels of 73 ft. each) and pile 
trestle approaches, the east approach having a length of 350 ft. and the west 
one a length of 500 ft. The center pier and the rest piers of the old swing 
span consisted of timber cribs filled with rubble stone surrounding the sup- 
porting piles , the latter being capped with timber grillage which in turn sup- 
ported concrete tops. The superstructure for the new bridge consists of one 
250-ft. swing span and twelve 60-ft. plate girder spans. The substructure 
consists of thirteen piers, including the pivot pier, and two abutments. In 
addition to the construction of these piers and abutments the renewal of the 
bridge required the reconstruction of the old protection crib-work, the 
construction of wing protection cribs and booms, and the removal of the 
old protection works, rest piers and trestle. The work was completed in 
1913. 

It was necessary to construct ice breakers at short distances upstream, and 
to provide crib protection works for the rest and pivot piers. 

Substructure. — The new pivot pier was built around the old pier and a new 
concrete top constructed, the superstructure being supported during construc- 
tion on steel grillage beams. These beams had for their support the new 
concrete shell which surrounded the old pivot pier. The open caissons used 
in constructing the pivot pier and seven of the twelve remaining piers, includ- 
ing the two rest piers, had double walls consisting of 10 X 10-in. timbers, the 
two parts of each wall being separated by 12-in. vertical timbers resting on a 
heavy shoe. These caissons were sunk by filling the 12-in. space in each 
wall with concrete and by adding other loads. The caissons used for the 
other five piers were also of the open type, but they had single walls consisting 
of 10 X 10-in. timbers. These caissons were sunk by loading them with 
rails. The two abutments required timber cofferdams. 

The old pivot pier consisted of a timber crib 26 ft. square and 33 ft. high, 
filled with rubble stone, which surrounded the 108 piles. These piles were 
capped with a timber grillage, which was 3 ft. below low water and which 
supported a concrete top 8 ft. high and 20 ft. in diameter. A timber wall 
surrounded the concrete top, and the space between it and the crib was also 
filled with rubble stone. As this pier was considered too unstable for the 
loads which would be thrown upon it by the new bridge, it was reinforced in 
the following manner: 

A double-wall caisson, 38 ft. square, outside dimensions, built up of 10 X 
10-in. horizontal timbers and 12 X 12-in. vertical timbers between the walls 
at intervals, was sunk around the old pier, leaving a 3-ft. space between it 
and the old crib. After this space was filled up to approximately 6 ft. below 
low water with plain concrete, reinforced concrete walls were carried up to the 
required level to receive the eleven 26-in., 166-lb. I-beams, on which the 
swing span was erected and operated during the completion of the piers. 



1140 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Fig. 13 gives a half section showing the caisson and the old pivot pier before 
alteration, and a half section of the complete pivot pier. 

It was originally intended to remove the rubble stone filling from the old 
crib one pocket at a time, but this was found to be impracticable owing to the 
existence of fissures in the slate-rock foundation, which made unwatering 
impossible. The stone was, however, taken out to a level 2 ft. below the 
old timber grillage. The old piles, the timber grillage and the concrete top 
were left in place, except the upper 18 ins. of the latter, which were removed 
by blasting. Instead of unwatering the pier,, water was pumped into it 
until a 3-ft. head was produced, this head being utilized in forcing a 1 : 2 grout 
into the voids of the rubble stone. After the voids were filled the water was 



}x50"Sfeel Plate ^ 




Section A-A 



'• El.39.50 



Half Section Showing Caission and 
Old Pier before Alterations j 



Half Section of Completed Pier"^ 



Fig. 13.- 



-Half section of old pivot pier and half section of completed pivot pier 
of Richelieu River Bridge. 



pumped out, and the concrete work was completed in the dry, grillage beams 
being embedded in the coping to distribute the loads from the swing span. 
Seven of the intermediate piers (Nos. 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10 and 11) have caisson 
foundations, which are of similar construction to that used for the pivot pier 
and which differ only in shape. These piers are pointed, both on the upstream 
and downstream ends. Fig. 14 (a) shows a half cross section and a half end 
elevation of a typical intermediate pier and caisson in which the double-wall 
type of caisson was used; Fig. 14 (b) shows a side elevation of the pier and 
caisson; and Fig. 14 (c) shows a J51an of the caisson. Above elevation 70 
(the top of the permanent caisson) the construction for all of these piers is 
alike. 



RAILWAY BRIDGES 



1141 




«0; 

OQJ 

^1 



I iili 



i M^^^^^ 







C C5 3 



T3 

B 

.2 
13 



C o 

UJ4: 

Ui 



3: 0) 



1142 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



The five single-wall caissons (Nos. 1, 2, 3, 12 and 13) are similar in shape to 
that shown in Fig. 14, the piers for which these caissons are used being located 
in comparatively shallow water. Fig. 15 shows details of these piers and cais- 
sons. The caisson shoes were constructed on land and were launched from a 
skid way. 

In general the piers rest on slate rock, hardpan or compact gravel, except 
piers Nos. 12 and 13 and the east abutment, which required pile foundations. 
The compact material under pier No. 11 was overlaid with about 7 ft. of loose 
material, which was removed by an orange-peel bucket. Before the piles 
were driven for piers Nos. 12 and 13 about 5 ft. of the top soil was removed. 
Before placing concrete, a diver leveled off the foundation for each pier and 
also for the protection works. In addition to this work the diver, who was 
employed continuously on the job, assisted in landing the caissons, in blasting 
boulders from the cutting edge, and in blasting away the old crib protection 
works. 



'JO '10 Vertical Timbers Imbedded in 
footings andofferwards Removed 




^-2^i-z^zolJi-o.^....^.o: 



■ 6 Drift Bolts i 

§"Bolts--\ 



^^S-0- l^^^'M f Drift Bolfs^^ 

i J ! in j§ Holes |^p| 



.-- ^ — 6-^--*' 




! Vertical race \ 



—Vertical Ti'mber 
to"" 10" Bracing 

DriH Bolts ^47g. 
info Concrete 
■:6'*5"Chamfer 



Foundation Clay and Grayei 
Cb)E:nd Elevation Cross Section 



Fig. 15. — Details of pier and single wall caisson used in shallow water — Richelieu 

Bridge. 



After the caissons reached bottom they were underpinned with burlap bags 
of concrete and were then filled with concrete, which was deposited by bottom- 
dump buckets. The water was then pumped from the caisson and the 
concreting continued in the dry. 

The rest piers and the pivot piers were started after navigation had closed, 
and the work was sufficiently advanced to permit the swing span to be erected 
in time for the opening of navigation. Some severe weather was encoun- 
tered, and the temperature was as low as 28° below zero when the upper part 
of the pivot pier was concreted. 

All of the protection piles and cribs of the old bridge required replacing, the 
new work consisting of six cribs, built of 10 X 10-in. timbers and loaded 
with rubble stone. The three cribs near each rest pier are connected and are 
joined to the rest pier by floating booms. These booms consist of 12 X 12-in. 
vertical timbers bolted to the cribs and rest piers. The old center protection 
work below low water was left in place, and, after being strengthened by the 
addition of five new cribs, a new top, consisting of a double row of walings, 
was constructed. 

Superstructure. — The bridge, which is a single-track structure, was designed 
for Cooper's E-50 loading. The unit stresses used are those given in the 1910 



RAILWAY BRIDGES 1143 

specifications of the Grand Trunk Ry., the impact allowances being those 
given in the Dominion Government's 1908 specifications. The twelve deck 
plate girder spans possess no unusual features. 

The swing span has a length, center to center of end fioorbeams, of 244 ft. 
7^ ins., and a center height, center to center of chords, of 36 ft. in. It is of 
the center-bearing type, the ends being raised and lowered by wedges operated 
by hand power. The trusses of the swing span are spaced 18 ft. on centers, 
each truss consisting of eight 28-ft. 6-in. panels and a center panel having a 
length of 16 ft. 7H ins. The distance from top of pivot pier to base of rail is 
lift. in. 

Instead of using concentrated wheel loads in computing the stresses in the 
swing span equivalent uniform loads were used. The equivalent uniform 
load used for one arm was 6,400 lbs. per linear foot, and that for the entire 
span, 5,700 lbs. per linear foot. The dead load assumed for this span was: 
floor, 735 lbs. and steel, 2,365 lbs., a total of 3,100 lbs. per linear foot. 

The circular girder, which has a diameter of 18 ft., consists of four 6 X 4 X 
%-in. angles and a 24 X ^-in. web. The wheels are 12 ins. in diameter and 
8 ins. wide. The center bearing steel casting is the Grand Trunk Ry.'s 
patent No. 11,283. 

The 60-ft. plate girder spans were erected, completely riveted, by means of 
a derrick car. The twelve girder spans were erected in 5H days, the traffic 
having been diverted during their erection. 

The cost of the substructure was $155,955.49, and that of the superstructure 
$77,877.79, a total of $233,833.28. 

The detailed cost data which follow represent actual costs and include all 
possible charges against the structure. They were taken from the con- 
tractor's records and give the correct labor distributions and material costs. 
All railway departmental charges were obtained from the auditor's statement. 
The superstructure was erected by the railway company, while the substruc- 
ture work was done on a percentage basis, the contractor receiving, as profit, 
6K per cent of the cost of all labor and materials. 

Distribution of Costs. — Table IX gives the distribution of the costs of the 
substructure and superstructure of the bridge, taken from the auditor's 
statement. 

Table IX. — Disteibution op Substructuee and Superstructure Costs 

Substructure 

Engineering $ 2 , 705 . 85 

Grillage beams and freight 2 , 460 . 59 

Special Accounts: 

Soundings $ 81 . 00 

Dredging 845. 00 

Damage to barge 75.00 1,001.00 

Transporation Dept., switching. ., $ 1 ,773.44 

Less superstructure acc't 200 .00 1 , 573 . 44 

Freight on material $1 1 , 395 . 95 

Less superstructure acc't 1,680.44 9,715.51 

Material, G. T. Ry. Purchasing Dept.: 

Stationery $ 67. 58 

Ottawa stores 55 , 077 . 53 

Montreal stores 1 , 222 .32 56 , 367 . 43 

Fuel 2 , 159 . 40 



1144 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Table IX. — (Continued) 
J. S. Metcalfe Co. : 

Percentage $ 9 , 263 . 09 

Less superstructure acc't 74 . 29 9 , 188 . 80 

Expenditure— -Supt., $2,635.12; mat., $1,100.66 . $ 3,735.78 

Less superstructure acc't — Sup't 50.00 3,685.78 

Labor $66,063.95 

Less superstructure acc't 1 , 143 .07 64 , 920 . 88 

B. & B. Dept.: $ 8,159.32 

Less superstructure acc't 6,312. 12 * 1,847.20 

Motive Power Dept. for B. & B. : 

Driving piles ' 329 . 61 

Total substructure $155,955.49 

* Material, $1,200.00; labor, $647.20. 

Total Material: 

Stores Department $ 56,367.43 

J. S. Metcalfe Co 1 , 100. 66 

B. & B. Department 1,200.00 

Total $ 58,668.09 

Total Labor: 

Labor $ 64,920.88 

Superintendence 2 , 585 . 12 

Sounding 81 . 00 

B. & B. Dept 647 . 20 

Total $ 68,234.20 

Superstructure 

Engineering $ 609 . 53 

Dominion Bridge Co 70,201 . 92 

Motive Power Dept. — Power house 102. 77 

B. & B. Dept.: 

Removing ties and painting girders $ 512. 12 

Bridge floor 5,050.00 

Placing runouts, temporary trestle spur and 

removing old deck during erecting of steel 750.00 6,312. 12 

Transportation charges, switching 200. 00 

J. S. Metcalfe Co. : 

Operating bridge during const.: 

Labor $ 1,143.07 

Superintendence 50 . 00 

Percentage 74.29 1,267.36 

Road Department 229 . 82 

Freight on old and new steel * 1 , 680 , 44 

Total $ 80,603.96 

Credit: 

• Scrap steel $ 265. 58 

Grillage beams $2 , 387 . 59 

Freight 73.00 2,460.59 

2,726.17 

Total— Superstructure $ 77,877.79 



RAILWAY BRIDGES 1145 

Scale of Wages. — The prices paid for the various classes of labor were as 
follows: 

Cts. per hr. 

Common laborers 22}^ 

Handymen 25 

Carpenters 35 to 40 

Labor foreman 35 

Carpenter foreman 40 

General foreman 60 

Per day 

Superintendent $8 . 00 

Driver* 6.50 

Helper* 4.50 

* Furnished by railway company. 

Material Prices. — The following data give the materials used, where they 
were obtained, and the prices paid for them: 

Sand, f. o. b. Swanton, Vt., 32 cts. per ton, duty free. 

Crushed stone, f. o. b. Chazy, N. Y., 75 cts. per ton, duty 17^ per cent. 

Rubble stone, f. o. b. Chazy, N. Y., 60 cts. per ton, duty free. 

Rubble stone, f. o. b. bridge site, by barge from Isle La Motte, Vt., 85 cts. per 

ton, duty free. 
Cement, f. o. b. Belleville, Ont., (Canadian brand), net $1.25 per barrel. 
Lumber, McAuliffe-Davis Lumber Co., Chicago: 

2 X 4-in. X 10 to 14-ft. hemlock at $15 per M. 

2 X 6-in. X 10 to 14-ft. hemlock at $15 per M. 

2 X 8-in. X 10 to 14-ft. hemlock at $15 per M. 

1 X 6 to 8-in. X 10 to 18-ft. hemlock at $15 per M. 

1 X 6-in. X 12 to 16-ft. pine form lumber at $19.50 per M. 
Lumber, E. Hines Lumber Co., Chicago: 

12 X 12-in. X 26-ft. 1. 1. y. p. at $28.50 per M 

12 X 12-in. X 18-ft. 1. 1. y. p. at $26.50 per M. 

12 X 12-in. X 22 to 24-ft. 1. 1. y. p. at $27.50 per M. 

10 X 10-in. X 22-ft. 1. 1. y. p. at $25.50 per M. 

10 X 14-in. X 14 to 25-ft. 1. 1. y. p. at $34.00 per M. 
Lumber, John Harrison & Sons, Owen Sound, Canada: 

10 X 10-in. X 10 to 20-ft. hemlock at $20 per M. 

12 X 12-in. X 10 to 20-ft. hemlock at $20 per M. 
Lumber, A. J. Martin, Sherbrooke, Canada: 

10 X 10-in. X 14-ft. hemlock at $18 per M. 

10 X 10-in. X 20-ft. hemlock at $20 per M. 

10 X 10-in. X 22-ft. hemlock at $22 per M. 
Lumber, Marsh & Bingham, Chicago: 

10 X 10-in. X 10 to 14-ft., 1. 1. y. p., at $28 per M. 

10 X 10-in. X 16 to 20-ft., 1. 1. y. p., at $32 per M. 

12 X 12-in. X 10 to 14-ft., 1. 1. y. p., at $30 per M. 

12 X 12-in. X 16 to 20-ft., 1. 1. y. p., at $31 per M. 

12 X 12-in. X 26-ft., 1. 1. y. p., at $33 per M. 
Lumber, W. H. Bromley, Canada: 

12 X 12-in. X 12 to 20-ft. red pine, at $25 per M. 
Lumber, Colonial Lumber Co., Canada: 

12 X 12-in. X 12 to 20-ft. red pine, at $25 per M. 
Lumber, Long Lumber Co., Hamilton, Ontario: 

10 X 10-in. X 12 to 18-ft. hemlock, at $16 per M. 

12 X 12-in. X 16 to 18-ft. hemlock, at $20 per M. 
Lumber, R. Laidlaw & Co., Canada: 

12 X 12-in. X 16-ft. Georgia pine, at $35 per M. 

12 X 12-in. X 18-ft. Georgia* pine, at $37 per M. 
Lumber, W. B. Crane & Co., Chicago: 

12 X 14-in. X 14 to 16-ft. white oak, at $38 per M. 

Prices of Miscellaneous Materials. — The following prices were paid for the 
miscellaneous materials listed in the accompanying table : 



1146 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Reinforcing steel, per 100 lbs $ 1 . 45 

Drifts, sheared points without head, per 100 lbs 1.90 

Ship spikes, per 100 lbs 2 . 90 

Anchor straps, each 4 . 80 

Machine bolts: 

J^i X 15-in., per 100 . 29.40 

K X 24-in., per 100 42.00 

H X 15-in., per 100 10. 62 

Nose plates, each 7.15 

1 10-in. sheave block , 14. 00 

1 10-in. sheave snatch block 7. 50 

1 8-in. triple wood block 1 . 95 

Steam hose, per lin. ft .93 ' 

Suction hose, per lin. ft 1 . 33 

1 3-ton M. J. duolex block 72. 00 

1 1-ton M. J. differential block 7 . 00 

1 3-ton Harrington block 67 . 50 

Dynamite, f . o. b. factory, per lb .19 

Amazon 3-ply roofing paper, per square 2.25 

1 motor boat, 18-HP 600. 00 

Equipment Furnished by Substructure Contractor. — Tlie accompanying 
table gives the equipment, and Its value, furnished by the J. S. Metcalfe Co., 
the substructure contractor: 

6 Hudson, V-shaped, 1-cu. yd. cars $ 390 

Track 40 

1 No. 3 Gould trench pump 25 

1 >^-cu. yd. Cube mixer 1 , 600 

1 I'^-cu. yd. Smith mixer (old) 400 

1 Pulsometer pump 100 

1 Emerson Jr. B. pump 120 

1 No. 2 Emerson steam pump 368 

2 No. 2 Wood electric drills 250 

Motor and fittings 600 

2 locomotive boilers 800 

1 vertical boiler 300 

12 wheelbarrows 45 

Total $5,038 

Work Done by Bridge and Building Department. — The data given in Table 
X refer to materials furnished and work done by the Bridge and Building 
Department of the Grand Trunk Ry. 

Table X. — Cost Data on Wokk Done by Bridge and Building Department 
Piles and Pile Driving 

117 40-ft. piles (4,670 lin. ft. at 15 cts. per ft.) $ 700. 00 

Motive Power Department 329. 61 

143^ days' pile driving at $8 per day, labor $16 232 . 00 

*Labor, cutting piles — east abutment 20.00 

Labor, cutting piles by driver, average about 8 piles 

per day at $17 per day; total, 62 piles in 8 days. . . . 136 . 00 

Freight 80 . 00 

Overhead charges 79 . 00 

Total cost (per ft., 33.8 cts.). . $1,576.61 

Supporting Track by Bridge Dept. 

Labor $ 415.20 

Material 500.00 

Freight 120. 00 

Overhead charges 71 . 00 

Total $1,106.20 



RAILWAY BRIDGES 1147 

Table X. — (Continued) 

Work Done by J. S. Metcalfe Co. as Part of B. & B. Dept.'s Work 
This work consisted of changing trestle bents, sup- 
porting track and removing old trestle piles. 

Labor $1 , 411 . 57 

Material 200. 00 

Transportation 23 . 44 

Freight 70. 00 

Overhead charges 159 . 00 

Total *$1,864.01 

*$1,864.01 - $20.00 = $1,844.01. 

Table XI gives cost data on work done by the diver, such as cutting off 
piles and excavation for caissons and protection cribs. 

Table XI. — ^Cost Data on Work Done by Diver 

Cutting off piles in foundation: 

Labor : $ 100. 00 

Material 20. 00 

Freight 2. 75 

Overhead charges 13 . 25 

Total $ 136. 00 

Cutting of old trestle piles inside and outside of caissons: 

Labor $ 100.00 

Material 20. 00 

Freight 2. 76 

Overhead charges 13.75 

Total $ 136.51 

Excavation by diver: 

This account was for excavation work for caissons 
(area, 6,400 sq. ft.; cost, $1,975), and for protec- 
tion cribs (area, 2,000 sq. ft.; cost, $851). 

Labor $2,400.00 

Material 130. 00 

Freight 10. 00 

Overhead charges 286. 00 

* Total $2 , 826. 00 

*Cost per square foot (8,400 sq. ft.) = 34 cts. 

Grand total $3,098.51 

Data on Open Timber Caissons. — Table XII* gives the quantity of timber 
required for the caissons of the piers and abutments, the various labor and 
material costs, the cost of miscellaneous items and the total and unit cost. 
The contractor's percentage and the engineering costs are not included (for 
contractor's percentage of the total cost of each pier and abutment see 
Table XV). The overhead charges given include: construction buildings, 
timekeeper, tool boys, watchman, shoveling snow, superintendence, general- 
expense, equipment, labor and material. 

Concrete Work. — Table XIII* gives the quantity of concrete placed in the 
piers, the various labor and material costs for piers and abutments, the 
cost of miscellaneous items, the total cost of the concrete in piers and abut- 
ments, and its unit cost. The contractor's percentage and the engineering 
costs are not included. (For contractor's percentage of the total cost of 
each pier and abutment see Table XV.) The overhead charges given in 
Table XIII include: construction buildings, shoveling snow, -timekeeper, 
tcol boys, watchman, superintendence and general expenses, Tli^ concrete 



1148 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

was deposited under water by bucket, the average depth of water being about 
two-thirds of the height of the pier. In connection with the concrete work 
the pumping account amounted to $1,676.92, divided as follows: labor, $797.92 ; 
fuel, $530; miscellaneous material, $200; and overhead charges, $149; this 
amounts to 31.2 cts. per cubic yard of concrete in the piers and abutments. 
* Tables XII and XIII have been greatly reduced from those given in article 
in which the details are given separately for each pier and abutment. 

Crib Protection Works, Booms and Waling. — Table XIV gives the quantities 
of materials used in the cribs, booms and waling, the labor and material costs 
of various items, the cost of miscellaneous items, the total costs of the cribs. 
booms and waling, and their unit costs. The engineering costs are not included. 
The cribs were filled with stone from barges, the rip-rap being unloaded from 
trains. The total cost of the wing cribs and booms was $15,594, and that of 
removing the old protection work $1,190.98 (for details see Table XVI). 

Summary of Pier Costs. — Table XV gives a summary of the cost of the 
various items of each pier and abutment, the total cost of each pier, and the 
total cost of all piers and abutments. The engineering costs are not included. 
Cofferdams were constructed for the two abutments and for pier No. 1. The 
cofferdam used for pier No. 1 consisted of 2-in. sheeting driven flush with the 
outside of the caisson and banked with clay on the outside. The cost given 
for this cofferdam, $306.98, includes the cost of excavating for the pier and 
that of puddling. The excavation work for the two abutments (cost, $300) 
was done by ordinary labor; that for pier No. 11 (cost, $600) was done by a 
dredge; and that for the remaining piers (cost, $1,975), by divers. The cost 
given for the caisson of the west abutment ($448) was for rip-rap 'only. The 
distance from the top of masonry to the base of rail is 8 ft. 6 ins. 

The itemized costs of the pivot pier (No. 8) are shown in Table XV. These 
costs do not include engineering nor removal of old pier, the costs of which 
were $416 |ind $900, respectively. If these items are included, the total cost 
of the pivot pier is $24,517.96. The total cost of the concrete work for this 
pier was $11,827.45, which was divided as follows: 

12-in. wall, 140 cu. yds. at $9.00 $ 1 ,260.00 

Encasing walls and concrete burlap bags, 650 cu. yds. 

at $8.46 5,500.00 

Rubble grouting, 450 cu. yds. =150 cu. yds. grout 

at $12.00 1,800.00 

Pier top, 360 cu. yds. at $8.22 2,969.45 

Forms 298 . 00 

Total $11,827.45 

The estimated cost of the pivot pier, including its proportion of the general 
charges, freight, interest and depreciation of plant, contingencies, engineering 
and superintendence, was $31,250. The difference between this and the 
actual cost of about $24,500 is due mainly to: (a) Grouting the rubble filling 
instead of removing it and replacing with concrete (approximate saving, 
$3,500); (b) lower cost of concrete than estimated (approximate saving, 
$2,500); and (c) lower cost of caisson (approximate saving, $750). 

Table XVI gives a general summary of the costs of the bridge, the tabula- 
tion being made in such manner as to show the costs of labor and super- 
intendence, material, transportation, fuel, freight, overhead charges and totals 
for each itehi of the work. It will be noted that the cost of labor and super- 
intendence was about $9,600 in excess of that of materials. 



RAILWAY BRIDGES 



1149 



In Fig. 16 the heights of the piers have been platted as ordinates and their 
total costs as abscissas. Excluding the rest piers, which are special cases, it is 
seen that the height-cost curve is practically a straight line. 

Unit Costs. — The following unit costs include, in addition to the items noted, 
train service and freight, but do not include contractor's percentage nor 
engineering charges : 

Timber in Caissons. — The average cost of the timber in the caissons, framed, 
erected and in place, including materials, tools, equipment and labor, was 
$69.02 per M ft. B. M. 

Timber in Protection Crib Work. — The average cost of the timber in the crib 
protection work framed, erected and in place, including materials, tools, 
equipment and labor, was $60.87 per M ft. B. M. The prices of the various 
kinds of timber, per M ft. B. M., were: hemlock and spruce, $20; red pine, 
$25 ; long leaf yellow pine, $26 to $34. 



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16. — Curve showing relation between height and cost of intermediate piers 
of Richelieu River Bridge. 



Concrete. — The average cost of the concrete, including materials, equipment, 
tools and labor, was $8.20 per cubic yard. The prices of the materials were: 
crushed stone, $1.10 per cubic yard ($0.75 per ton); sand, $0.32 per cubic 
yard; and cement, $1.25 per barrel, net. 

Excavation. — The cost of the excavation, including equipment and labor, 
for the three classes of work as follows : 

By diver, preparing bottom, 8,400 sq. ft., $0.34 per square foot. 

By orange-peel bucket, 200 cu. yds., $4.22 per cubic yaid. 

By ordinary labor, 200 cu. yds., $1.50 per cubic yard. 

Rip-rap. — The cost of the 1,300 cu. yds. of rip-rap, including equipment 
and labor, was $2.25 per cubic yard. 

Stone Filling. — The 5,400 cu. yds. of stone filling, including equipment and 
labor, cost $1.69 per cubic yard. 

Piles. — The 40-ft. hardwood piles cost, in place, $13.48 each, or $0.34 per 
linear foot. This cost includes material, equipment, driving, cutting off and 
all other labor. 



1150 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Superstructure. — The weight of the 250-ft. swing span was 737,062 lbs., and 
its cost, erected, was 5.34 cts. per pound. 

The weight of the twelve 60-ft. deck plate girders was 710,370 lbs., and 
their cost, erected, was 3.27 cts. per pound. 

The power plant and machinery cost $5,167. 

r-EECENTAGES OF TOTAL COST OF VARIOUS ITEMS 

Substructure. — The following are the percentages of the total substructure 
cost ($155,955.49) of some of the principal items: 

Per cent 
Engineering, including preliminary surveys, plans and field 

inspection 1.73 

Bridge and Building Dept., including changing of trestle bents, re- 
supporting track, etc 1 . 90 

Soundings . 23 

Contractor's superintendent. 1 . 66 

General charges, including overhead charges, engineering, con- 
tractor's superintendence, and contractor's percentage 8.88 

Freight 6.23 

Transportation 1.01 

The substructure contractor's percentage was 6K per cent of the total 
cost (exclusive of engineering) of the substructure, which equals about 14 per 
cent of the actual labor cost alone. 

Superstructure. — The following are the percentages of the total superstruc- 
ture cost ($77,877.79) of several items: 

Per cent 

Engineering, including shop and field inspection 0. 78 

Bridge and Building Dept.-— run-outs . 96 

Bridge and Building Dept. — new floor 6 . 50 

Table XII. — Cost Data on Open Timber Caissons — Engineering and 
Contractor's Percentage not Included 

Total ft. 
B. M. 
Timber used 

8 Double wall caissons 

Permanent double wall 344 , 727 

Temporary single wall 64 , 200 

5 Single wall caissons 

Permanent single wall 28 , 760 

Temporary single wall 18 , 400 

Costs 

Labor Total 

Framing $13 , 881 

Tearing down, single wall 459 

Rip-rap 724 

Unloading material 460 

Material 

Timber 7 , 690 

Tools 623 

Rip-rap 1 , 127 

Iron 1,075 

General 382 

Miscellaneous 

Fuel 229 

Freight 1 ,250 

Transportation 545 

Overhead charges 3,033 

Total $31,478 

Average unit cost per M. ft. B. M $69 . 02* 

* This varied from a minimum of $56 to a maximum of $81. 



RAILWAY BRIDGES 1151 

Table XIII. — Cost Data on Concrete Work — Engineering and Con- 
tractor's Percentage not Included 

Cu. yds. 
Quantity 

In 13 piers and 2 abutments exclusive of 12-in. walls 4,862 

Between caisson walls (8 double wall caissons) 519 

Total 5,381 

Costs 

Labor 

Mixing and placing, excluding 12-in. walls $ 6,884.45 

Mixing and placing between 12-in. walls 1 ,310 

Unloading material 2 , 878 . 11 

Forms » 2,941 

Temporary tracks 720 

Equipment 882 

Material 

Cement sand and crushed stone 15,048 

Forms 550 

Temporary track 580 

Equipment 442 

Tools 316 

Miscellaneous material 1 , 337 

Miscellaneous 

Transportation, switching 625 

Freight. 5,740 

Fuel 800 

Overhead charges 3 , 056 

Total $44,109.56 

Unit cost per cu. yd $8. 20* 

•Average. 

Table XIV. — Cost Data on Crib Protection Works, Booms and Waling — 
Engineering not Included 

Center Wing 

cribs 2 Waling Booms cribs Totals 
Quantities 

Timber, ft. B. M. 550.316 15,300 24,696 192,734 783,046 
Rubble stone, 

cu. yds 4,000 1,400 5,400 

Total Cost of Various Items 
Labor 

Unloading 

material $ 380 $ 20 $ 30 $ 200 $ 630 

Framing 7,085.00 793.72 1,223.00 3,595.00 12,696.72 

Excavation b y 

diver 505 346 851 

Filling cribs 1,737.15 806.00 2,543.15 

Rip-rap 135.09 101.00 236.09 

Timber 11,080 495 705 4,260 16,540 

Iron 1,000 55 35 490 1,580 

Rubble stone. .. . 3,500 1,213 4,713 

Tools 250 35 40 100 425 

Miscellaneous 

Transportation.. 200 14 16 100 330 

Freight 1,310 80 120 690 2,200 

Fuel 140 60 200 

Overhead 

charges 3,106 169 248 1,216 4,739 

Totalcost.. 30,428.24 1,661.72 2,417.00 13,177.00 47,683.96 

Unit cost per 



Unit cost per 

M. ft. B. M. 55 . 30 108 .45 97 . 87 68 .37 60 . 87 

Dntractor's percentage $ 3 , 097 . 00 

Grand total cost $50,780.96 $64.85 



1152 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 







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RAILWAY BRIDGES 1153 

Cost of Converting a Pin-Connected Bridge into a Riveted Structure. — The 
following matter is taken from an article published in Engineering News, 
Oct. 8, 1914. 

The conversion of a pin-connected bridge span into a riveted span is an 
interesting and very exceptional piece of bridge work recently carried out. 
The bridge is a single-track swing span on a branch of the Pennsylvania 
Lines, crossing the Grand Calumet River, at Burnham, 111., and was built by 
A. Gottlieb & Co., in 1886. It is 183 ft. long, c. to c, having two 81-ft. arms 
and a central 21-ft. panel. It was necessary to adapt the bridge to carry 
heavy loading (Cooper's E-60), and investigation showed that this could be 
done much more rapidly and at much less cost by strengthening the old 
structure than by replacing it by a new bridge. The work in general was as 
follows : 

(1) Reinforcing the main trusses; (2) adding an additional row of stringers 
for each rail; (3) placing new top and bottom cover plates and additional end 
hanger plates on the floor-beams; (4) strengthening the circular girder of the 
turntable drum. 

Execution of Work. — One arm of the bridge is over shallow water and the 
other over the navigable channel. The plan of reconstruction adopted was 
to build falsework under the former arm and make all the alterations to it, 
such truss pins being removed from it as were necessary to make way for the 
new parts. The bridge was then revolved, and the other arm treated in the 
same way. The traffic averaged 20 trains daily. 

As the work was done before the navigation season opened, the bridge was 
not required to be swung for river traffic. When reversed for the reconstruc- 
tion work, it was swung by means of its hand-operated machinery in the 
regular manner. A locomotive crane standing on the bridge was used to take 
out the old members and put the new members in place, while the use of 
oxyacetylene torches in cutting away old material considerably reduced the 
time and cost of the work. 

In all, about 20 tons of metal were removed and 80 tons of new metal 
placed, the bridge as now completed having a weight of about 170 tons. 
The necessary alterations to the bridge and the methods of carrying them 
out were planned under the direction of J. C. Bland, Engineer of Bridges of the 
Pennsylvania Lines. The contract for the execution of the work was awarded 
Dec. 2, 1913. Work was commenced Jan. 20, 1914, and completed May 13, 
1914. The cost was approximately $16,500, while it is estimated that a new 
bridge to meet the same conditions would have cost about $75,000. 

The Cost of a Cable-Lift Drawbridge of the Pennsylvania Lines is given 
in Engineering News, Nov. 13, 1913. The bridge in question being one of 
two parallel double-track bridges built in 1913 across the Calumet River at 
South Chicago. The bridges are on skew, each having an extreme length 
(including approach spans) of about 340 ft., and a length of 210 ft. c. to c. of 
end pins of the lift span. The distribution of cost for one span Is as follows: 

Substructure . $110,000 

Towers, including approach spans 88 , 000 

Lift span 70,000 

Electrical apparatus 16, 500 

Operating machinery 45 , 000 

Rail latches 3,000 

Cables 13,000 

Concrete counterweights .^ 3 , 400 

$348,900 
73 



1154 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



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1155 




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1156 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The cost of the lift span covers furnishing and erecting the steelwork com- 
plete, the machinery and operator's houses, wood walkways and platform sand 
their railings. The cost for the counterweights includes furnishing and placing 
the concrete. The cost of dismantling the old span, providing temporary 
supports for tracks during erection, royalty, extras in erection, and various 
other items will make the total cost of each double-track bridge about $400,000. 
To this must be added the proportional share of the cost of the power plant. 

Cost of Erecting Structural Steel for Manhattan Elevated Railway Improve- 
ments. — Early in 1916 work was completed on the addition of single continu- 
ous express track to the Manhattan elevated railway in New York City. The 
work included the building of 23 miles of single track elevated structure, the 
erection of 50,000 tons of steel, the building of 638 foundations, and the con- 
struction or reconstruction of 29 stations. Most of the work was on city 
streets often congested with traffic. Traffic on the elevated railway lines 
was maintained according to the regular schedule throughout the period of 
reconstruction. In a paper published in the Dec. 1917 Proceedings, Am. Soc. 
C. E., F. W. Gardiner and S. Johannesson describe the design and construc- 
tion features of this improvement. The following notes, on the cost of the 
work, taken from the above-mentioned paper are given in Engineering and 
Contracting, Jan. 23, 1918. 

The work was performed under a contract, dated Feb. 13, 1914, with the 
Terry & Tench Co., Inc., The Snare & Triest Co., and the T. A. Gillespie Co., 
which last company acted as executive. The work was distributed as follows ; 

All foundation work was done by the T. A. Gillespie Co. ; the Snare & Triest 
Co. carried out all work, including steel erection, station finish, and track- 
laying on Sections Nos. 6-C and 7; the Terry & Tench Co. completed all 
steel erection and track work on the remaining sections, and the station 
finish work on these sections was partly carried out by the Terry & Tench 
Co. and partly by the T. A. Gillespie Co. The contractor's work was in 
executive charge of a vice-president of the T. A. Gillespie Co. 

The sub-contractors for the manufacture and delivery of the steelwork, the 
tonnage delivered, and the prices per pound of the material delivered, are 
given in Table XVII. 

Table XVII. — Steel Work for "Manhattan Elevated Improvements" 

Price 

Section Sub-contractor Tons per lb. 

1 ..Milliken Brothers 5,963 $0.0288 

2-A American Bridge Co 4 , 562 • . 0293 

2-B American Bridge Co 3 , 820 . 0262 

3 Phoenix Bridge Co 3,929 0.0239 

4-A McClintic-Marshall Co 5,544 0.0215 

5-A Pennsylvania Steel Co 1,732 0.0290 

5-B Pennsylvania Steel Co 1,440 0.0275 

5-C (Structural steel.) . . Pennsylvania Steel Co 1 , 100 . 0290 

5-C (Machinery) Pennsylvania Steel Co 163 0. 1045 

5-D Pennsylvania Steel Co 1,113 0.0320 

6-A L. F. Shoemaker & Co 2,926 0.0250 

6-C McClintic-Marshall Co 8,075 0.0243 

7 L. F. Shoemaker & Co 1,487 0.0254 

8-A American Bridge Co 5,041 0.0245 

8-B Milliken Brothers 1,302 0.0270 

8-C Milliken Brothers 547 0.0254 

10-B Belmont Iron Work 1 , 200 . 0285 

The contracts for the manufacture and delivery of rails were made with the 
following companies: 



RAILWAY BRIDGES 1157 

Bethlehem Steel Co., Standard rails, 2,961,520 lb., at $0,014 per pound. 

Lackawanna Steel Co., standard rails, 2,916,940 lb., at $0,014 per pound. 

Illinois Steel Co., manganese rails, 564,060 lb., at $0.0905 per pound. 

The track lumber, which was all yellow pine and amounted to about 8,000,- 
000 ft. B. M., was obtained from the D. L. Gillespie Co., of Pittsburgh, Pa., 
and cost $30.50 per 1,000 ft. B. M. 

Other lumber, for shoring, forms, etc., was bought for $23.50 per 1,000 ft: 
B. M. 

The prices paid for materials for concrete delivered were as follows: 

Cement, per bbl $1 . 70 

Sand, per cu. yd 1 . 00 

Stone, per cu. yd 1.70 

Cost of Labor. — The wages paid to the men engaged on the work were at 
the prevailing rates, and were as follows, for an 8-liour day: 

Bricklayers $ 6.00 

Iron workers 5 . 00 

Iron workers apprentices 3.00 to $ 4.00 

Carpenters 5 . 00 

Carpenter foreman 7 . 00 to 8 . 00 

Dock builders 4.00 

Water-proof ers 4 . 25 

Rock drillers 3.75 

Timber men 2. 50 

Timber men or foreman 3.00 to 3.50 

Painters (structural) 2 . 25 to 2 . 50 

Painters foreman 4 . 00 to 5 . 00 

Blacksmiths 4.50 to 6.00 

Blacksmiths' helpers 3 . 20 

Machinists 3 . 50 

Lead caulkers 4. 50 

Labor foreman 3 . 50 to 4 . 00 

Handyman 2.50 to 3.00 

Laborers 2 . 00 to 2 . 25 

Painters for timber work 4.00 

General foreman 8.00 to 10.00, straight time 

Compressor men 125.00 per month 

Hoisting engineers 30.25 to 33.00 per week 

Watchmen 12.00 to 14.00 per week 

The total cost of the work done by the contractors was $10,273,636. The 
contractors' expenses for engineering and superintendence amounted to 
$559,340, or about 5K per cent of the total cost. 

The cost of steel erection varied greatly for the different sections, on account 
of the varying difficulties connected with the erection. Table XVIII gives 
for each section the cost of erecting 1 ton of steel and the cost of shoring per 
ton of steel erected. 

As an example of the cost of riveting, etc., it may be stated that, on Section 
No. 6-C, 365,000 rivets were driven at the cost of 14.2 cts. per rivet, including 
overhead charges. There were four men in a gang, and each gang averaged 
172 good rivets for an 8-hour day. This work was interfered with, on account 
of the train traffic. About 325,000 holes were drilled from the solid, mostly 
15/16 in. in diameter, at a cost of 15.1 cts. per hole; about 40 per cent of these 
holes were drilled in new steel on the street surface, the remainder in the 
structure. About 115,000 old rivets and bolts were cut out of the existing 
structure at a cost of 9.6 cts. each, including replacing the rivets cut out with 
temporary bolts. 



1158 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Table XVIII. — Cost of Erection 

Section Cost of erection, Cost of shoring, 

N o. per ton per ton 

1 $30.42 $12.57 

2-A 21.27 5.41 

2-B 13.80 1.50 

3 143.71 20.18 

4-A. 14.22 0.88 

5-A 50.85 20.61 

5-B 39.62 26.53 

5-C 85.76 

5-D 32.49 6.49 

6-A 28 . 70 17 . 06 

6-C 39.82 10.30 

7 93.94 7.34 

8-A 33.41 15.33 

8-B 

8-C 57.80 13.90 

10-B 105 . 24 2 . 68 



The labor charges for the construction of the foundations varied consider- 
ably, according to whether the new foundations were at new locations or 
replaced existing foundations, and also according to the sub-surface structures 
encountered. On Section No. 2-A, for example, 49 foundations, each con- 
taining, as an average, 15.8 cu. yd. of concrete, were placed at new locations 
at $24.50 per cubic yard, including all excavation, placing of sheathing, forms 
and concrete, back-filling, and repaving. Seventeen foundations under 
existing columns were placed at a cost of $37 per cubic yard, and, in addition, 
the cost of shoring the structure amounted to $210.36 for each foundation. 

On Section No. 5-A, 23 foundations, each containing, as an average, 20 
cu. yd., under existing columns, were placed at a cost lor labor of $18.93 per 
cubic yard, and the charges for shoring the structure amounted to $255.77 for 
each foundation. 

On Section No. 5-B, 24 foundations, each containing 7.5 cu. yd. of concrete, 
at new locations, were completed at a cost of $22.47 per cubic yard, or a total 
of $168.50 per pier, distributed as follows: 



Superintendence: Timekeeping, storekeeping, material 

checking, general foreman $ 21 . 02 

Protections $ 4 . 00 

Sheathing 20 . CO 

Carpenter work Making forms 4.00 

Placing forms 7 . 00 

Stripping forms 3 . 40 

Repairing forms 6 . 00 

T oK^^ r Excavating 50 . 80 

^^^°^ Concreting 9.90 

\ Back-filling 10.16 

Cleaning up 5 . 00 

Watching 12. 10 

Hauling materials 15. 12 



$168.50 



Cost of Reinforcing a Steel Bridge with Concrete. — The following is given in 
Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 22, 1911. 



RAILWAY BRIDGES 1159 

The use of concrete for stiffening the columns of steel trestles and for making 
old steel trestles permanent, has been successfully accomplished by the 
Wabash R. R. On one of the bridges, thus reinforced, the St. Charles Bridge 
over the Missouri River, the saving has been about $140,000 as compared 
with the cost of a new trestle. The saving per lineal foot is about $32.20 for 
this trestle which averages about 40 ft. in height. 

Before the work was started, estimates were made of the probable cost of a 
new trestle to replace the present one and also of the probable cost of doing 
the work as it has now been carried out. Assuming the concrete to cost $6 
per cu. yd. and the steel, 4 cts. per lb. in place, it was found that the cheapest 
new structure that could be built was one consisting of 45-ft. deck girder spans 
on concrete piers, and the cost of such a structure would be $50 per lin. ft. 
With the same unit prices, the cost of a new trestle composed entirely of steel 
with towers 30 ft. in length and intermediate spans of 60 ft., was found to be 
$53 per lin. ft., and if the intermediate spans were made 30 ft. instead of 60 ft., 
the cost would be $56 per lin. ft., but if the intermediate spans were made 15 
ft. instead of 60 ft., the cost would be $51 per lin. ft. 

By way of comparison with the above estimate, the steel columns of the 
St. Charles bridge approaches have been reinforced with concrete at a cost of 
$7.30 per lin. ft. of trestle. It is estimated that the cost of steel stringers to 
replace the old wooden ones will be $10.50 per lin. ft. in place, making the 
total cost of strengthening the trestle $17.80 per lin. ft. The saving, there- 
fore, over a structure costing $50 per lin. ft. is $32.20 per lin. ft., and as this 
trestle is 4,342 ft. long, the total saving amounts to about $140,000. 

It must be noted that there will be an additional saving, as the amount of 
salvage that would accrue from the sale of materials in the old trestle would be 
much less than the cost of removing the trestle. Another fact worth noting 
is that this kind of work can be done gradually at a cost which would be but 
little more than the present maintenance expenses. The trestle as now rein- 
forced, as estimated from previous column tests, and inspection of the com- 
pleted work, will carry any engine that it is possible to build. 

Construction Work. — The contractor for the work on both bridges was 
furnished with materials f.o.b. cars at the site, with "dead-head" freight on 
all lumber, tools and equipment, and free transportation of laborers, all of 
which materially reduced the cost of construction to the contractor. 

In the two approaches to the St. Charles Bridge there are 300 columns, 
40 to 50 ft. high, tied in groups of four, with transverse and longitudinal struts, 
to form towers. These columns, with the exception of the built-up shapes 
at the strut crossings, are of the Phoenix section. An 18-in. octagonal section 
for the Phoenix columns was adopted and a 24-in. square section was used for 
the sections at the street crossings. 

With the exception of the bases, which were poured by hand, each tower 
was poured monolithically, using a 1:3 mortar reinforced with No. 6 spiral 
hooping for the Phoenix columns and with 1 in. square bars for those at the 
street crossings. Despite the excessive length of the columns, the trouble- 
some connecting struts with their knee braces, and tne frequent vibrations 
due to the regular traffic, a remarkably smooth job was obtained, with faces 
true to line and free from honeycomb or cracks. In placing the reinforcement 
and the forms, hanging scaffolds were used; the steel gang on one scaffold 
being closely followed by the carpenter force on another. The scaffolds were 
used again in the wrecking. 

The J^^-in. forms were cut, in sections of approximately 14 ft. so that they 



1160 



HANDBOOK OF. CONSTRUCTION COST 



could be used six times, thus reducing the carpenter cost, necessarily high, 
because of the cutting and framing around the struts and lateral braces. The 
spiral reinforcement although very effective, was comparatively expensive 
because of the "cork screw" fashion in which it had to be applied. The 
experiment of using wire mesh with equivalent 
cross sectional area of steel, was made and proved 
less expensive, in labor. This test was made near 
the close of the job after all the spirals were on 
hand, and was intended only for the general infor- 
mation of the contractors. 

The concrete was made with a mixer mounted 
on a work train and the materials were carried in 
bins upon the car with the mixer. The concrete 
was poured into the forms through spouts leading 
from the mixer to the column caps. The work train 
was frequently interrupted and sidetracked for 
passing traffic, but this lost time was used, as far 
as possible, in refilling the material bins. 

The cost of the work to the contractor, allowing 
90 cts. per bbl. of cement and 50 cts. per cu. yd. for 
sand, was $12.45 per cu. yd. of concrete or an aver- 
age Of $165 per tower. This cost includes the fol- 
lowing items: Material for concrete; material for 
fornis; labor building, placing, repairing and 
removing forms; labor placing reinforcement; 
labor mixing and placing mortar; labor unloading 
and rigging; equipment; administration and mis- 
cellaneous labor. The contract was let on a 
percentage basis with a guaranteed maximum 
which closely approximated the actual cost. The 
structure was completed in 5 months. 

Cost of Constructing Three Single-Track Con- 
crete Arch Bridges^ Lake Champlain & Moriah 
Railroad.-— The following costs, given in Engineer- 
ing and Contracting, June 15, 1910, by Eugene 
Klapp, are for constructing three reinforced con- 
crete arch railway bridges in the northern part 
of New York by company forces. The prices of labor and materials were as 
follows : 

Common labor, per day $1 . 30 

Carpenter foreman, per day , 3 . 00 

Boss carpenter, per day 2 . 25 

Common carpenters, per day 1 . 75 

Stationary engineer, per day 2 . 00 

Foreman reinforcement, per day 2. 00 

A 10-hour day was worked for five days and a nine-hour day on Saturday. 
Tailings were used for concrete aggregate and cost only the freight and labor 
for loading, both of which are included in the labor costs given. 

Lumber for forms cost $18 per M. ft. B. M. unplaned; the planing was 
done on the job and is included in the labor costs for forms. Cement cost 
$1.20 per bbl. after deducting credit for return of bags. 

Bridge 1. — This bridge consists of an arch 18-ft. wide, 20 ft. long and 24 
ft. high. It was founded on earth and required a spread footing 12 ft. wide. 



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RAILWAY BRIDGES 1161 

The bridge contained 560.7 cu. yds. of concrete and was estimated to cost 
$7,000. The actual itemized cost was as follows: 

Item Per cu. yd. 

Temporary constructions — Total concrete 

Materials $ 10.51 $0,019 

Labor 255.42 0.455 

Miscellaneous 525.27 0.936 

Total $ 791.20 $ 1.410 

Excavation — 

Materials , $ 4. 12 $ 0.001 

Labor 374.94 0.668 

Total $ 379.06 $0,669 

Forms — ■ 

Materials $ 923.95 $ 1.647 

Labor 1 , 228 . 92 2.191 

Total $2,152.47 $ 3.838 

Mixing Concrete — 

Materials $ 55. 19 $ 0.098 

Labor 251.73 0.449 

Total. $ 306.92 $ 0.547 

Placing Concrete — 

Materials $ 135.20 $0,241 

Labor $ 242.51 0.432 

Total $ 377.71 $ 0.673 

Reinforcing — 

Materials $ 397.37 $ 0.708 

Labor 198.34 0.354 

Total $ 595.71 $ 1.062 

Cement $ 780 . 75 $ 1 . 392 

Superintendence 312.50 0.557 

A round total $5,696.72 $10,146 

The concrete work proper, therefore, cost as follows per cubic yard: 

Forms $3,838 

Mixing . 547 

Placing 0.673 

Reinforcement 1 . 062 

Cement v 1.392 

Total $7,512 

Superintendence prorated say $0 . 445 

Grand total $7,957 

In comment on these figures it may be noted that the item "materials" 
for forms includes the lumber used in trestles. Referring to "miscellaneous'* 
charges under "preliminary construction," $262.23 of the total were paid for 
specifications and plans, or 4.6 per cent of the total cost. Superintendence 
cost 5}4 per cent of the total. 

Bridge 2. — This bridge, a much simpler structure than Bridge 1, being 
founded on rock and having plain abutment and wing walls, is a simple arch 
34 ft. wide, with footings 9 ft. wide. A feature of the design is the expansion 
joint placed across the barrel of the arch about mid length. The bridge 



1162 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

contained 1,804 cu. yds. of concrete and its estimated cost was $10,500. The 
actual itemized cost was as follows: 

Per cu. yd. 
Item Total concrete 

Temporary construction — 

Materials $ 60. 07 $0,033 

Labor 915.73 0.508 

Miscellaneous 796 .10 . 441 

Total - $1,771.90 $0,982 

Excavation — ■ 

Materials $ 27 . 20 $0 . 015 

Labor 411.84 0.228 

Total $ 439.04 $0,243 

Forms — 

Materials $ 965.91 $0,535 

Labor 1,568.76 0.869 

Total $2,534.67 $1,404 

Mixing concrete — 

Materials. $ 514 . 10 $0. 285 

Labor 572.12 0.316 

Total $1,086.22 $0,601 

Placing Concrete — 

Materials $ 31 . 25 0. 017 

Labor 834.09 0.462 

Total $ 865.34 $0,479 

Reinforcing — • 

Materials $ 210. 12 $0. 116 

Labor 56.70 0.031 

Total $ 266.82 $0. 147 

Cement — 

Materials $1,675.40 $0,928 

Labor 19.91 0.011 

Total $1,695.31 $0,939 

Superintendence $ 538.49 $0,299 

Grand total.. $9,197.79 $4,094 

The concrete work proper, therefore, cost as follows per cubic yard: 

Forms $1,404 

Mixing 0.601 

Placing.. 0.479 

Reinforcing . 147 

Cement 0.939 

Total 3 . 570 

Superintendence prorated say . 225 

Grand total $3,795 

In the above items "materials" for forms include trestle lumber and "mis- 
cellaneous" charges include $262.23 for plans and specifications. The charge 
for plans and specifications was 2.85 per cent and the cost of superintendence 
was 5.85 per cent of the toal cost. The influence of complexity of forms on 
form costs and cost of placing concrete is indicated by comparing these costs 
for Bridges 1 and 2. 



RAILWAY BRIDGES 1163 

Bridge 3. — This bridge, founded on rock just below the surface is a simple 
arch 34 ft. wide and 104 ft. long and has plain abutments and wing walls. A 
notable feature of the design is the extension upward of the abutment walls 
to form a cross wall between spandrel walls and the bracing together of the 
spandrel walls by two intermediate diaphragm walls. There is an expansion 
joint across the spandrel walls over the center pier. This bridge contained 
1320.7 cu. yds. of concrete and was estimated to cost $7,500. The actual 
itemized cost was as follows: 

Per cu. yd. 
Item Total concrete 

Temporary construction — 

Materials $ 34.71 $0,026 

Labor 186.38 0. 141 

Miscellaneous 538. 66 0. 408 

Total. $ 759.75 $0,575 

Excavation — 

Materials $ 3.77 $0,003 

Labor 797 . 57 . 603 

Total $ 800.84 $0,606 

Forms — 

Materials.... $ 912.51 $0,691 

Labor 1,036.49 $0,785 

T9tal $1,949.00 $1,476 

Mixing concrete — 

Materials $ 487.50 $0,369 

Labor 678.04 0.513 

Total $1,165.54 $0,882 

Placing concrete — 

Materials $ 1 . 05 $0 . 001 

Labor 510.19 0.386 

Total $ 511.24 $0,387 

Reinforcing — 

Materials $ 396.83 $0,300 

Labor 45.88' 0.035 

Total $ 442.71 $0,335 

Cement $1,221.20 $0,924 

Superintendence , $ 176.78 $0. 134 

Grand total $7,027.06 $5,319 

The concrete work proper, therefore, cost as follows per cubic yard: 

Forms $1 . 476 

Mixing . 882 

Placing 0. 387 

Reinforcing . 335 

Cement 0.924 

Total $4,004 

Superintendence prorated say • 0. 100 

Grand total $4 . 104 

As with bridges 1 and 2, materials for forms include lumber used for trestles. 
The cost for plans and specifications was $262.23, and is included under 
"miscellaneous" preliminary construction charges. Plans and specifications 
cost 3.7 per cent and superintendence cost 2.5 per cent of the total cost. 

Cost of Concreting Bridges ot C, M. & St. P. Ry. — The Chicago, Milwaukee 
& St. Paul Ry., in 1915, completed two single track reinforced concrete via- 



1164 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



ducts near Rosalia, Wash., thereby replacing a 60-ft. high, 2,100-ft. long frame 
trestle. The two bridges are separated by 334 ft. of embankment. The 
easterly structure is composed of a lOTJ'i-ft. reinforced concrete trestle 
abutment, a 100-ft. spandrel arch span and a 793^^-ft. reinforced concrete 
trestle abutment. The westerly structure consists of a 77-ft. reinforced 
concrete abutment, three TT^^^-ft. and one 6S^-U. spandrel arches, one 
5Sy2-ft. encased steel girder and a combination trestle and TJ-abutment. The 
following description of the concreting plant used on this work is published in 



Bim 



^teorn concrete j^ 



Cement 
house. 



Concrete chufe^ Cement unlooder^ 



^ 



gol V-To ^r 






Tro\/eler- 



Cement phrorm^ 



T. 



■/iiner charge 



^^Oi^er hc'5t 




■ Traveler track 
Orange peel derrick- 
Hoisting engine —^-/^ 
Plan. 



Storage piles 




'^Orange peel derri'cf^' 

^lCVATiON 






Fig. 18. — Layout of Rosalia, Wash., concreting plant. 



Engineering and Contracting, Nov. 22, 1916 and is taken from the report 
"Efficient Methods of Handling Work and Men," submitted on Oct. 17, 1916, 
at the annual meeting of the American Railway Bridge and Building Associa- 
tion: 

It was impracticable to place the plant on the track grade, and, accordingly, 
it was located under the westerly bridge, the layout being as shown in Fig. 18. 
The crushed rock and sand were delivered in hopper bottom cars and unloaded 



Ii 

m 

fai 

pe: 
for 



RAILWAY BRIDGES 1165 

through chutes to the ground below, and then placed in storage piles by a 
stiff-leg derrick fitted with 60-ft. boom and orange peel bucket. This derrick 
was so located as to handle the materials to the storage piles and from there 
to hoppers for loading in small cars for transportation to the mixer. The 
derrick was operated by a double drum engine fitted with a Dake swinging 
gear connected to a bullwheel on the base of the mast. 

The mixer and tower were placed on a traveling platform that could be 
moved along the north side of the bridge. Most of the concrete was spouted 
in this way directly into the forms. The concrete was elevated and the cars 
containing the dry material were hauled by a hoisting engine on the traveling 
platform. The empty cars were pulled back to the loading hoppers by a 
counterweight fastened to the bridge. The cement was unloaded into a storage 
house immediately underneath the south of the bridge by means of an endless 
belt with a friction brake which enabled the lowering of the cement at slow 
speed to prevent damage to sacks by tearing or burning. The cement was 
then wheeled directly to the cars as they left the loading hoppers. 

The same plant was used to mix the concrete for the easterly bridge. In 
this case, however, the concrete was hoisted into small cars on a narrow-gage 
track on the north side of the main line and hauled by a gasoline locomotive. 
Concrete was mixed and placed in the easterly bridge for as low as 34 cts. per 
cu. yd. in this way, although the average was considerably above this on ac- 
count of the inability to make continuous runs while concreting. 

The steel reinforcement was all cut and bent on the platform at the west 
end of the westerly bridge and lowered into place from the track level. Port- 
able forms were also built at the same point and handled in the same way. 
Water was obtained from city mains and in this way the necessity of installing 
a pump was avoided. 

The organization of the forces was as follows: 

Per mo. 

One general foreman $150.00 

One timekeeper 75 . 00 

Per 10 
hours 

One carpenter foreman $ 3 , 50 

One blacksmith 3 . 25 

One labor-foreman 3 . 00 

Two sub-foremen 3 , 25 

Twenty-six carpenters 3 . 00 

Two engineers 3 . 00 

One engineer (gasoline) , ". 2 . 50 

One fireman 2 .50 

Ten carpenter helpers 2 . 25 

Twenty-four laborers 2.00 

The size of the crew varied considerably on account of the difficulty in 
obtaining men and on account of some delay in obtaining material at various 
times. During the progress of the work the average traffic was eight passen- 
ger and about twelve freight trains per 24 hours. There was an average of 
four passenger and four freight trains on the Northern Pacific track under the 
easterly bridge; eight passenger and four freight trains on the Spokane & 
Inland Empire tracks under the westerly bridge and heavy team and auto- 
mobile travel on the state highway, so that it was necessary to provide special 
falsework in each case to avoid blocking traffic. 

The total amount of concrete placed was 5,924 cu. yd., the average cost 
per cubic yard for labor and material being $7.56. The total amount of rein- 
forcing placed was 960,000 lb. at $1.80 per 100 lb. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
STEAM RAILWAYS 

This chapter deals mainly with the construction and maintenance costs of 
steam railways. Costs of bridges and tunnels are given in Chapters XVII and 
XX respectively. 

Further data on steam railway construction, maintenance and operation 
are given in Gillette's " Handbook of Cost Data." 

The "Handbook of Mechanical and Electrical Cost Data" by Gillette and 
Dana gives costs of electric railway construction and other operating cost 
data of use to either or both steam and electric railways. 

Approximate Costs of Rapid-Transit Lines. — The following relative costs of 
producing rapid-transit structures, contained in a paper entitled " Provisions 
for Future Rapid Transit," presented by John Vipond Davies, consulting 
engineer, of New York City, before the National Conference on City Planning 
at Toronto, May 25 to 27, are given in Engineering Record, June 6, 1914. 

The figures are given as average costs for construction of structures and 
the installation of structural equipment, but without power or rolling stock. 
They do not include the value of property for rights of way or easement and 
are given on the basis of constructing a double track railroad in each case, al- 
though reduced to the cost per mile of single track: 

Types of Structure 
For Double Railway Tracks 

Cost per mile 
of single track 

Trolley railroad in suburban district, either on public roads or 
private right of way where no paving is required, complete 
with overhead trolley construction, track bonded; all in 
operating condition $ 25 , 000 

Trolley railroad on city streets, including asphalt or granite 
block pavement for width of tracks and 2 feet outside of tracks; 
complete with overhead trolley construction, track bonded; all 
in operating condition $ 42 , 000 

Underground trolley railroad in congested streets of a city, 
including necessary pavements, conduits, etc., and with 
reasonable allowance for changes of subsurface improvements: 

New York $ 126,000 

Washington 49 , 500 

Elevated railroad of a type and for the loading permissible to 
meet requirements of Public Service Commission of New 
York; complete with stations, contact rail, ties and track; 
averages ♦$ 125,000 

Railroad in open cut similar to Sea Beach Railroad of Brooklyn 
Rapid Transit Company in Brooklyn, where work is executed 
with steam shovel and with concrete walls; averaging cost of 
bridges and stations as part of the cost; complete with contact 
rail, ties and track; averages $ 225,000 

Railroad on masonry viaduct filled in with stone ballast, similar 
to structure erected on Queens Boulevard from Queensboro 
Bridge to Greenpoint, on Long Island, New York; complete 
with stations, contact rail, ties and track; averages $ 330,000 

1166 



STEAM RAILWAYS 



1167 



Subway such as the Fourth Avenue Subway in Brooklyn, where 
work is unaffected bj'- subsurface improvements, where the 
digging is easy and can be done with steam shovel and under 
typical, ideal conditions; complete with structural and track 
equipment; averages .^. $ 402,000 

Subway such as the Broadway Subway constructed in New 
York City, where the work is very difficult and involves 
extreme interference with subsurface improvements of all 
kinds, the support of street surface, trolley car tracks, under- 
ground trolley construction, etc.; complete with structural 
and track equipment; averages $1 , 190,000 

Iron lined tube tunnels under waterways or below water level; 

complete with structural equipment and track ; averages $2 , 700 , 000 

In connection with these costs, the difference in the first cost of construct- 
ing improvements in a city like Washington, where the soil is advantageous 
to excavate, where the streets are broad and where there is no difficulty in 
changing subsurface improvements, is in marked contrast to the cost of 
executing similar work in a City like New York, where the material to be 
excavated is most difficult, where the streets are congested and where there 
are numerous and extensive subsurface improvements to be cared for. 

Cost of Elevated Railways and Subways. — The following notes are taken 
from an article by Maurice E. Griest published in Engineering News, May 20, 
1915. 




Span Leng+h, Fee+ 
Fig. 1. — Effect of span-length on cost of three-track elevated railway. 

Relative Cost of Subway and Elevated Lines with ballasted floor and with open 
floor are as follows: 

Cost of Subway and Elevated Structure 

Per lin. ft. 
of structure 

Three-track subway $300 to $500 

Three-track elevated { S^p'^l 'Cr ! ! ! 1 ! ! 1 ] ] 1 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 1 1 ! ! i «25 



1168 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Economic Span Length for Elevated Railway. — Fig. 1 is based on the design 
of the 3-track elevated structure as used by the N. Y. Rapid Transit System. 
The costs exclude track, stations and ducts and are based on average prices 
of recent (1914-15) contracts as follows: 

Steel $54 . 00 per ton * 

Cast iron 48 . 00 per ton 

Concrete 7 . 00 per cu. yd. 

Excavation 2 . 00 per cu. yd. 

Paving 3 . 00 per sq. yd. 

* The cost of steel makes up about 80 per cent of the cost of an elevated 
structure exclusive of track, signals and station finish. 

Plate Girders vs. Latticed Stringers. — Latticed stringers are from 10 to 15% 
lighter than plate-girder stringers of the same span. The cost of fabrication 
of the latter, however, particularly without cover-plates, is about 10% less 
than of a latticed girder without connection plates and 15% less than of a 
latticed girder with connection plates. The first cost, therefore, is prac- 
tically the same in either case. Depreciation and maintenance costs of plate- 
girder construction are less than for latticed girders; details are simpler and 
the structure is more rigid. Plate-girder stringers were therefore adopted. 

Economic Weights of Rail. — The following abstract of a committee report 
at the 1920 convention of the Roadmasters' and Maintenance of Way Associa- 
tion in St. Louis is given in Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 20, 1920. The 
purpose was to develop a method by means of which the economic weight of 
rail for various classes of traffic may be determined. The actual values used 
in this discussion are not at all theoretical but are based on performance. 
However, it must be understood that these values actually represent what 
must be accepted as a particular problem and that if the method here devel- 
oped is applied it should be done with values determined to fit the particular 
case in question. The data used by the committee in making the diagram and 
in arriving at the conclusions given herewith are as follows : 

Cost of new rail per ton . $ 41 . 00 

Cost to lay new rail, including delivery to work, removing and dis- 
posing of old rail, per ton 20 . 00 

Salvage value of old rail, per ton 18 . 00 

Net cost new rail, per ton 43. 00 

Average labor cost of rail maintenance per mile of track per year — 

85-lb. new rail — labor at 40 cts. per hour 135. 00 

Ditto, 100-lb. rail ' 114.00 

Ditto, 130-lb. rail 86. 00 

The details of arriving at the annual maintenance cost of 130-lb. rail, con- 
sidering a life of 10 years, are as follows: 

Annual interest charge at $43.00 per ton $ 3. 077 

Interest at 6 per cent on first cost of track at $43 $2 . 58 

Taxes at 1 per cent on first cost of track at $43 0.43 3.010 

Interest at 6 per cent and taxes at 1 per cent on $18 salvage per ton 

when removed 1 . 260 

First cost (10-year life) per ton $ 7 . 347 

Tons of rail per mile of track (130-lb. rail) 204. 29 

Annual charge per mile of track based on 10-year life . 1 , 501 . 00 

Annual cost (labor 40 cts. per hour) of maintaining 130-lb. rail in 1 mile 

of track 86. 00 

Annual cost of maintenance, including interest, taxes, depreciation 

and labor 1 , 587 . 00 



STEAM RAILWAYS 



1169 



The committee concludes that under similar conditions of trafl&c, the life 
of 100-lb. rail is 1^ times that of 85-lb. rail, and that the life of 130-lb. rail 
is double that of 100-lb. rail. The relative life of over 100,000 tons of 130-lb. 
rail compared to the life of 100-lb. rail in the same tracks was actually deter- 
mined, based on four years' experience with the heavy rail, during which time 
over 4,300 tons of the heavy rail were actually removed from tracks on account 
of being worn out. 

To allow for the comparatively short period of time for which the data 
concerning heavy sections were taken, the relationship between the average 
life of heavy section rail and 100-lb. rail was taken to be 2 to 1. The data 
concerning the relative life of 100-lb. and 85-lb. rail were of a more extended 
and broader nature, but had not been kept in as detailed a manner. 



4400 
4000 
3600 



■\X 



89-lb.R«ll 


100-lb.Rall 


130-lb. Rail 


Mfe of Rail 
Annual Cost 


$ 3,327! 


3.50 yr. 
$ 2.490. 


7.00 yr. 
$ 1.945. 


Life of Ball 
Annual Cost 


* 2.407. 


5.25 yr. 
i 1.860. 


10.5 yr. 
t 1.360. 


Life of Rail 
Annuftl Coat 


4 yr. 

* 1.942. 


7.0 yr. 
$ 1.540. 


14.0 yr. 
e 1.353. 


Life of Rail 
Annual Cost 


« yr. 
d 1.481. 


10.5 yr. 
$ X.240. 


21.0 yr. 
$ 1.165. 


Life of Rail 
Annual Co«;t 


$ X.17«! 


16.75 yr. 
e 1.030. 


31.5 yr. 
$ 1.050. 




Z 4 e 6 10 IZ 14 16 la BO 
Life of Rail in Years. 

Fig. 2. — Annual cost of maintenance for 85-lb., 100-lb. and 130-lb. rail. 



Fig. 2 shows the influence of the relative life of 85-lb., 100-lb , and 130-lb. 
rail under similar conditions of traffic; that is, lines representing the life of 
various sections of rails under similar conditions of traffic, from which can 
be determined the difference in the annual cost of maintenance due to different 
rail sections. For example, suppose 85-lb. rail gave a life of two years — the 
average maintenance cost is $3,327 — then 100-lb. rail should give a life of Z% 
years, with an average maintenance cost of $2,490, while 130-lb. rail should 
give a life of 7 years with an average maintenance cost of but $1,945 — clearly 
a case where heavy section rail could be used economically from a maintenance 
point of view. 
74 



1170 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



As a measure for the wear of rail under various conditions of traffic, the 
committee decided on the number of cars per day passing over a stretch of 
track as the measure of traffic conditions. Such a unit closely reflects the 
locomotive tons and gross tons; the average weight of cars, the average cars 
per train and average locomotive miles per train mile ordinarily varying 




1B^ 7^ "^^ ^ 1^^ 
Cars per Track per Day. 

Fig. 3. — Effect of density of traffic on annual maintenance cost. 



between narrow limits from month to month. Also the average number of 
cars passing a particular point over a stretch of track during any period can 
readily be determined at any time without elaborate machinery or 
organization. 



STEAM RAILWAYS 1171 

•To determine the proper life to assign to 100-lb. rail under various traffic 
conditions, 14 stretches of track were selected for which information concerning 
the car movement and rail renewals was available. From this information was 
determined the average life of 100-lb. rail in each stretch of track. This data 
varied from 417 cars per track per day to 1,697 cars per track per day. 

The curves in Fig. 3 show that the 100-lb. rail is economical for a traffic 
of not over 900 cars per track per day and that for a greater car movement the 
130-lb. rail is economical. As between the 100-lb. rail and 85-lb. rail, the 
data would indicate that, on railroads using heavy power and having a wide 
range of physical characteristics, the 85-lb. rail is no longer economical, but 
that modern railroading demands a 100-lb. rail. When traffic reaches 1,800 
cars per day over a double track railroad, the point is reached to consider 
increasing the weight of section to about 130 lb. _ 

Equation of Track Values for Equalizing Lengths of Sections for Mainte- 
nance Work. — Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 20, 1920, gives the following: 

For some years past railway officials have been giving thought to the matter 
of finding a way to measure, accurately, the different units of work so as to be 
able to equalize the sections, instead of making the track sections of standard 
length, as has been so generally the custom. 

A committee report to the Roadmasters' and Maintenance of Way Asso- 
ciation at St. Louis, Sept., 1920 gives the results of two questionnaires sent out 
Jan., 1920. The answers represent the opinion of practical track men, engi- 
neers and others and as averages are believed to be as near a proper conclu- 
sion as it is practicable to arrive at. The committee states that in the main 
it compares favorably with the findings of several of the large railroad systems 
which recently made an exhaustive study for their own information. 

The questionnaires follow. 



Questionnaire No. 1 

Subjects Replies Average 

How many miles average passing siding equal to one mile of 

main line? 57 2 . 75 

How many average miles of storage, industrial, or com- 
mercial siding equal to one mile main line? 57 3 . 84 

How many average main line turnouts equal to one mile 

main line? 56 15.3 

How many average siding, yard or other inside turnouts 

equal one mile of main line? 56 16.77 

How many average main line railroad crossings equal one 

mile of main line? 56 10. 95 

How many average siding railroad crossings equal one mile 

of main Hne? 55 19 . 18 

How many heavy traffic, important city street crossings 

equal one mile of main line? 56 9 . 20 

How many (medium) important city street crossings equal 

one mile of main line? 57 14 . 00 

How many light traffic street crossings or outlying highway 

crossings equal one mile main line? 57 20 . 90 

How niany average farm crossings or other unimportant 

crossings equal one mile of main line? 57 46.58 

How many average stock chutes and pens equal one mile of 

main line? 45 17 . 00 

How many average re-icing stations equal one mile of main 

line? 37 4.15 

How many average watering stations equal one mile of main 

line? 46 5.50 



1172 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

How many average interlocking plants equal one mile of ' 

main line? 51 

How many average cattle guards equal one mile of main 

line? 48 

How many average feet of track in tunnels equal one mile of 

main line outside? 38 

How many average coaling stations equal one mile of main 

line? 47 

How many average fire or cinder cleaning stations equal 

one mile of main line , .• 47 

How many average station grounds equal to one mile of 

main line? 52 

How many average automatic signals and incidental fixtures 

equal one mile of main line? 27 

How many miles of average fencing equal one mile of main 

line? 48 

How many feet of ordinary average ditching will equal one 

mile of main line? 42 



1 



3.40 
48.00 

2 , 848 

3.82 

2.47 

5.68 

20.74 

15.07 

10,160 



Questionnaire No. 2 
Subject Replies 

* Assuming a double track railroad having an average normal 
gross tonnage of 100,000 per day or 40 freight trains, 
20 in each direction, with an average normal number of 12 
passenger trains, using a maximum speed of 60 miles per 
hour; grade generally level, 3 per cent maximum; line 3 
per cent curvature 6 degree maximum. What length of 
section should be established at outlying points if no such 
conditions prevail as are listed in above questions? 54 

What length of section should be established on a single 
track railroad, having same curvature and gradient, with 
one-half the gross tonnage and one-half the number of 
passenger trains listed above? 52 

How much should such sections be lengthened or shortened 
for each 25,000 gross tons and two passenger trains daily 
that might be added or taken off on such double track 
sections? , 35 

How much for a single track section for each 12,000 gross 

tons or one passenger train? 30 

What difference should be made in the mileage of a double 
track section having motor cars as compared with hand 
cars? ^ 28 

What on single track sections? 35 



Average 



3.68 



6.0 



.914 
.867 



1.17 
1.20 



Cost of Railway Track Reconstruction. — In Engineering and Contracting, 
Sept. 7, 1910, D. A. Wallace publishes the following records which give the 
cost per 100 ft. and per mile for reconstructing track on two jobs, one in 1906 
and the other in 1908. 

1. The work consisted in putting up dirt track on crushed stones, replacing 
58-lb. rail with 85-lb. rail and renewing 15 ties per 100 ft. The itemized cost 
was as follows, using negro labor at $1.25 per day and foreman at $60 per 
month: 



Materials: Per 100 ft. 

2,784 cu. yds. stone at 45 cts $ 23. 71 

Ties at 35 cts. f. o. b 5.25 

133,577 tons rails at $30 75.32 

Angle bars at 64 cts 3 . 87 

Bolts at $4.90 .'..... 1.21 

Spikes at $3.20 2.06 

Total materials $111.42 



Per mile 

$1,252.80 

277 . 20 

3,977.13 

204.80 

63.70 

108.80 

$5,884.43 



$ 


164.25 




292 . 00 




7.13 




82.37 




9.60 




0.53 




184.00 




396.00 




9.75 




23.25 




66.00 


$1 


, 234 . 88 


7 


,119.31 


$1 


,464.32 



STEAM RAILWAYS 1173 

Labor: Per 100 ft. Per mile 

Unloading stone . $ 3.11 

Raising grade 7 ins 5 . 53 

Unloading ties at 0,9 cts 0. 14 

Applying ties at 10.4 cts 1 . 56 

Unloading rails 0.18 

Unloading fastenings 0.01 

Laying rails 3.46 

Stone surfacing, 3 ins., 2 ins., raise 7 . 50 

Unbolting old rails 0. 18 

Loading old rails . 44 

Stripping track 1.25 

Total labor $ 23 . 36 

Grand total $134.78 

Credit 9.15 tons old rails at $16 $ 27 . 33 

Net cost $107.45 $5,654.99 

2. The work comprised 5 miles of track, 21 years old, 50 per cent of which 
consisted of 6° curves. The track had about 4 ins. napped stone under the 
ties and spaces between the ties filled in with enough coarse rock to prevent 
bunching of the ties. The rail was 30-ft., 56-lb. and had been in service 21 
years. Approximately 7 ties per rail were broken off or decayed. The rails 
were replaced with 33-ft., 70-lb. rails, joint ties spaced, and 8 months later 
the track was raised, 6 ins. in gravel unloaded from hopper bottom coal cars 
at a cost of 15 cts. per cu. yd. on cars at pit and 15 cts. per cu. yd. for a haul 
of 80 miles, making a total cost of 30 cts. per cu. yd. on the ground. About 
25 ties per 100 ft. were renewed. Negro labor at $1.25 per day and foreman 
at $75 per month were employed. The cost of the work was as follows : 

Materials: Per 100 ft. Per mile 

110 tons 70-lb. rail $66. 66 $3, 520.00 

Angle bars at 70 cts. per pair 4 . 85 256 . 00 

4K-in. bolts at $5 0.05 30.00 

Spikes at $4 1.13 60 . 00 

1,000 cu. yds. ballast at 30 cts 5 . 68 300 . 00 

1,320 ties at 31 cts 7.75 409 . 20 



Total materials $86. 12 $4, 575. 20 

Labor: Per 100 ft. Per mile 

Unloading rail. $ . 40 $ 26 . 05 

Unloading fastenings 0.25 

Curving rail 0.55 28.66 

Distributing by push car 0. 27 14. 59 

Laying rail 2.83 149.80 

Surfacing first raise 4 ins 1 . 94 102 . 50 

Smoothing second raise 1 . 37 72 . 50 

Dressing ballast 2 . 27 119 . 85 

Unloading ties at 1.6 cts . 40 21 . 12 

Applying ties at 10.7 cts 2 . 67 141 . 24 

Loading and unloading old rails 0.75 39 . 77 



Total labor $13.45 $ 716.33 

Grand total $99 . 57 $5 , 291 . 53 

Credit 88 tons old rail at $24 $ 4 . 00 $2 , 112 . 00 



Net cost . $95.57 $3,179.53 

Prices Used in the Valuation of Railways in Nebraska. — E. C. Hurd, 
Engineer of Valuation, Nebraska State Railway Commission gives the follow- 
ing data in Engineering and Contracting, July 31, 1912. 



1174 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Table 1 shows the unit prices which were very largely used for reproduction. 
The unit prices for all material arriving from the east includes commercial 
freight charges to the Missouri River gateways. The western products, 
namely that of lumber, were delivered to any point of the state on a flat 
commercial rate, while rail material from Colorado is estimated delivery at 
Denver commercial rates. 

The Nebraska timber and soil conditions to be met in railroad construction 
admit of a nearly uniform treatment for the 150 miles in the east part of the 
state, while some variance is found in the westerly portion. Within the 
easterly portion certain allowance was made necessary for clearing and grub- 
bing, whereas in the westerly section no allowance was made. The soil condi- 
tions are similar throughout, when cost of excavation is considered, and only 
in the westerly portion is there any rock of consequence. 

Table I. — Roadway Items — Unit Pkices for 1909 
Only Including Freight to Gateways 

Grading: 

Earthwork, ordinary, per cu. yd 24 and 26 cts. 

Overhaul 600 feet, per cu. yd 1^^ cts. 

Earthwork, terminal, yards, etc., no overhaul. 30 to 47 3^^ cts. 

Loose rock 65 cts. 

Solid cock $1 . 00 

Rip rap, rough or dumped stone in place $ 1 . 80 to $ 2 . 20 

Rip rap, laid up (dry) 4 . 30 

Retaining walls, coursed rubble, per cu. yd 6.00 to fl.OO 

Retaining walls, concrete, per cu. yd 7 . 75 to 9. 00 

Retaining walls, brick, per cu. yd 8 . 00 

Dykes, pile, brush or stone, per lin. ft 10. 00 to 13. 00 

Dykes, earth, per cu. yd .40 

Clearing, per acre 20 . 00 

Grubbing, per acre 50 . 00 

Drain for wet cuts, per lin. ft .43 

Indemnity insurance on rock and extra hazardous 6 % of labor 

Tunnels: 

Average basic cost per lin. ft. unlined $125. 00 

Rock excavation, per cu. yd 4 . 50 

Earth (Brule clay), per cu. yd 3 . 50 

Shaft excavation, per cu. yd. (additional) 3 . 00 

Timber lining, per M. B. M. in place 45. 00 

Indemnity insurance 9 % of labor 

Note. — But one tunnel owned by the Burlington Railroad and located at 

Belmont lies within the state, excavated almost entirely through Brule clay, 

length being 694 feet. 

Bridging: 

Piling, ordinary foundation and trestle, per lin. ft. in place $ .45 

Piling, 34 feet and longer, per lin. ft. in place 65 and .70 

Piling, sheet, 3-in. plank, per lin. ft . . .08 

Timber, Douglas fir, per M. B. M. in place 38. 50 

Timber in Howe truss, per M. B. M. in place $43. 50-48.00 

Timber in piers, 'per M. B. M. in place 41 .00 

Timber, creosoted, per M. B. M. in place 45. 00 

Masonry: 

Stone, Ashlar, per cu. yd. in place. $ 12. CO 

Stone, coursed rubble, per cu. yd. in place 10. 00 

Stone, broken, per cu. yd. in place 8. 00 

Stone, dry, per cu. yd. in place 6 . 00 

Stone, Missouri River bridge, per cu. yd. in place 25. 00 

Stone, arch culverts, per cu. yd. in place 12. 00 

Concrete, includes forms, foundations and substructures 9.00 

Concrete, reinforced, foundation and substructures 11 . 00 

Concrete, Missouri River bridge, foundation and substructures 27.00 

Concrete, culvert end walls, per cu. yd 7 . 50 



STEAM RAILWAYS . 1175 

Table 1. — Continued 
Masonry : 

Concrete, arch culverts, per cu. yd 12. 00 

Foundation excavation, per cu. yd 1 . 00 

Steel girders, per net ton in place 75. 00 

I beams, per net ton in place 68 . 00 

Truss towers or bents, per net ton in place 80. 00 

Railroad viaducts, per net ton in place 90. 00 

Missouri River bridges, per net ton in place 115. 00 

Wooden bridge hardware, per lb .03 

Reinforcing bars, per lb .03 

False work, ordinary, per lin. ft . 10 . 00 

Vitrified clay pipe, size 6 X 36-in., per lin. ft. in place 37 to 4.00 

Wooden Howe truss, excluding foundation, 72-ft. spans in place, per ft. 25 . 00 
Wooden Howe truss, excluding foundation, 116- ft. spans in place, 

per ft 36.00 

Wooden Howe truss, excluding foundation, 160-ft. spans in place, per 

ft., covered 52.00 

Inside guard rails, two ends, complete $35.00 to $ 40.00 

Cast Iron Pipe Culverts, without end walls, cost per net ton — 

Sizes, in place $ 36 . 00 

18-in. diameter, per lin. ft. in place 3. 00 

24-in. diameter, per lin. ft. in place 4 . 75 

36-in. diameter, per lin. ft. in place 8. 75 

48-in. diameter, per lin. ft. in place 13. 50 

Cast Iron Pipe Syphons, concrete ends — 

18-in, diam., per lin. ft. in place $ 5.75 to $ 6.00 

24-in. diam., per lin. ft. in place 7 . 00 to 7. 50 

36-in. diam., per lin. ft. in place 12.00 to 12.50 

Concrete and Stone Arch Culverts (semicircular) complete, including 
excavation, foundation piling, wings, forms, etc. — 

4 ft. wide at spring line, per lin. ft. of barrel $ 42.00 

6 ft. wide at spring line, per lin. ft. of barrel 50.00 

8 ft. wide at spring line, per lin. ft. of barrel 60.00 

10 ft. wide at spring line, per lin. ft. of barrel 80 . 00 

16 ft. wide at spring line, per lin. ft. of barrel 140. 00 

20 ft. wide at spring line, per lin. ft. of barrel 180. 00 

Timber Box Culverts (12 X 12-in. with 2-in. floor) — 

1 X 2M-ft., per lin. ft $ 3.75 

2 X 2-ft., per lin. ft 4.50 

2 X 3-ft., per lin. ft 5.00 

3 X 3-ft., per lin. ft 6.00 

3 X 4-ft., per lin. ft 6.75 

4 X 4-ft., per lin. ft 7.75 

4 X 5-ft., per lin. ft 8.50 

Ties: 

Missouri white oak, standard, each .70 

Missouri oak, mixed, each 62 3^ and . 6^ 

Northern white oak (6 X 8 X 8), each .80 

Northern white oak (7 X 9 X 8), each 1 . 00 

Northern cedar, each .74 

Southern cedar, each .70 

Southern pine, each .80 

Southern pine, treated, each 90 and . 95 

Black Hills and Wyoming pine, each .50 

Black Hills and Wyoming pine, treated, each .65 

Douglas fir, sawed, 7X9X8, each 1 . 05 

Douglas fir, sawed, 7X9X8, treated, each 1 . 20 

Hemlock, each .61 

Hemlock, treated, each .76 

Switch ties, oak, per M. B. M 31 . 00 

Switch ties, fir or pine, per M. B. M 28 . 00 

Switch ties, fir or pine, treated, per M. B. M 30 . 00 

Bridge ties, fir, per M. B. M 26 . 00 

Bridge ties, oak, per M. B. M 32 . 00 

Labor framing and placing bridge ties, per M. B. M 16. 00 



1176 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Table 1. — Continued 
Rail: 

At eastern gateways, per gross ton 30.75 

At Denver, gateway, per gross ton 29.00 

Relayers, f.o.b. Omaha, per gross ton 25.00 

Scrap rail, per gross ton 10.00 to 14,00 

Frogs and Switches: 

Rigid frogs, material only, per cwt 2.75 

Spring frogs, material only, per cwt 2.95 

Switch points (15'), material only, per cwt 4.28 

Crossing frogs, material only, per cwt. 3.75 

Derails, each 12 . 50 

Average cost per complete turnout in place: 

60 70 75 85 

Weight of rail lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 

No. 7 frog $94 $103.00 $111.50 $117.00 

No. 9 frog 100 107.00 113.00 120.50 

No. 10 frog 101 109.00 116.00 122.00 

No. 12 frog 109.50 117.00 125.00 

No. 14 frog 114.50 122.00 130.50 

Crossings placed at an average of $65.00 each. 
Track fastenings and other material: 

Angle bars and base plates, per cwt $ 1 . 96 

Continuous joints ($1.30 to $1.90 per pair), per cwt 2. 125 

Track bolts, per keg," 200 lbs 5.05 

Tie plates, ordinary rigged or corrugated, per cwt . 125 

Tie plates, heavy fiat, per cwt . 

Average cost, first mention, 73'^cts.; second mention, 12 cts. each. 

Nut locks, ^i-in., per. 1,000 6.00 

Nut locks, K-in., per 1,000 6. 25 

Rail braces, rolled, each 10 to .12 

Rail braces, cast, each 12 to .14 

Spikes, standard, per keg, 200 lbs 3.75 

Screw spikes, per cwt 2 . 93 

Bumping posts, for freight yards, each 55 . 00 

Bumping posts, for passenger yards, each . 80.00 

Ballast: 

Gravel, Sherman Hill, Wyoming, f.o.b. pit, per cu. yd $ 0.11 

Gravel, Atkinson and Eureka, Neb., f.o.b. pit, per cu. yd .15 

Gravel, Chillicothe, 111., f.o.b. pit, per cu. yd .12 

Gravel, Oral, S. D., f. o. b. pit, per cu. yd .16 

Gravel, Grand Junction, la., f. o. b. pit, per cu. yd .15 

Gravel, Cheyenne River and Guernsey, Wyo., f. o. b. pit, per cu. yd. . .12 
Crushed stone, Louisville and Meadow, Neb., also Blue Springs, Neb., 

f . o. b. quarry, per cu. yd , .65 

Stone quarry screenings, f. o. b. pit, per cu. yd. 20>i 

Slag, f . o. b. Omaha, per cu. yd .20 

Cinders, f. o. b. any division point, per cu. yd .22 

Sand, f . o. b. any pit, per cu. yd .12 

Burnt clay, f . o. b. pit, per cu. yd .48 

Average weight of ballast material per cu. yd.: 

Gravel, Sherman Hill, lbs. per cu. yd 2,950 

Gravel, all others, lbs. per cu. yd 3,200 

Crushed stone, lbs. per cu. yd 2,400 

Cinders, lbs. per cu. yd 1 , 680 

Burnt clay, lbs. per cu. yd 1 , 700 

Slag, lbs. per cu. yd 3,360 

Sand, lbs. per cu. yd 3,300 

Track laying and surfacing: 

Laying track on main line, 70 to 90-lb. rail, including sidings, per 

mile $375.00 

Laying track on branch lines, 52 to 70-lb. rail, including sidings, per 

mile 310.00 

Placing additional switches, main line, each. 20.00 

Placing additional switches, branch line, each 15.00 

Above price in track laying contemplates average }'i switch per mile. 
Indemnity insurance, 3H per cent of labor. 



STEAM RAILWAYS 1177 

Table 1. — Continued 

Based on avg. 
Per 6-in. ballast 

track mile under tie 

Surfacing Main line Branch Line 

Earth $335 $300 

Cinders & gravel 380 345 

Burnt clay 553 516 

Crushed stone 620 590 

Additional to above allowance^on up-keep of track during con- 
struction, per mile : $90,00 to 120.00 

Roadway tools: 

Average allowance per section gang per set $120 . 00 

Average allowance per extra gang per set 600 . 00 

Average allowance per bridge gang per set. 600 . 00 

Average allowance per roadmaster's inspection car, etc., each 125.00 

Average allowance per bridge supervisor car, etc., each 125.00 

Average allowance per signal supervisor car, etc., each 125. 00 

Average allowance per signal maintainer car, etc., each 150.00 

Fencing' — Right of way: 

4 barbed wires, 32-ft. panels, wood or wire sag lath, per fence mile. . . . 128 . 00 

4 barbed wires. 16-ft. panels, wood or wire sag, per fence mile 160 . 00 

For each additional wire to above add ♦ 12 . 50 

Cattle guards, single, wood strips, each 15.40 

Cattle guards, single, iron strips, each 17 . 50 

Farm gates, wire, each 2 . 50 

Farm gates, wood, each 4 . 30 

Farm gates, iron, each 7 . 00 

Crossings and signs: 

Oak crossing planks in place, per M. B. M 34 . 00 

Walks, board, per sq. ft 10 to .25 

Walks, cinder, per sq. ft 06}i 

Walks, cinder with curb, per sq. ft . 125 

Walks, concrete, per sq. ft 12 to .14 

Walks, brick, per sq. ft . 125 

Wood curbing, per lin. ft ; 16^^ " 

Crossing alarms (electric automatic), per crossing, each. . , $200.00 to 325.00 

Crossing gates, per crossing, each 255 . 00 

Gate towers, per crossing, each 250 . 00 

Highway crossing signs (post and 2 crossboards), each 4 . 50 to 7 . 00 

Bridge, railroad crossing or station 1 mile signs, each 2.40 to 3.75 

Yard Limit, Slow, etc., each 3 . 50 

Post signs, ordinary, each 1 . 50 to 1 . 90 

Bridge warning, each 19 . 00 

Bridge and culvert numbers, each 50 to 1 . 75 

Interlocking and other signals: 

This item is too varied to undertake to express an average, but some of the 

costs herewith are typical: 

Interlocking plant, single track, wood tower, 16 lever, mechanical . . $4 , 800 . 00 

Crossing gate, with signals and torpedo attachment 650.00 

Electrical block signals, single track, per mile 1 , 150.00 

Electrical block signals, double track, per mile 1 , 500 . 00 

Electric-gas signals, single track, per mile 1 ,210.00 

Interlocking outlying switches with home and distance signals, per 

switch, each 500.00 

Train order signal, high mast, each 120.00 

Train order signal, box and board on depot building, each ... 35 . 00 to 60 . 00 

Telegraph and telephone lines: 

Only a few of the simpler telegraph lines will here be mentioned. 

6-in. 30-ft. poles, 30 per mile, with cross arms, 4 No. 10 wires $194.00 

6-in. 30-ft. poles, 30 per mile, with cross arms, 6 No. 10 wires, , , , , , 240.00 

6-in. 30-ft. poles, 30 per mile, with cross arms, 8 No. 10 wires, , , , , . 292.00 

Station sets, ordinary, each g5 . 00 to 35 . 00 

Station sets, complete quads, each ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,...., 135 . 00 



1178 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Table 1. — Continued 
Station buildings and fixtures: 

Depots, one story, frame, averages, per sq. ft $1.37K to 1 .90 

In typical buildings, 16 X 40 ft $ 880 to 1 ,000 

In typical buildings, 18 X 56 ft 1 , 500 to 1 , 700 

In typical buildings, 20 X 40 ft 1 , 100 to 1 ,350 

In typical buildings, 20 X 56 ft 1 , 500 to 1 ,770 

In typical buildings, 20 X 80 ft 2, 240 to 2 ,700 

In typical buildings, 24 X 60 ft 2, 100 to 2,500 

In typical buildings, 24 X 80 ft 2,800 to 3,500 

In typical buildings, 24 X 100 ft 3,000 to 3,850 

Depots, two story, frame, averages per sq. ft $2. 20 to 2. 63 

In typical buildings, 20 X 40 ft 1 , 600 to 1 , 900 

In typical buildings, 22 X 56 ft 2, 500 to 3,300 

In typical buildings, 22 X 80 ft 3,800 to 4,800 

In typical buildings, 24 X 56 ft 2,800 to 3,200 

In typical buildings, 24 X 70 ft 3, 100 to 3,800 

In typical buildings, 24 X 90 ft 4 , 400 to 5 , 400 

Depot furniture and fixtures — 

Small stations $100 to 140 

Medium stations 250 to 350 

Larger stations 400 to 600 

Section dwelling houses — 

1 story, frame, per sq. ft $1.00 to 1.375 

IM story, frame, per sq. ft 1 . 25 to 1 . 50 

2 story, frame, per sq. ft 1 . 75 to 2 . 25 

Water closets, coal houses, etc., per sq. ft 1 . 25 

Section tool houses, per sq. ft 52 to .75 

Freight houses, frame, averages per sq. ft 1 . 25 to 1 . 50 

In typical buildings, 22 X 64 ft $1 , 600 

In typical buildings, 24 X 50 ft 1 ,800 

In tyDical buildings, 24 X 100 ft 3,000 

In typical buildings (brick), 40 X 80 ft $8,000 to 8,800 

Shops, engine houses and turntables: 

Shop buildings for ordinary division points containing 3,000 to 8,000 sq. ft. ' 

Brick and frame, per sq. ft $2 . 10 to 3 . 50 

Brick and steel, per sq. ft 2 . 50 to 4 . 50 

Shop buildings for terminals containing 30,000 to 60,000 sq. ft 

Brick and frame, per sq. ft $ 2.05 

Brick and steel, per sq. ft 2. 50 

Engine house, wood, 65 to 70 ft. long, 1 stall 2,200.00 

Engine house, wood, 65 to 70 ft. long, 2 stalls 3, 100.00 

Engine house, wood, 65 to 70 ft. long, 3 stalls. . . . 4,250.00 

Engine house, wood, 65 to 70 ft. long, 6 stalls 7,800.00 

Engine house, wood, brick lined — 

65 to 70 ft. 80 to 90 ft. 

1 stall $ 2 , 800 . 00 

2 stalls 3,500.00 $4,700.00 

3 stalls 4,350.00 

5 stalls 8,600.00 11,700.00 

8 stalls 13,200.00 17,000.00 

Engine house, brick — 

5 stalls 12,600.00 15,000.00 

10 stalls 19,600.00 24,100.00 

20 stalls 44,500.00 48,500.00 

30 stalls 65,400.00 78,500.00 

Turntables, wood. Gallows type, length 50 ft., each $ 1,250.00 

Turntables, steel, permanent center, 60 ft. each 3,950.00 

Turntables, steel, permanent center, 70 ft., each 5,760.00 

Turntables, steel, permanent center, 80 ft., each 6,950.00 

Water stations: Average cost found 

32,000-gal. tank, wooden tub and tower, in place $ 1,500.00 

50,000-gal. tank, wooden tub and tower, in place 1 , 800 . 00 

65,000-gal. tank, steel tub and tower, in place 3,750.00 

Water crane, 10 and 12 in., with piping and pit in place, each. . . . 700.00 

Pumping plant, machinery and house, in place, each 595.00 

Windmills, 20-ft. wheel, 50-ft. tower, in place, each $400 to 550.00 



STEAM RAILWAYS 1179 

Table 1. — Continued 

Water stations : Average cost found 

Windmills, 20-ft. wheel, 70-ft. tower, in place, each 650 to 770.00 

Typical plant, 50,000-gal. wood tank, 1 track outlet, ordinary 

steam or gasoline pumping plant, well and piping 4 , 200 . 00 

Typical plant, 65,000-gal. steel tank, 2 standpipes, steam or 

gasoline pumping plant, well and piping 6 , 900 . 00 

Fuel stations: Average cost found 

Wooden coal shed, hand derrick and buckets, in place, each $ 1 , 740 . 00 

Coal chute (Williams, White, Clifton, Kerr, etc.). 

5 to 10 pockets, 40 to 50-ton capacity 4 , 860 . 00 

10 pockets, 80-ton capacity 8 , 330 . 00 

20 pockets, 100 to 200-ton capacity 12 , 800 . 00 

Conveyor, bucket type, single, 2 pockets, 100-ton capacity 7,690.00 

Conveyor, bucket type, double, 4 pockets, 200-ton capacity 11,880.00 

Link belt type with scale hopper, single, 2 pockets, 100-ton 

capacity 11, 880 . 00 

Tipple car type, 35 to 50-ton capacity 9, 130.00 

Tipple car type, 150-ton capacity 10, 580. 00 

Cable hoist type, 4 pockets, 200-ton capacity 12,060.00 

Miscellaneous structures: 

Stock yards, average prices found in place — 

Fence, per lin. ft $ 0.5 

Gates, each 12.00 

Shelter sheds, per sq. ft .24 

Hog sprinklers, each 25 . 00 

Feed troughs, each 5 . 00 

Chutes, single, each 112. 50 

Chutes, double, each 148 . 00 

Scale and rack, 4-ton capacity, each 160. 00 

Scale and rack, 6-ton capacity, each 190. 00 

Scale and rack, 10-ton capacity, each 240.00 

Windmills, small tank and pipe $500 to 750 . 00 

Typical stock yard, 2 pens, 1 chute, each . . 400.00 

Additional pens, each 125 . 00 

Snow fence, portable, 12-ft. panels, each 7 . 50 

Snow fence, fixed, 5 ft. high, 10-ft. panels, per lin. ft .245 

Snow fence, fixed, 7 ft. high, 10-ft. panels, per lin. ft .315 

Snow fence, fixed, 12 ft. high, 10-ft. panels, per lin. ft .375 

Mail cranes. Barker and similar types, each, in place 22.00 

Park fence, 2 and 3 flues, in place, per lin. ft $0.42 to .45 

Adaptation and solidification of roadway: 
Method of determining cost of this item — 

a. Cost of labor spread over a period of three years. 

For main lines — 

First class — single line roadway, including all appertaining tracks, 

per roadway mile per annum. $312.00 

Second class — ditto as above 240. 00 

For branch lines; — 

First class — ditto as above 204 . 00 

Second class — ditto as above 180. 00 

b. Cost of material account of shrinkage and subsidence. 

For main lines — 

1st class — add to the cost of grading 3 to 8 % 

2d class — add to the cost of grading 2}i to 6 % 

For branch lines — 

1st class — add to the cost of grading 3 to 6 % 

2d class — add to the cost- of grading 2 to 4 % 

For two or more main line tracks and for each track additional to the first 

track 75 per cent of the first track. 

Engineering and superintendence: 

Entire as found within the state, per roadway mile $1 , 034 . 67 

Entire as found within the state, per track mile 810. 15 

Per cent of total value, roadway, equipment, etc 2. 16 % 



1180 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Net ton units were adopted for locomotives considering the weight of the 
engine loaded and the tender light. This plan was adopted primarily for the 
reason that the information could in that form be most readily obtained 
from the railroad companies' records. As the appraisal progressed, a further 
convenience developed in finding that the engine loaded increases in a very 
direct proportion to its net weight. In assembling the locomotive costs, 
further development indicated three general classes by weight, the first those 
exceeding 100 tons, the second those from 60 to 100 tons, and the third all 
those under 60 tons. Drawing finer lines, further subdiA/isions have been 
found in service and utilized in some cases. Tables were prepared showing 
in detail the methods used in arriving at the cost per ton, and which were 
adopted in the appraisal. One table shows the average cost per ton for each 
of the three classes and for each year, in which these classes of locomotives 
were built. In some cases, however, not sufficient data was obtainable to 
give a true average. In the year 1909, $2,000,000 actual expenditures for 
locomotives was deemed sufficient for determining an average, and the result 
was a cost of $115.81 per ton for engines over 100 tons in weight. For those 
60 to 100 tons in weight only about 25 instances were found, the resultant 
costs represented thereby being $122.70 per ton, but after careful perusal this 
was not adopted as an accurate average. A seemingly more perfect average 
was reached by considering a much larger survey for engines in the first and 
second mentioned classes for five-year periods, ending 1903 and 1909. From 
this the average cost of the second mentioned class of engines was determined 
to be $120.26 per ton. The average cost of engines of the third class was 
determined as $125.93 per ton. The type of locomotive, whether for passen- 
ger, freight or switching, seems to evidence little difference in the results of 
cost per ton. Commercial freight rates were allowed from the eastern manu- 
facturers to the Missouri River, but not within the state, and the freight east 
of the river was added in addition to the units. The first outfit of tools was a 
further charge in addition to the units, but extra tools and apparatus not 
embraced under the classification was excluded. 

For passenger cars the units adopted provided for the general items of 
construction and equipment. Type and size of the car gave no correct results 
when the finish and equipment for the vehicle influenced the cost to a 
very large extent. The main items on which unit costs were based are as 
follows : 

1. Car bodies, not including trucks, air brakes and signals; heating and 
lighting, seats, vestibules, mail racks, dining car equipment, oak finish for 
passenger cars, painted for baggage and mail or express. These were divided 
into different types, such as baggage, postal, combination, passenger, dining, 
etc., and costs were ascertained on the different lengths of each class and type 
of construction. 

2. Trucks, four and six- wheel, with cast and steel-tired wheels, and for 
each three main sizes of journals. 

3. Automatic air signal and brake apparatus per car, with 12-inch, 14-inch 
and 16-inch cylinders. 

4. Vestibules, extra per end for wide or dummy vestibule over open 
platform. 

5. Heating apparatus, cost per car, with various types of equipment. 

6. Lighting, cost per car for various types, and cost each for the various 
kinds of oil, gas and electric light fixtures. 

7. Seating, cost with various types used. 



STEAM RAILWAYS 



1181 



8. Mail racks, cost each for various types, in 15, 20, 30 and 60-foot 
apartments. 

9. Smoking apartment, cost where such is installed. 

10. Dining car equipment, average cost per car, including stoves, ranges, 
refrigerators, china, glassware, linen, etc. 

11. Finish, including extra for mahogany over oak. 

12. Steel under frame, extra over wood under frame, for various lengths 
of cars. 

Additional to the above percentages were obtained, showing the average 
cost of observation-parlor and parlor cars over coaches of the same description. 

Table II gives the cost of the reproduction of passenger cars used for the 
1909 appraisal, although circumstances demanded in various instances specific 
treatment. 



Table II. — Unit Prices on Passenger Cars and Equipment 

Car bodies exclusive of trucks, air brakes, signals, lights, heating and seats, 
but having monitor roofs, canvas covered and painted Pullman, wood construc- 
tion except as specified. 

Baggage cars 
Standard 
heavy con- 
struction ; 
Length of no windows 
body over 



end sills 
75 ft. 
70 ft. 
66 ft. 
65 ft. 
62 ft. 
61 ft. 
60 ft. 
55 ft. 
54 ft. 
52 ft. 
50 ft. 
45 ft. 
42 ft. 
41 ft. 
36 ft. 
28 ft. 



platforms 



Cheaper 
design 



Postal cars 
Standard 

heavy con- 
struction; 

no 
platforms 



Comb, 
pass., bag- 
gage, mail; 
Cheaper no vesti- 



design 



$4,117 

'3;768 

' 3 * 656 
3,543 



3,420 
'3;i27 



3,071 



$2,115 
2i659' 



$4,927 



4; 556 



3,881 
3,769 
3,656 



bules 
$5,647 



cars 
oak finish, 
open plat- 
form; 
toilets 



$2 , 430 
2,385 
2,295 



5,400 



4,601 

'4',i85 

* 3 ^ 858 
3,690 

'3^566 



For 70-ft. bodies, all steel, mahogany finish, wide vestibules. 
For 70-ft. bodies, dining cars, oak finish 



$5,288 



4,916 
4,590 



4,173 



10,372 
10,764 



Length of Apartments Found in Combination Cars 

Length of car Baggage Mail Passenger 

75 ft. 15 ft. 30 ft. 25 ft. 

60 ft. 20 ft. 15 ft. 25 ft. 

54 ft. 16 ft. 15 ft. 22 ft. 

Other si2ies relatively in proportion. 

Truck per car — composite wood-plated frames 

33-in. cast iron wheels 37-in. steel tired wheels 

Size of journals 4-wheel trucks 6- wheel 'trucks 4-wheel trucks 6-wheel trucks 
4K X 8 $731 $1,226 $1,103 $1,789 

5X9 833 1,373 1,204 1,935 

5K X 10 928 1,457 1,300 2,020 

High speed automatic air brake and signal— complete per car 

12-inch cylinder $ 81 . 00 

14-inch cylinder 90 . 00 

16-inch cylinder 108.00 



1182 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Vestibules extra, per end 

Wide Pullman $ 333 . 00 

Dummy •. 54 . 00 

Heating arrangement 

Direct steam heat equipment only -. $ 149 . 00 

Steam heat with Baker heater 360 . 00 

Passenger car wood or coal stove, each 41 .00 

Passenger car stove, each 18. 00 

Lighting apparatus 

Oil center lamps, each $ 32 . 00 

Acetylene gas light equipment, per car 360. OO 

Acetylene gas center lamp, each 32. 00 

Acetylene gas bracket lamp, each. 2 ! 50 

Pintsch gas equipment, 1 tank 167 . 00 

Pintsch gas, each additional tank • 81 . 00 

Pintsch coach center lamps, each 36. 00 

Pintsch baggage car center lamps, each 32. 00 

Pintsch bracket lamps, each 4 . 50 

Electric wiring only, with axle light system, per baggage car 171 .00 

Electric wiring only, with axle light system, per coach 230 . 00 

Electric wiring only, with axle light system, per dining car 270.00 

Head end dynamo, train line in conduit and train connection — 

Per baggage car 306 . 00 

Per coach 365 . 00 

Per dining car 405 . 00 

Axle light system and batteries 1 , 325 . 00 

Single pendants, fixtures, each, up 1 . 10 

Combination gas and electric center lamps, over 1 gas lamp, each. . 16.00 

Elaborate designs for parlor and cafe cars 63 . 00 

Seating 

Low back reversible coach seat, rattan $ ' 20 . 00 

Low back stationary coach seat, rattan 12,60 

Low back reversible coach seat, plush 22. 50 

Low back stationary coach seat, plush 14 . 40 

High back reversible coach seat, plush 26 . 10 

High back stationary coach seat, plush 16. 20 

High back reclining chairs, per chair 38. 25 

Harrison mail racks 

For 15-ft. compartment S 68 . 50 

For 20-ft. compartment 100. 00 

For 30-ft. compartment 135 . 00 

For 60-ft. compartment 293 . 00 

Smoking compartment 

To seat nine, leather upholstered, extra $ 257.00 

Dining car equipment 
Includes refrigerators, ranges, chairs, tables, china, silver, glassware, 

linen and kitchen utensils, average per car $3,047.00 

Finish, extra for mahogany over oak 

For dining car, add $ 225. 00 

For 60-ft. coach, add 144.00 

Steel underframe over wood underframe 

60-ft. car, extra per car $ 787 . 00 

70-ft. car, extra per car 845. 00 

Observation parlor cars 

Extra above all steel coaches 12 % 

Parlor cars 

Extra above all steel coaches 10 % 



STEAM RAILWAYS 1183 

Table III gives the reproduction cost of freight equipment for one of the 
principal properties operating in the state. 

Table III.— C. & N. W. Ry. Co.'s Fkeight Cabs 

Date Reproduc- 

Class Size built tion cost 

Box 36' X 80 Cap. 1907-1903 $ 693 

Box 40' X 80 Cap. 1909-1908 668 

Furniture 40' X 60 Cap. 1905 717 

Furniture 50' X 60 Cap. 1905 747 

Flats 40' X 80 Cap. 1907-1905 520 

Flats 40' X 100 Cap. 1901 700 

Flats 40' X 70 Cap. 1902 427 

Gondola 35' X 80 Cap. 1907-1902 623 

Gondola 40' X 100 Cap. 1909 908 

Stock. 36' X 60 Cap. 1907-1905 638 

Ore 22' X 80 Cap. 1907 659 

Ore 21' X 80 Cap. 1902-1903 659 

Ore 21' X 80 Cap. 1909 808 

Ballast 36' X 80 Cap. 1907 927 

Ballast 38' X 80 Cap. 1905 626 

Refrigerator 34' X 60 Cap. 1904 871 

Refrigerator 34' X 60 Cap. 1905 900 

Caboose, standard 1904-1901 834 

Caboose. 1909-1905 834 

Caboose, drovers 1909-1901 1 ,280 

Rebuilt work equipment, as an average for all properties, was determined 
as follows : 

Box, bunk and outfit cars, depreciated value per car $ 106.25 

For re-building 160.00 

$ 266.25 
Cinder cars, self dumping, converted from old flats or stock, depre- 
ciated value per car $ 89 . 00 

For re-building 280.00 

$ 369.00 

Wooden pile drivers, built on old flats, depreciated value per car $ 287 . 00 

For re-building 3,713.00 

$4,000.00 

On one of the principal lines, as a fair example, the statement (Table IV), 
showing the value of tools and special equipment, was determined for the various 

kinds of rolling stock and allowed in addition to the units heretofore 
mentioned : 

Table IV. — Value of Tools and Special Equipment 

Item Total 

For 573 road locomotives, each $ 87 . 27 

For 87 switch locomotives, each 53 . 67 

For 268 cabooses, each 268 . 28 

For 10 business cars, first class, each 1 ,094 . 29 

For 6 business cars, second class, each 656. 57 

For 9 observation electric lighted cars, each 97 . 33 

For 30 diners, each 1 , 626 . 98 

For 33 postal, wood, each 207 . 01 

For 14 postal, steel, each 225 . 32 

For 49 chair, each 41.76 

For 112 coach, each 41.76 

For 66 baggage, each 98 . 50 

For 36 baggage and mail, each 138 . 55 

For 19 baggage and passenger, each 98 .98 

For 4 baggage, mail and passenger, each 139 .03 

For 5 mail and passenger, each 114.12 

For 7 composite, each 51 . 78 

For 17 motor cars, each 141 . 69 



1184 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

For the expenditure of inspection and purchase of equipment there was 
added to each class 1 per cent of the cost in total, not including the freight 
charges. This amount was fixed after having made considerable investiga- 
tion as to the proper measure to be allowed, and was based upon a number of 
instances of actual experience. 

Additional to the above averages there was allowed commercial freight to 
the state. 

Prices Used in the Valuation of the New York, New Haven & Hartford R. 
R. — In the valuation of the physical property of the New York, New Haven 
& Hartford R. R., under the direction of George F. Swain, the unit prices 
adopted were based upon the average ruling prices for the various elements 
during the last few years previous to the appraisal and upon prices actually 
paid by the railway company. From the report on the valuation, Engineer- 
ing and Contracting, Feb. 21, 1912, gives the following. 

Grading : 

Clearing, per acre $ 

Grubbing, per acre 

Earth excavation, per cu. yd 

Solid rock excavation, per cu. yd 

Solid rock excavation, per cu. yd 

Loose rock excavation, per cu. yd 

Borrowed excavation 

1st class retaining wall, per cu. yd 

2nd class retaining wall, per cu. yd 

3rd class retaining wall, per cu. yd 

Sodding, per sq. yd 

Riprap, per cu. yd • 

Piling, per lin. ft 

Timber, per M. ft. B. M 

Tunnels: 

Excavation, per cu. yd $ 

2nd class masonry, per cu. yd 

Brick lining, per cu. yd 

Bridges, trestles and culverts: 

1st class deck girders, per ton $ 

2nd class deck girders, per ton 

1st class through girders, per ton 

2nd class through girders, per ton 

1st class trussed bridges, per ton 

Draw and lift bridges, per ton 

Counterweight bridges, per ton 

Viaducts, per ton 

Howe truss bridges, per lin. ft 

Timber trestles, per lin. ft 

Solid floor, per lin. ft 

Stringers, per M. ft. B. M 

I-beam stringers, per ton 

1st class masonry, per cu. yd 

2nd class masonry, per cu. yd 

3rd class masonry, per cu. yd 

Riprap, per cu. yd 

Paving, per sq. yd • ■ ^ 

Wet excavation, per cu. yd 

Dry excavation, per cu. yd , 

Timber, per M. ft. B. M 

Piling, per lin. ft 

Bolts, per lb -, 

Cast iron pipe culvert to 24 ins., per lin. ft 

Cast iron pipe culvert over 24 ins., per lin. ft 

Sewer pipe culvert to 24 ins., per lin. ft 

Sewer pipe culvert over 24 ins., per lin. ft 



40 


.00 


160 


.00 





.32 


1 


.30 


1 


.15 





.65 





.32 


15 


00 


8 


.00 


6 


00 





30 


2 


50 





40 


50 


00 


5 


00 


8 


00 


15 


00 


70 


00 


60 


00 


75 


00 


65 


00 


80 


00 


120 


00 


50 


00 


75 


00 


90 


00 


10 


00 


12 


00 


50 


00 


50 


00 


15 


00 


8 


00 


6 


00 


2 


50 


1. 


75 


1. 


00 


0. 


50 


50. 


00 


0. 


40 


0. 


05 


3. 


65 


11. 


00 


0. 


85 


3. 


57 



STEAM RAILWAYS 1185 

Ties: 

Main track, ^er tie . . / $ . 60 

Sidings, per tie 0.45 

■ Switches, per M. ft. B. M 22 . 00 

Bridge floor, per lin. ft 3 . 00 

Rails: 

Main track, 100-lb. per mile $4,790.00 

Main track, 79-80-lb. per mile 3,830.00 

Main track, 74-78-lb. per mile 3 , 590 . 00 

Main track, 66-72-lb. per mile 3,210.00 

Main track, 50-65-lb. per mile 2,880.00 

Siding, over 75-lb. per mile 3,590.00 

Siding, 65-7 5-lb. per mile 3,210.00 

Siding, 50-65-lb. per mile. 2 , 880.00 

Frogs and switches: 

lOO-lb. rail turnouts $ 223.00 

79-80-lb. rail turnouts 196 . 00 

74-78-lb. rail turnouts 178 . 00 

66-72-lb. rail turnouts 147 . 00 

66-65-lb. rail turnouts 140 . 00 

100-lb. rail derails 18 . 00 

66-80-lb. rail derails 15 . 00 

50-65-lb. rail derails 12 . 00 

100-lb. rail sHp 500 . 00 

74-80-lb. rail slip 300.00 

50-72-lb. rail slip 300.00 

Track fastenings, etc.: 

100-lb. rail per mile (main track) $ 680. 00 

74-80-lb. rail per mile (main track) 430 . 00 

66-72-lb. rail per mile (main track) 397 . 00 

50-65-lb. rail per mile (main track) 344 . 00 

75-lb. rail per mile (sidings) 430 . 00 

66-7 5~lb. rail per mile (sidings) 397. 00 

50-65-lb. rail per mile (sidings) 344 . 00 

Ballast: 

Stone, per mile $2,900.00 

Gravel, per mile 1 , 450 . 00 

Other ballast, per mile 1 , 000 . 00 

Track laying and surveying: 

Main line, per mile 800 . 00 

Sidings, per mile 600 . 00 

Fencing: 

Wire, per mile 300 . 00 

Tight board, per mile 1 , 800 . 00 

Open, per mile 1,000.00 

Stone, per mile 3 , 000 . 00 

Crossings and signs: 

Cattle guards, per pair $ 30 . 00 

• Timber, piling, excavation, etc., as previously given. 

Cost of Grading. Watauga & Yadkin River R. R.^The following data are 
taken from an article by H. C. Landon published in Engineering and Contract- 
ing, April 1, 1914. 

The Watauga & Yadkin River R. R. is a standard-gage line from North 
Wilkesboro, N. C, where connection is made with the Southern Ry. to Boone, 
N. C, a distance of 52 miles. 

The methods followed in construction were rather unusual, as the company 
was its own contractor. In other words, the grading was done largely by its 
own forces under the direction of the Chief Engineer. One small six-mile 
section was constructed by contract. 

The profile of the first 30 miles of projected line, indicated generally light 
work. There were some heavy cuts and fills, but it was not practicable, on 
75 



1186 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

account of poor roads and lack of bridges to entertain any steam shovel 
proposition, and generally the cuts and fills were too light to make steam 
shovel operation economical. Labor was scarce, and at a premium every- 
where. The plan was to do the work with the aid of teams, machines and 
powder as far as practicable. 

Equipment. — After a careful study of the projected profile, it was decided 
to purchase the following equipment: 

12 IK cu. yd. Troy wagons at $112.50 $1,350.00 

24 drag scrapers at $5.56 133 . 44 

36 No. 2H wheel scrapers at $36.75 1 , 323 . 00 

1 elevating grader at $920.00 920 . 00 

4 2,500 lb. wagons at $55.00 220 . 00 

8 16 ft. by 24 ft. tents at $38.63 309 04 

2 32M ft. by 65 ft. mule tents at $149.30 298 . 60 

2 IngersoU rock drills at $312.50 625 . 00 

1 16 hp. boiler on wheels, 2d hand, at $300 300 . 00 

10 1 yd. dump carts with harness at $46 460 . 00 

4 2 yd. dump carts with harness at'' $30 120 . 00 

100 steel wheel barrows, 3 and 4 cu.^ft. at $3.00 300 . 00 

12 doz. round Pt. D handle shovels at $5.25 63.00 

4 blacksmith outfits, including a forge, anvil and other 

tools, at $40.00 160.00 

12 doz. picks with handles at $400 48. 00 

Total $6,630.08 

The dump wagons and grader were only used about two months and did 
fair work in the territory where they were used. They were not used for a 
longer period on account of inability to get suflacieht mules and teams to 
operate them. 

Teams.— Before the company started work, we were advised that all the 
teams we would require could be secured in the community, but although we 
paid $3 per day or 50 cts. more than the ruling price, we could only secure 15 
to 18 teams and they were not all of the best type. It was then decided to 
purchase our own mules and 45 teams were purchased in the St. Louis market. 
These were mules that could pull, the average weight of the animals being 
over 1,225 lbs. These teams were in almost continuous daily service from 
Aug. 1, 1912, to June, 1913. Only two mules were lost and it is estimated 
that there was not over 5 per cent lost time for the mules in service. Our 
cost of feeding the mules averaged 95 cts. per team per day. For all camps 
hay averaged $25 per ton and oats 57 M cts. per bushel delivered at the camps. 

On June 1, 1913, the work was shut down for short time. At that time had 
our mules gone on the market they would have brought more than they cost, 
as their condition was excellent, due to their excellent care. It was the 
theory of the company that only from well fed and well kept teams could 
satisfactory efficiency be secured. The teams were taken care of by a com- 
petent stable boss. A supply of necessary remedies and an emergency case 
were kept at each camp. The fact that there was not over 5 per cent lost 
time for the teams explains the low price and rapid progress. 

EARTH EXCAVATION 

Organization of Forces. — It was realized that in order to secure efficiency, 
the organization of the various forces should be fixed. These forces were 
called " Standard" and only varied when it was shown that the nature of the 
work demanded it. Thus the Standard wheel scraper force was as follows 



STEAM RAILWAYS 1187 

for hauls not exceeding 300 ft.: 6 wheel scrapers with teams and drivers, 2 
teams to plows, 1 snatch team, 1 man dumping, 1 loader, 1 wheeler, 1 water- 
boy, when required, and 1 foreman. 

When the haul increased the number of wheel scrapers was increased, in 
order to keep the snatch team and other laborers busy. This was very closely 
watched by the foremen of the various gangs, in order to Iceep up their records, 
as every dumper was supplied with a counter and the day's work reported. 
In this way, a very close estimate could be made of the yardage moved. 

The " Standard" drag scraper force consisted of 6 scrapers, with teams and 
drivers, 2 teams to plow, 1 dumper, 1 loader, who acted as foreman, and 1 
waterboy. 

The drag scraper work and the wheel scraper work were watched with 
great care to determine the economical haul. The drag scraper is very effi- 
cient and very useful for very short hauls only. Observation of the various 
hauls up to 200 ft., fully demonstrated the fact that for a distance of over 100 
ft. the drag scraper was an expensive implement. Under 100 ft. it will do 
efficient work. Wheel scrapers ordinarily can be used where the drags can, 
and had the advantage in making about the same speed with about five times 
the load. As a general proposition, only a few drags should be used on work 
of this character. Their advantage is in their cheapness and for a small 
amount of work with short hauls the drag scraper might be desirable equip- 
ment. A gang of wheelbarrow men properly handled will do work about as 
cheap as a drag and in some instances at less expense. 

Cost of Drag Scraper Excavation. — Assuming the haul for a drag scraper to 
be 100 ft., a lively mule team to a scraper will not make over 1.3 miles per 
hour on account of the frequent turns and loading, or about 6,900 ft. per hour. 
This will be at the rate of 3.45 cu. yds. per hour or 34^^ cu. yds. per 10-hour 
day per team. With a "Standard" drag scraper force and teams at $3 per 
day, 8 drags will handle 27.6 cu. yds. each per 10-hour day, at a total labor 
cost of $37.50, or nearly 14 cts. per cubic yard. With a haul of from 50 to 75 
ft. the cost will not exceed 12 cts. per cubic yard. Seventy-five ft., therefore, 
should be the maximum haul with drag scrapers. Six drag scrapers with the 
shorter haul were therefore established as the maximum to use with the 
minimum haul. 

Actual observation on a 110-ft, haul with country teams, indicated that 
under the best conditions only 253'^ trips were made per hour, or a speed of 
5,000 ft. per hour. The company teams which were all well fed Missouri 
mules, made as high as 7,200 ft. per hour with drag scrapers on a haul of 150 
ft. 

These results were obtained under the best possible conditions where the 
dumper man counted and reported every load and in addition the teams were 
under my personal observation. 

A few drag scrapers on every job of similar character are a good investment, 
but their number and use should be limited. An injudicious foreman will 
often use them at the company's expense. 

Our standard forces were modified as the hauls increased, the number of 
wheelers increased to eight, and, possibly, with very long haul ten or even 
twelve wheelers could be used to advantage. 

Cost of Wheel Scraper Excanation. — In only one instance did the haul with 
wheelers much exceed 600 ft. and in this instance the haul averaged 1,350 ft.; 
ten wheelers only were available, but we were able to handle 225 cu. yds. 
at a cost of 23M cts. per yard, figuring teams at $3.50 per 10-hour day, 



1188 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

although all the teams which we used actually only cost us approximately $3 
per day. 

With a haul of 415 ft. a careful timing of the teams indicated that they were 
making four trips in 20 min. The average of twelve trips per hour was made 
for the entire day. The wheelers were loaded to their capacity, and there- 
fore, an average of nearly 60 cu. yds. per wheeler was secured. The wheeler 
force using only six wheelers cost $30 per day. The labor cost in this case 
did not much exceed 10 cts. per yard. 

Wheelbarrow Excavation. — The wheelbarrow when properly used is a most 
useful, necessary, convenient and economical tool. Tnree types of barrows 
were purchased: the ordinary railroad wooden barrow, the wooden frame 
contractors barrow, with steel tray, and the all steel wheelbarrow with one 
piece tubular bent handles. Barrows of 3 and 4 cu. ft. capacity were bought. 
The barrow holding 4 cu. ft. in general seemed to suit our work and could be 
handled about as easy as the barrow holding only 3 cu. ft. The ordinary 
wooden wheelbarrow gave very poor service. We had a few of the barrows 
with wooden frames go out of service, but the all steel wheelbarrows are 
practically as good as new after 8 months fairly good service. The barrows 
are painted when out of service any length of time. 

For side-hill work and to open grade points the barrow is giving very effi- 
cient service. Observation on side-hill work with a gang of 25 men handled 
dirt at the rate of eigat wheelbarrows per minute for an hour with a haul of 
21 ft. This would mean that they moved over 500 cu. yds. per day in wheel- 
barrows holding 4 cu. ft. Good runways were always provided, so that the 
loads could be moved with the least possible waste of energy. 

The gangs were placed in the hands of efficient foremen, who taught the 
men how to handle the most dirt with the least possible loss of time. It was 
endeavored at all times to have a standard gang of not less than 25 men under 
each foreman. The work varied as the conditions necessitated. In some 
cases much drilling was required, in others none at all. 

Cost of Dump Car and Cart Excavation. — Four small dump cars with revolv- 
ing bodies were found to be convenient and useful in short cuts and at the 
approaches to the one tunnel that has been built. These cars run on a track 
of 30-in. gage and had a capacity of 2 cu. yds. The cars were particularly 
useful in small cuts and where the haul was long. The revolving body would 
permit the car to be dumped in building the fill ahead of it and could be 
dumped on the side to widen the fill or waste the material. Light rails not 
being available these cars were run on a track made of 4 X 4 oak timbers. 
The wooden rails only required a few renewals during their six months of 
service. 

Dump carts can only be used economically upon hauls about 100 ft. long, 
but two of the cars moved by mules would keep a gang of 10 to 12 shovelers 
continuously busy — where the haul was from 600 to 700 ft. 

In one cut alone, it is estimated two of these cars handled 15,000 cu. yds. 
of earth and rock, with a maximum haul of 650 ft., at a cost not to exceed 
20 cts. per cubic yard. The average gang, including drillers, was about 14 
men and a foreman. This number of men loaded about 150 cu. yds. per day 
at a labor cost of about $25 per day. It took nearly three months to remove 
the cut. 

While dump carts should be used for short hauls of from 100 to 125 ft., yet 
they have been used to advantage where the maximum haul was 250 ft., 
provided the roadway was kept in good order and several cartg wer^ used to 



STEAM RAILWAYS 1189 

keep a good sized gang moving. In one instance, six carts were used in com- 
pleting a fill and did the work very rapidly where the haul was approximately 
150 ft. Six carts and 30 laborers moved 325 cu. yds. per day, at an expense of 
approximately $47 or about 15 cts. per cubic yard. As a general proposition 
our cost of handling earth and rock with dump carts and men is about 26 cts. 
per cubic yard, exclusive of explosives. 

ROCK EXCAVATION 

Methods of Using Explosives. — The line as located and the material afforded 
a splendid opportunity for the use of explosives. Much of the line was 
located in the side hills in locations where heavy blasts would be made with- 
out endangering life or property. The proper using of explosives, however, 
for moving earth has been given, as a general thing, very little attention. The 
experienced men that we employed had only used explosives to shatter and 
break up the rock or hard soil, so that it could be handled by either hand or 
steam shovels, and the old powder men at first tried to continue the use oJ: that 
method. Much valuable time and good powder were wasted before we could 
so improve the use of powder that the blast would move the maximum amount 
of rock and earth out of or off from the railroad grade. 

In all cases where there were over five holes, the battery was tested with a 
Rheostat and every fuse and finally the line was tested with a galvanometer, 
so that no misfi.res occurred. It is not rare that a faulty fuse is found, and 
when they do occur they can cause annoyance if they are used. 

Methods of Spacing, Drilling and Loading Blast Holes. — It was difficult at 
first to get the desired results as all the old-time powder men rather believed 
in the single shot or two or three shots plan, the result being that a poor show- 
ing was made. I finally made arrangements with the general foreman to lay 
out or plan the blasts in the other cuts and for some time no heavy blasting 
was done except under personal direction. The cuts were usually of a length 
where 30 or less than 30 holes would cover the portion of the cut to be moved, 
so that a No. 3 blasting machine would explode the blast. 

The holes were spaced on lines that have since entered into our general 
instructions for use of powder and other explosives. In general where the 
cut at the center line was over 4 ft., and the material earth or soft rock, the 
first. line of holes was placed not more than 2 ft. above the center line. All 
holes were driven to a point 2 ft. below grade and usually about the same dis- 
tance apart as the depth of the hole to grade, except when depth was greater 
than 15 ft. The maximum distance apart was about 15 ft. If the hillside 
was steep and the lower side of the road bed at grade, one set of holes was 
sufficient. If the cut under ordinary circumstances was a through cut with 
the depth of cut 2 ft. or more on the lower side, then a lower set of holes was 
drilled parallel to the first at the lower ditch line at points midway between the 
upper holes, so that there would be no question about moving the material 
out of way. This will not change materially the amount of powder used, as 
one yard of soft rock should be moved with about 2 lbs. of powder. The 
soft rock usually was decomposed granite or a Carolina gneiss which was not 
hard to drill. 

The hard rock encountered was usually a mica schist. This was very hard, 
and in these cases the upper line of holes was placed on the upper ditch line 
and a distance apart equal to the depth up to 10 ft. No holes were placed 
farther apart than this. The lower holes were placed on the lower ditch line 
at the same distance apart but intermediate to the upper line of holes. 



1190 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



The arrangement had to be modified according to the rock, as hard and soft 
rock would be found in the same cut that was to be demohshed by a single 
blast. The arrangement of the strata changed our plans, although generally 
the strata we encountered was nearly vertical or leaned slightly to the north- 
west. 

The general tendency was to use too much powder in the soft rock or earth 
and too little in the hard rock. A careful estimate was made of the quantity 
in the cut. If soft rock, 2 lbs. or less were used per yard; if hard rock, 3 lbs. 
per yard or more. The general foreman in charge followed instructions care- 
fully and used good judgment in his large blasts and usually wasted very little 
or no powder. After he became acquainted with the rock and the mistakes, 
mistakes were rare. 

In all the smaller shots that are being made, the foremen are instructed to 
use powder judiciously, and they are getting good results with a minimum 
amount of powder. The holes are made on the center line to a point about 2 
ft. below the grade line and are spaced a distance apart equal to the depth of 
the holes. It is found that the holes drilled on the center line and to this depth 
below the grade will ordinarily pull down the grade about the amount desired, 
and will not move the earth too far back of the slope line where soft rock is 
handled. 

Drilling Outfit. — Steam drills are used with hard rock, while a large percent- 
age of the other holes are put down by hand and churn drills. In many places 
churn drills were successful in soft rock. In all hard rock, steam drills are 
used when possible. The two drills used were the Ingersoll P-24 type with 
3-in. cylinders 6>^-in. stroke. One 12 h.p. boiler supplied the two drills. 

Cost of Excavating a Rock Sidehill Cut. — Several large blasts have been suc- 
cessfully made along the route in sidehill cuts on different sections of the line, 
moving almost }4 cu. yd. of material for every pound of powder used. In one 
cut, estimated at 8,000 cu. yds., 95 per cent of which was solid rock, 33 holes 



1020 
























__^__ 






mm 










^~- 








r 












• — ^ 




/ 












\ 




/ 








_ 5ub Ore 


[de:::::^ 


\ .... 


oon 










1 ' — 





*aC 



+50 ^ 356 

^--^ Center 



^ 50 355 

Profile 



354 

Line 



— o— 0-— o— — o— ^o— — o— — o— o— — o— o e ■ ' o ' o— o— o— — o 

li' Plan 

Fig. 4, — Plan of blast holes in cut Sta. 353 to Sta. 357, W. & R. V. R. R. 



were driven in two rows, the upper row being approximately 20 ft. deep and 
extending 2 ft. below grade, while the lower holes were 16 ft. deep, extending 
6 in. below grade. The holes were expanded or "sprung" twice, first by using 
5 or 6 sticks of dynamite and then by using 25 or 30 sticks. This material 
was all rock and the second expansion of the holes was necessary, although it 
is believed that one expansion of the holes, using 10 or 12 sticks of dynamite, 
would have given better results, as the second expansion tended to fill the 
holes rather than open them up to sufficient size. An average of 11 kegs of 
powder was used in the upper holes and 13 in the lower holes. The results 
of this blast were very satisfactory, 378 kegs of powder being used, moving 



STEAM RAILWAYS 1191 

fully 7,000 cu. yds. of rock. A No. 3 push down battery was used in this 
explosion, although this was overloading the battery slightly. 

Fig. 4 shows the profile of the cut where this blast was made and a plan 
showing the location, spacing and arrangement of the 33 blast holes. 

Fig. 5 shows a typical cross-section of the cut before and after the blast and 
as completed. A wagon road was shifted farther back from the river after 
the grading was done. 

On a small sidehill 
rock cut at Sta. 926, 

holes were drilled by Excavated to this Line 

hand for a blast made by Blast 

June 16, 1913. Six lower 

holes were drilled ap- Lycavoted Before 

proximately 4 ft. down ^^^ ^ ""^y]992.97 




hill from the center line Present Road/-^ 

having depths of from 7 Road ■ 

to 11 ft. Three holes 

were drilled along the 

center line, and 17 holes Yadkin RJver^ 

having depths of from 11 

to 18 ft. were drilled at 

an average distance of 7 Fig. 5. — Cross section of cut at Sta. 355 + 34, W. 

ft. above the center line. & Y. R. R, R. 

All holes were drilled 

about 2 ft. below sub-grade. The rock was of hard grey character, and eight 

cans of powder were placed in most of the deepest holes, although one hole 

required eleven cans. Three cans were loaded into the shallow holes. The 

cost of making the blast and cleaning out the cut, which contained a 

total of 1,300 cu. yds., was as follows, (the item of $126 being for labor in 

cleaning out the loose material left by the blast and in dressing up the cut) : 

Per 
cu. yd. 

121 cans powder at $1.30 $157.30 $0. 121 

150 lbs. dynamite at $0.15 22.50 0.017 

50 20-ft. fuses 3 . 40 0. 003 

58 16-ft. fuses 2.78 0.002 

Labor drilhng and loading holes 135 .00 . 104 

Labor, 84 men at $1.50 126.00 0.096 

Total $446.98 $0,343 

About 320 ft. of holes were drilled at a cost of approximately 40 cts. per 
lineal foot for drilling labor, which was only 0.24 ft. of hole per cubic yard of 
rock blasted. Powder was used at the rate of 2.3 lbs. per cubic yard of rock 
blasted, the springing of the holes requiring 0.12 lbs. of dynamite per cubic 
yard of rock. It was estimated that 900 cu. yds. of rock were shot out of 
the cut, so the unit cost for clearing out and dressing the cut was $126 -^ 400 
= $0.31 per cubic yard of rock left in the cut after the blast. The cut was 
ready for track three days after the blast was fired. 

Cost of Excavating a Through Rock Cut. — For the purpose of comparison the 
cost of excavating a through rock cut between Sta. 1038 + 50 and Sta. 1041 
is here given. The material in the cut was medium hard rock, much of it 
being mica schist, and amounted to 2,200 cu. yds. Thirty-seven holes were 
drilled and fired in eleven blasts. About 28 pop shots and small shots were 



1192 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



required for breaking up rock and removing rock to a point below grade. 
Some of the material was removed by wheelbarrows to the side of the cut, 
but the greater portion was moved by carts into a nearby fill, the haul being 
about 250 ft. The mules were owned by the company but the cost was esti- 
mated at $1.50 per 10-hour day. The total cost of excavating the cut was as 
follows: 

Item 

Mules and carts $ 47.00 $0,021 

Labor 1,018.25 0.463 

Explosives 174.45 0.079 

Totals $1,239.70 $0,563 



One short tunnel was constructed having a total length of 194 ft. As the 
rock was somewhat varying, in spots very hard and at other points loose, it 
was necessary to line the entire length. 

The section adopted as shown by Fig. 6 is rather narrow, had it been the 

intention to maintain a per- 
manent tunnel, but as it is the 
purpose to make an open cut 
at this point, the smallest safe 
section was adopted. The 
track has a summit about half 
way through the tunnel which 
provides for draining track 
ditches to both ends. 

Cost. — The tunnel was 
driven by hand, the entire 
cost being $6,730.74, or $34.69 
per foot. This is very reas- 
onable, taking into account 
the fact that very little ex- 
perienced labor could be. 
found. No accidents in the 
tunnel proper occurred. The 
above cost includes all ma- 
terial, explosives and labor 
in any way connected with 
the tunnel. It required 39 
days to drive the headings, and about the same time to drive the benches. 
Labor was scarce and difficult to get. 

Method of Using Powder Tunnels for Excavating Rock. — The tunnel ap- 
proaches contained approximately 40,000 cu. yds. of earth and rock, 75 per 
cent of which was earth. Nearly 50 per cent of this was moved by two blasts, 
one on each approach; 30,000 lbs. of powder were used. The powder in these 
later instances was placed in powder tunnels running about on the ditch line 
with branch tunnels leading from the main. The powder was emptied into 
paper flour sacks and then compacted as closely as possible in the extreme end 
of the main tunnel and branches. After the powder was placed, the balance 
of the tunnel was filled with earth compacted as well as possible. The fusees 
and lead lines in these blasts were tested at every step in the wiring of the blasts. 
While effective and satisfactory work was done by these two blasts yet it 




Fig. 



6. — Section of tunnel and timber lining, 
.W.&Y. R. R. R. 



STEAM RAILWAYS 1193 

is believed that by the use of more powder somewhat differently placed, had 
the dirt been better compacted at the tunnel mouth or had there been a solid 
stone or concrete wall built across the mouth of the tunnel, or in the tunnel 
next to the powder, better results would have been obtained. The powder 
tunnels were very dry and it is not believed the powder would have deterior- 
ated very much during 48 hours necessary to give a concrete wall time to set. 
The fact that there was evidence of cons'iderable force wasted at the mouth 
of the tunnel was evidence that there was quite a waste of good powder. 

Total Amount and Average Cost of Excavation by R. R. Company Forces. — 
Approximately 24 miles were graded by company forces. The total yardage 
moved was 475,052, of which 99,688 yards were rock. Labor cost including 
explosives was approximately .12 ct. per yard for earth and 36 cts. for rock; 
213,250 lbs. of powder were used and 24,000 lbs. of dynamite. 

It is estimated that the powder moved from the grade, so that no further 
handhng was necessary, at least 80,000 cu. yds. An additional large yardage 
of material was shaken up to be loaded by wheelers or loaded into carts or cars. 

Cost of Raising Embankment and Filling Trestles Using Steam Shovel.^ — 
D. A. Wallace gives the following data in Engineering and Contracting, July 
20, 1910. 

The Frisco "line (C. S. N. O. & P. R. R.) from Beaumont, Tex., to Baton 
Rouge, La., was built through the Atchafalaya Swamp in alternate embank- 
ment and temporary trestle. The original plans were made for continuous 
embankment of station work, but continued high water in the swamp pro- 
hibited 50 per cent of the station work and temporary trestling was resorted 
to for filling in the gaps between the embankment which had been started or 
completed. The greater portion of the grade was 8 ft. high. The material 
in the embankment was the black gumbo commonly encountered in Southern 
Louisiana swamps. The work described consisted of raising the embankment 
and filling in the temporary trestling. The conditions were difficult. 

The track was laid following closely behind the trestle gang, and frequent 
use of the track by the bridge material train put the track into a very poor 
condition. A great portion of the embankment built by station work was 
partially washed out by high water leaving holes 4 ft. deep for 15 or 20 ft. of 
track. The temporary trestles stood 12 or 18 ins. higher than the approaches. 
This condition was due to the excessive settlement of the swamp soil when 
put up by station work and also to heavy rains. The worst holes were cribbed 
up with ties and tree branches but even then a great amount of delay was 
caused the unloading trains by derailment and trains breaking in two in at- 
tempting to get over the bad places. It was necessary to unload dirt at these 
places before the track could be surfaced, as the gumbo would not hold a sur- 
face under one trainload of dirt. In many instances cars were unloaded 
standing on track 18 ins. out of level and 3 ft. out of surface in a distance of 
10 ft. along the rail. 

Hart convertible cars were used and were unloaded by Lidgerwood and 
plow. Before dirt was unloaded on the fills it was necessary to jack the track 
up out of the gumbo. It was impossible to move the track with No. 6 Bar- 
rett jacks after the dirt was unloaded. In many instances it was found neces- 
sary to strip out the track before it could be lifted from the gumbo with 12 
No. 6 Barrett jacks, resting on boards, per rail length. The grade on embank- 
ment was raised not less than 12 ins. at any point. 

The unloading was planned so that when the front gangs were unable to 
get the track in shape ahead of the unloading or when they were not able 



1194 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

to care for the dirt as fast as it came, the unloading was done on the trestles, 
and as they were being filled a gang was kept busy tamping the dirt in under 
the caps and stringers. Following a rain, the dirt packed hard and the caps 
and stringers were removed by the Lidgerwood and cable. 

The shovel pits from which the dirt for filling was taken, averaged a 15-ft. 
face and 1,600 ft. in length. The dirt was a sandy clay compacting very 
quickly in embankment. The pit was opened up along one side of the main 
line and track laid behind the shovel in the first cut and used as a loading 
track for the next cut of the shovel. More difficulty than usual was experi- 
enced in keeping the pit properly drained. Good drainage was very necessary 
to take care of the frequent and heavy rains common to the country. Three 
trains were used, 1 loading train, which also handled the water cars for the 
shovel, 1 swing train which made the run of 12 miles to the front in 40 minutes 
and 1 unloading train. The unloading was started 12 miles from the pit. 
A siding and water tank were located there affording water to the swing and 
unloading trains. About 25 minutes were generally consumed there in switch- 
ing empties and locals. 

The work recorded was done from Sept. 12 to Oct. 16, 1907. The daily 
expenses were as follows: 

Loading, transporting and unloading: 

1 Trainmaster at $150 per mo $ 5. 00 

3 Conductors at $100 per mo 10.00 

3 Brakemen at $75 per mo 7 . 50 

3 Brakemen at $60 per mo 6 . 00 

3 Engineers at $100 per mo ' 10. 00 

3 Firemen at $75 per mo 7 . 50 

3 Engine watchmen at $60 per mo. 6 , 00 

1 Hostler at $75 per mo 2. 50 

1 Hostler helper at $1.80 per day 1 . 80 

1 Steamshovel engineer at $150 per mo 5 . 00 

1 Steamshovel craneman at $90 per mo 3 . 00 

1 Steamshovel fireman at $75 per mo 2. 50 

1 Steamshovel watchman at $60 per mo 2.00 

1 Machinist at $0.35 per hour 3 . 50 

1 Machinist helper at $1.80 per day 1 . 80 

1 Blacksmith at $0.35 per hour 3. 50 

1 Blacksmith helper at $0.20 per hour 2.00 

1 Car repairer at $0.25 per hour 2. 50 

1 Car repairer at $0,225 per hour 2 . 25 

1 Carpenter at $0,275 per hour 2.75 

1 Pumper at $60 per mo 2.00 

1 Lidgerwood engineer at $90 per mo 3 . 00 

6 Pit men at $2 per day 12.00 

6 Cablemen at $2 per day. . ; 12.00 

Total wages $116. 10 

20 tons coal at $4 $ 80. 00 

Supplies 2 . 56 

Ice 1.00 

Water at 50 cts. per tank from city 2. 00 

10 gals, gasoline at 10 cts 100 

Total supplies $ 86 . 56 

1 Steam shovel rent $ 10.00 

3 Engines rent at $5.53 per day 16. 59 

62 Cars rent at 50 cts. per day 31 . 00 

1 Water car rent at 50 cts. per day . 50 

1 Spreader rent at $2 per day 2 . 00 

1 Lidgerwood rent at $5 per day 5.00 

Total plant rental $ 65 . 09 

Add 10 % super, and 5 % misc $ 40. 15 

Grand total . . . $307.90 

Note. — The 5 % misc. includes overtime, etc. 



4 



^TBAM RAILWAYS 1195 

During the total period of 35 days, the total time lost due to Sundays, rain, 
etc. was as follows: 

Sundays 5.0 days 

Rain or mud 2.18 days 

Moving 1.6 days 

Shovel breaking down bank 0. 25 days 

Failure of transportation . 22 days 

Total 9 . 25 days 

Of this total of 9.25 days, 6 days are accounted for by 5 Sundays and 1 day 
moving from job. 

The total cost of the work, $14,178, was made up as follows: 

Pitmen at $75 per mo. and $1.75 per day $ 727 

Labor at the front at same rates as pitmen : 3 , 519 

Steam shovel 29 days at $308 8, 932 

5 days at 200 1 , 000 

$14,178 

Pit cross-section showed a yardage of 35,445 removed thus making the cost 
40 cts. per cu. yd. 

Dragline Bucket Eliminates Maintenance of Track in Cuts. — The following 
note is taken from Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 16, 1918. 

In planning methods of excavating railway or canal cuts, sight should not 
be lost of the cost of laying and maintaining tracks over which the spoil is 
hauled away. This cost mounts rapidly where the bottom of a cut is wet 
and difficult to drain. In such cases it is frequently economic to use a drag- 
line excavator instead of a steam shovel, for both the track for the excavator 
and for the muck train can be laid on the surface of the ground instead of in 
the bottom of a wet cut. 

In making a cut for the Nickel Plate Ry. in Cleveland, the contractor, 
Walsh Construction Co. of Davenport, used a 175-ton Marion dragline with a 
100-ft. boom and a 5-yd. Page bucket. Working two 11-hr. shifts daily the 
draghne averaged 3,600 cu. yd. every 24 hrs. where there were no delays. 
The earth, a sandy clay, was loaded into 12-yd. Western cars. The bottom 
width of the cut was 72 ft. and the maximum depth was 24 ft. The dragline 
dug on both sides of itself as well as behind, and then moved back 30 ft., 
repeating this operation again and again. 

Costs of Railway Ditching by Various Methods. — ^An interesting comparison 
of costs at 1918 prices of cleaning railway ditches by different methods was 
given in a committee report at the 1919 annual meeting of the Roadmasters' 
and Maintenance of Way Association in Chicago. The following data given 
in Engineering and Contracting, Dec. 17, 1919, are from this report and are 
for single track lines with six trains during working hours; roadbed in soft 
clay; ditches 7 ft. from rails, 3 ft. wide and 2 ft. deep. 

Output Cost 

per day, per 

Method cu. yd. cu. yd. 

Ditcher of steam-shovel type, on cars 224 $0.4130 

Steam ditcher of drag-scraper type 252 .4034 

Push cars and laborers 383^ . 5862 

Car barrows and laborers 13 . 7670 

Wheelbarrows and laborers 19 .7142 

Casting or shoveling 38>^ . 3525 



1196 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The unit costs for the various methods follow: 

Ditcher of steam shovel type on cars: Per day 

Ditch labor $ 18 . 90 

Work train labor 23 . 86 

Rental of equipment 31 . 00 

Maintenance of equipment 1 . 45 

Supphes . 12.80 

Total (224 cu. yd. at 41.3 cts.) $ 92.51 

Steam ditcher of drag scraper type: 

Ditch labor $ 31 . 75 

Work train labor 28 . 36 

Rental of equipment 30 . 00 

Maintenance of equipment .93 

Supplies , 10.62 

Total (252 cu. yd. at 40.3 cts.) $101 . 66 

Two push cars and hand labor: 

1 foreman at $83 $ 2.77 

11 laborers at $2.25 19.80 

Total (38M cu. yd. at 58.6 cts.) $ 22.57 

Car barrows and hand labor: 

1 foreman $ 2.77 

4 laborers at $1.80 7 . 20 

Total (13 cu. yd. at 76.7 cts.) $ 9.97 

Wheelbarrows and hand labor: 

1 foreman $ 2.77 

6 laborers at $1.80 10.80 

Total (19 cu. yd. at 71.4 cts.). ' $ 13. 57 

Casting or shoveling: 

1 foremen $ 2.77 

6 laborers at $1.80 10.80 

Total (38H cu. yd. at 35.2 cts.) ! $ 13. 57 

Cost of Steam Shovel Work Loading Into Cars for Railway Ballasting and 
Grading. — D. A. Wallace gives the following data in Engineering and Con- 
tracting, July 27, 1910. 

Slag for Ballasting. — This slag was loaded by a 45-ton shovel working 
against a 20-ft. face, into cars placed on a spur track on a 3 per cent grade. 
The grade permitted the spotting of cars by hand while the engine was unload- 
ing the loaded cars. The greatest haul was 4 miles. There was no delay to 
the slag train di^e to meeting revenue trains. The slag was in alternate vitri- 
fied and spongy layers. The use of the light shovel necessitated some use 
of powder but not more than the ground gang could drill the necessary holes 
for and handle. Holes were drilled on an average 9 ft. horizontally into the 
face 3 ft. from the ground line and about 10 ft. centers. Rodgers ballast cars 
were used. The size of the slag permitted easy unloading. The train crew 
with the help of one of the gang did the unloading and sweeping off. 
The daily expense was as follows: 

Engineer @ $125.00 per month $ 4.80 

Craneman @ $40.00 per month 3 . 46 

Fireman @, $60.00 per month 2.31 

Foreman @ $65.00 per month 2.50 

6 ground men @ $1.25 per day 7.50 

2 tons coal at $2 4 . 00 

Waste and oil 0. 50 

Dynamite . 93 

Work train 25.00 

Total $51 . 00 



STEAM RAILWAYS 1197 

The slag cost $2 per -car load of 40 cu. yds. or 5 cts. per cu, yd. Including 
this the cost of loading, hauling and unloading was as follows per cubic yard : 

6 cars, 240 cu. yds $0 . 262 

7 cars, 280 cu. yds 0.232 

8 cars, 320 cu. yds 0.209 

9 cars, 360 cu. yds 0. 191 

12 cars, 480 cu. yds , 0. 156 

Earth for Grade Raising. — Loose earth was loaded into Hart convertible 
cars spotted on the main line. The shovel was cut in on both sides of the 
main line and cuts were widened. A 12-ft. face was worked. The dirt was 
unloaded by the railway company in widening fills or grade raising just as was 
most convenient, depending on the progress of the gangs and the time of 
revenue trains. The contractor was paid 7 cts. per cu. yd. pit measure for 
dirt loaded on cars and the following costs were for loading alone. The 
shovel used was a 70-ton Giant with a 2-cu. yd. dipper. 

About 1>^ gals, of cylinder oil at 40 cts. per gallon were used per day and 
2 gals, of black oil at 10 cts. per gallon. The daily expenses were as follows: 

Engineer @ $150.00 per month $ 6.00 

Craneman @ $90.00 per month 3. 60 

Fireman 2.00 

Watchman 1 . 85 

6-ground hands @ $1.50 per day 9.00 

Total labor $22.45 

Cylinder oil $ 0. 60 

Black oil 0. 20 

Waste 0. 10 

1 ton coal 1 . 50 

Int. at 6 % on $10,000 2.00 

Total $26 . 85 

Grand total 49.30 

The shovel loaded 45 cars of 24 cu. yds. per car or 1080 cu. yds. per day, 
giving a cost of 4>^ cts. per cu. yd. 

Sand for Ballast. -^Two sand pits were opened up, one on each side of the 
main line, and the lead track to each pit was used as a loading track. A 60- 
ton Marion shovel was cut into one pit and a 45-ton Vulcan shovel into the 
other pit. Three work trains were used for spotting cars, hauling and unload- 
ing. Each crew handled different parts of the work depending on the arrival 
of the unloading trains and the speed of loading. One crew usually spotted 
cars for both shovels. This was done very easily because of the frequent 
moves of the shovels due to the shallow face of the cut. The sand was a 
white sand containing about 20 per cent loam. It made a very satisfactory 
ballast for light traflfic. Hart convertible cars were used and were unloaded 
by Lidgerwood and plow on new track. A large amount of time was lost due 
to the slow running necessitated by the very rough track. 

The following was the total output of the 60-ton Marion for 22 working 
days in July, 1,075 cars or 29,008 cu. yds. 

The number of days worked was 22 or 220 hours, during which time there 
were 91 hrs. 45 mins. delays distributed as follows: 

Cause Hrs. Mins. 

Moving shovel • 23 55 

Waiting for cars 53 10 

Closing car doors 4 35 

Coal and water 5 50 

Derailments 3 20 

Shovel repairs . . 55 

Total 91 45 



1198 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The following was the output of the 45-ton Vulcan shovel for 7 day's work, 
235 cars or 7,570 cu. yds. 

The number of days worked was 7 or 70 hours during which time the delays 
amounted to 49 hrs. 43 mins. distributed as follows: 

Cause Hrs. Mins. 

Moving shovel : 7 8 

Waiting for cars 28 20 

Tank repairs 7 

Shovel repairs 7 

Derailments 15 

Total 49 43 

Summarizing the work of the two shovels we have: 

Item 60-Ton 45-Ton 

No. cars loaded 1 , 075 235 

Cu. yds. loaded 29,008 7,570 

Av. "no. cars per day 43^ 333^ 

Av. cu. yds. per day 1,318.5 1,081.4 

Av. cu. yds. per car 27. 2 32. 2 

The face worked averaged 10 ft. and the haul was 10 miles. 

In August the two shovels worked more nearly the same amount«of time. 
The total working time of the 60-ton shovel was 26 days or 310 hours during 
which time there were the following delays : 

60-ton Marion 

Item Hrs. Mins. 

Moving shovel 43 

Waiting for cars 82 30 

Waiting for laborers 29 

Waiting on track work 6 25 

Miscellaneous .• • • • 10 

Total 170 55 

45-ton Vulcan 

Moving shovel 35 

Waiting for cars 45 30 

Waiting for laborers 20 

Waiting on track work 15 

Waiting for power 20 

Repairing shovel 27 

Miscellaneous 12 

Total 174 30 

Summarizing the work of the two shovels we have: 

Item 60-ton 45-ton 

No. cars loaded 1 , 268 1 , 046 

No. cu. yds. loaded 33,486 30,710 

Av. cu. yds. per day 1,272 1,121 

Av. cars per day 48^ 40 

Av. cu. yds. per car 26K 28^^ 

The total yardage for the month for both shovels was 63,196 cu. yds. The 
cost of loading, transporting and placing this material in the track was as 
follows: 



STEAM RAILWAYS 1199 

Item Total Per cu. yd. 

Loading $ 1,207.65 $0,019 

Transporting 2,973.74 0.0464 

Surfacing 9,504.71 0.1504 

Fuel and supplies 4,761.56 0.0753 

Rental equipment 3,422.07 0.0541 

Supervision 1,116.30 0.0183 

Total ,. . . $23,031.03 $0.3635 

The face averaged 8 ft. and the haul was 10 miles. 

Cost of Unloading, Spacing and Renewing Ties. — D. A. Wallace gives the 
following data in Engineering and Contracting, Aug. 10, 1910. 

Unloading Ties, — (1) Ties were unloaded from work train while running, 
with negro labor at $1.10 per day and foreman at $50 per month. Work 
train cost $25 per day. Six men unloaded 250 ties from a coal car in 30 mins. 
at the following cost: 

Train service, 30 mins $1 . 04 

Labor, 30 mins 0.45 

Total $1.49 

This gives a cost per tie of 0.6 cts. 

Thirteen men unloaded 970 ties from 3 box cars in 2 hours. Four men per 
car were worked with one to follow. The cost was as follows: 

Train service, 2 hrs . $ 6 . 24 

Labor, 2 hrs 5.35 • 

Total $11.59 

This gives a cost per tie of 1.2 ct. It will be seen that it cost twice as 
much to unload from box cars as from coal cars. 

2. Work train unloaded 9 cars carrying 2100 ties on a run of 106 miles, 
picking up section gangs and unloading in spots. Cars were coal cars and 
train was called at 6:15 a. m. and tied up at 6:15 p. m. Negro labor at $1.10 
per day and foreman at $50 per month were employed. The expense per day 
was as follows: 

Work train, including coal, oil, etc $28 . 80 

Labor 4 . 40 

Foremen 1 . 00 

Total $34.20 

The train was in service 12 hours as follows: 

Fraction 
Hrs. Mins. of day 

Delays 3 35 0. 300 

Unloading time 2 13 0. 184 

Running time 6 12 0. 516 

Total 12 00 1.00 

The cost of unloading per tie was, therefore, as follows: 

Delays 0.48 ct. 

Unloading time . 29 ct. 

Running time . 83 ct. 

Total 1 . 60 cts. 



1200 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST • 

Tie Renewals. — When track is being surfaced out of face in two raises the 
renewal of ties during the first raise consumes too much time and should 
be done during the second raise. The following gang organizations were 
employed in the work for which the records are given. 

Good Surface; Foreman and 4 Men; Not more than 2 Ties to Be Removed at a 
Place. — Foreman will loosen up the spikes on 4 ties on each side of the tie that 
is to be removed ; 2 men can be used in thoroughly cleaning the ballast from 
around the tie that is to be removed ; the other 2 men should each have a jack 
to raise the rail, so as to let the tie come out easily, without disturbing the 
general surface. The 4 men should then slip in the new ties, working in pairs. 
The foreman should drive the spikes home as soon as possible in order to keep 
the track safe, and should dress up the track. 

Foreman and 6 Men; Smoothing Track; 7 or 8 Ties per Rail Length. — Gang 
as follows: 2 men with jacks, 2 men with claw bars, 2 men pulling ties out 
of track. Where 3 or 4 ties together come out the foreman should put in the 
middle tie and spike it to keep the track safe. When about 20 ties are re- 
moved the gang should go back and full-tie the track, care being taken not to 
disturb ties that are not to be takeu out of the track, even if it is necessary to 
loosen up the spikes on 3 or 4 ties on each side of the tie to be" removed. 
Spikes should not be pulled all the way out, and ties left in track should not 
be raised more than 3^ in. Only 20 ties should be removed at a time before 
new ties are put in, for the reason that the gang may be picked up by a work 
train or called away suddenly for some reason and the work be left in bad shape 
for the regular trains. As the new ties are being put in place the gang can 
smooth up. 

The following are records of tie renewals : 

1. An average of 4 ties per rail renewed during a 7-in. raise in rock ballast, 
with Italian labor at $1.25 per day and foreman at $60 per month. The ties 
were 7X9 ins. X SK ft. The average was 11 ties per man day; the best 
day's work was 20 ties per man day. 

The cost of renewing 1 tie was $0,104. 

2. Ties put in during a 3-in. raise in rock ballast by section gangs, with 
negro labor at $1.10 per day and foreman at $50 per month. Ties were 6 X 
8 ins. X 8 ft. The best record was 193^^ ties per man day ; the average was 14 
ties per man day. 

The cost of renewing 1 tie was $0.08. 

3. Ties renewed in rock ballast during a 2-in. raise by section gangs work- 
ing negroes at $1.10 per day and foreman at $50 per month. The ties were 
6 X 8 in. X 8 ft. The best record was 17.5 ties per man day; the average 
was 13.3 ties per man day. 

The cost of renewing 1 tie was $0,082. 

4. Ties renewed during a 7-in. raise in rock screenings, working Italians 
at $1.25 per day and foreman at $60 per month. Ties were 7X9 ins. X 
S}4 ft. The best record was 16 ties per man day, the average was 12.7 ties 
per man day. 

The cost of renewing 1 tie was $0,098. 

5. Ties renewed in 2-in. slag by section gangs working white labor at $1.10 
per day and foreman at $50 per month. Ties 6X8 ins. X 8 ft. The best 
record was 17.9 ties per man per day, the average was 13.1 ties per man day. 

The cost of renewing 1 tie was $0,083. 

6. Ties renewed in 2-in. surface gravel working white labor at $1.10 
per day and foreman at $50 per month. Ties 6X8 ins. X 8 ft. 



STEAM RAILWAYS . 1201 

The best record was 18.2 ties per man day, the average was 13.5 ties per 
man day. 

The cost of renewing 1 tie was $0.08. 

7. Ties renewed during rock smoothing working negroes at $1.10 per day 
and foreman at $50 per month. Ties 6X8 ins. X 8 ft. The best record was 
17.8 ties per man day, the average was 12.5 ties per man day. 

The cost of renewing 1 tie was $0,088. 

Spacing Ties. — The spacing of ties in rock ballast in the following record 
was a good average of the work done on several miles. The ties were special 
following the first raise and just before the ballast for the second raise was 
unloaded. The tie spacing in stripped track was done just before the unload- 
ing of the ballast for the first raise. Negro labor at $1. 10 per day and foreman 
at $50 per month were worked. The record is as follows: 

Feet per man per 

No. ft. track No. days worked Kind of ballast day 

430 15 Rock 28K 

495 12 Rock 40 

430 9H Stripped 45 

365 6 Stripped 603'^ 

330 5 Stripped 66 

One man spaced 6 joints per day in rock ballasted track, no raise, and rail 
laid broken jointed. 

Amounts of Creosote and Zinc Chloride for Cross Ties. — The following 
table, reprinted in Engineering and Contracting, Dec. 15, 1920, from the Nov. 
20, 1920, Cross Tie Bulletin of the National Association of Railroad Tie 
Producers shows the board feet and cubic feet per tie, number of ties per 1,000 
board feet, gallons of creosote and pounds of zinc chloride per 1,000 ties under 
specified treatments for the more common sized sawed ties. The table was 
compiled by E. M. Biake: 









Length, 8 Ft. 














Gals, of creosote per 












1,000 ties, 


sp. grav. 












1.0436, or 


8.7 lb. per 


Lbs. of zinc 










gal. treated under 


chloride 










Rueping 


process 


per 1,000 








No. of ties 


5.5 lb. 


6.0 lb. 


ties at H 




Board ft. 


Cu. ft. 


per 1,000 


per 


per 


lb. per 


Dimension 


per tie 


per tie 


board ft. 


cu. ft. 


cu. ft. 


cu. ft. 


6" X 8" 


32.00 


2.66 


31.25 


1,686 


1,839 


1,333 


7" X 8" 


37.33 


3.11 


26.80 


1,967 


2,146 


1,555 


7" X 9" 


42.00 


3.50 


23.80 


2,212 


2,414 


1,750 


7" X 10" 


46.66 


3.88 


21.43 
Length 8 Ft. 


2,459 
6 In. 


2,682 


1,944 


6" X 8" 


34.00 


2.83 


29.41 


1,791 


1,954 


1,417 


7" X 8" 


39.66 


3.31 


25.21 


2,091 


2,281 


1,654 


7" X 9" 


44.62 


3.73 


22.41 


2,351 


2,565 


1,860 


7" X 10" 


49.58 


4.13 


20.17 


2,612 


2,850 


2,066 



Treated Ties Reduce Maintenance Expense. — C. A. Morse, Chief Engineer 
of the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Ry., speaking on maintenance of way 
labor before the Roadmasters and Maintenance of Way Association at Chi- 
76 



1202 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

cago, Sept. 17, 1919, made the following statement, which is given in Engi- 
neering and Contracting, Oct. 15, 1919. 

Today the railroads that began using treated ties 10 years ago are reaping 
the benefit of the investment in big figures. They are averaging about 200 
ties to the mile of all traclis, while the average number of ties used on a road 
where treatment has not been used is over 300 per mile of all tracks. 

This means that a railroad that is using 2,000,000 treated ties per year would 
have to buy 3,000,000 ties had they not adopted tie treatment ten years 
before. This means $1,000,000, at the price that ties cost today, for the ties 
alone, and much more than that — ^it means saving the cost of transportation, 
the cost of unloading and the cost of the insertion of a million ties; and the 
saving on insertion alone, which at this time is from 32 to 40 cts. per tie, is a 
saving of from $320,000 to $400,000 of expense. There is yet another saving: 
one has disturbed his track in only two-thirds as many spots, and there is the 
saving of much retamping required later to get the track as solid as it was 
before the new tie was inserted. 

Treated ties should be adzed and bored by adzing and boring machine before 
treating. This insures the seat for both rails being in the same plane and 
gives a full bearing for the tie plates, as tie plates should always be used on 
both treated and untreated soft wood ties, and on all treated hardwood ties. 

The Most Economical Tie for Different Conditions of Track and Traffic. — 
Much information on the length of life, first cost and annual cost of railroad 
crossties of various classes under various conditions is contained in a circular 
and key of instructions on the use of crossties issued by the Baltimore & 
Ohio Railroad. The following notes published in Engineering Record, May 
27, 1916, are taken from the April- June issue of Wood-Preserving, which 
devotes three pages to the circular. The circular is based on an extended 
investigation, in which the experiences and opinions of both engineers and 
trackmen were utilized. The instructions were prepared, it is stated, to 
define the most economical tie for every condition of track and traffic, and to 
assist in the most economical distribution of ties. 

The circular divides ties into five classes according to kind of wood. Class 
A embraces white, burr and chestnut or rock oak, cherry, mulberry, black 
walnut and locust (except honey locust). Class B includes chestnut only. 
Class C includes red, black, scarlet, Spanish, pin and shingle or laurel oak, 
also honey locust, beech and hard or sugar maple. Silver, soft or white maple, 
red, soft or swamp maple, red or river birch, sweet or black birch and white, 
rock and red elm make up class D, while pines — short leaf, loblolly and sap 
long leaf — ^form class E. Classes A and B are used without, classes C, D and 
E with preservative treatment. 

As to size, class A has three grades, 7 or 6 X 8 in., 6 X 7 or 6 X 6. The 
other classes have two grades only, 7 or 6 X 8 and 6X7. (Class E ties are 
respectively 7X9 and 7 X 8.) Attention has also been given to length, as 
this has an important bearing. 

Table V gives estimated life lengths for all classes, grades and lengths imder 
various conditions of traffic. It also shows where these classes and grades are 
and are not used. It will be noted that the use of tieplates adds materially 
to the life length. The instructions stipulate that all treated ties should be 
tieplated. 

Table VI gives the detailed first cost to the Baltimore & Ohio for the 
various 8>^ ft. classes of ties, and derived therefrom, the annual costs, with 
interest figured at 6 per cent. 



STEAM RAILWAYS 



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1206 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Organization for and Progress of Laying Rail with Locomotive Cranes. — 
The Lehigh Valley R. R. has developed a rail laying method, in which has 
* been incorporated the use of such labor saving equipment as locomotive 
cranes, air compressors and drills, etc., which has resulted in increased output 
and reduced costs. With this method daily averages are being made of from 
80 to 110 rail length per hour, all completely bolted, spiked, etc., and ready for 
service, while in special instances as many as 159 rails have been laid in one 
hour. The following, is from a description of the method given in Railway 
Age, as abstracted in Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 19, 1921. 

In conducting this work the necessary labor has been secured by assembling 
the section forces employed in the locality where the rail is to be laid. The 
work in then so planned as to be carried on in a series of progressive stages or 
steps, such as, pulling spikes, throwing out old rail, etc., each step being 
assigned to a required number of men. In practically all but a few cases the 
individual gangs or sub-divisions of the forces are composed of section gangs" 
complete with their foremen or multiples thereof. The foremen work with 
their men as well as supervise them. This feature in itself has been found to 
speed up the work materially. 

With the forces and equipment assembled and all assignments understood 
the track upon which rail is to be laid is taken over completely and operations 
commenced. During the period of laying the remaining track is operated as 
a single track section. Through the close co-operation of the operating de- 
partment little delay has been caused by the adoption of this method, even 
under comparatively heavy traffic. It is a question whether or not the delays 
caused by laying rail under traffic do not equal or exceed the delays when the 
track is given over entirely. 

As stated before, the method is based on progressive steps with all new 
materials distributed previously along the section to be laid. The old track 
is not disturbed under any circumstances until the time when it is taken over. 
The sequence of the various stages is in general as follows : Joints are broken 
every 10 rail lengths, spikes pulled, one rail thrown out, old tie plates removed, 
creosoted wood plugs placed in old spike holes, ties adzed, new tie plates 
placed, new rail laid with locomotive crane, rail center spiked and gaged, 
joints placed and bolted, holes drilled and bond wires installed, track gaged 
and full spiked, signal connected up and work generally finished up. 

Where one crane is used a force of about 200 men are required to keep the 
crane working to its capacity and the work proceeds one rail at a time, the 
crane being moved back to the point of starting at the completion of laying 
of the first line of rail and starting on the second rail. With two cranes a 
duplicate organization follows the first crane preparing the other rail for the 
second crane, both of which are followed by a finishing gang of about double 
the size. 

Rail bonding is carried on by means of portable units of air compressors and 
their drills. One compressor generally handles four drills requiring a crew 
of six men. The saving of labor in this item has been very marked and a 
much greater output has been obtained in addition to increasing the life of the 
drills from five to eight times. In connection with this class of equipment sev- 
eral pneumatic wrenches were tried out recently for the purpose of running up 
the nuts on the track bolts. The average time consumed for running up one 
6-bolt splice and moving to the next was about 30 seconds. 

Figuring on a one-crane basis, as any multiple up to four can be used effi- 
ciently on one set of tracks provided there are sufficient men available, the 



STEAM RAILWAYS 1207 

following is a typical organization in detail: The men comprising this organi- 
zation are listed in the exact sequence under which they pass over the track. 

A TYPICAL ONE-CRANE ORGANIZATION 
ADVANCE WORK 

3 men removing every tenth joint on the old rail. 
24 men pulling spikes. This includes 2 foremen. 
14 men swinging out old rail. Two foremen with section gangs. 

3 men throwing out old tie plate. 

3 men placing creosoted tie plugs in spike holes. 
2 men driving creosoted tie plugs in spike holes. 

12 men adzing ties. One section foreman included. 

2 men sweeping off ties after adzing. 

5 men placing new tie plates. One foreman included. 
This covers the preparatory work for the crane, which has the following 
organization: 

4 men on rail, two on each end to steady and guide it into place. 
1 man on crane hook. The foreman in charge of crane forces. 

1 man on expansion template. 

2 men driving spikes on inside of new rail, 

2 men driving spikes on outside of rail after laid. 

1 man with lining bar to bar rail to place as laid. 

2 men operating crane. The operator and fireman. 

The locomotive crane was followed by the following gang: 
1 man adzing joint ties for a 1 to 20 cant. 
10 men placing new joints. Two foremen included. 

5 men removing rail anchors from old rail. 

1 man placing insulated joints. 
12 men gaging new rail. 

34 men full spiking. 

30 men bolting up joints. 

This was followed by the bonding layout and the finishing gangs: 

4 men operating air drills. 

2 men operating motor cars and distributing bond wires. 

1 man operating air compressor. 

2 men bonding new rail. 

5 men clearing out for rail anchors. One foreman included. 
5 men placing new rail anchors. One foreman included. 

2 men operating motor cars, two trailers with extra tools, etc. 

3 men checking up on tie plates, spiking and joints, etc. One foreman 
included. 

3 men carrying drinking water. 

1 man charging wire at signal connections. 

1 man soldering signal connections. 

With the experimental introduction of the pneumatic wrenches the organi- 
zation was changed slightly from that shown above, the 30 men assigned to 
bolting being removed and the following substituted for them: 

2 men on pneumatic wrenches. 

1 man tapping joints into place. 

1 man on air hose. 

1 man operating motor car. 

1 man operating air compressor. 

In the particular instance mentioned above a stretch of track between two 
switches located nearly 2H miles apart was laid with 136-lb. rail in a total 
elapsed time of 7 hours 10 minutes, or at the rate of 107 rail lengths per hour 
for a total of 770 rails. The force shown totals up to 205 men in the first 
case and 180 men with the introduction of the wrenches. 

Cost of Unloading Railway Rails. — D. A. Wallace gives the following data 
in Engineering and Contracting, Aug. 10, 1910, 



1208 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

For short jobs of rail unloading with men not used to the work and where 
the ground is smooth, there is no objection to unloading from the sides of the 
car, provided, of course, that both ends of the rails are released together. 

The following are records of unloading rails: 

1; The 70-lb., 33-ft. rail was unloaded from the sides of gondola and flat 
cars by section gangs which had no experience in handling new rail. Two 
rails were dropped at a place, then the train moved ahead one rail length and 
the operation repeated. 

When unloading gondola cars, one man followed the train to straighten 
out an occasional rail lying too close to the track; the remainder of the gang 
unloaded the rails by hand with the assistance of 2 men at each end of the 
car with lining bars. 

Rail unloaded from flat cars was rolled off the sides, using lining bars and 
shovels. Two men at each end had lining bars and the remainder had 
shovels. As soon as the bar men had started tne rail they were assisted by 
the shovelers, one bar man at each end always using his bar as a skid, keeping 
the rail up from the floor, thus giving leverage to the shovel men. One 
man followed the train to straighten out rails lying in a dangerous position. 

Negro labor at $1.10 per day was employed, with foreman at $50 per month. 
The work train cost $25 per day. The cars unloaded were as follows: 

Rails 

Gondola car 84 

Gondola car 84 

Gondola car 1 13 

Flat car 113 



Total ; 394 

The time required for unloading was 3 hrs. 50 mins., and the cost was as 
follows: 

18 men at $1.10 per day $ 7.59 

3 foremen at $50 per month 1 . 84 

Work train 25 . 00 



Total $34.43 

This gives a cost of 8.7 cts. per rail and of $27.84 per mile of track. 

2. In the record which follows no charge was made against the Road 
.Department by the Transportation Department for roadway work performed 
by revenue trains other than overtime made by trains doing the work and in 
this case the revenue business was light and no overtime was made. The cars 
unloaded were: 

^ Rails 

One gondola car 84 

One gondola car 113 

One flat car 113 

Total 310 

The working time was 1 hr. 30 mins. and the cost was as follows: 

13 men $2. 14 

4 foremen . 96 



Total $3. 10 

This gives a cost of 1 ct. per rail and of $3.20 per mile of track. 



STEAM RAILWA YS 1209 

3. In the following record a comparison is made between the time of un- 
loading gondola and fiat cars. The time of unloading the gondola cars was 
as follows : 

1 car 113 rails 1 hr. mins. 

1 car 113 rails 1 hr. mins. - 

1 car 84 rails 2 hrs. 14 mins. 

3 cars 310 rails 4 hrs. 14 mins. 

The time for unloading 5 flat cars was: 

1 car 141 rails 35 mins. 

1 car 114 rails 30 mins. 

1 car 78 rails 20 mins. 

1 car 73 rails 20 mins. 

1 car 76 rails 25 mins. 

5 cars 482 rails 2 hrs. 10 mins. 

Grand total unloading time 6 hrs. 24 mins. 

Delays 1 hr. 42 mins. 

In comparison the time per rail and per mile of track was as follows: 

1 car 113 rails 1 hr. mins. 

Item Gondola Flat 

1 rail, time required .81 min. .27 min. 

1 mile, time req'd 4 hrs. 20 mins. 1 hr. 25 mins. 

Therefore it costs three times as much to unload rails from a gondola car 
as it does from a flat car. 

Where rail was unloaded from flat cars it was customary for half of the gang 
to unload from one side and half to unload from the other. This was a very- 
good method, as there was always a rivalry between the two gangs, each to 
unload its half first so that the few bottom rails in the center of the car would 
be left for the slower gang to unload. The cost of unloading the eight cars, 
792 rails, was as follows: The wages for labor were $1.10 per day and for fore- 
man $50 per month, but as the work was done on Sunday time-and-a-half 
was paid the men. The cost was therefore: 

17 men at $1.65 per day $28.05 

4 foremen at $50 per month 6 . 66 

Work train 25 . 00 

Total . $59.71 

This gives a cost of 7.5 cts. per rail and of $24 per mile of track. 
Summarizing the costs of records 1, 2 and 3 given above, we have: 

(1) 394 rails unloaded at $34.43 

(2) 310 rails unloaded at 3. 10 

(3) 792 rails unloaded at 59 . 71 

1,496 rails unloaded at $97.24 

This gives a cost of 6.5 cts. per rail and of $20.80 per mile of track. 

4. Generally rails are piled on a car in layers. In each layer the rails are 
placed alternately head up and head down, the head of one rail being always 
overlapped by the base of the adjacent rail. In this case the rails were loaded 
loosely on a flat car, with just enough straightening around to put them parallel 
with the sides of the car. In unloading these rails no difficulty was experi- 
enced in loosening up a rail such as is oftentimes the case when rails are piled 
tightly in layers. 



1210 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Negro labor at $1.10 per day and foreman at $50 per month were worked. 
A gang of 10 men unloaded 90 85-lb. rails in 45 mins. The cost of the work 
was as follows: 

Train service. $]r. 56 

Labor 1 . 05 



Total for 90 rails $2. 61 

This gives a cost of 2.9 cts. per rail or of $9.30 per mile of track. 

Time Tests of Loading 65-lb. Rail on Flat Car by Hand. — A. M. Van Auken 
gives the following data in Engineering and Contracting, Dec. 17, 1919. 

The work was done near Ypsilanti, Mich., on the Michigan Central R. R. 
on April 12, 1917, the gang consisting of the following: 

1 foreman at $90 . 00 per month 

1 timekeeper at •. 75 . 00 per month 

1 cook at 2 . 10 per day 

1 water boy at 2 . 10 per day 

15 laborers at . 2 . 10 per day 

The e(iuipment consisted of two hand cars. 

The gang was surfacing tracks near Milepost 29 until 11:30 a. m. It then 
knocked off for K hour for dinner. The transporting of the men consumed 
40 minutes for a distance of 3 miles to a point (Milepost 32) on the main track 
opposite the pile of rails to be loaded. 

The material loaded consisted of 102 odd lengths of used rail including 
2,756 ft. of 65-lb. rail and 20 ft. of 80-lb. rail. 

The labor time distribution was as follows: 

Left mile post 29 at 12:00. 

Arrived mile post 32 at 12:40. 

Loaded rail and lumber from 12:40 to 3:45; this includes delays. 

Left mile post 32 at 3:45. 

Arrived mile post 29 at 4:10. 

Delays>in loading the rails were as follows: 

Mins. 

Stopped at Ypsilanti station for foreman to receive reports of trains 8 

Removing hand cars from track 2 

Walking from hand cars to where rails lay 5 

Waiting for rails to be measured before placing on flat car 9}'i 

Moving flat car about 10 ft 3 

Moving flat car about 2,000 ft. (rails were in two piles about 2,000 ft. 

apart) 22 

Loading lumber 35 

The latter item involved the loading of 42 pieces of 3 in. X 10 in. X 16 ft. 
planks in a box car. The lumber lay opposite the pile of rails so no time was 
lost in moving from rail to lumber. The results of a test made to determine 
the time required to lift and throw 10 rails on flat car follow: 

15 sec. 27 sec. 

38 sec. 40 sec. 

65 sec. 35 sec. 

18 sec. 20 sec. 

22 sec. 27 sec. 

It will be noted that it took 307 seconds to load the 10 rails (25 to 33 ft. 
long). This gives an average of K minute for loading each rail. 



STEAM RAILWAYS 1211 

The average time of loading each of the 102 lengths, delays deducted, was 
59 seconds. In other words, while under direct time observation, men doubled 
their output. 

Loading Rails with Ditcher at Cost of 2 Cents per Rail. — Engineering and 
Contracting, Oct. 16, 1918, publishes the following: 

By using a railroad ditcher the Crowell Spencer Lumber Co., of Longfileaf, 
La., was able to load 60-lb. rails from piles onto flat cars at a cost of about 2 
cts. per rail. The crew consisted of the ditcher operator, fireman, and a section 
crew of 3 men and foreman. Its duties were: 

One man operating ditcher. 

One fireman. As wood was burned, it was his duty to keep a supply of it 
on the ditcher. 

One man to put stakes in pockets, carry water and load spikes and angle 
bars. 

One man on car to keep rails straight and unhook tongs. Frequently 
entire cars were loaded without it being necessary to unhook the tongs even 
once. When the operator dropped the rail 1 or 2 feet the tongs usually let 
go themselves. 

One man on the ground to hook the tongs. 

One foreman, who kept the rails turned ball up. 

This crew with the American ditcher loaded 2,083 rails in 3 days, the actual 
working time being 4}i, 5H and 6 hours. The ditcher was on its own flat 
car and loaded onto empties set in front and behind it. The daily cost of the 
rail loading, according to the American Ditcher Scoopings, was as follows: 

Ditcher operator $ 5 . 00 

Ditcher fireman 2 . 50 

3 laborers at 12.50 each 7 , 50 

Gang foreman 3 . 25 

Fuel (wood) 1 . 00 

Oil, waste, etc .50 

Total $19.75 

Cost of Loading Rail from Roadbed to Cars. — D. A. Wallace gives the 
following data in Engineering and Contracting. Aug. 3, 1910. 

1. The rail was lying on the shoulder of the grade, just as it had been 
thrown out from the track and disconnected. One pair of angle bars was 
fastened to each rail by two bolts. Two men with lining bars kept the rails 
straightened out on the flat car as they were loaded. The train was followed 
by two men who picked up any loose scrap that might have been left behind. 
A work train and a gang of 40 men were used; the labor was negro, at $1.25 
per day, and foreman at $60 per month. A total of 429 rails was loaded in 
3 hrs. 2 mins. at the following cost: 

Train service $25. 00 

Labor 20.00 

Foreman . 66 

Total $45. 66 

This gives in round figures a cost of 10 cts. per rail loaded. The work was 
costly, due to the fact that the banks were very narrow, permitting the rail 
in many instances to slip down to the bottom of the fill. The work was also 
hindered by a growth of high weeds. 

2. The rail was disconnected with angle bars lying alongside. One man 
loaded the angle bars and scrap bolts on the rear car; 2 men with Umng bars 



1212 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

kept the rail straightened on the flat car as it was being loaded; 11 men loaded 
the rail on one side of the car until half the load was placed, then the train was 
backed up while the other side of the car was loaded. The rail was 56-lb. 
rail left lying along the shoulder; 6 flat cars with a capacity of 100 rails each 
were loaded. A total of 800 rails was loaded at the following bost: 

Train service $25 . 00 

Labor 20.00 

Total. . $45.00 

This gives a cost of 5.6 cts. per rail or of $19.71 per mile of track. This same 
crew loaded and unloaded 400 rails with the same shipment. In unloading 
the rail two greased rails were used as skids. Six men were on the car to 
start the rails, and 8 men were on the ground to straighten them up in piles. 
The cost of the work was 11.3 cts. per rail or $39.77 per mile of track. 

3. The rails were lying on the shoulder of the grade, disconnected, as taken 
from the track. A force of 22 men, 18 per rail, and 4 on the car, loaded 160 
58-lb. rails in 2 hrs. 45 mins. The rate of wages was negro labor at $1.20 per 
day and foreman at $60 per month. The cost was as follows 

Train service $ 5 . 53 

Labor 5. 12 

Total $10.65 

This gives a cost of 6.6 cts. per rail or of $20.25 per mile of track. 

4. A gang of 24 men loaded rails into end of gondola car from pile 15 ft. 
from the track ; 16 men to a rail and 8 men on the car. A total of 100 rails were 
loaded in 1 hour 40 mins. or 1 rail per minute. The labor was negro at $1.25 
per day, and foreman at $60 per month. It cost to load the 100 rails $5.30 or 
5.3 cts. per rail. 

Cost of Trackiaying with Tracklaying Machine. — D. A. Wallace gives the 
following in Engineering and Contracting, Aug. 3, 1910. 

The work was done by contract in June, 1907, on the Frisco line in Louis- 
iana. The record is a poor one, due to faulty working organization. The 
average day's work was 6,000 ft., full teed, bolted and spiked. Work was 
greatly delayed on account of the poor handling of material in material yard. 
A 35-mile run was necessary for the .night crew to bring the angle bars and 
spikes to the front for the next day's work. 

The outfit equipped for each half-day's work consisted of a pioneer car, 
5 flat cars loaded with 300 ties each and 2 flat cars loaded with 90 rails each. 

Two train crews were used. The day crew came on duty at 6 a. m. and 
was released at 6 p. m. by the night crew, which had had supper when the day 
crew returned with the gang from the front. The night crew then ran to 
Eunice, 15 miles, filled up the tank car, left flat cars spotted for loading ties 
and rails and ran to Opelousas, 20 miles further, for angle bars and spikes, 
returning to camp with train made up for first half-day's work at 6 a. m. 
The day crew returned to camp at 12 noon for dinner, getting back to the 
front at 1 p. m. During the noon hour the night crew switched out the 
empty tie and rail cars and picked up the loaded tie and rail cars ready for 
the afternoon's tracklaying. Lining gang handled the back switch work. 

The force itemized in the following table was needed to lay 6,000 ft. of 
track. This force may be reduced to 90 men by half bolting and spiking 
the track, the track work being done on days when there is delay to the 
material, The gang required was as follows : 



STEAM RAILWAYS 1213 

Item Per day 
1 general foreman at $150 per mo. 
1 timekeeper at $75 per mo. 
1 commissary clerk at $90 per mo. 

Total $ 10.50 

Front Gang: 

1 straw boss at $2.25 $ 2 . 25 

1 rope man at $1.75 1 . 75 

1 chain and puddle man at $1.75 1 . 75 

18 men (9 on a side) at $2 36 . 00 

1 spike puller at $2 2 . 00 

1 bolt puller at $2 2. 00 

23 men. Total $ 45.75 

Machine Gang: 

1 foreman and board at $3 , $ 3 . 00 

1 rail feeder at $2 , 2. 00 

1 angle bar man at $2 2 . 00 

2 rail pullers at $2 4.00 

4 tie buggy men at $2 8 . 00 

6 laborers (3 on side) at $2 12. 00 



15 men. Total $ 31.00 

Ground Gang: 

1 foreman and board at $3 $ 3 . 00 

1 bolt puller at $1.75 1.75 

1 spike puller at $1.75 1 . 75 

2 bridle rod men at $1.75 3. 50 

2 wrench men at $1.75 ., 3. 50 

2 jack men at $2 4 . 00 

8 tie spacers at $1.75 . 14 . 00 

6 gage men at $1.75 10. 50 

1 maul man at $1.75 1 . 75 

1 bar man at $1.75 1 . 75 

16 spikers at $2 32 . 00 

8 nippers at $1.75 14.00 

2 water boys at $1.50 3.00 

51 men. Total $ 94. 50 

Lining Gang: 

1 foreman and board at $3 $ 3 . 00 

8 liners at $1.75 14.00 

1 water boy at $1.50 1 . 50 

10 Men 18.50 
Night Loading Gang: 

12 laborers at $1.75 $ 21.00 

Camp help: 

1 head cook at $100 per mo $ 3. 30 

1 second cook at' $35 per mo 1 . 15 

1 flunkey at $30 per mo 1 . 00 

3 flunkeys at $25 per mo 2 . 50 

1 yard man at $40 per mo 1 . 35 

1 camp woman at $40 per mo 1 . 35 

8 Total $ 10.65 

Train Crew: 

2 engineers and board at $100 per mo $ 6.70 

2 firemen and board at $60 per mo 4 . 00 

1 conductor and board at $100 per mo 3 . 30 

2 brakemen at $60 4 . 00 

7 men. Total $ 18.00 

Miscellaneous expenses: 

1 pioneer car, rent $25 per mile $ 23 . 40 

Rent, equipment, coal, waste 10.00 



1214 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Summarizing, we have the following: 

Item Per day 

Pioneer car $ 23 . 40 

Gen. foreman, timekeepr and clerk 10 . 50 

Front gang 45.75 

Machine gang 31 . 00 

Ground gang 94 . 50 

Lining gang 18.50 

Night loading gang 21 . 00 

Camp help 10.65 

Train crew 18.00 

Equipment, coal, etc 10 . 00 

Total $283. 30 

To be deducted from this total are the following amounts: 

Item Per day 

Receipts from board $ 50 . 00 

Commissary profits 12 . 00 

Total $ 62.00 

Net daily expenses (283.30 — $62) $221 . 30 

The contractor received $275 per mile for tracklaying, or for 6,000 ft. of 
track laid per day, $312.40. His net income per day was $312.40 — $221.30 
= $81.10. On the basis of a net daily expense of $221.30 the cost per mile 
of track laid was closely $200. 

Cost of Laying Track With Machine. — The following matter is taken from 
Engineering and Contracting, April 1, 1914. 

The conditions affecting track laying are numerous and varying, and it 
would be practically impossible for anyone except an experienced contractor 
with well organized forces to attain the results shown by the data below. 
Forces which have been employed for years in as narrow or specialized a field 
as track laying, are bound to attain a high degree of efficiency, provided the 
management is the best, for a body of most able overseers is gradually col- 
lected, which assures wide, efficient and progressive supervision. If, in addi- 
tion to the above, a concern builds up a reputation for paying the best wages 
and giving absolutely the best treatment possible, consistent with the work 
required, an asset of no small importance is added. 

The track laying described herein was done by a force which showed the 
results of all the advantages mentioned above. 

Make-up of Track Laying Machine Train. — When laying track, the train 
carrying the machine is made up as follows, beginning with the "pioneer car," 
which always remains at the "front," and is not changed out as axe the other 
cars in the train. Immediately behind the "pioneer" are four cars of rails, 
then the locomotive, and behind that eight cars of ties; next comes a car of 
tie plates, when they are used, the "trailer," which is a car carrying spikes, 
bolts and base plates* a car of plank for crossings, a car of cattle guards, a tool 
car and the way car. This makes twenty cars, and all are flat cars except the 
two last mentioned. 

The first car of rail behind the pioneer is "trimmed," that is, on it is loaded 
angle bars enough to lay the amount of steel carried on the train. The angle 



STEAM RAILWAYS 1215 

bars are carried forward over the pioneer car and delivered as needed to the 
"strap hangers" in front. The rails underneath the angle bars are the last 
ones laid from the train, in order that the angle bars may be cleared off by the 
time rails are needed. 

A system of trams is used to carry the ties and rails to the front. The trams 
are made in sections, each 33 ft. long, the sides consisting of 2}4 X 10 in. 
planks. Tie trams are 14 ins. wide, and rail trams are 12 ins. wide. The 
trams are held together by bolts on which are pipe separators to hold the sides 
the proper distance apart. Near the bottom of the trams are live rollers, 
which complete a trough-shaped way for ties or rails. 

On the pioneer car is installed a 20-h. p. upright engine for driving the live 
rollers in the trams ; this is done by means of a tumbling shaft and gear or cog 
wheels. Steam for the stationary engine is piped from the locomotive. The 
shaft is fitted with "patent couplings," that is, on one end of each section is a 
casting containing a square socket into which the end of the next rod fits. 
Each length of tram has a section of the shaft bolted to it and as the trams are 
hung the rods are fitted together, thus forming a continuous shaft. The 
trams are "hung" on iron brackets or trusses which hook into the stake 
pockets on the cars. The trusses are made with flange rollers on which the 
trams are placed, thus taking care of the slack of the train in starting and 
stopping. The trams have a coupling device which holds them together, the 
ones on the pioneer being permanently fastened to the car. 

The tie trams, 660 ft. long, are operated on the right hand side of the train. 
Those for the rail, 240 ft. long, are on the left. The movement of ties and 
rail is controlled by the "dinkey skinner," i. e., the stationary engineer, so as 
to deliver them in front of the train as needed. A tie chute 53 ft. long pro- 
vided with dead rollers is attached at the front end of the tie tram on the pion- 
eer and through this chute the ties are pushed by the ones coming forward over 
the live rollers. And as fast as they are delivered at the end of the chute 
they are taken by the " tie buckers " (laborers) and are placed across the grade 
ready for the rails. 

A similar chute attached to the rail tram provides a way for delivering the 
rail in front of the pioneer. These chutes are supported at the outer end by 
cables attached to the rear end of the pioneer car and carried up over a high 
frame work or "gallows" on the front end. A boom, also attached to the 
front end of the pioneer car, extends far enough ahead to have the cable 
attached to it reach the middle of the rail when placing it in position in track. 
This cable is operated by hand with an ordinary crab. Instead of cranks, a 
small, light buggy wheel is used by the operator to wind up tne cable, which 
lifts the rail and holds it while the "heeler" and his assistants place it in 
position on the track. (A newer device handles the cable with compressed 
air). The rails are placed in the trams by three men, and are handled in front 
by six more. One man on each car places the ties in the trams. The spikes, 
bolts and base plates are peddled from the trailer as the train proceeds. 

(The rails are held to gage by bridle rods until the train passes over, all 
spiking being done in the rear. The train moves ahead one rail length at a 
time when laying square joiiits, and half a rail length when laying broken 
joints. The trams are taken down when cars are empty and replaced on the 
loaded cars when a new train arrives; from 100 to 125 men are required for a 
full crew. 

Material for the track machine is loaded by railway company forces, and 
great care is taken to have the material loaded, not only in correct proportion 



1216 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

but in correct order and position on cars. A train, called the swing train, Is 
then made up of sufficient material for a half day's work, and is transported to 
the front, or rather to the camp of the contractor, where it is placed in the 
most convenient place available for the track machine crew to pick up. The 
swing train crew then takes a train of empties and returns to the material 
yard. The track machine is served regularly by the same locomotive and 
train crew. As the track machine does not move ahead by its own 
power, a locomotive and train crew are required to remain with the machine 
onstantly. 

Briefly, the movement of the machine is as follows in laying square jointed 
track: tieS are trammed and carried ahead constantly and laid on the grade; 
the machine moves ahead, and a rail is chuted out and heeled in by the rail 
gang, and the angle bars bolted on loosely with two bolts only; a second rail 
is placed and held to gage by bridle rods; the machine is then moved ahead 
a rail length by the locomotive, and the operation repeated. When laying 
broken jointed track, the machine is moved ahead a half rail length at a time, 
thus requiring twice as many moves. 

Back of the machine the bridle rods are removed, and enough ties axe spiked 
to hold the rails from spreading. Spacing ties, bolt tightening and full bolt- 
ing are all done behind the machine, and cause it no delay. 

Organization of Gang. — ^A gang of 125 men will easily lay two miles of track 
per day, provided no unusual difficulties, such as soft grade, etc., are encoun- 
tered. A gang of this size would be placed about as follows: 

1 general foreman at, per day $ 5 . 00 

1 ass't foreman, with rail gang, at, per day 3 . 50 

1 ass't foreman, watching trams, at, per day 3 . 50 

1 ass't foreman, with spikers, at, per day 3 . 50 

1 ass't foreman, Uning track, at, per day 3. 50 

1 stationary engineer at, per month 75.00 

1 pole man at, per month 75 . 00 

1 oiler at, per day 2 . 50 

1 line man at, per day '. . . 2 . 25 

16 "tie buckers " at; per day $2.25 and 2 . 50 

2 tie spacers ahead of machine, at, per day 2 . 25 

1 man fiddling ties, at, per day 2 . 25 

6 "rust eaters," handling rail, at, per day. 2, 50 

1 bridle man at, per day 2. 25 

1 heel nipper at, per day 2 . 25 

2 strap hangers at, per day 2.25 

1 man, carrying angle bars from "trimmed" car to 

pioneer car, at, per day 2, 25 

3 steel rollers, rolling rails into trams, at, per 

day 2.50 

8 tie trammers rolling ties into trams, at, per day 2 . 25 

2 spike peddlers, distributing spikes, at, per day 2.25 

2 bolt and joint plate pedlers at, per day 2.25 

2 "bridle men," carrying bridle rods^ from rear, at, per 

day 2.25 

4 rear bolters at, per day 2 . 25 

2 water boys at, per day 2 . 25 

8 men spacing ties at, per day 2.25 

1 gage man at, per day 2.25 

32 spikers at, per day « 2 . 50 

16 nippers at, per day $2.25 and 2. 50 

8 liners at, per day 2 . 25 

When the gang is smaller, the force behind the machine is cut down, and 
70 men would be organized about as follows: 



STEAM RAILWAYS 1217 

1 general foreman at, per day $ 5.00 

1 ass't foreman, with rail gang, at, per day 3 . 50 

1 ass't foreman, watching trams, at, per day 3. 50 

1 ass't foreman, with rail gang, at. per day 3 . 50 

1 ass't foreman on general work, at per day 3 . 50 

1 stationary engineer at, per month 75 . 00 

1 pole man at, per month 75 . 00 

1 oiler at, per day 2 . 50 

1 line man at, pe day 2 . 25 

10 "tie buckets" at, per day $2.25 and 2.50 

2 tie spacers at, per day 2 . 25 

6 rail handlers at, per day 2 . 50 

1 bridle man at, per day 2 . 25 

1 heel nipper at, per day 2 . 25 

2 strap hangers at per day 2 . 25 

1 man carrying angle bars at, per day 2. 25 

3 steel rollers at, per day 2. 50 

8 tie trammers at. per day 2 . 25 

2 spike peddlers at per day 2 . 25 

2 bolt and joint plate peddlers at, per day 2.25 

1 bridle rod man at, per day 2 . 25 

2 rear bolters at, per day 2.25 

1 water boy at, per day 2.25 

1 gage man at, per day . 2 . 25 

4 men spacing ties at, per day. 2 . 25 

12 spikers at, per day 2 . 50 

6 nippers at, per day 2 . 50 

During the work from which the cost data were obtained, the gang varied 
from about 50 to 100 men. The $2.50 laborers (spikers, nippers, and tie 
buckers) averaged about 40 per cent of tne entire gang. During the 65 days 
the following expenses were chargeable against track laying: 

Overhead charge on machine (interest at 6 per cent, depreciation at 

10 per cent) $ 100 . 00 

Dinkey skinner, 2)4 nios., at $100. . 210.00 

Timekeeper, 2}4 mos., at $85 177.00 

Locomotive and crew, 65 days, at $40 2,600.00 

Supervision and labor 8 , 710. 00 

$11,797.00 
Force account, or extras allowed 578 . 00 . 

$11,219.00 
Average cost per mile $ 280 . 50 

This cost represents the cost to the contractor, plus the cost of the locomo- 
tive and crew at $40 per day. The latter charge should be added, however, 
as it represents a real part of the operation expense of the track machine. 

The rail was a 90-lb. section. It was laid on white oak ties, spaced 18 to 
21 under a 33 ft. rail on tangent, and 19 to 22 ties per 33 ft. on curves. The 
joints were made with ordinary angle bars with four bolts, and spring nut 
locks. The heads of the bolts were staggered, that is, alternate bolt heads 
were respectively on the inside and outside of rail. The number of ties per 
rail length were varied to suit their sizes — 18 broad faced ties being used, or 
21 narrow faced ties, on tangents. 

The cost of transporting the machine and the men to the work is not 
included herein, the data given representing the costs after the machinery 
and the laborers were on the work. 

An inspector was employed by the company, but although his expenses 
77 



1218 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



^ 



represent a charge against the track by the railway, it is not chargeable against 
the contractor's expenses. 

Grading and Tracklaying with a Ditcher. — By using a railroad ditcher for 
grubbing, grading and for tracklaying, the Potlatch Lumber Co. materially 
reduced its construction costs and at the same time dispensed with a consider- 
able force of laborers. The methods employed on this work are described by 
the Railway Review, from which Engineering and Contracting, July 17, 1918, 
gives the following abstract. 

The main idea in building logging roads is to get the logs to the mill at the 
lowest possible cost and since the railroad is only temporary in character, 
considerable latitude is allowed in the construction methods used, the lines 
being laid out to tap the desired timber land and tne ditcher put to work pre- 
paring the subgrade. 

Where a small amount of filling is necessary the ditcher scoops up the earth 
alongside the line and dumps it ahead, where it is leveled off by laborers. 
As the work proceeds the ditcher is moved ahead under its own steam on a 
portable track built in short sections. Three short sections of track are used, 
the ditcher standing on two while the third is picked up from behind and 
swung around to the front with the boom. Ties 10 X 11 in. X 10 ft. long, 
and closely spaced, are used, and the sections are braced with diagonal pieces 
of H by 13'^-in. strap iron held in place by ^:4-in. wood screws and extending 
from corner to corner of the sections. In case a deep fill is required, to pre- 
vent too much of a sag in the track where sufficient earth cannot be reached 
alongside with the regular dipper, logs are pulled in with the boom to form 
a portion of the fill, and earth is then placed on the logs to build up the desired 
grade. In localities where the grading required is slight the timber is logged 
off the right-of-way, the stumps pulled and the necessary clearing done by the 
ditcher in addition to making the fill. 

Side-hill cuts are made with equal facility, the Potlatch Lumber Co. having 
recently made an 8-ft. cut 300 ft. long on a 6 per cent grade. Fills as deep as 
8 to 10 ft. on 4 per cent grades have also been made. 

After the grade is completed the machine is run back over the line and 
mounted on a flat car with steel rails fastened to the deck to permit the 
necessary amount of shifting of the machine to pick up and handle materials 
from two cars in rear and place them in the track. In this manner the ditcher 
is used as a tracklaying machine. The 60-lb. rails, 33 ft. long, are loaded on 
the car next to the ditcher and the ties piled high on the second car. The 
dipper boom is removed, so as to allow the use of the machine as a crane, the 
only extra equipment required being two tie slings made from short lengths 
of cable with a hook at each end, and a pair of rail tongs. 

Two men on the tie car make up bundles of ties which are picked up and 
swung around onto the grade ahead, where they are distributed, 17 ties to 
the rail, by a gang of six men. After placing the ties the rails are picked up 
from the car by center tongs of a special, non-teetering type, a man on the rail 
car hooking them to the rail. They are then swung around in front and heeled 
into the angle bars. Two men also put on the bridles to hold the rails in 
line and to gage until spiked. One man brings the angle bars forward from 
the front of the rail car and plftces them on the rails and another man bolts up . 
the joints. One man is employed to carry the bridles ahead, to be used as 
fast as the rail is laid up to them. These, together with the operator and fire- 
man of the ditcher, make a crew of 16 men required for laying track, the gang 
being made up as follows: 



STEAM RAILWAYS 1219 

2 men on tie car, 

6 men distributing ties. 

1 man attaching rail hooks. 

2 men heeling in rails and putting on bridles. 
1 man carrying bridles. 

1 man placing angle bars on rails. 

1 bolter. 

2 men to operate the ditcher. 

In placing rails the ditcher, after swinging the rail around to the front, is 
run out to the end of the flat car on which it operates, so as to swing the near 
end of the rail slightly beyond the joint. The machine then backs up until 
the line that holds the rail hangs at a considerable angle, in which position the 
rail is easily heeled into the joint. The rail tongs are so constructed that they 
release as soon as the rail rests on the ties. 

The spiking crew, working behind the machine, consisted of 2 boilers, 15 
spikers and 1 spike peddler, a total of 18 men. Thus the total crew required to 
complete the tracklaying work numbers 34 men. As much as 3,000 ft. of 
track have been laid in a day by this crew on heavy grades and where trees 
on the right-of-way must be cleared off. On straight work, without clearing, 
it is estimated that one mile of track a day can be laid. By the use of the 
ditcher in this way the company saves the wages of 25 men at $3.50 a day that 
would otherwise have been required. 

Cost of Making 2-In. Lift on Main Line Track. — A. M. Van Auken gives the 
following data in Engineering and Contracting, Nov. 19, 1919. 

This work was done on April 9, 1917, on the Michigan Central R. R. The 
weather was clear and the temperature was about 50° F. A total length of 
1,221 ft. of 3° curved track was lifted. In addition 62 ties were placed in 
track. The force was as follows: 

1 foreman $90 . 00 per month 

1 assistant foreman 77 . 50 per month 

1 cook 2.10 per day 

1 timekeeper 75.00 per month 

22 laborers 2 . 10 per day 

1 water boy 2.10 per day 

2 flagmen 2.10 per day 

Of the above force the timekeeper, cook, water boy and the two flagmen 
are classed as "dead" labor. 

The men left the bunk cars at 6:30 a. m., and began work at 7. They 
lifted track from 7 to 11 : 30, took half hour for lunch, and were engaged again 
from 12 to 4: 30 p. m. in lifting track. They left the work at 4: 30 and arrived 
at bunk cars at 5 p. m. It will thus be noted that the working time was 9 
hours. However, there was a total delay of 40 minutes due to passing trains, 
which makes the actual working time 8 hours and 20 minutes. 

The equipment used consisted of track tools and three hand cars. 

The cost of the work was as follows: 

Per hn. ft. 
of track 

Superintendency $0 . 0038 

Active labor , 0314 

Dead labor 0074 

Delays to entire gang 0077 

Total, cost of 2-in. lift and replacing .05 of a tie $0.0503 



1220 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cost of Renewing Rail.— The following data given by D. A. Wallace in 
Engineering and Contracting, Aug. 31, 1910, include various items of work 
besides rail renewal proper but all come within the same general classification. 

Job i.— Relaying 58-lb. with 85-lb. rail, full bolted, full spiked and gaged, 
with negro labor at $1.25 and foreman at $60 per month, in May, 1906. The 
work was done by a gang averaging 1 foreman, 31 men and 1 water boy. 
Delays include delays by trains and time spent in trucking badly distributed 
rail, etc. The angle bars were 6-hole, 4-in. bars. The work was full bolted, 
full spiked and completed each day. Connection for trains was made by 
using a short piece of old rail cut to fit and connected with the new rail by a 
compromise joint The average number of feet of rail laid per day with the 
gang of 33, as noted above, was 1305 ft. with an average of 3.5 hrs. delay. 

The cost was $3.33 per 100 ft. of track or $176 per mile of track. 

Job 2. — Owing to the narrow fills at some places, and to the amount of rock 
at others, it was occasionally necessary in unloading the rail to skid it off in 
piles and then redistribute it from the piles with the steel gang thus causing 
delays. There were also a few delays by trains. The rail was 56-lb. changed 
to 70-lb. and all rail was curved for curves of 5° and over. About one-fourth 
of the time was consumed in curving and tracking rail. One-half the entire 
distance was curves of 5° and over. The average for 24 days showed that a 
gang of 19.5 men (varying from 2 to 53) laid 945 ft. of rail per day with delays 
averaging 3.28 hrs. 

Negro labor was employed at $1.15 and $1.25 per day and foreman at $75 
per month. For the first nine days* work the rate was $1.15 and for the 
remainder of the time it was $1.25 per day. The cost of the work was as 
follows: 

Item Per ft. Per rail Per mile Per cent 

Unloading $0,004 $0.13 $21.05 9.8 

Curving 0.0054 0.179 28.66 13.4 

Distributing 0.003 0.097 14.59 6.8 

Laying 0.0283 0.936 149.80 70.0 

Total $0.0407 $1,342 $214.10 100.0 

Applying Tie Plates. — The tie plates were applied to white oak ties on track 
in service. These plates were placed under the rail and settled with a sledge. 
After three or four days they were settled completely with a sledge. During 
this work, there were an average of 6 braces to a rail to remove. White 
labor was employed at $1.10 per day and foreman at $50. The best record 
was 140 plates per man per day, the average was 93 plates per man per day. 

The cost of applying each plate was 1.1 ct. 

Gaging Track, — (1> This record is of work done by season gangs. Tlie 
track was in very poor gage due to sharp curvature and rotten white oak ties. 
In the majority of cases the rail was gaged on each tie. All old spike holes 
were plugged. Ties were adzed when necessary. The foreman made a hand 
in every case. There was an average of 6 braces per rail. Negro labor at 
$1.25 and foreman at $50 per month were employed. The best record was 
275 ft. per man per day, the average was 205.4 ft. per man per day. 

The total cost of gaging one mile was $28.30. 

2. This record was made by a picked gang. Every tie was gaged and holes 
plugged. No rail braces were used as the track was on tangent. The gang 
consisted of 1 foreman at $50 per month and 4 laborers at $1.10 per day. 
On this work 2 men were placed drawing spikes and 2 men spiking, the fore- 



STEAM RAILWAYS 1221 

man assisting in lining the rail, etc. This gang gaged 1,440 ft. in 10 hours, 
at a cost of $22 per mile. 

Disconnecting Rail. — The work consisted in unbolting 30-ft., 4-bolt rail 
and in fastening loosely one pair of angle bars to each rail with two bolts. 
Negro labor at $1.25 and foreman at $75 per month were employed. The 
average record was 45 rails per man per day, the maximum, was 50. 

The cost was as follows: 

One rail $0,027 

One mile of rail 4,45 

One mile of track 8 . 90 

Tightening Spikes. — This work was done by regular gangs on regular main- 
tenance work. Each spike was driven home; each man took one rail length. 
Negro labor at $1.25 per day and foreman at $60 per month were employed. 
The average record was 14 rails per man per day, the maximum was 15. 

The cost of tightening was 9 cts. per rail length or $14.40 per mile of track. 

Applying Rail Braces. — The rail braces were applied by small gangs and 
track walkers on curves which had been put up to gage. The labor was white 
at $1.10 per day with foreman at $50 per month. The average record was 
183 braces per man per day, the maximum was 200. 

The cost to apply one brace was 0.6 ct. 

Curving Rail. — Rail 33 ft., 70-lb. was curved to 5°. Rail curved from side 
and placed in a roller Jim Crow in the center of the track and curved by 8 men. 
Six men could do the work, but 8 were needed to move the rail. 

8 men 10 mins. at $1.15 per day $ 0. 153 

1 foreman 5 mins. at $75 per mo *. 0. 020 

Total, one rail $ 0. 173 

This gives a cost of $55.36 per mile. 

Wrenching. — (1) This work was on 4-bolt joints on 56-lb., 30-ft. rail; the 
bolts had not been tightened in 5 years. At each joint one bolt was broken 
out and replaced. Negro labor at $1.10 and foreman at $50 per month were 
employed. The average record was 61 joints per man per day, the maximum 
was 87. 

The cost of tightening was as follows: 

1 bolt $ 0. 0045 

1 joint 0.018 

1 mile of track 6. 35 

2. On this job the bolts were in good shape in 6-bolt joints on 33-ft. rail. 
Negro labor at $1.25 per day and foreman at $60 per month were employed. 
The average record was 80 joints per man per day, the maximum was 85. 

The cost was as follows: 

One bolt $0.0025 

One joint 0.015 

One mile of track 5 . 00 

Time Tests in Relaying 105-lb. Rail. — ^A. M. Van Auken gives the following 
data in Engineering and Contracting, Nov. 19, 1919. 

In connection with the relaying of 104 pieces of 105-lb., 33-ft. new rail in 
the yards of the Michigan Central R. R. at Jackson, Mich., on March 2, 1917, 
several tests were made of different operations to determine the average 
amount of time used and lost during a day's work on this kind of construction. 
On the day this work was done the weather was clear and cold with a tem- 
perature of 4- 12° F. 



1222 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The force engaged was as follows: 

Total 
daily cost 

1 foreman drilling at $87.50 $ 3.40* 

1 assistant foreman at $75 2 . 90 * 

1 timekeeper at $75 2.90* 

2 cooks at $2 , 4 . 00 

40 laborers at $2. 80.00 

1 water boy at $2 2 . 00 

2 men drilling at $2.50 5.00 

1 man wiring at $2.25 2 . 25 

Total daily cost $102.45 

* On the basis of 26 working days per month. It should be borne in mind, 
however, that the men on a monthly scale receive pay regardless of whether or 
not the rest of the gang is working. 

The men drilling and wiring were engaged in bonding. With the exception 
of this bonding crew and the timekeeper, the entire labor force were Turks. 
The material used in the work was as follows : 

104 pieces of 105-lb., 33-ft. new rail. 
103 pieces of 105-lb., 38-in. angle splices. 

4 kegs of track spikes. 
624 bolts with nuts. 

212 pieces of 52-in. copper plated bonding wires. 
424 pieces copper plated bonding lugs. 
1 pair 105-lb. continuous insulated joint. 
2 , 580 wooden tie plugs. 

The labor force left the bunk houses at 6 a. m., on hand cars for Jackson 
Yards, 3 miles distant. They arrived at the yards at 6: 20 a. m. Unloading 
hand cars and preparing for work took from 6: 20 a. m. to 7: 00 a. m. From 
the latter hour to 12 : 30 they were engaged in laying rail. The dinner hour 
was from 12 : 30 to 1 : 30 and from 1 : 30 to 5 : 00 the gang worked relaying rail. 
They left the yards for the bunk houses at 5 p. m., arriving there at 6 p. m. 
The above time includes delays from various causes but does not include the 
time taken for cutting bolts and taking apart old rail. 

Waiting for material to be distributed along the track and for a train to 
pass so track could be broken made 22 laborers idle from 7 a. m. to 7 : 30 a. m., 
and 36 laborers from 7 : 30 a. m. to 7 : 50 a. m. Breaking and closing track for 
continuous traffic amounted to 3 hours for the various trains. While this 
operation does not make the men idle, it delays the progress of the work. The 
men are kept busy spiking and fastening the rail which had not been com- 
pletely finished as the work proceeded. An accident to one of the men caused 
the gang to be idle for 10 minutes. 

The time tests of the various operations gave the following results: 

Driving Spikes. — It took one man 15 minutes to drive* 20 spikes. With 
a unit of one spike for the same man the following time was used for each 
spike drive: 1 minute; 45 seconds; 30 seconds; 30 seconds; 25 seconds; 30 
seconds; 15 seconds; 30 seconds. 

Bonding. — One man drilling four holes in each 105-lb. rail with drilling 
machine: 

Delay in starting Time from start to finish Time to move to next joint 

4 min. 15 sec. 35 sec. 

15 sec. 6 min. 40 sec. 40 sec. 

sec. 4 min, 25 sec. 35 seo. 

5 sec. 4 min. 20 sec. 40 sec. 

25 sec. 3 min. 55 sec. 



STEAM RAILWAYS 1223 

With one man wiring and two men bonding wires to each joint the following 
records were obtained : 

Time from start to finish Time to move to next joint 

1 min., 00 sec. 10 sec. 

1 min., 15 sec. 12 sec. 

1 min., 18 sec. 15 sec. 

1 min., 20 sec. 10 sec. 

1 min., 50 sec. 20 sec. 

1 min., 20 sec. 10 sec. 

1 min., 19 sec. , 12 sec. 

In addition to this 15 minutes were used to bend 125 bonding wires at one 
end and distribute them over 2,000 ft. ot track. 

Pulling Spikes. — One test showed that 18 laborers pulled 700 spikes, in a 
distance of 1,155 ft., in 30 minutes. At a unit of one 33-ft. rail length, 20 
ties to the rail, spikes pulled on both sides of one rail only, it took 7 laborers 12 
minutes to pull the 40 spikes. At a unit of one man for 20 spikes (one side 
of 33-ft. rail) the two records varied greatly as will be seen from the following 
table: 

Time 

1st man 14 min. 

2nd man 3 min., 

3rd man 3 min., 30 sec. 

4th man 6 min., 25 sec. 

5th man 5 min., 20 sec. 

6th man 3 min., 50 sec. 

Lifting Old Rail and Throwing Off Ties. — Four laborers handled 254 ft. in 
14 minutes, and 3 laborers handled 990 It. in 43 minutes. These entire lengths 
were in one piece, and on one side of the tracks the rail was lifted over the 
outside line of spikes, as these were left in to set and line new rail. 

Plugging Old Spike Holes and Adzing Ties. — In this work 7 laborers covered 
264 ft. in 25 minutes; and 9 laborers covered 990 ft. in 50 minutes. This 
includes sweeping and removing dirt from the ties. 

Placing New Rail. — Ten laborers placed 30 lengths of 105-lb. 33-ft. new rail 
in 56 minutes, despite the fact they were held up 15 minutes waiting for the 
adzing gang to clear ties. 

Placing Splices. — In this work two bolts were first fastened in the splice 
after the rail had been placed for passing trains. The remaining bolts were 
fastened later during spare time of men. The time for placing two bolts and 
splice was as follows: 

Time from start to finish Time moving to next joint 
3 min. 30 sec. 

3 min., 30 sec. 30 sec. 

3 min. 1 min. 

11 min. for insulated joint 1 min. 

Small Turntable Cuts Cost of Handling Relay Rails. — John H. Sawkins 
gives the following helpful suggestion in Engineering News- Record, May 
24, 1917. 

The turntable shown in the accompanying sketch proved a big labor and 
time saver in handling rails for the car-repair yard of the Pennsylvania R. R, 
at Greenville, New Jersey. 



1224 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



il 



The 85-lb. rails used were second-hand, and the ball ot each was badly- 
worn on one side. It was therefore necessary to place the unworn side on the 
inside of the track being laid and it happened that many of the rails had to 
be turned end for end before placing them. Previous to building the turn- 
table it required considerable maneuvering by a gang of at least six men to 
turn one rail. With the turntable, however, which is set up about 18 ft. from 
the track being laid, two men can turn a rail with ease. The device was made 
complete for $8. 



\-Revol\//ng P/afe 
'<^.-l!'Qgee Washer 




•Vmr :; my'i ^^ 



ft- 

i 




1 



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Fig. 7. — Device saves much time in handling old rails. 



Unit Costs for Railway Switches. — The following data, relating to switch 
installations in Detroit, Mich., for the Michigan Central R. R., are given by 
A. M. Van Auken in Engineering and Contracting, Dec. 17, 1919. 

Cost of material in switches from ledger account. 



90-lb. rail: 

Number of switches installed 2 

Highest cost per switch $197 . 28 

Lowest cost per switch 195. 82 

Average cost per switch 196 . 55 

80-lb. rail: 

Number of switches installed 32 

Highest cost per switch $274 . 90 

Lowest cost per switch 142. 02 

Average cost per switch 178 . 17 

65-lb-. rail: 

Number of switches installed 24 

Highest cost per switch $222 . 19 

Lowest cost per switch 131 . 70 

Average cost per switch. .' 163.74 

70-lb. rail: 

I installed, cost $155. 54 

Cost of material in industry tracks. Exclusive of switch material. 

Number of jobs 35 

Total length of track laid, ft 30.933 

Highest cost per foot $ 1 . 3094 

Lowest cost per foot . 5578 

Average cost per foot . 7950 



. STEAM RAILWAYS 1225 

Installing switches, laying switches and setting concrete dumping posts. 

Installing switches: 

Number installed 59 

Lowest cost of installation $ 16. 06 

Highest cost of installation 79 , 96 

Average cost of installation 45 . 50 

Laying track: 

Number of jobs 35 

Total length of track, ft. * 30. 281 

Average length per job, ft 865 

Lowest co'st per lin. ft $ . 0577 

Highest cost per lin. ft . 2545 

Average cost per lin. ft . 1488 

* Exclusive of switches. 

Betting bumping posts: 

Number set 17 

Largest number on one job 7 

Smallest number on one job 1 

Average number on one job 1.7 

Highest cost per post $ 6 . 40 

Lowest cost per post 2.01 

Average cost per post 4 . 21 

Cost of Replacing Three Crossing Diamonds. — A. M. Van Auken gives 
the following data in Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 21, 1920. 

This work was done on May 7-9, 1917, by the Michigan Central R. R. It 
involved the replacing of crossing diamonds at East Main St., Jackson, Mich. 
One of them was in the westbound main track, another in the eastbound main 
track, and the third in a sidetrack. The track was crossed by one street 
railway track of the Michigan Ry. The electric cars averaged 1 per minute 
during the greater part of the day. Vehicle and pedestrian traffic also was 
heavy. The weather during the three days was variable, the temperature 
ranging from 45 to 55°. 

The three crossing diamonds were of the Ajax type, 22 ft. 11 in. by 22 ft. 
11 in. in size. They consisted of 100-lb. manganese built up. The angle of 
crossing was 34° 48'. The cost of the three was $2,302.50. 

The materials required for the three crossings were as follows: 

Crossing Crossing 

No. 1 No. 2 Crossing 

West-bound East-bound No. 3 

main track main track side track 

Ties 19 16 15 

Rails, 100-lb., 33 ft 4 4 

Splices, 100-lb., 23-in. continuous, non- 
insulated, pairs 8 8 10 

Bolts with nut locks 32 • 32 40 

Tie plates, Sellers 14 9 8 

Spikes, kegs 2 2 .6 

In addition five 12-ft. ties were divided among the three crossings. Cross- 
ings Nos. 1 and 3 each had two pairs of special compromise joints furnished by 
electric railway. 

Two roadmasters were on the work part of the day. The laborers included 
10 Poles and 3 Americans, Work was started at 7:30 a. m. and continued to 
5:30 p. m., with 1 hour off for lunch. Except as noted below the 17 laborers 
worked full time in removing bricks and planking and excavating at crossings 
Nos. 2 and 3. Two men worked 2 hours removing bolts from 14 joints — 2. 
bolts to the joint — and 1 foreman and 6 laborers worked 1 hour and 15 minutes 



1226 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

in hauling ties. Work was carried on during the night of May 7-8 in changing 
the sidetrack diamond. Four laborers worked from 6:30 to 9:30 p. m., and 
23 laborers, 5 foremen and 1 assistant foreman worked from 9 p.m. to 6:15 
a. m. Three oil and two carbide lights furnished illumination. A work train, 
consisting of engine, crane, 1 flat car and 1 box car, was in service from 10 
p. m. to 6 a, m. The charges for this service were: 

Train crew and engine crew $ 4 . 00 per hour 

Engine rental 10 . 00 per day 

Crane rental 20 .00 per day 

Crane engineer. 3.95 

Crane machinist 4 . 44 

Box car .50 per day 

Flat car .50 per day 

The day force on May 8 consisted of 5 foremen, 1 assistant foreman and 23 
laborers, who worked from 7:30 a. m. to 3 p. m. with pay for 1 day, and 2 
foremen, and 12 laborers, working from 2 to 5:30 p. m. In addition there was 
one team and driver employed from 10 a. m. to 5: 30 p. m. with pay for 1 day. 

The equipment consisted of track tools and push car. 

Work during the night of May 8-9 was carried on at the eastbound main 
track crossing and westbound main track crossing. 

The force consisted of 7 foremen, 1 assistant foreman and 35 laborers, who 
worked from 10:45 p. m. to 5:45 a. m., and were credited with pay for 1 day. 

The force employed on May 9 consisted of three foremen and six laborers, 
working from 8 a. m. to 11:30 a. m.; two laborers, working from 9 a. m. to 
11:30 a. m., and 3 foremen and 12 laborers, working from 12:30 to 5:30 p. m. 

In the following summary of the cost of installing the three crossing dia- 
monds, with the exception of foremen, where rate of pay shown is for the month, 
and train and engine crews where the rate is per hour, the rates shown are the 
daily wage. 

West-bound Main Track Crossing 
Labor : . 

Day of May 8— Total 

1 yard foreman, H day at $90 $ 2. 60 

1 assistant yard foreman, ^ day at $75 2. 16 

4 section foremen, ^ day at $77.50 8. 94 

2 section foremen, % day at $77.50 2. 24 

20 laborers, ^ day at $2.25 33. 75 

12 laborers, H day at $2.25 10. 13 

Night of May 8— 

35 laborers, H day at $2.25 39.38 

Day of May 9 — 

1 yard foreman, K day at $90 1.15 

2 section foremen, 3^ day at $77.50 1 . 99 

9 laborers, H day at $2.25 10. 13 

1 laborer, H day at $2.25 .75 

1 team and driver, ^ day at $6 4 . 50 

Total labor*..* $117.72 

Equipment and Service : 

Engine rental, }4 day at $10 $ 5. 00 

Crane rental, H day at $20 10.00 

Flat car, H day at 50 ct .25 

Box car, }4 day at 50 ct .25 

Train and engine crews, 4 hours at $4 16 . 00 

Crane crew 4 . 60 

Total equipment and service $ 36 . 10 

Grand totalt 153.82 




STEAM RAILWAYS 1227 

East-bound Main Track Crossing 
Labor: 

Day May 7 — 

1 yard foreman, K day at $90 $ 1 . 73 

2 section foremen, ^ day at $77.50 2.98 

1 assistant yard foreman, }4 day at $75 1.44 

17 laborers, H day at $2.25 19. 13 

1 team and driver, 3^ day at $6 3 . 00 

Day May 8 — 

1 yard foreman, 3^ day at $90 .87 

1 assistant yard foreman, 3^ day at $75 .72 

4 section foremen, }4 day at $77.50 2.98 

2 section foremen, }4 day at $77.50 .75 

20 laborers, }4 day at $2.25 11.25 

12 laborers, H day at $2.25 3. 38 

Night May 8— 

35 laborers, }4 day at $2.25 39 . 38 

Day May 9 — 

1 yard foreman, H day at $90 $ 1.15 

2 section foremen, H day at $77.50 1 . 99 

7 laborers, 3^ day at $2.25 7.88 

1 laborer, H day at $2.25 .75 

1 team and driver, 3^ day at $6 1 . 50 

T9tal labor* $100.88 

Equipment and rental same as West-bound Main Track Crossing. . 36. 10 

Grand totalf $136.98 

Sidetrack Crossing 
Labor: 

Day May 7 — 

1 yard foreman, 3^ day at $90 $ 1 . 73 

2 section foremen, 3^ day at $77.50 2. 98 

1 assistant yard foreman, 3^ day at $75 1. 44 

17 laborers, li day at $2.25 19. 13 

Team and driver, 3^ day at $6 3. 00 

Night May 7 — 

23 laborers, 1 day at $2.25 51. 75 

Day May 8 — 

3 laborers, 1 day at $2.25 6. 75 

1 yard foreman, 3^ day at $90 1.15 

Day May 9 — 

2 section foremen, }4 day at $77.50 1. 99 

2 laborers, H day at $2.25 2. 25 

1 laborer, }4 day at $2.25 .75 

Total labor* $ 92. 92 

Equipment and service: 

Engine rental, 1 day at $10 ; $ 10. 00 

Crane rental, 1 day at $20 20. 00 

Flat car rental, 1 day .50 

Box car rental, 1 day .50 

Train and engine crews, 8 hours at $4 32. 00 

Crane crew 8. 39 

Total equipment and service $ 71. 39 

Grand totalf. 164. 31 

* Seven Foremen worked night of May 8 without additional pay. 

t This total does not include complete cost of surfacing. 

Cost of Maintaining Anchored and Unanchored Track. — The relative cost 

of maintenance of unanchored track and track anchored to prevent creeping 
of ties is shown in an article in the Railway Age Gazette, from which Engineer- 
ing and Contracting, March 27, 1912, gives the following abstract. 



1228 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The data are taken from records made on the maintenance of 3H miles of 
double tangent track of level grade, light gravel ballast, 85 lb. rail and broken 
joints. The heavy traflac was north bound and consequently all data are 
based on the north bound track, as the creeping tendency here was decided. 
This track had been put in service 14 months before, and one mile in the center 
of the stretch was anchored, leaving IK miles on the north and one mile on 
. the south end not anchored. Where the track was anchored, 640 anti- 
creepers were applied, two per rail length, opposite joints against opposite end 
of joint ties. The anti-creepers have received no maintenance and have shown 
no failure, although they had been in service 14 months at the time of 
inspection. 

The character of the work done on the two pieces of track in 14 months is 
stated in the columns below: 

Anchored track — 
Track resurfaced once. 

Unanchored track — 
Track resurfaced twice. 
Ties spaced twice. 
Rail driven back twice. 

The total maintenance cost for the mile where the anti-creepers were applied, 
including the cost of anti-creepers, is as follows: 

Cost of anti-creepers, 640 at 173^ cts. each $112.00 

Applying 640 anti-creepers at }^i ct. each 3.20 

Resurfacing, 10 men working 16 days, at $1.55 per day. . . 248.00 

Total $363.20 

The total cost of the next mile north of the mile where the anti-creepers 
were applied, subject to the same conditions of traffic, roadbed, etc., but unan- 
chored, is given below: 

Cost of resurfacing twice, each time 10 men, 16 days, at $1.55 per day, 

$248 $ 496.00 

Cost of respacing ties twice, each time 10 men, 17 days, at $1.55 per 

day, $263.50 527. 00 

Cost of driving back rail twice, each time 10 men, 2 foremen, 6 days, 

at $1.55 per day, $111.60 223. 20 

Total $1,246.20 

This shows a saving in 14 months of $883 in favor of the anchored track. 

It will be noted that the original cost of the anti-creepers and of their appli- 
cation have been included in the first 14 months. These costs are properly 
chargeable over the total number of years anchors are in service, which in all 
caseri is at least as long as the life of the rail on which they are applied. This 
would make the saving considerably greater than has been estimated. Fur- 
thermore, this maintenance cost does not include injury done to ties, spikes 
and joints, which was considerable where anchors were not applied as the 
creeping had pulled the ties badly askew, bending or completely destroying 
the spikes and often causing broken joints. Where the anti-creepers were 
applied, this wear and tear were hardly worth considering. 

The above figures were obtained directly from the railway, and the road- 
master stated that he could have maintained this 3H miles of track in better 
shape with three men less per year had he been allowed to anchor the balance. 

Railway Maintenance Cost is Increased by Fast Passenger Trains. — The 
following note is taken from the Engineering News-Record, April 25, 1918. 

Speed of trains affects the cost of maintenance of way and structures to the 



STEAM RAILWAYS 



1229 



extent that the higher the proportion of passenger traflBc, which may be as- 
sumed as high-speed trafflc, the greater the cost of maintenance. This is the 
conclusion arrived at in a prehminary report presented by the track committee 
at the 1918 annual meeting of the American Railway Engineering Association. 

In the accompanying diagram, the curved lines represent traffic of which 
the passenger-car miles constitute 7.5, 12.5 and 20.3% of the total car mileage. 

It is recognized by the committee that the assumption of high-speed and 
low-speed traffic as synonymous with passenger and freight traffic is not en- 
tirely correct, but this, the committee says, offers the only opportunity for 
classifying expenses in accordance with differences of speed. The car-mile 
was taken as the unit for comparison on the ground that it gives the best 
measure of the facilities required by each class of traffic. 



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500 



4500 5000 



1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 
Maintenance Cost x>^r Mile of Road 
Fig. 8. — Effect of percentage of passenger-car-miles on maintenance cost. 



Labor Saving Devices in Maintenance of Way Work. — Much useful infor- 
mation on labor-saving devices for track work was given in a committee 
report adopted at the 1920 annual meeting of the Roadmasters and Mainte- 
nance of Way Association. The following data are taken from an abstract of 
the report, published in Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 18, 1920. 

Mechanical Tie Tampers. — The great majority of those who have used a 
tamping machine and given it a fair trial will testify to its wonderful value 
as a labor-saving device. It is the committee's observation that the machine 
work is more uniform and better than track tamped by hand. It has been 
proved that a tamping machine is of particular value around frogs and 
switches, water pans, tunnels, etc., as it is possible to tamp with it in places 
which cannot be reached by a tamping bar or pick. 

Carefully compiled figures for hand and machine tamping from several 
railways covering a period of three seasons follow: 

For a 2-tool machine: 1 foreman, 10 hours at 32 cts., $3.20; 4 men, 10 hours 
at 22 cts., $8.80; 12 gal. gasoline at 24 cts., $2.88; total, $14.88. 

Without machine: 1 foreman, 10 hours at 32 cts., $3.20; 4 men, 10 hours at 
22 cts., $8.80; total $12. 

Cost per mile of track without machine, 32 days at $12, $384.00; cost per 
mile of track with machine, 16 days at $14.88, $238.08; balance in favor of 
machine, $145.92. 



1230 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

For a 4-tool machine the comparison between hand tamping and mechanical 
tamping was as follows; 

Hand gang and foreman, 16 men, 8 hours, tamped 500 ft. of track; machine 
gang and foreman, 6 men, 8 hours, tamped 528 ft. of track; saving of 10 men 
and 80 hours for machine. 

Expense: Hand gang and foreman, 16 men, $43.50; machine gang and 
foreman, 6 men, $18.50 (cost to rim $6.95); $24.45; saving by machine, 
$18.05. • 

Fixed charges are given as follows as near as it is possible to get them: 
Depreciation at 10 per cent, interest 5 per cent, repairs 5 per cent, total fixed 
charges 20 per cent. 

Experience during the four years this machine has been in use ^teaches 
that, under normal conditions in the northern states, each machine will be 
used during the season to tamp about 20,000 ties. 

Handling Cinders. — At one cinder pit where crane is used the cost of load- 
ing cinders for a year was $0,007 per yard, while at a pit where cinders were 
loaded by hand the cost was $0.13 per yard. 

Cost of unloading cinders by hand, 16 cts. per yard; by dropping bottoms, 
Rodgers ballast cars 7 cts. per yard; steel gondolas, 7 cts. per yard. 

Comparative statement of leveling cinders by hand and by the use of 
spreader; In J-^ hour a spreader has leveled 3,000 yds., costing less than 
$0,001 per yard. To do similar work by hand cost $0,123 per yard. 

Rail Handling Machines. — As much new rail is received in high-side coal 
cars it has become absolutely necessary that some mechanical device be used 
for unloading it. Not on account of the labor shortage alone, but to avoid 
damage to rails by dropping or rough handling, is such a device needed. 
The constant demand for quick release of cars, the high cost of work trains, 
and the few hours of actual work on a line of heavy traffic require a device 
that will work rapidly with a maximum factor of safety to laborers. 

There are rail-handling machines in use which are capable of loading or 
unloading two cars of rail at the same time. For the operation of these 
machines nine men are required, one man to operate hoists and four men to 
each car of rails. The machine is operated by air from the train line. Such 
machines will unload rails more quickly and without damage to rails or injury 
to men than could be accomplished by 40 men by hand, thus a saving of 31 
men a day is made possible. This machine can also be equipped with tongs 
to load or unload as many ties with three men as can be loaded or unloaded by 
20 men by hand. 

Snow Melting Devices. — The committee is not unanimous in its views as to 
the benefits to be derived from snow melting devices. The following results 
were submitted by one of the members; 

Two laborers at $3.80 per day, $7.60; royalty on cars, $5 per year (used 
about 5H months, 2 cars), 6 cts. per day; 6 gal. hydro-carbon fluid at 11 cts. 
per gallon, 66 cts.; total cost with melting device, $832. 

If done by hand; Foreman at $3.35 and 10 laborers at $2.80, total $31.35; 
6 rattan brooms at 28 cts., $1.68; total cost by hand, $33.03. Saving by use 
of device, $24.71. 

Another device which can be used successfully for the same purpose is the 
Hauck snow melting torch. 

Motor Cars. — The majority of the committee is in favor of the more general 
use of motor cars, particularly on lines of light traffic, where the length of 
sections are such as to warrant their use. Therefore it is the committee's 



STEAM RAILWAYS 1231 

opinion that the economy in the use of motor cars decreases in proportion to 
the additional number of main tracks, which in turn shortens the length of 
sections. It has obtained the following figures showing the economy effected 
by the use of motor cars: 

Time spent in carrying 14 men and foreman by motor car 14 miles, 30 
minutes; for round trip, 1 hour, or total of 15 hours. Time spent for round 
trip by hand car, 3 hours, or a total of 45 hours, showing a saving of 30 hours 
in favor of motor cars. There is still a larger saving in the increased energy 
of the men when they arrive on the job, in the better class of labor attached, 
and in the time saved on emergency jobs. 

The Horse as a Labor-saver. — On divisions where much ditching must be 
done by work trains or wheelbarrows, teams with scrapers have been tried, 
with the following results: One laborer can fill scrapers for 2 to 4 teams, accord- 
ing to the distance and advantage of working.' Two horses can easily handle 
a No. 1 scraper, which holds 7 cu. ft., and moves at a 2-mile-an-hour rate, 
with some delay for filling, turning and dumping scrapers. 

One horse of good weight can handle a No. 2 scraper of 5 cu. ft., and after 
teams are trained a boy not able to do heavy manual labor can drive a team, 
or when in a narrow ditch, and one horse is used, one boy can take two single 
horses with a scraper. Dirt can be handled in very short cuts, at the ends of 
cuts and across the track, for 20 cts. to 25 cts. per yard, and haul it 500 to 600 
ft. for 50 cts. to 60 cts. per yard — this with teams at 80 cts. an hour and labor 
at 35 cts. an hour. By starting teams early in the season, ,with an experienced 
man in charge to handle them, all ditching can be done and balance of gang 
left on other track work. Teams can also be worked in muddy cuts where 
men won't work. 

Where conditions of mowing right of way are such that it is possible to use 
teams and mowing machines the work can be done by machinery much cheaper 
than by manual labor. 

Ditching Machines, Dump Cars and Spreaders. — When heavy ditching has 
to be done the use of steam ditchers is recommended, together with the use of 
at least two 16 to 20 yd. side-dump cars and a spreader car for short hauls. 
For a longer haul from 4 to 6 side-dumps should be used. A light locomotive 
can be assigned to handle this outfit, and with an outfit of this kind, which 
includes a train crew, ditcher engineer and fireman, dirt can be handled for 
10 cts. to 25 cts. per yard, according to the length of haul. 

Through long usage the steam ditcher and spreader, especially when the 
latter is operated by air, has reached such a high state of efficiency that they 
are practically indispensable, and the fact that they can be used for many 
different varieties of work places them among the most important labor- 
saving devices. 

A saving of at least 60 per cent over that of manual labor is obtained by 
using a No. 3 crane for removing ballast from between tracks, in preparing for 
stone ballast, digging drains under tracks, unloading old ballast on fills, to 
strengthen shoulder and fill up holes, load and unload rails, and for various 
other purposes. 

The magnet is used very successfully to load and unload scrap of various 
kinds. This machine is capable of picking up six or eight 33-ft. rails as 
rapidly as it will one, and ehminates handling the rails by hand, and reduces 
to a minimum the liability of injuring men. 

Labor Saving Equipment Employed in Track Maintenance by B. &. O. R. 
R. — The following data are taken from an abstract of a paper presented before 



1232 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

the New England Railroad Club by E. Stimson and published in Engineering 
and Contracting, Jan. 15, 1919. 

Ditching machines of the "American and Barnhart" types are well adapted 
to the uses of a steam derrick within the limits of their lifting capacity, and 
are of great use in unloading and loading rail, ties, timbers, etc. With a 
clam shell bucket substituted for the dipper arm their uses are still further 
extended. 

Each of these various uses of this machine results in a great saving in man- 
power, the best example being that of ditching. The loading capacity is 
about 60 cu. yd. per hour in ordinary material. It would require 100 men to 
load this amount by hand. As it requires but 5 men to operate the ditcher, 
the large saving is evident. In handling rail 6 men and the machine will 
readily do the work of 40 men. 

The Use of Horses, — We have found that, including plowing, a 1-horse 
scoop and driver working in a clay cut averaging 4 ft. in height, and wasting 
the material on top of the cut, can handle 45 cu. yd. in 9 hours. Another 
man is required for dressing up the ditch. The two men and one liorse, there- 
fore, do the work of at least 10 men. Up to a 300-ft. haul the wheelbarrow 
is a good proposition as compared with other methods. While these methods 
may not show great economies over the steam ditcher and work train, and do 
require much greater time for completion, they are to be recommended where 
the matter of quick completion is not vital. They require but a small number 
of men and give steady employment, which promotes efficiency. With the 
intense traffic conditions prevailing and the great demand for train crews 
and engines to handle the business it is most desirable to release all the work 
train service possible. The cost of this service has increased about 40 per 
cent during the past year and nearly 100 per cent in the past 10 years. These 
considerations make it desirable, both from necessity and from the standpoint 
of economy, to adopt methods to reduce work train service. 

Rail Handler. — A home-made device which has proven a great labor-saver 
is an air-operated rail handler. With it a gang of six men and a foreman will 
load one rail per minute. By hand methods 20 men will load 1 rail every 2 
minutes on to fiat cars and one rail every 5H minutes on gondolas. The 
machine is also used for handling frogs, switches, ties, scrap and other main- 
tenance materials with proportionate labor savings. 

Pneumatic Tie Tamping Machines on Track Work. — More labor is used in 
surfacing and lining of track than on any other item of track work. Normally 
this will amount to about 35 per cent of the total track payroll. This offers 
an attractive field for labor saving. About four years ago pneumatic tie 
tamping machines were introduced for this work. The earlier machines were 
limited to two tampers, but the later ones have the necessary power to operate 
four tampers with a consequent reduction in overhead and operating expenses. 
Our experience indicates that with a 2-tool machine 5 men do the work of 9 
men tamping with picks and with a 4-tool machine 7 men will do the work of 
17 men without them. There is also an indirect saving made by the more 
uniform and permanent work done by the tamper, requiring less frequent re- 
tamping than when the work is done by hand. 

Ballast Cleaning Appliances. — Stone ballast, to be fully effective, must be 
kept clean and the voids unclogged. Where traffic is heavy, particularly on 
grades, stone ballast will require cleaning at least once in three years and in 
many places much oftener. To raise the track on dirt ballast and dress off 
with clean stone is poor practice, and to clean It by forking it over is slow, 



STEAM RAILWAYS 1233 

expensive, and requires a large number of men. A number of methods for 
cleaning ballast have been considered, even to a gigantic vacuum cleaner 
which, on account of cost, is out of the reach of most of us. The most prac- 
tical is the ballast screen. The standard performance with 3 screens and 12 
men and a foreman is 200 ft. of double track per 10-hour day. To clean with 
forks, this length of track would take the same number of men 2.8 days or 36 
men with forks to do the work of 13 men with the screens. 

Removal of Grass and Weeds. — Much labor is applied each year to the clean- 
ing of grass and weeds from the track and roadbed. Two methods have been 
more or less effective as "weed killers," burning, and spraying with a solution 
of arsenite of soda. 

About 10 years ago a western railroad designed a weed-burning machine. 
A strip 7 ft. on each side of center line of track was burned at an average cost 
of $9.46 per mile. Two burnings were necessary, so that to destroy the weeds 
the cost would be $18.92. As compared with hand labor it was claimed to 
save 14 men per day. 

The spraying method has been extensively used. In 1916 the cost of spray- 
ing 744 miles of single track averaged $18.11 per mile. Including the train 
crew the work was done by 10 men, averaging 21 miles per day. To do a like 
day's work by hand where the growth was medium heavy in soft ballast 273 
men would be required at an average cost of $23.25 per mile. A large saving 
inmen is thus effected, though not so much in money. 

Cost of Cleaning Weeds and Grass From Track. — D. A. Wallace gives the 
following records in Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 17, 1910. 

The cleaning of weeds and grass from track was done by section gangs, the 
men getting $1. 10 per day and foreman $45 per month. In the first two cases 
the weeds were removed only from end to end of ties. One or two men went 
ahead with picks and loosened the gravel and 2 men followed pulling weeds 
and grass by hand, each man working a strip 4 ft. wide. There was consider- 
able crab and Bermuda grass. In the third case the cleaning was done from 
edge to edge of the ballast, giving an additional width of about 18 ins. While 
the record is of one man's work only it was selected as an average of several 
days' work of a gang. The records are as follows: 

1. Rock ballast, weeds, medium thick: 



Number of feet 




Number of days 


Feet 


per man per day 


5,280 
5,000 
5,280 

Average 




8 
9 
9 




660 
555 
586 

600 


The cost per mile was 


$11.15. 






2. Slag ballast, weeds medium thick: 






Number of feet 




Number of days 


Feet 


per man per day 


18,500 
1,400 
3,200 
390 
3,360 
8,600 
6,100 
2,640 




123^ 
9« 

1 

43^ 
8 
203^ 




1,480 
147 
457 
390 
946 

1,075 
300 
754 


Average 


. . . 693 


The cost per mile was 


$9.80 









78 



Number of days 


Feet per man per day 


10 


174 


. 14 


315 


5 


552 


12 


630 



1234 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

3. This work was in gravel ballast and the weeds were very thick. One 
man cleaned 210 ft. in one day. The cost per mile was $19.40. 

4. Gravel ballast, weeds medium thick: 

Number of fc?et 
1,740 
4,410 
2,760 
7,560 

Average 417 

The cost per mile was $15.30. 

Records of Work in Surfacing and Smoothing Track. — The following data 
are given by D. A. Wallace in Engineering and Contracting, July 27, 1910. 

1. In this work dirt surface track was stripped and stone ballast unloaded 
from Rodgers bottom dump ballast cars. The raising was done with a spot- 
board and four or five days later the second raise of a 3 or 4-in. surface was 
made with tamping picks. The record for 20 days — first raise 7 ins. in rock 
from stripped dirt track shovel tamped with Italian labor — was as follows: 

Ft. per man 
per day • 

Max 30 

Min : 18 

Average 25 

2. This work consisted of surfacing track 4 ins. in rock on top of a 6-in. 
raise where ties had been renewed at the rate of about 7 per rail length. The 
work included spacing and gaging. The record for 7 days with negro labor 
was as follows: 

Ft. per man 
per day 

Max 33 

Min 15 

Average 22 

3. This work consisted of surfacing track 3 ins. in rock on top of a 7-in. 
raise where ties had been renewed at the rate of about 7 to the rail length. 
The record for 7 days with negro labor was as follows: 

Ft. per man 
per day 

Max 26 

Min 12 

Average 20 

4v On this work new rail had been laid on track which was in very poor 
surface. In order to keep the new rail in good condition, a 3-in. stone surface 
was necessary. Sufficient stone for the raise was taken from the shoulders 
of the ballast then in place. The surfacing was done immediately after rail 
renewal. The record for 8 days with negro labor was as follows: 

Ft. per man 
per day 

Max 31.5 

Min 21.1* 

Average 24 . 8 



STEAM RAILWAYS 1235 

5. This work was the first raise of 7 ins. in screenings for stripped track, 
shovel tamped. The record for 4 days with Italian labor was as follows: 

Ft. per man 
per day 

Max 33 

Min 29 

Average 30 

6. This work was the second raise of 3 ins. in screenings on a 7-in. raise 
track lined and dressed, pick tamped. The record for 3 days with Italian 
labor was as follows: 

Ft. per man 
per day 

Max 150 

Min 100 

Average 116 

7. This work was the first raise of 7 ins. on cinders from dirt stripped track, 
shovel tamped. The record for 2 days with Italian labor was as follows: 

Ft. per man 
per day 

Max 43 

Min 30 

Average 36 

8. These records were taken from work of three sections and one extra 
gang. The track was poorly ballasted with hand napped stone and was raised 
4 ins. on gravel consisting of pebbles and non-cementing sand. The rail was 
laid with broken joints. Gravel was unloaded from bottom dump coal cars 
at a cost of 30 cts. per cu. yd. on the ground. These records were kept in order 
to determine the most economical method of making a raise of 4 ins. under 
these conditions. The track put up by Sec. No. 1 stood 1st. The track put 
up by Ex gang No. 1 stood 2d. The track put up by Sec. No. 2 stood 3d. 
The track put up by Sec. No. 3 stood 4th. Negro labor at $1.10 per day and 
foreman at $50 per month were worked. 

Section 1. — Made one raise and pick-tamped the length of the tie except 14 
ins. in the middle; raised track one day and dressed up on the following 
day. The record of 11 days' work at raising track was as follows: 

Ft. per man 
per day 

Max 40 

Min 31 

Average 36 

With a gang of 6 men 1 mile is surfaced in 24 days. 
The record for 5 days work for dressing was as follows: 

Ft. per man 
per day 

Max 100 

Min 71 

Average 84 

With a gang of 6 men 1 mile of track is dressed in 10 days. 



1236 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Section 2. — Made one raise, pick-tamping heads of ties and shovel-tamping 
insides except 14 ins. at centers. The track surfaced on one day was dressed 
the next day. The record of 17 days for surfacing was as follows: 

Ft. per man 
per day 

Max 54 

Min 37 

Average 48 

With a gang of 6 men 1 mile is surfaced in 18 days. 

The record of 7 days for dressing, working a gang of 7 men, was as follows: 

Ft. per man 
per day 

Max 100 

Min. 77 

Average 89 

With a gang of 7 men 1 mile was dressed in 8 days. 

Section 3. — The track surfaced by this gang was shovel tamped heads and 
inside. After an interval of 3 days the gang went back over the raised track 
and caught up low joints with picks and put up the track complete. The 
record of 10 days for surfacing was as follows: 

Ft. per man 
per day 

Max. 110 

Min. 55 

Average 74 

With a gang averaging 4^ men 1 mile was surfaced in 16 days. 
The record of smoothing for 10 dayg was as follows: 

Ft. per man 
per day 

Max 83 

Min. , 45 

Average 59 . 5 

With a gang averaging 5>^ men 1 mile was smoothed in 16 days. 
In dressing the foreman sent 3 men back to work alone ; the record for 8 days 
was as follows: 

Ft. per man 
per day 

Max 250 

Min 75 

Average 133 

This gang of 3 meii dressed 1 mile in 15 days. 

Extra Gang. — This gang made a 5-in. raise shovel tamped ties on first raise 
and after 3 or 4 days went back over the work picking up low places with the 
pick. The gang made an average of 70 ft. per man per day on the first raise. 
With a gang of 25 men 1 mile of track was raised in 3 days. 

A gang of 17 men averaged 100 ft. per man per day smoothing up first raise, 
smoothing up 1 mile in 3 days. 

A gang of 10 men dressed an average of 55 ft. per man per day or at a rate 



STEAM RAILWAYS 



1237 



of 1 mile in 10 days. The work was slow on account of utieven distribulion 
of ballast unloaded from bottom dump cars. _ 

The surfacing done by these four gangs consumed more time than a 4-ln. 
rise in gravel on account of using a good portion of the stone in the track in 
tamping with gravel. : 

9. The following records were secured from the work performed by section 
gangs. By running surface is meant the work done in bringing track' to an 
easy riding surface, by tamping up the low places, not much attention being 
given to the general surface as far as appearances go. Surfacing refers to the 
raising of the track out of face to a uniform grade line. Smoothing up refers 
to the picking up of low joints and centers to the general level. Negro labor 
at $1.10 per day and foreman at $50 per month were worked. 

Record 1. — Covers 18 days, running surface in slag ballast. 

Ft. per man 
per day 

Max 93 

Min 45 

Average 66 



Record 2. — Covers 31 days running surface in rock ballast. 



Max 

Min 

Average . 



Ft. per man 

per day 

86 

30 

55 



Record 3. — Covers 12 days running surface in gravel ballast. 

Ft. per man 
per day 

Max 120 

Min .60 

Average 87 

Record 4. — Covers 20 days smoothing up in slag ballast. 

Ft. per man 
per day 

Max 161 

Min 60 

Average , 116 

Record 5. — Covers 75 days smoothing up on rock ballast. 

Ft. per man 
per day 

Max 225 

Min 51 

Average 120 



10. This work was done on the Frisco lines in Louisiana working " Cadian" 
labor at $1.75 per day and foreman at $75 per month. The dirt was a good 
solid black loam. The shoulders of the grade were skinned off to a slope of 
.1 in. to 1 ft. outward from the ends of the ties by a plow constructed on the 
order of a dirt spreading machine. The dirt was cast up against the ties by 
the cutting edges of the wings. The amount of dirt, however, was insufficient 
for the raise, and the remainder was secured by shoveling up from the berm 



1238 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

to the shoulder after having been loosened by plows. The embankment aver- 
aged 4 ft. in height. 

The average for a 4.1 in. raise was 22.7 ft. per man per day. 

Cost of Stopping Trains — When it is Cheaper to Install Interlocking Signals. 
— (Engineering and Contracting, Nov. 16, 1910.) 

Under the laws of Canada, all trains are required to come to a full stop 
before crossing another railway at grade. C. L. Hackett, in an article on 
railway signaling in the Canadian Engineer, shows that the installation of 
interlocking signals is an actual saving in operating expenses when trains 
reach a certain number. The following figures are based on the results secured 
by Mi. Peabody, signal engineer of C. & N. W. Ry., who having experimented 
with different trains, concluded that the cost of stopping and again acceler- 
ating a train to its original speed average 45 cts. per train. The interlocking 
plant considered is for a single track crossing, where 16 levers would be re- 
quired. A day and night towerman would be required, and the following is 
the estimated annual cost: 

Cost of interlocking, complete $4 , 800 . 00 

Interest at 4 % 192. 00 

Depreciation at 7 % 336 . 00 

Maintenance, per year 240 . 00 

Operation, per year 1 , 200 . 00 

Total cost per year $1,968.00 

The following table shows the saving brought about by such a plant as 
compared with stopping trains for 14, 20 and 25 trains per day: 







Cost of 




Years required to pay 


Trains Per 


Cost of stop- 


interlocking. 


Net saving. 


for installation 


day 


ping, per year 


per year 


per year 


from savings 


14 


$1,971 


$1,968 


$ 3.00 




20 


2,817 


1,968 


849.00 


5M 


25 


3,521 


1,968 


1,553.00 


5 



It is apparent, from this table, that 14 trains a day in this case would justify 
the installation of the plant, aside from the savings due to increased safety. 

Cost of Turntables. — Table VII is complied from data taken from a com- 
mittee report to the American Railway Bridge and Building Association and 
published in Engineering and Contracting, Nov. 6, 1912. 

The total cost of turntables varies greatly with the type of construction 
and kind of excavation and to a lesser degree with the weight of engines for 
which the table is designed. 

The cost of excavation and foundations for the through girder type is less 
than for the deck type. However the steel for the through type is more 
expensive than the deck type. 

A fair average cost of turntable complete with foundations, including pit 
with concrete wall and paved floor (in 1912) was $100 per lin. ft. of diameter. 
Thus a 75 ft. turntable cost $7500, an 80 ft. table cost $8,000 and a 100 ft. table 
cost $10,000. 

The cost of the table with center cost about $40 to $50 per lin. ft. of radius. 

The cost of mechanical tractor of electric, compressed air or gasoline motor 
type averaged about $1,150 per installation. 

The above costs have about doubled in 1920. 



STEAM RAILWAYS 



1239 



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STEAM RAILWAYS 1241 

The Cost of Railroad Signal Protection. — James B. Latimer, Signal Engi- 
neer, C. B. & Q. R. R. gives the following data in Engineering and Contracting, 
June 14, 1911. 

Mechanical Interlocking. — The generally accepted unit for rough estimatirig 
is the working lever, and very substantial plants can be constructed for, 
roughly speaking, $400 per lever. This includes the tower and "power" 
(electric) distant signals, but does not include electric route locking, which 
adds considerably to the expense. 

The accompanying tables (Tables VIII and IX) give the actual cost in 
detail of 2 interlocking plants installed within the last year, one a plant to 
protect a grade crossing of 2 single track lines, almost at right angles to each 
other, with power distant signals on both lines and quite elaborate electric 
rOute locking. This machine contained 14 working levers and two spare 
spaces, and as there was apparently no immediate likelihood of enlargement 
the tower was made simply large enough for a 16 lever machine. Details of 
the cost of this plant are given in Table VIII. 

The other was a plant to protect a junction of a single and double track line, 
with a number of switches, one of which was 1,600 ft. from the tower. The 
machine had 47 working levers and 5 spare spaces — a 52 lever frame. This 
plant had two power distant signals and two mechanical time locks, but no 
electric locking. Details of cost are given in Table IX. 

In both cases the tower buildings were contracted for and were built by the 
same contractor. He furnished all material and built the towers complete, 
including the foundations and service building. The towers are heated by- 
hot water heaters which were installed by the railroad company's forces. 

The reader will note that his attention was called to the fact that in the 
first case the railroad lines were nearly at right angles. This sort of a track 
layout usually adds to the cost of a plant, and in close estimating should be 
allowed for. The reason being that pipe lines to the signals and derails each 
side of the crossing on each line must be run on a separate set of foundations, 
which require more labor to set; besides which the concrete blocks which 
carry the pipe carriers cost about 30 cts. each. They are set every 7 ft. and 
as they will carry 6 lines of pipe as easily as they will 1 , there is always a slight 
economic waste when they are not worked to their limit. 

Table VIII. — Detail Cost op 16-Lever Interlocking Plant with 14 
Working Levers 

1 16-lever frame interlocking tower with concrete founda- 

tion and storm sash complete. Cost by contract $ 925.00 

1 hot water heater and necessary piping for same 101 . 69 

Labor section men unloading material — putting in ties 

and derails 34 . 20 

Labor linemen stringing wires for distant signals 22 . 80 

Labor signalmen installing interlocking and heater 1 , 608 . 22 

1 interlocking machine with 14 levers and 2 spaces at 

$22.50 per working lever and $9.00 per space 333 . 00 

10 vertical 90° deflecting bars ; $ 6.40 64.00 

10 horizontal 90° deflecting bars 4 . 40 44 . 00 

24 ll^i" cranks R. S. A. standard 1.60 38.40 

14 compensators R. S. A. standard. 4.75 66.50 

25 one way pipe carriers .25 6.25 

260 three way pipe carriers .73 189 . 80 

8 eight way pipe carriers , 1-81 12.67 

10 one way transverse pipe carriers .95 9.50 

4 two way transverse pipe carriers • • • 1.12 4 . 48 

6 three way transverse pipe carriers. 1 . 35 8. 10 



1242 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table VIII. — Continued 

104 solid jaws, R. S. A. standard .61 63.44 

10 screw jaws, R. S. A. standard .81 8. 10 

1 pipe lug, R. S. A. standard .86 .86 

10 point adjusting screws (turn buckles) 1 . 22 12 . 20 

2 complete layouts for Wharton derail with facing point 

lock 41.25 82.50 

2 complete layouts for Wharton derail with switch and 

lock movement 48.25 96.50 

2 one blade pipe connected home signals 65 . 00 130 . 00 

2 two blade pipe connected home signals 86.00 172.00 

4 electric distant signals 187 . 50 750 . 00 

2 electric time locks 30. 00 60. 00 

2 hand releases 25. 00 50 . 00 

2 4 ohm indicating relays 11 . 50 46. 00 

4 500 ohm relays 19.00 76.00 

4 circuit breakers for machine 9 . 00 36 . 00 

4 floor pushes 1 . 95 7 . 80 

1 large relay case for tower 14 . 00 

4 commutators for home signal poles with operating rods . 10 . 50 42 . 00 

4 electric locks for machine 22 . 50 90 . 00 

8 6H" red roundels .68 5.44 

4 8^" red roundels 1.05 4.20 

4 8%" yellow roundels .70 2.80 

4 8%" green roundels .70 2.80 

4 QH" green roundels .40 1 . 60 

8 3" purple roundels .13 1 . 04 

50 lbs. 3^" X 1 ^e" pipe rivets (cwt.) 3.21 1.61 

7,000 ft. 1" signal pipe R. S. A. standard .055 385.00 

10 R. S. A. standard semaphore lamps 3 . 60 36 . 00 

90 cast piers for cranks, compensators and deflecting bar 

foundations .70 63.00 

180 bolts for same M" X 23^" 04 7.20 

325 8" X 12" X 24" concrete blocks for pipe Hne founda- 
tions .30 97.50 

650 hook bolts for same .08 52 . 00 

300 6 way metal bases for pipe carriers .45 135.00 

35 1 way metal bases for pipe carriers .18 6.30 

2,600 M" X IH'' carriage bolts (C) 56 14.56 

75 bbls. Portland cement 2.15 161 .25 

87 yards concrete gravel .30 26. 10 

32 hook bolts 1" X 36" for signal pole foundations .12 3 . 84 

2 right hand Wharton derails 35. 00 70. 00 

2 left hand Wharton derails 35. 00 70. 00 

iiiroiut^^z^ii'}^'^^^'^ 3o-«o 

20 gals, pipe line paint (mixed) gal 1.15 23 . 00 

^ gal. red signal paint (mixed) 2 . 40 • .60 

3^ gal. green signal paint (mixed) 2 . 40 .60 

}i gal. yellow signal paint (mixed) 2 . 40 .30 

2 gals, lard oil .44 .88 

12 gals, black oil .08 .96 

3 lbs. graphite .10 .30 

3 quires fine emery cloth .20 .60 

2 tons blacksmith coal 4. 50 9. 00 

33,000 ft. copper telegraph wire — 1,315 lbs .15 197.25 

50 8 ft. 6 wire cross arms .50 25. 00 

50 pairs cross arm braces (C) 5 . 70 2 . 85 

150 cross arm pins (C) 3 . 50 5 . 25 

150 glass insulators (C) 3.45 5. 17 

50 through bolts (C) 2.58 1.29 

4 small concrete battery wells 12 . 00 48 . 00 

1,200 ft. trunking 1^" groove with capping .04 48. 00 

200 creosoted stakes 3" X 4" X 3' 15 30.00 

50 creosoted stakes 3" X 4" X 4' 17 8.50 

75 creosoted stakes 3" X 4" X 8' .35 26.25 

4,500 ft. No. 12 rubber covered wire (M) 21.50 96.75 

1,000 ft. No. 8 rubber covered wire (M) 35.50 35.50 

60 ft. No, 12 flexible rubber covered wire (M) 22 . 00 1 . 10 



STEAM RAILWAYS 



1243 



Table VIII. — Continued 

1 gal. insulating paint 1 . 55 1 . 55 

24 lightning arresters 1 . 25 30 . 00 

12 insulated track joints 5. 25 63 . 00 

1 battery cupboard for lower story of tower 7 . 00 

600 bond wires .015 9.00 

1,200 channel pins (M) 6 . 50 7 . 80 

80 cells caustic soda battery 1.91 152.80 

6 cells gravity battery .85 5 . 10 

2 battery chutes 10. 50 21 . 00 

10 lbs. solder .20 2.00 

5 lbs. friction tape .80 4 . 00 

5 lbs. covering tape .50 2 , 50 

2 lbs. soldering paste. .50 1 . 00 

100 porcelain cleats for inside wiring (C) 1.44 1.44 

1 operator's table 9 . 00 

1 centre lamp for tower 3. 50 

2 wall lamps for tower (doz.) 9 . 50 1 . 59 

1 clock for tower ; 12 . 50 

1 frame for manipulation chart 1 . 35 

1 rubber mat, 3 ft. by 9 ft, 35 cts. per foot 3. 15 

Total . $7,290.73 

Table IX. — Detail Cost of Interlocking Plant of 47 Levers and 5 Spaces 
WITH No Electric Route Locking 

Tower and service building $1 ,828.00 

Material for heater 118. 97 

Labor, sectionmen unloading material and putting in derails and 

switch timbers 53 . 60 

Labor, linemen stringing wire 37 . 40 

Labor, signalmen putting in heater and installing interlocking. . 4,002.13 

1 interlocking machine with 47 levers and five spaces, at $24.50 

per lever and $9.50 per space 1 , 199 . 00 

42 vertical 90° deflecting bars $ 6. 40 $ 268 . 00 

42 horizontal 90°deflecting bars 4 . 40 184 . 00 

22 673^° deflecting bars 6. 25 137 . 50 

14 223^° deflecting bars 6.25 87.50 

90 R. S. A. 11^" cranks 1.60 144.00 

50 R. S. A. compensators 4.75 237.50 

40 1 way pipe carriers .25 10 . 00 

3,640 pipe carrier sides .11 400 . 40 

3,200 top rollers .03 96 . 00 

3,200 bottom rollers .05 160 . 00 

3,200 straps .02 64 . 00 

3,700 ^16" X H2" spring cotters (C) .45 16. 65 

30 1 way transverse pipe carriers .95 28. 50 

40 2 way transverse pipe carriers . 1. 12 44.80 

15 3 way transverse pipe carriers 1.35 20.25 

15 4 way transverse pipe carriers 1.65 24.75 

550 solid jaws...'. .61 335.50 

40 screw jaws .81 32.40 

8 pipe lugs..... .86 6.88 

42 point adjusting screws 1 . 22 51 . 24 

20 switch layouts for facing point locks 41 . 25 825 . 00 

3 1 arm power signals 187 . 50 562 . 50 

2 2 arm power signals 265 . 00 530 . 00 

3 1 arm pipe connected home signals 65.00 195.00 

2 2 arm pipe connected home signals 86 . 00* 172 . 00 

9 1 arm dwarf signals 11 . 00 99 . 00 

7 500 ohm relays. . : 19 . 00 133 . 00 

4 commutators for signal pole, with connection 10 . 50 42 . 00 

5 small battery wells 12 . 00 60. 00 

20 23^" red roundels 68 13.60 

10 63^" green roundels .40 4.00 

4 63^" yellow roundels .40 1 . 60 

23 R. S. A. semaphore lamps 3.60 76.80 

22,000 ft. R. S. A. signal pipe .055 1,210.00 

380 cast piers for cranks and compensators .70 266.00 



1244 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table, l^— Continued 

760 Va'' X 2)4" bolts for same .04 30.40 

650 8^' X 12'' X 24'' concrete foundations .30 195.00 

1,300 %" hook bolts for same .08 104.00 

60 one way metal pipe carrier bases .18 10 . 80 

50 two way metal pipe carrier bases. .24 12 . 00 

20 three way metal pipe carrier bases .27 5 . 40 

20 four way metal pipe carrier bases .35 7 .00 

400 six way metal pipe carrier bases .45 180. 00 

110 eight way metal pipe carrier bases .55 60. 50 

7,300 >^" X IW carriage bolts (C) .56 40. 88 

500 ft. B. M. 1" common pine for frames (M) 28 . 00 14 . 00 

150 bbls. cement 2. 15 322. 50 

180 yards gravel .30 54.00 

160 ^i" X 5" lag screws (C) .85 1.36 

36 1" X 36" hook bolts .35 12.60 

350 ^i" X 36" hook bolts 23 80. 50 

20 %" X 6" machine bolts .06 1 . 20 

25 ^ ' X 10" machine bolts .07 1.75 

100 ^" X 12" machine bolts .09 9.00 

3 Wharton derails 35.00 105.00 

2 Hayes derails 12.50 25.00 

{3?S::ak}S;;^ig''^l^;}2.300ft.M 30.00 69.00 

20 Steel track ties 2.50 50.00 

34 rail braces .27 9.18 

40 lbs. pipe rivets, M" X ^le" (cwt.) 3.21 1.28 

40 gals, pipe line paint 1 , 15 46. 00 

25 lbs. ground white lead .07 1 . 75 

10 gals, boiled linseed oil .40 4 , 00 

10 gals, black paint (mixed) 1 . 50 15.00 

H gal. red paint (mixed) 2 . 40 .60 

yi gal. green paint (mixed) 2 . 40 .60 

K gal. yellow paint (mixed) 2 . 40 .60 

M gal. blue paint (mixed) .25 

10 gals, black oil .08 .80 

2 gals, lard oil .44 .88 

2 lbs. graphite. .10 .20 

2 tons blacksmith coal 4. 50 9. 00 

3 quires emery cloth .20 . 60 

48,000 ft. copper telegraph wire, 1,920 lbs .15 288.00 

50 10 ft. 8 wire crossarms .70 35 . 00 

50 pairs crossarm braces (C) 5.70 2.85 

50 through bolts (C) 2.58 1.29 

325 glass insulators (C) 3 . 45 11.21 

325 crossarm pins (C) 3 . 50 1 1 . 38 

98 cells caustic soda battery 1.91 187 . 18 

1 battery cupboard for tower 7. 00 

1,000 ft. trunking 1%" groove .04 40.00 

100 creosoted stakes 3 ft. long .15 15.00 

3,600 ft. No. 12 rubber covered wire (M) 21.50 77.40 

4 lbs. friction tape (C) .80 .03 

5 lbs. covering tape (C) .50 .03 

1 lb. soldering compound .50 .50 

6 lbs. solder .20 1.20 

25 lbs. 8d nails (C) 2. 30 .58 

30 lbs. 20d nails (C) 2. 20 .60 

15 lightning arrestors 1.25 18.75 

24 porcelain cleats ....... .45 

1 operator's table 9 . 00 

1 rubber mat, 3 ft. by 22 ft. 7.70 

1 tower lamp ....... 3 , 50 

1 clock ■ 12.50 

2 tower indicators 15.00 30.00 

4 electric locks for back locks of distant signals 21 . 00 84 . 00 

2 mechanical time locks with attachments 60.00 120.00 

7 circuit breakers for machine 9, 00 63 . 00 

Total S16,290.25 



STEAM RAILWAYS 1245 

The Railroad Signal Association has adopted a table of so-called " operated 
units" which is designed to be used as a unit by which to divide the cost of 
construction and maintenance of joint interlocking plants. These units are 
shown in Table X. 



Table X. — "Operated Units" of the Railway Signal Association 

Value 

Name of operated unit units 

Each mechanical signal arm working in two or three positions 1 

Each power signal arm working in two or three position on mechanical 

plants, normal indication locking included 2 

Each pair of switch points 1 

Each single slip switch (2 pairs of switch points) 2 

Each double slip switch (4 pairs of switch points) 4 

Each set of movable point frogs (2 pairs of frog points) 2 

Each derail 1 

Each 55 ft. of detector bar with or without locks. 1 

Each torpedo placer 1 

Each drawbridge coupler 1 

Each drawbridge rail surface and alignment lock for one pair of rails 1 

Each drawbridge leveling and operating apparatus lock 1 

Each track circuit 1 



This table works out very evenly as to cost, both of installation and main- 
tenance, and might with advantage be used in place of the levers for esti- 
mating. For instance, in the first plant described above there were 24 
operated units and in the second 68, which averages $272 per operated unit, 
which will be found a very fair figure for rough estimates. 

The lever basis does well enough where no power signals or electric locking 
is introduced, but when, as is now pretty generally the case, either or both of 
these factors come in, the unit basis will be found to give more satisfactory 
results. 

It should be noted also that the labor for both of the interlocking plants 
described, approximates $65 per unit. These figures are actual and show that 
the work can be done for that money. Many signal engineers estimate and 
spend much more than these amounts. All the writer can say is that when 
the labor exceeds $70 per unit, the person who is to pay the bill had better 
analyze the figures and discover, if possible, the causes for the excess. 

The foregoing are, of course, "Railroad Company's" figures and do not 
include any charges for transportation of men, tools and materials, or any 
overhead charges. 

Power Interlocking. — The cost of power interlocking (i. e., that in which the 
signals, switches, etc., are operated by electricity or compressed air), varies 
much more than does that of mechanical interlocking, and as none of the 
signal companies publishes a complete price list of the apparatus of this nature 
manufactured or furnished by it, really reliable estimating figures are hard 
to obtain. Six hundred dollars a function is a fairly safe figure, including 
tower and power plant; but as this sort of interlocking is rarely used except 
in large terminal work, so that the question does not come up often, the signal 
company whose apparatus is to be used had best be consulted if a very close 
estimate is desired. 

Manual Signals. — The cost of a manual block, train order or station signal 
Is about $100.00 per station. The. items are as follows: 



1246 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

One 2-bladed station signal complete with lamp, table levers and 

connections $ 74 . 00 

Concrete for foundation 6 . 00 

Labor 20.00 

Total $100 . 00 

If such a signal has to be placed across the track or any distance away from 
the station, allowance must be made for such fact. 

Automatic Block Signals. — The cost of automatic block signals varies with 
the number of signals used, the type of signal and the number of switches to be 
insulated. 

Straight track circuit (i.e., for unbroken track) may be considered as a 
constant and costs $256.00 per mile. This cost is shown in detail in Table XI. 

Table XI. — Detail Cost of 1-Mile Track Circuit 

700 bond wires $ .OlH $ 10.50 

1,500 channel pins (M) 6.50 9.75 

2 battery chutes 10. 50 21 . 00 

6 cells gravity battery .85 5.10 

105 ft. trunking 05 5. 25 

28 stakes 16 4 . 48 

150 ft. No. 8 rubber covered wire (M) 30 . 00 4 . 50 

16 ft. No. 6 bare copper wire .48 

2 relay boxes and posts 28 . 00 

2 relays 37 . 00 

j^i yard concrete (for foundations of relay boxes) 3. 50 

4 insulated joints (each) 5 . 25 21 . 00 

Paint, tape, solder and nails 2 . 80 

Labor bonding, 350 joints (each) 06 21 . 00 

Labor putting in insulated joints 4. 50 

Labor setting batter chutes, trunking and wiring for same 32. 50 

Labor setting relay boxes and relays and wiring same to track 45 . 00 

Total $256. 36 

Each switch in the circuit must be insulated and equipped with a switch 
indicator. The itemized cost of 1 switch indicator is shown in Table XII 
and that of 1 signal in Table XIII. 

Table XII. — Detail Cost of 1 Switch Indicator 

4 insulating joints $ 21 . 00 

2 insulated switch rods 1 1 . 00 

1 switch box 15.00 

1 switch indicator 16. 50 

155 ft. trunking 7 . 75 

20 stakes 3 . 20 

}4: yard concrete 1 . 75 

Nails, tape, solder and paint 6. 00 

300 ft. No. 12 rubber covered wire 7 . 20 

100 ft. No. 8 rubber covered wire 3 . 00 

15 ft. No. 6 bare copper wire .18 

4 lightning arrestors 5 . 00 

Channel pins and galvanized bond wires .80 

Total $ 98.38 

Less value of non-insulated switch rods taken off 3 . 00 

Total $ 95.38 

Labor 58 . 00 

Total $153. 38 



STEAM RAILWAYS 1247 

Table XIII. — Detail Cost of I Signal 

1 1-blade signal (2 position signal) $187. 50 

1 semaphore lamp 3 . 60 

2 red roundels 1 ] 80 

1 green roundel ] 70 

1 relay (500 ohms) 19 ! 00 

1 yard concrete for foundation 7 00 

4 1" X 36" hook bolts l.^O 

75 ft. trunking 3.75 

15 stakes. 2.40 

500 ft. No. 12 rubber covered wire 12.00 

1 battery well 40 . 00 

5 lightning arrestors 6.25 

18 cells caustic soda battery 35 . 00 

Nails, paint, tape, solder 8 . 00 

Total $328.40 

Labor 80 . 00 

Total $408 . 40 

The usual practice in automatic signal work is to make the sections just 
about half a mile long. This means in each mile of circuited track there will 
be 4 insulated joints, 2 sets of track battery and 2 relays. Besides which the 
rails must be bonded together. * 

A one-blade, three-position signal costs $245 and requires an additional relay 
so that in estimating they should be valued at $485 each. 

A two-blade signal costs $260 and also requires two relays, and in addition 
thereto an extra lamp and three extra roundels so that in estimating they 
should be valued at $505 each. 

An average of five line wires all the way is about right, though if a very 
close estimate is required it would be necessary to have a circuit plan drawn 
up, as almost every signal engineer or signal company uses a different circuit, 
and the location of switches has some bearing. 

Bare copper wire in place at present prices is worth about $40 per mile per 
wire, or an average of $200 per mile for line wire. 

Insulated copper line wire in place is worth about $70 per mile. 

Galvanized iron or copper clad wire, either bare or insulated, is worth less 
than the above figures. 

To summarize, therefore, automatic block signals may be figured as follows : 

Track circuit per mile $256 

Each switch in circuit extra 153 

Each one-blade two-position signal 408 

Each two-blade two-position signal 505 

Each three-position signal 485 

Line wire, per mile 200 

Cost of Changing 17 miles of Railroad Track from Narrow Gage to Standard 
Gage.^ — The following data are taken from an article by Henry R. Somes, 
published in Engineering and Contracting, May 16, 1917. 

The railroad on which the work was done was built during the 1880's as a 
narrow gage road. It runs from Wilmington, Vt., to fioosac Tunnel Station 
at the east end of the Hoosac Tunnel on the Fitchburg Division of the Boston 
& Maine R. R. The length is about 25 miles, and as it runs along a narrow 
valley bordering the Deerfield River it is a line of sharp curvature and short, 
steep grades. 

The old rails being much worn, enough second-hand rails, 56 lb. to the yard, • 
were purchased of the Ulster & Delaware R. R. to relay the line. About 8K 
miles of the line from the Wilmington end were relaid to standard gage outside 



1248 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

the narrow gage iron. On the rest of the line the old iron was replaced by 
these rails, they being laid narrow gage as the ties and roadbed were not in 
condition to carry standard gage equipment. 

In 1913, after some negotiations, a contract was let for changing the 17 miles 
northerly from Hoosac Tunnel Station. This portion of the line followed the 
winding of the Deerfleld River and lay in a narrow valley with high hills on 
each side. There were many long, sharp curves, the map of the road showing 
about 120 curves of 6° or over in the 17 miles. The track was laid with 4-bolt 
angle bar splices except about IH miles where Fisher joints had been used. 
The first 5 miles had been re-tied where needed. 

The work was carried out during July, 1913; the contractor lost money on 
the job, which loss was due to several factors, some of which were: Labor was 
scarce and hard to get, and very inefficient. Experienced men could not be 
obtained and the job was so short that green men could not be properly broken 
in. The method employed (which was specified by the railroad company) 
did not allow time to familiarize the men with their work, or allow the work 
to be started with a small force and gradually increased. There was no labor 
to be had in the territory tributary to the line and the contractor was obliged 
to pick up green men in the cities and use them. The weather was excessively 
hot, and the road lying in a narrow winding valley, the wind could not cool 
the air; this reduced the output of the men to a marked degree. When men 
were hired it was with the understanding that experienced spikers were to be 
paid 25 cts. per hour, and other laborers 20 cts. per hour, but during the first 
afternoon about two-thirds of the men (inexperienced) struck for 25 cts. per 
hour. Four passenger trains and two freights per day were being operated 
over the line at the time the work was done. 

The method employed was to divide the men into two gangs and work each 
gang on a separate line of rails, pull the spikes on one line of rails, throw them 
out lOK in., and respike, while another gang followed at a reasonable work- 
ing distance, pulling spikes on the opposite line of rails, throw it to standard 
gage and respike. Of course on the long, sharp curves the outside line of rails 
would soon stretch so that it would be necessary to break open a joint and 
start spreading again at the break; the inside of the curve would crowd so 
that it would have to be broken open and another start made there. As there 
were many of these breaks, three or four to each long curve, a separate gang 
was organized to connect up the track at these points. 

The short ends of the rails on the inside of the curves were sawed off with 
the hack saws, and additional holes drilled in the ends of the rails for the angle 
bars. On the outside of the curves where the rails were too short, a rail was 
unbolted, cut in two with cold chisels and a longer piece cut from an extra rail 
and inserted in the line, making a better job than by putting in a short piece. 
The spiking gangs followed immediately behind the gangs that were spreading 
rails, leaving gaps where joints were broken open; the gang repairing breaks 
spiked the track at these points. • 

Per mile Total 
Pulling spikes — 

2,001 hours @ $0.25 $500. 25 

Per mile 117.7 hours $27.42 

Foremen, 2* (1@ $10 per day) (1@ $3 per day) 71.50 

Foremen, per mile 4.21 

Average gang, 14.73 men $33.63 $571.75 

* Includes extra payments to 4 men that acted as working foremen . These pay- 
ments are added to this foreman's pay for simplicity in figuring. 



STEAM RAILWA YS 1249 

The claw bars had heels and worked satisfactorily. The spikes pulled much 
easier from the new ties than from the old. In the latter they were rusted in 
and in many cases where the ties were checked and sphntered, the splinters 
raised up even with or above the spike heads and make it difficult to get the 
claw bars under the spike heads. 

Throwing rails — Per mile Total 

762 hours @ $0.25 $190. 50 

Per mile, 44.82 hours $11 . 20 

Foremen, 2 (1 @ $10 per day) (1 @ $3 per day) 17 . 00 

Foremen, per mile. 1.00 . 

Average gang, 6 men $12 . 20 $207 . 50 

Ordinary lining bars were used for throwing the rails. Owing to the splin- 
tered condition of the old ties, causing the rails to catch, it took longer on that 
part of the track than on the section that had been re-tied. Broken stubs 
of spikes also caused delay. A special gage bar was made for getting the gage 
of the first line of rails thrown. This was made of wood shod with iron as 
shown in the sketch. 

Spiking — Per mile Total 

6,438 hours @ $0.25 $1,609.50 

Per mile, 378.7 hours $94. 68 

Foremen, 2 (1 @ $10 per day) (1 @ $3 per day) 146. 50 

Foremen, per mile 8.62 

Average gang, 48 men $103 . 00 $1,756.00 

When the old section of the track was reached much trouble was experienced 
with spiking. The hard shell on the ties made it difficult to enter the spike, 
and if the tie was at all splintered spikes would rebound so that at times it 
was necessary to have one man hold a spike while another started it. On this 
section the spikes were old, and many bent in pulling. These had to be 
straightened before using, as the railroad was very economical with spikes. 
Ties averaged 21 per rail. 

Adzing ties — • Per mile Total 

249 hours @ $0.25 $62. 25 

Per mile adzed (9 miles) $6. 92 . . 

Foremen included in spikers. 
Average gang, 3 men. 

It was necessary to adz only an occasional tie, and this was done by a small 
gang that worked ahead of the spike pullers. 

Cutting Curves, Drilling, Bolting, and Setting Over Frogs and Switches 

Cutting curves — Per mile Total 

978 hours @ $0.25 $244. 50 

Per mile, 57.53 hours @ $0.25 $14. 38 

Foreman @ $4 per day 60 . 00 

Foreman, per mile 3.53 . . . . . .y 

Average gang, 7 men $17 .91 $304.50 

The short ends of the rails were cut with hack saws, the long rails with cold 
chisels. Gang would cut and connect up from 6 to 13 breaks per single line 
of rails with the saw, and the same amount with the chisel, each day. The 
number of breaks taken care of per day depended on the amount of curvature 
encountered. Days when few cuts were made the gang spent a large part of 
their time moving from curve to curve or helping the rear spiking gang. This 
gang had a push car to carry their tools and usually carried one extra rail. 
This gang made the cuts, drilled one hole on each side of the cut, put on angle 
bars and spiked the rails at the breaks. The balance of the work was done 
79 • 



1250 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

by another gang that finished drilling the required number of holes, put in the 
bolts, and completed any other necessary work. Each break on a curve 
necessitated a cut with the chisel and one with the saw. The hack saws were 
14-in. blades in a high frame, and 2 men would make a cut in 20 to 30 minutes. 

Each break cost, average of 10 per day — 

Labor, 7 hours @ $0.25 $ 1 . 75 

Foreman, 1 hour @ $0.40 .40 

$ 2.15 

Drilling rails at breaks and bolting — 

883 hours @ $0.25 $220. 75 

Per mile, 52 hours @ $0.25 $13. 00 

Gang — 6 men in 2 gangs who worked without foremen. Each gang averaged 

drilling and bolting 25 holes per day. 

Paulus track drills were used. The drills were sharpened in the railroad 
shop and sent out to the men by the passenger trains. 

Frogs and switches were merely set over and spiked. This work was 
carried out by the gang cutting curves. Balance of switch work and yard 
work was done by the railroad forces. There were 30 switches on the line 
and the average cost of setting them over was: 

Labor, 4 hours @ $0.25 $1 . 00 

Foreman, >^ hour @ $0.40... 20 

$1.20 

The railroad had a small gang following about 2 days behind that put rail 

braces on some of the curves. 

Miscellaneous expenses — Per mile Total 

Water boy $48.85 

Labor, 8 hours @ $0.15; 8 hours @ $0.20, per mile $2. 80 

Superintendence — 

16 days @ $8.00 $128.00 

Per mile .. $7.53 

Table XIV. — Cost of Changing Gage of 17 Miles of Track 
Development expenses — 

Fees of men, employment bureau $ 18.00 

Fares of men 92. 52 

Freight on tools and supplies $ 21 . 92 

Traveling, superintendent 20. 00 

Rent of camp 25 . 00 

Liability insurance 120, 00 

Tool charges 50.00 

Superintendent's time; looking over job; finding 

men, making preparatory arrangements, hiring 

camp site, etc., 8 days @ $8.00 64.00 

Per mile $ 24.21 $ 411.44 

Camp outfit for taking care of 65 men — 

Blankets $ 62. 15 

Mattresses 131 . 50 

Cooking and eating outfit 85. 61 

$279 . 26 
Less salvage 40. 00 239. 26 

Per mile 14.08 

Development and camp expense $ 38.28 $ 650.70 

Total costs $3,946.30 

Total costs, per mile $235 .58 

Total costs less development expense $197 .29 $3 , 295 . 60 



STEAM RAILWAYS 1251 

The railroad furnished a work train made up of an old passenger coach 
and two flat cars. This train carried the gangs to and from the camp and 
carried a few rails, ties, several kegs of spikes, and tool boxes. This train 
remained at the head of the work all day, just ahead of the spike pullers. 

The worlcing time for the 17 miles was 14,3 days, making a speed of 1.19 
miles per day, and as the ties averaged 21 to the rail against 17 on some other 
roads, it would have meant a speed of about 1.5 miles on the latter. There 
was considerable delay due to transferring passengers, express and mail from 
the narrow gage to standard gage trains and vice versa. About one-half 
hour before the train was due at the working point it was necessary to stop 
pulling spikes and set these men at other work. When the trains arrived 
nearly all the gangs would help transfer mail, baggage and express. This 
operation could not be hurried, as neither train could move until the passen- 
gers had left the one and boarded the other. Passengers did not take kindly 
to the operation and showed no desire for speed. Of course after the gang 
stopped pulling spikes, the other gangs would gain on them and the entire 
force would be bunched together and working inefficiently until the spike 
pullers had gained a proper lead again. This delay amounted to about one- 
half hour for the entire gang for each train, and as there were four of these 
transfers per day, the delay from this cause amounted to two hours per day, 
so the gang was only working effectively about 80 per cent of the time. 

Life and Cost of Timber Snowsheds of the Southern Pacific R. R. — Engi- 
.neering News-Record, Jan. 3, 1918, gives the following. 

As built on the Southern Pacific, the sheds are constructed of ** Shasta pine " 
cut near the site, which costs the company only about $10 to $15 per 1000 ft. 
B. M. to cut and deliver on the work. This wood has an average life in these 
sheds of about 20 or 22 years, which might be divided into three periods, as 
follows: During the first 10 years virtually no repairs are required. The 
next 5 or 10 years require increasing repairs, particularly the renewal of foot- 
ings and sections where dampness has access to the wood. In the third period, 
from the fifteenth year on, according to conditions, the items requiring re- 
placement include braces, caps, joists and in fact all parts up to the point 
where it is considered cheaper to renew the shed entirely. In 1918 there was 
renewed a section of shed which had been in service 27 years — probably the 
longest life on record for this division. 

As renewed under 1918 prices the cost varies, according to the design of the 
section, from $12 to $14 per lin. ft., this figure being a rough average of single 
and double-track construction. The average maintenance per foot per annum 
is figured at about $1.60. This includes renewal made necessary by fire, 
slides and decay, and also the cost of fire patrols and interest on the first cost. 

Tests of snow taken from shed roofs, frequently show a weight of 40 lb. per 
cu. ft. Based on a safe margin for the 15-ft. snow load likely in this region, 
all sheds have been designed for a uniformly distributed load of 300 lb. per 
sq. ft. This loading is approximately the same as would result if the sheds 
carried a train of consolidation locomotives. 

Cost of Locomotive Repairs, Renewals and Depreciation. — Table XV 
published in Engineering and Contracting, April 17, 1912, is extended from 
one given in " Railway and Engineering Review" and is of interest as it gives 
the comparative costs of repairs, renewals and depreciation for locomotives. 
The figures, except the totals, are calculated by slide rule and are accurate 
to within a tenth of 1 cent per mile run. 



1252 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table XV. — Showing Cost Per Mile Run of Locomotive Repairs, Renew- 
als AND Depreciation on 30 Railroads for 1911 



Total miles 

Name of road run 

A., T. & S. F -. ... 47,060,848 

Atl. Coast Line. 20,980,390 

Bait. & Ohio 64,708,403 

B'st'n & Maine 31,870,282 

Cen. R. R. of N. J 12,643,323 

Chesa. & Ohio 19,223,950 

Chi. & Alton 9,327,555 

C. & N. W 52,418,503 

C, B. & Q 48,079,561 

C, M. & St. P 45,961,742 

C, R. I. & P 41,972,762 

D., L. & W 20,019,521 

Erie. 29,833,271 

Gt. North 28,098,160 

111. Central 39,808,246 

Iowa Central 3,150,061 

Lehigh Valley 22,249,785 

M. &St. L 3,264,219 

N. Y. C. & H. R . 70,540,204 

N. Y., N. H. & H 30,485,152 

Norfolk & West 23,323,395 

North. Pacific 30,180,346 

Pennsylvania 94 , 207 , 231 

Phil. & Read 25,462,073 

St. L. & S. F 26,425,651 

So. Pacific 40,112,861 

Southern 42,141,667 

T., St. L. & W 2,830,808 

Union Pacific. . . 22,564,917 

Wabash 21,770,774 



Repairs 


Renewals 


Deprecia- 




per mile. 


per mile, 


tion per 


Total, 


cents 


cents 


mile, cents 


cents 


13.44 


.01 


1.50 


14.95 


6.44 


.01 


.60 


7.11 


9.03 


.07 


.96 


10.06 


6.78 


.07 


.99 


7.84 


8.64 


.02 


1.67 


10.33 


9.39 


.04 


.70 


10.13 


11.32 


.00 


.34 


11.66 


7.08 


.02 


.57 


7.67 


7.10 


.43 


2.68 


10.21 


7.14 


.00 


.43 


7.57 


9.47 




.08 


9.55 


7.66 


.01 


1.77 


9.44 


10.07 


.04 


.83 


10.94 


9.40 


.00 


2.61 


12.01 


10.61 


.01 


.79 


11.31 


5.78 


.03 


.50 


^.31 


8.78 


.02 


1.15 


9.95 


8.89 


.32 


.42 


9.63 


7.47 


1.13 




8.60 


7.91 


.02 


.17 


8.10 


8.26 


.01 


1.52 


7.79 


7.51 


.01 


2.65 


10.17 


11.09 




.97 


12.06 


10.48 


.75 




11.23 


9.50 


.04 


.10 


9.64 


11.43 


.54 




11.97 


8.53 


.05 


.86 


9.44 


8.93 




.32 


9.25 


J 2. 17 


.01 




12.18 


9.52 




.64 


10.16 



Life of Railway Rolling Stock. — In the valuation work of the Nebraska 
State Railway Commission an extensive investigation was made and a large 
number of data were collected from the records of service of equipment of a 
number of the large western systems. The following matter is taken from an 
article by E. C. Hurd published in Engineering and Contracting, Aug. 21, 
1912. 

The study embraced the following up of each locomotive through its life 
in type, and also of each car of a kind and series. The final disposition of 
the article was found. The salvage value was also carefully inquired into at 
the time of vacation. From this tabulations were made setting out straight 
lines of depreciation, in combination with the non-depreciating factors of 
salvage, from which were derived a value per cent of expectancy. These 
graphic illustrations also developed other interesting features even beyond 
that of valuation, having reference to the durability of the several classes of 
equipment and the points at which the life begins to break and vacations from 
age occur. Further there was demonstrated that liability to accidental de- 
structioi^ in the first few years was practically the same in all classes of cars. 
In more detail setting out the determination of plans for depreciation for loco- 
motives, passenger cars and freight cars, which plans were made up in an 
identical manner, that having reference to freight cars will be further men- 
tioned. The average value at trie time of vacation expressed in a per cent of 
reproduction cost was found to be 22.4 per cent and which became the non- 
depreciating factor for freight cars. From a resume of the study of all classes 
of freight cars and considering all factors of elimio^ition, 19.92 years, or prac- 



STEAM RAILWAYS 



1253 



tically 20 years, was established as the average hfe. From this information 

the following formula was obtained as covering all classes of freight cars: 

100% — 22 4% 

- ■ ■ — ^— = 3.88 per cent as the value depreciating per cent per annum. 
20 years 

After having utilized such formula, the result would still be afifected in limited 

measure by recognizing a minimum value if still found in service beyond its 

expectancy. This minimum value for freight equipment was determined from 

considerable evidence in hand at 25 per cent of the value new. The present 

change in material utilized into the construction of cars — namely: that from 

wood to steel — may show a modification in more or less degree of the results 

hereabove set out, but the length of life for this class of equipment for study, 

not over ten years, does not admit of any accurate figures except the factor of 





— 


~" 


~~ 


























Percent Remaining in Service 


Vacation Record Steam 
Locomotives 
Based on a studij of the lives of 161 
Locomotives of tne u.RRR,C3.&Q. 
R. R, and the CRJ.&RRij. 










































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i 4 6 & 10 12 14 Id Id 10 It 14 £6 Id 
Years In Service 

Fig. 9. 



31 J4 J6 36 40 4t 44 46 



accidental destruction seems to remain the same as of the earlier equipment. 
A very good opinion seems to obtain in that the increase in the strength of de- 
sign and materials has improved closely in accordance with the demands for 
increased capacity and service ability, and therefore the history of destruction 
will be in close accordance to that of the older. 

The data described briefly relative to locomotives are shown graphically in 
Fig, 9, that for passenger cars in Fig. 10, that composite for freight cars. Fig. 11, 
that for box cars Fig. 12, that for stock cars Fig. 13, that for coal flats Fig. 14, 
and that for refrigerator cars Fig. 15 herewith. (Vacation record of Ry. 
rolling stock, Figs. 9 to 15.) 

Cost of Locomotives and Freight Cars in 19 18. — ^Engineering and Contrc^ct- 
ing, June 19, 1918, gives the following note: 

The Railroad Administration has ordered 1,025 locomotives to cost $60,000,- 
000 and 100,000 freight cars of 50 tons each to cost $300,000,000. This is 
equivalent to $60,000 per locomotive and $3,000 per 50-ton car. Half the 
cars are gondola coal and half box. The prices of the locomotives raiigfe from 
$90,000 for the heavy Mallets to $35,000 for switching engines. 



1254 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



The builders, both of cars and locomotives, will receive a profit of 5 per cent 
on the estimated minimmn cost. The Government guarantees the estimated 





Cau5e of Vocations 
wrechea 262°Jo 

Percent Remaminq in Service ^J^^^ ^^^ ''• ^ 
^ Sold 65 

ilSimmSlgllsSllciil^SS Converted _m.. 














lOTai 


lUU. 


100 -- 


























-». jj^ 


Vocation Rpmrrl P/i<i<ifinnpr T/ir^l 


Of) _ 














in a study of the fives of 


^^'^I 










: ^>.^ 


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fPM. Pns'^f^ 


'nger Train Cars on the 


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2 4 6 6 10 12 14 16 Id £0 22 24 26 2d 30 32 34 36 33 40 4244 4^ 4d 50 32 
Years in Service 

Fig. 10. 



Choi 
\Nor 
Acci 

Percent Remom-Solp 
ingService ^'^^ 

''^^ ^^^^ 


Cause of Vacations 
Number Percent Total Average 
of Cars of Total Years . Life 

Nunnber Life in Years 
ige of Service 3442 214 67755 197 
nout 7003 45.5 149091 2i.7 
dental DestruC' 3025 13,6 45190 14.9 
tion 669 4.5 ' 14535 21.6 
in Service 1213 6.0 29107 '241 
Is ana Average 13372 idO.6 306159 'i^.92 




Note-AODroximafe life of cars still in service 


on "" *• 






■^ V computed from curves of each indi 'viduol series 


fin I 


^ s. e 




iN c.g^f^'''5• 


7n \t 


\, ^^J35S 


'^ ^ 




fif) ^ 


^ - Vacation Record 


w^ _ : 




"5/? 'i: 




50 r 


_ ■ : - ^^ UP R.R., CMQ.R.f^pnd C.R.IAf^Ru. 


40 I 


\ ^% ' «^H' <. w ^ ** y. 


k 


- _ -.>S _ _ ^<-< 


30 1 - 


\ - - ^:> 




_ _ _ ^ : : -^^ 


?n - _ _ _ 


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//7 


_ _ is: "IP 




X 


/7._... 


*' *• -LI 


' 2 4 6 6 lO-h 


? 14 16 Id 20 22 24 26 2d 30. 



Total ijears in Service 
Fio. 11. 

cost of the materials, but, If the actual cost is less than the estimate, the 
Government shares the saving equally with the builders. 



STEAM RAILWAYS 



1255 



The locomotives average 338,000 lb. each; hence the price is almost 18 ct. 
per pound, or double the price in 1905. The heaviest weighs 540,000 lb. 





Percent Pemammg in Service 

<0 <0 fVj -^ «0 "Vj <^3 *i »v o, C5 r^ V, «Vj K, o 


Cause of vacations 

Number Total Average 
of Cars Years Life 

Life In Years 

Change of Service d359 49i6l 103 




















Accidental Destruo 1605 i403d 149 






































100 


















§Sj^2^^?? 
























5tiliin5ervice 483 lim £4.7 
Totals and Average Qldb' imY lod 


90 








































^0 






































■^ 


70 


















S 




















L 


60 


















5 


^n1!5^ 


^■^'a 


^ vacation Recora 




















L 






50 


















_ 5 


























V 






' LJiPRR.CB.&QRRanclC.R.i&R' 


df) 


















5 


























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!v _ 






?i) 




















_ V 


























^ 






in 




















^ 


























^; 






n 




_ 


__ 


_. 




_ 










>*, 





i 4 6 to IZ 14 16 Id £0 £Z £4 £0 £d 30 
Years fn Service 

Fig. 12. 



Percent Remaining i 


Cause of Vocations 

Number Totot A/eroge 
of Cars Years Life 

Life in Years 
ChQnQtof5er\fice 665 i054i 153 

worn out t743 34£37 13.1 
nService Accidental Destruc 550 7959 t4S 
^Z::^ 5old tion £i£ 47 t$ ££.£ 

'^^.^'i>'^ Stilt in *?/»r !//>/» I/il 43X A? 5 


. 






Jofols ana Average 335i ot7aO io4 






. _Li 






- S:5S«?JS- 


"^ Vi 


^^5?5!^!^ 


f^SO - - - K 


s 


M $0 : : ^ 


^ 














.^ A/? - 






■"it L ~: 3toct< Cars 


^ so - - - - 






~ I - I S I tJ-nts ^ Jii&r-^* ^'^^ V t^R,ona CK lA rfHy. 


vf 


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> 1 


cO 


-_ _ ^ j^ 




^: _ " ' _K ±: : 




_:: __ :_ip^j: : 


..:_:__ I 




£ 4 d to h 


' 14 16 Id £0 ££ £4 £6 h 30 



Total gears in Service 
Fia. 13. 



Life and Cost of Maintenance of Freight Cars.— Table XVI, reprinted in 

Engineering News, March 7, 1912, is from the Feb. 10 issue of the Railway 



1256 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



and Engineering Review, which credits it to a Mechanical Engineer of one of 
the railway companies mentioned. 



Percent Remaining Service 

2? !^ !0 ;s S 'o •=> *« ^ "^ !? <5> "^ ^^"0 15 



^ eo 



.^4C 
20 

id 



-R 



Cfionge of Service 
worn out 

Accidental Oestruc- 
Sold tfon 

Still in Service 



Cause of Vocations 
Number Total 
of Cars Years 

Life 



360 
9dl 
767 
1^1 
463 



To tab and Average i7i£. 



6665 
19410 
117^3 
1196 
11376 



Average 
Life 
in Years 
19.1 

m 

153 
190 
£33 
13.1 






4 



Vacation Record . 
Coal -flat Cars 
U.PRR., C.Q.&QRR.,and aR.L&F:Ri^, 



T4^ 



Z 4 6 ^ 10 l£ 14 t6 Id do i£ £4 £6 £d 30 3£ 

Total years in Service 
Fig. 14. 





'cent Remoinir 


Couse of Vacations 

Number Total Average 
of Cars Years Life 

Life in Years 

Change of Service 55 1083 td.6 

worn out 160 46/3 ld.5 

Accidental Destruc- 103 1476 14,3 

gin Sen Sold rion 34 599 I7.7 

t'^^J.o^. Still in Service 66 1460 W 

X'^'^^'^ Totals and Averaae'511 ' 9436' "/sT 






1 




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Vacation Record 
Refrigerator Cars 
U.RR.R.^ C.5.&Q.RR,andl CRl.&.?Rij^ 


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IT 
























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a,w 












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Q) 30 












- % 






U. ,- 






























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£46 Q 10 l£ 14 16 Id £0 ££ £4 

Total years in Service 
Fig. 15. 

The average age of all freight cars in service, according to these figures, is 
I little less than 10 years; omitting destruction by wrecks the average life is 



STEAM RAILWAYS 



1257 



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l>eOi0005COCOOir^i-irHiOOCOOOCOTt<0050500COOO'<^iO(NiOCDOOCOrt< 
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a 


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13 



1258 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

lengthened to 21.24 years. During its life each car is repaired on an average 
of once a month, at an average cost of $6.26 each time, and therefore, each 
car requires a total expenditure for repairs of about $1600, or twice the first 
cost of the car. 

The Life of Steel Freight Cars. — Steel freight cars have been long enough in 
use to make it possible to estimate their average natural life and Engineering 
and Contracting, April 26, 1916 quotes M. K. Barnum, who states in a recent 
issue of the Railway Age Gazette, that the oldest steel freight car of which he 
has knowledge was built in 1896. Two years ago it received a new floor, 
beside other extensive repairs, and appearances indicate that it may be good 
for at least 10 years more. However, this car seems to be an exception, and 
Mr. Barnum puts the average life of steel gondola and hopper cars at about 
16 years. 

The short life of steel cars is largely due to corrosion of the steel plates. 
Cars in service near salt water corrode more rapidly than elsewhere. Idle 
cars corrode much more rapidly than those in use, two months of idleness 
being equivalent to about two years of use. Frequent painting — every three 
to five years — prolongs the life 25 to 50 per cent, but relatively few steel cars 
have been painted. 

Natural and Functional Life of ^eight Cars. — The following note is given in 
Engineering and Contracting, May 15, 1918, 

Freight cars have heretofore shown an average life of nearly 28 years, 
about 3.6 per cent of the total number being "vacated" annually (See Gil- 
lette's " Handbook of Cost Data ") . However, as is well known, though often 
overlooked in estimates, most of the cars are not retired because they are 
worn out or too expensive to maintain; but because it is more profitable to 
substitute cars of greater capacity. The war has brought about conditions 
that enable us roughly to segregate natural depreciation (wear and tear) from 
functional depreciation (inadequacy and obsolescence) of cars; for the demand 
for freight cars has become so great that none are being retired because of 
functional depreciation. 

During 1917 about 119,000 new freight cars were manufactured. The net 
gain in cars at the end of 1917 was about 72,000 over 1916, indicating a retire- 
ment of some 47,000 cars because of wear and tear, or about 2 per cent of the 
total number in use. This would indicate a natural life of 50 years, as com- 
pared with a composite natural and functional life of 28 years. While this 
estimate is not conclusive, it is very significant, and it has more than academic 
interest at this time. 

Cost of Water Softening for Railroads. — The following data are taken from 
an abstract, pubhshed in Engineering and Contracting, April 8, 1914, of 
a paper presented before the Illinois Water Supply Association by R. C. 
Bardwell, chemist of the Missouri Pacific Ry. 

On the Missouri Pacific there are at present 45 complete water softening 
plants in operation, the majority being on the hard waters west of the Missouri 
River. The average amount of water treated per year, reducing the hardness 
so that it will form practically no scale, is 1,692,000,000 gals. The total 
average amount of scale removed from this water is 5,537,000 lbs., which would 
make over 110 carloads at 50,000 lbs. each; a considerable amount when it is 
remembered that but for treatment this scale would have to go through 
the engine boilers and most of it would have to be removed by hand. The 
total annual cost for the above treatment, interest and depreciation on plants 
is about $^5,000. Conservative figures show, however, that with this expendi- 



STEAM RAILWAYS 1259 

ture there is a net saving of about $105,000 from cutting down the following 
losses alone: 

1. Frequent renewal of flues and other parts of boiler account of scale 
accumulation and injury to flue ends from repeated caulking. 2. Labor 
caulking flues and other engine house boiler repairs. 3. Loss of engine time 
during boiler and firebox repairs. 4. Loss of fuel due to insulating effect of 
the scale on the flues and other heating surfaces. 

Besides the foregoing there are the indeterminate benefits in the road per- 
formance of locomotives by reducing failures and interruptions to traffic with 
the reduction of the number of locomotives required for a given traffic. 

At one terminal approximately 18,000,000 gals, of water are treated monthly, 
eliminating 5 lbs. of scale per 1,000 gals, or a total of about 80,000 lbs. per 
month. The cost of chemicals for this is about 4 cts. per 1,000 gals, or a total 
monthly bill of about $720. The length of life of flues using straight raw 
water before the installation of the softening plant was from eight to twelve 
months with serious trouble on account of frequent leaks. The locomotives 
now using the straight treated water average 18 months between shopping, 
and the trouble with leaky flues is practically eliminated. 

At another terminal shop about 30,000,000 gals, of water are treated 
monthly, removing 3 lbs. of scale per 1,000 gals, for a total of 90,000 lbs. 
Prior to the installation of the softener, five boilermaker days and four boiler- 
maker nights were required caulking flues. After the treating plant was put 
in operation this was reduced to one-man days and one-man nights. The 
saving in this one item alone is reported to be $5,712 per year on an $8,000 
investment. The life of flues was increased from 8 to 15 months. 

In most cases where softening plants are installed, the foaming conditions 
are increased, especially for the first few days after the treatment is started 
due to the fact that the old scale in boilers is loosened and, falling off, increases 
the amount of suspended matter making a dirty boiler which seems to be the 
most important of the contributory causes of foaming. 

To soften a water to three grains per gallon, or less, of incrusting salts, which 
is the object in* most cases, demands a purity in this respect of 3 parts in 58,341 
or 99.995 per cent. This merely shows the deceptiveness of reporting water 
softening on the percentage basis, for although sounding complex it is a com- 
paratively simple matter. However, each individual water has its peculiari- 
ties such as the temperature at different seasons and the difference in content 
of magnesium salts which slow up the reaction and without due allowance for 
same leave a milky water for a final product. Creek waters of course change 
with the precipitation and I have also found that in some parts of the country 
well waters become softer in winter while others get harder. 

So far the development of water softening on a large scale has centered 
around lime and soda ash as being the chemicals which produce the results 
for the least cost. However, barium hydrate is the ideal reagent on account 
of its leaving no detrimental by-products as in the case of soda ash. So far 
the expense has retarded its development. Numerous boiler compounds 
through the high degree of exploitation obtained have been tried by a few rail- 
roads but investigation would show that even where the work desired was done 
the cost greatly exceeds that of the recognized methods. Inert powdered 
graphite is now being largely exploited as a cure-all for scale troubles, but its 
economical merits are yet to be proven. The "sunlight on corrugated alumi- 
num" patent, which was supposed to render the scale inert in the water 
without removing it chemically has been tried at several points in this section 



1260 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

and seems to have proven unworthy. The Permutitt water softener, the 
artificial zeoUte, will never be a universal success in railroad work on account 
of the replacing of incrusting carbonates with sodium carbonate, that is, waters 
which are sufficiently hard to warrant the expense of treatment, as a rule 
contain sufficient incrusting carbonates, which if replaced by sodium carbonate 
could not be used on account of foaming properties. Therefore it would seem 
that common lime and soda ash will continue to remain in service. 



CHAPTER XIX 
SMALL TUNNELS 

Notes on management and organization for constructing small tunnels as 
well as cost and progress data for both earth and rock tunneling are given in 
this chapter. Further notes of interest and applicable, in a degree, to small 
tunnels are given in Chapter XX, 

Additional data on the methods and costs of driving small tunnels in rock 
are given in Gillette's Handbook of Rock Excavation. 

Costs of 20 Tunnels. — A compilation of tunnel costs, from data personally 
collected and given in Bureau of Mines Bulletin 57 by D. W. Brunton and J. 
A. Davis, are published in Engineering and Contracting, June 24, 1914. 

There are set forth in the following pages as complete and accurate data as 
could be obtained, showing the cost of various phases of tunnel work at a 
number of different tunnels. Although the writers have not had the advan- 
tage cf auditing the. books from which these figures were taken and hence can 
not vouch personally for the absolute accuracy of the figures, the data were in 
all cases procured from persons in charge or who were in a position to know 
what the work actually cost. Accompanying the figures is a brief list of the 
more important features of the tunnel, without which it is impossible to make 
even an approximate comparison between any two pieces of tunnel work. 

GUNNISON TUNNEL 

Important Details. — Location: Montrose, Colo. Purpose: Irrigation and 
reclamation. Shape of cross section: Horseshoe. Size: 10 ft. wide at the 
bottom, 10 ft. 6 ins. wide at the spring line, 10 ft. high at the spring line, 12 
ft. 4 ins. high at the center of the arch. Length: 30,645 ft. Character of rock 
penetrated: Chiefly metamorphosed granite with some water-bearing clay 
and gravel, some hard black shale, and a zone of faulted and broken rock. 
Type of power: Steam. Ventilator: Pressure blower. Size of ventilating 
pipe: 17 ins. Drills: At first, pneumatic hammer, 4 drills in the heading; 
afterwards, pneumatic, piston, 4 drills in the heading. Mounting of drills: 
Horizontal bar for the hammer drills, vertical columns for the piston drills. 
Number of holes per round : 20 to 24 in the heading (approximately one-half 
of the tunnel). Average depth of round: 6 to 7 ft. Number of drillers and 
helpers per shift: 4 drillers and 2 helpers. Number of drill shifts per day: 3. 
Explosive: 60 per cent gelatin dynamite, with some 40 per cent. Number 
of muckers per shift: 5 to 8. Number of mucking shifts per day: 3. 
Type of haulage: Electric, Wages: Drillers, $3.50 and $4; helpers, $3 and 
$3.50; muckers, $2.50 and $3; blacksmiths, $3.50 and $4; motormen, $3; 
brakemen, $2.50 and $3; power engineers, $4. Maximum progress in any 
calendar month: 449 ft. Average monthly progress: 250 ft., approximately 

1261 



1262 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cost of Driving 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 
10,019 feet driven by undercut heading and subsequent enlargement .... $87. 23 

20,626 feet driven by top heading and bench 62. 18 

Average cost of excavation of entire tunnel 70. 66 

These costs Include all labor, all materials, all repairs, all power, deprecia- 
tion figured as 100 per cent on all equipment, with a proportionate charge for 
general (supervisory) and miscellaneous expenses of the entire reclamation 
project. 

Laramie-Poudre Tunnel 

Important Details. — Location: Home, Colo. Purpose: Irrigation. Cross 
section: Rectangular. Size: 9H ft. wide by 7H ft. high. Length: 11,306 ft. 
Character of rock penetrated: Closegrained red and gray granite. Type of 
power: Hydraulic at the east end, electric at the west. Ventilator: Pressure 
blower. Size of ventilating pipe : 14 and 15 ins. Drills: 3 pneumatic hammer. 
Mounting of drills: Horizontal bar. Number of holes per round: 21 to 23. 
Average depth of round: 10 ft. at first, 7 to 8 ft. later. Number of drillers 
and helpers per shift: 3 drillers, 2 helpers. Number of drill shifts per day: 3. 
Explosive: 60 per cent gelatin dynamite, with some 100 per cent in the cut 
holes. Number of muckers per shift: 6. Number of mucking shifts per 
day: 3. Type of haulage: Mules. Wages: Drillers, $4.50; helpers, $4; 
muckers, $3.50; blacksmiths, $5; drivers, $4.50; dumpmen, $3.50. Maximum 
progress in any calendar month: 653 ft., March, 1911. Average monthly 
progress: 509 ft. (for the 16 months when complete plant operated). Special 
feature: Inacces sibility; the tunnel was located about 60 miles from the 
nearest railroad siding, and the roads were mountainous and very steep in 
places. 

Cost of Driving Tunnel 11,306 Ft 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

Superintendents and foremen $1 . 50 

Drilling 4. 47 

Mucking and loading 4 . 92 

Tramming and dumping 4. 63 

Track and pipe .47 

Power house .35 

Blacksmithing .84 

Repairs .47 

Bonus to workmen 1. 75 

Maintenance of camps, buildings, and fuel .62 

Machinery repairs .12 

Air drills and parts 1 . 33 

Picks, shovels and steel .84 

Explosives 4 . 50 

Lamps and candles .42 

Oil and waste .38 

Blacksmith supplies .53 

Liability insurance .81 

Office supplies, telephone and bookkeeping ' .86 

$29.81 
Permanent equipment (less approximately 10 per cent salvage) 9. 73 

$39.54 

The permanent equipment included power plant, camp buildings and 
furnishings, pipes, rails, etc. 



SMALL TUNNELS 



1263 



LOS ANGELES AQUEDUCT 

Little Lake Division, Tunnels 1 to lOA 

Important Details. — Location: Inyo County, Cal. Purpose: Water sup- 
ply, power, and irrigation. Cross section: See Fig. 1. Size: See Fig. 1. 
Type of power: Electric power purchased at a nominal cost per kilowatt-hour 
from a hydrauUc plant constructed and owned by the aqueduct. Ventilators: 
Pressure blowers. Size of ventilating pipe: 12 ins. Drills: Pneumatic ham- 
mer, usually 2 in each heading. Mounting of drills: Horizontal bar. Num- 



C//?f//r?Pere(/ 



Tmp^^^^c/ 




Fig. 1. — Typical cross-section of tunnel, Los Angeles Aqueduct. 



ber of holes per round : Usually 14 to 16. Average depth of round : 6 to 10 ft. 
Number of drillers and helpers per shift: 2 drillers and 2 helpers. Number of 
drill shifts per day: Usually 1, but sometimes 2. Explosive: 40 per cent 
gelatin dynamite, with some 20 per cent and some 60 per cent; ammonia 
dynamite also tried. Number of muckers per shift: Usually 5. Number of 
mucking shifts per day: Usually 1, but 2 when 2 drill shifts were employed. 
Type of haulage: Tunnels 1 to 3-N, mules; tunnels 3-S, to lOA-N, electric; 
tunnel lOA-S, mules. Wages: Drillers and helpers, $3; muckers, $2.50; black- 
smiths, $4; helpers, $2.50; motormen, $2.75; dumpmen, $2.50. 



1264 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cost of Driving Tunnel IB-S for 1,341 Ft. 
[Driven through medium-hard granite at an average speed of 225 ft. per month*] 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

Excavation $ 9.15 

Engineering .18 

Adit proportion .28 

Permanent equipment (estimated) 2. 35 

Timbering (857 ft.) 1 . 02 

$12.98 
* The average speed given is computed on the basis of one heading per month. 

In this tunnel, as in all of the tunnels of this division and of the Grapevine 
division, the cost of excavation includes the wages of shift foremen, drillers, 
helpers, muckers, motormen or mule drivers, dumpmen, blacksmiths and 
helpers, machinists, electricians (part), and power engineers; also the cost 
of powder, fuse, caps, candles, light globes, machine oil, blacksmith supplies 
and fuel, and machinists' supplies, and the cost of power and of repairs for 
power, haulage, compressor, and ventilating macfiinery. 

"Engineering" includes the cost of giving line and grade, etc. 

"Adit proportion" is a proportionate charge per foot of tunnel to defray the 
cost of an adit from the surface to the tunnel line. 

"Permanent-equipment" costs were not segregated for each tunnel, but 
were compiled for the whole division, so the charge represents a proportionate 
charge per foot for the entire division cost, without salvage, of trolley and light 
lines, including freight and cost of installation; ventilating lines with freight 
and installation; water lines with freight and installation; mine locomotives 
and cars, picks, shovels, drills and drill sharpeners, with repairs for the last 
four items. 

Cost of Driving Tunnel 2, Length 1,739 Ft. 

[Driven through medium-hard but very wet granite at an average speed of 170 ft. 

per month] 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

Excavation $ 8.81 

Engineering .19 

Adit proportion .34 

Permanent equipment 2 . 35 

Timbering (1,590 ft.) . . .^ 3 . 28 

$14.97 

Cost of Driving Tunnel 2A, Length 1,322 Ft. 

[Driven through medium-hard granite at an average speed of 150 ft. per month] 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

Excavation $8. 05 

Engineering .16 

Adit proportion .34 

Permanent equipment 2. 35 

Timbering (1,322 ft.) 2.51 

$13.41 



SMALL TUNNELS 1265 

Cost of Driving Tunnel 3-N for 1,148 Ft. 
[Driven through medium-hard granite at an average speed of 150 ft. per month] 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

Excavation $10. 10 

Engineering .23 

Adit proportion .51 

Permanent equipment 2. 35 

Timbering (956 ft.) 2. 44 

$15.63 
Cost of Driving Tunnel 3-S for 1,358 Ft. 
[Driven through granite of variable hardness, and containing pockets of carbon- 
dioxide gas, at an average speed of 155 ft. per month] 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

Excavation $12. 38 

Engineering .28 

Adit proportion .16 

Permanent equipment 2. 35 

Timbering (1,244 ft.) 3. 28 

$18.45 

Cost of Driving Tunnel 3 (3-N and 3-S), Complete, 4,044 Ft. 

[Driven through decomposed granite of medium hardness, dissected by slips 

and talcose planes requiring timber where ground was wet, and also containing 

pockets of carbon-dioxide gas, making work difficult and requiring extra 

provisions for ventilation. Average speed, 140 ft. per month] 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

Excavation $12. 67 

Engineering .24 

Adit proportion .35 

Permanent equipment ■ 2. 35 

Timbering (3,570 ft.) 2. 71 

$18.32 
Cost of Driving Tunnel 4, Length 2,033 Ft. 
[Driven through medium-hard to hard granite at an average speed of 145 ft. 

per month] 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

Excavation $12.00 

Engineering .24 

Adit proportion .16 

Permanent equipment 2. 35 

Timbering (1,705 ft.) 2. 16 

$17.01 
Cost of Driving Tunnel 5, Length 1,178 Ft. 
[Driven through medium-hard to very hard granite at an average speed of 120 ft. 

per month] 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

Excavation $11. 10 

Engineering .21 

Adit proportion .08 

Permanent equipment 2. 35 

Timbering (916 ft.) 1. 83 

$15.57 
80 



1266 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cost of Driving Tunnel 7, Length 3,596 Ft. 

[Driven through biotite granite of variable hardness at an average speed of 
140 ft. per month] 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

Excavation $13. 55 

Engineering .27 

Adit proportion .13 

Permanent equipment 2. 35 

Timbering (2,609 ft.) 3. 60 

$19.90 
Cost of Driving Tunnel 8-S for 1,334 Ft. 

Driven through medium-hard to hard granite at an average speed of 135 ft. per 

month] 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

Excavation $12. 82 

Engineering .19 

Adit proportion . '. .18 

Permanent equipment 2. 35 

Timbering (126 ft.) 39 

$15.93 
Cost of Driving Tunnel 9 for 3,506 Ft. 

[Driven through medium-hard to hard granite at an average speed of 195 ft. 

per month] 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

Excavation $12. 19 

Engineering . .18 

Adit proportion .07 

Permanent equipment '. 2. 35 

Timbering (305 ft.) 29 

$15.08 

Cost of Driving Tunnel 10 for 5,657 Ft. 

[Driven through medium-hard to hard granite at an average speed of 200 ft. 

per month] 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

Excavation $13. 50 

Engineering .19 

Permanent equipment 2. 35 

Timbering (194 ft.) 11 

$16.15 
Cost of Driving Tunnel lOA-N for 1,496 Ft. 

[Driven through medium hard to hard granite at an average speed of 165 ft. 

per month] 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

Excavation $13. 02 

Engineering .13 

Permanent equipment 2. 35 

Timbering (24 ft.) 78 

$16.28 



SMALL TUNNELS 1267 

Cost op Deiving Tunnel lOA-S for 2,200 Ft. 
[Driven through medium-hard to hard granite at average speed of 200 ft. per 

month] 

,Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

Excavation $12. 37 

Engineering .20 

Permanent equipment 2. 35 

Timbering (215 ft.) 1. 15 

$16.07 

GRAPE VINE DIVISION, TUNNELS 12 TO 17B 

Important Details. — Location: Kern County, Cal. Purpose: Water 
supply, power, and irrigation. Cross section: See Fig. 1. Size: See Fig. 1. 
Type of power: Electric power purchased from aqueduct plant. Ventilators: 
Pressure blowers. Size of ventilation pipe: 12 ins. Drills: Pneumatic 
hammer, usually 2 in. each heading. Mounting of drills: Horizontal bar. 
Number of holes per round: Usually 18 to 20. Average depth of round: 
6 to 8 ft. Number of drillers and helpers per shift: 2 drillers and 2 helpers. 
Number of drill shifts per day: Usually 2. Explosive: 40 per cent ammonia 
dynamite, but 60 per cent and 75 per cent gelatin dynamite were employed in 
hard ground. Number of muckers per shift: 4 or 5. Number of mucking 
shifts per day : Usually 2. Type of haulage : Electric after the first 400 to 500 
ft. Wages: Drillers and helpers, $3; muckers, $2.50; blacksmiths, $4; 
helpers, $2.50; motormen, $2.75; dumpmen, $2.50. 

Cost of Driving Tunnel 12, Length 4,900 Ft. 
[Driven through hard granite at an average speed of 185 ft. per month] 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

Excavation* $22. 10 

Engineering * .32 

Permanent equipment* 2. 35 

Timbering (90 ft.) 08 

$24. 75 
* These items include the same costs as for the Little Lake division. 

Cost of Driving Tunnel 13 for 1,525 Ft. 
[Driven through hard granite at an average speed of 130 ft. per month] 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

Excavation $20. 60 

Engineering .10 

Permanent equipment 2. 25 

Adit proportion .37 

$23. 32 
Cost of Driving Tunnel 14, Length 859 Ft. 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

Excavation $22. 70 

Engineering .13 

Permanent equipment 2. 25 

Adit proportion .72 

Timbering (22 ft.) '. . 16 

$25.96 



1268 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION- COST 

Cost op Driving Tunnel 15, Length 895 Ft. 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

Excavation ; $23. 28 

Engineering .11 

Permanent equipment 2. 25 

Adit proportion 2 . 42 

$28. 06 
Cost of Driving Tunnel 16, Length 2,723 Ft. 

[Driven through hard granite at an average speed of 145 feet per month] 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

Excavation $20. 07 

Engineering .17 

Permanent equipment 2 . 25 

Adit proportion .55 

Timbering (18 ft.) .04 

$23.08 
Cost of Driving Tunnel 17, Length 3,024 Ft. 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

Excavation $20. 47 

Engineering .21 

Permanent equipment 2 . 25 

Timbering (142 ft.) .22 

$23.15 
Cost of Driving Tunnel 17K for 1,345 Ft. 

[Driven through medium-hard to hard granite at an average speed of 225 feet 

per month] 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

Excavation $19 . 56 

Engineering .31 

Permanent equipment 2.25 

$22.12 
Cost of Driving Tunnel 17A for 3,275 Ft. 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

Excavation $18.70 

Engineering .17 

Permanent equipment 2 . 25 

Timbering (441 ft.) 1. 18 

$22.30 
Cost of Driving Tunnel 17B for 4,915 Ft. 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

Excavation $2. 109 

Engineering .21 

Permanent equipment 2 . 25 

Timbering (163 ft.) 1.90 

$25.45 



SMALL TUNNELS 1269 

ELIZABETH DIVISION, ELIZABETH LAKE TUNNEL 

Important Details. — Location: Los Angeles County, Cal. Purpose: 
Water supply, power and irrigation. Cross section: Rectangular, with arched 
roof. Size: 12 by 12 ft. Length: 26,870 ft. Type of power: Electric 
power purchased from aqueduct plant. Ventilator: Pressure blower. Size 
of ventilating pipe: 18 ins. Drills: Pneumatic hammer, 3 in the south 
heading and 2 in the north. Mounting of drills: Horizontal bar. Number 
of holes per round: 25 in the south heading, 16 in the north heading. Average 
depth of round: 8 to 10 ft. Number of drillers and helpers per shift: 2 
drillers and 2 helpers at the north end, 3 drillers and 3 helpers at the south 
end. Number of drill shifts per day: 3. Explosive: 40 per cent and 60 per 
cent gelatin dynamite. Number of muckers per shift: 6. Number of muck- 
ing shifts per day: 3. Type of haulage: Electric. Wages: Drillers and 
helpers, $3; muckers, $2.50; blacksmiths, $4; helpers, $2.50; motormen, $2.75; 
dumpmen, $2.50. Maximum progress in any calendar month: 604 ft., April, 
1910. Average monthly progress per heading: 350 ft. per month. 

Cost of Driving the North Heading, Elizabeth Lake Tunnel 
[Driven through altered granite, requiring much timbering, 13,370 ft.] 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

Drilling and blasting $1 1 . 25 

Mucking and tramming 11 . 70 

Engineering and superintendence 1 . 27 

Drainage .45 

Ventilation 22 

Light and power 5 . 55 

Timbering (13,031 ft.) 8.48 

Cost of auxiliary shaft .93 

Permanent equipment (full charge, no salvage; estimated) 3.70 

$43.55 

Cost of Driving the South Heading, Elizabeth Lake Tunnel 

[Driven through medium-hard to hard granite, requiring but little timbering, 

13,500 ft.] 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

Drilling and blasting $14 . 65 

Mucking and tramming 11 . 10 

Engineering and superintendence .86 

Drainage . .17 

Ventilation .41 

Light and power 4 . 93 

Permanent equipment (without salvage; estimated) 3 . 70 

Timbering (3,424 ft.) 2. 19 

$38.01 
lucania tunnel 

Important Details. — Location: Idaho Springs, Colo. Purpose: Mine 
development and transportation. Cross section: Square. Size: 8 by 8 ft. 
Length: 12,000 ft. projected; 6,385 ft. driven December 1, 1911. Character 
of rock penetrated: Hard granite. Type of power: Purchased electric 



1270 - HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Current. Ventilator: Pressure blower. Size of ventilating pipe: 18 and 19 
ins. Drills: Pneumatic hammer, 3 in the heading. Mounting of drills: 
Vertical columns. Number of holes per round : 25. Average depth of round : 
8 to 9 ft. Number of drillers and helpers per shift: 3 drillers and 2 helpers. 
Number of drilling shifts per day: 1. Explosive: 50 per cent gelatin dyna- 
mite. Number of muckers per shift: 3. Number of mucking shifts per day: 
1. Type of haulage: Horses. Wages: Head driller, $5; drillers, $4; nipper, 
$3.50; boss mucker, $5; muckers, $4; drivers, $4; power engineers, $4; black- 
smith, $5. Maximum progress in any calendar month: 263 ft., September, 
1911. Average monthly progress: 125 ft. per month for the first 4,800 ft., 
240 ft. per month for the last 1,575 ft. 



Average Cost of Driving First 4,800 Ft. 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

Labor $ 8 . 86 

Powder 7 . 86 

Fuse and caps .17 

Candles and oil .21 

Horse feed and shoeing .18 

Power 1 . 64 

Repairs .14 

Tunnel equipment 2.75 

Surface plant 1 . 25 

$23 . 06 

"Tunnel equipment" includes the cost of materials and installation of the 
pressure air line, the ventilating line, rails, ties and fittings, and the drainage 
ditch. " Surface plant" includes buildings, compressor blower, transformers, 
motors and drill sharpener. 

Cost of driving next 1,575 ft.: The contractor received $21.50 per foot to 
cover the cost of labor, powder, fuse, caps, candles, oil, horse feed and shoe- 
ing, power and repairs, and the installation of the tunnel equipment. 



MARSHALL- RUSSELL TUNNEL 

Important Details. — Location: Empire, Colo. Purpose: Mine drainage, 
development and transportation. Cross section: Rectangular. Size: 8 
ft. wide by 9 ft. high. Length: 11,000 ft. projected; 6,700 ft. driven January 
1, 1913. Character of rock penetrated: Granite and gneiss. Type of power: 
Purchased electric current ; also a small auxiliary hydraulic plant. Ventilator: 
Fan. Size of ventilating pipe: 12 and 13 ins. Drills: 2, pneumatic hammer. 
Mounting of drills: Vertical columns. Number of holes per round: 18 to 20. 
Average depth of round : 9 to 10 ft. Number of drillers and helpers per shift : 
2 drillers and 2 helpers. Number of drill shifts per day: 1. Explosive: 40 
per cent gelatin dynamite; with some, 80 per cent. Number of muckers per 
shift: 4. Number of mucking shifts per day: 1. Type of haulage: Horses. 
Wages: Drillers, $4; helpers, $3; blacksmith, $4; helpers, $3; muckers, $3.25; 
trammers, $3.75; dumpmen, $3.25; power engineer, $3.50; shooters, $3.25. 
Maximum progress for any calendar month: 187 ft., June, 1909. Avrerage 
monthly progress: 125 ft. 



SMALL TUNNELS 1271 

Cost of Driving Tunnel 6,700 Ft. 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

Labor $ 9.37 

Powder, fuse, caps and blacksmith coal 3. 35 

Drills, steel and repairs (less 30 per cent salvage) 1 .34 

Power 1.41 

Permanent equipment and general expense (less 30 per cent salvage on 

permanent equipment) 3 41 

$18.88 

MISSION TUNNEL 

Important Details. — Location: Santa Barbara, Cal. Purpose: Water 
supply. Cross section: Trapezoid. Size: 6 ft. wide at the base, 4H ft. wide 
at the top, 7 ft. high. Length: 19,560 ft. Character of rock penetrated: 
Shale, slate, and hard sandstone. Ventilator: Pressure blower. Size of 
ventilating pipe: 10 ins. Drills: 1 pneumatic hammer. Mounting of drills: 
Horizontal bar. Number of holes per round: 12 to 14. Average depth of 
round: 7 to 8 ft. Number of drillers and helpers per shift: 1. Number of 
drilling shifts per day: 3. Explosive: 40 per cent and 60 per cent gelatin 
dynamite. Number of muckers per shift: 4. Number of mucking shifts 
per day: 3. Type of haulage: Electric. Wages: Drillers, $3.50; helpers, 
$3; muckers, $2.75; blacksmiths, $4; helpers, $3; motormen, $2.75; dumpmen, 
$2.50; power engineers, $2.75. Maximum progress in any calendar month: 
414 ft., February, 1911. Average monthly progress: 210 ft. 

Cost of Driving the South Portal, Mission Tunnel, May, 1909, to Sep- 
tember, 1911, 5,515 Ft. 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

Administration $ 1 . 14 

Labor 9.20 

Power 2.12 

Explosives 1 . 97 

Timbering (563 ft.) 30 

Track and pipe 1 . 2^!^ 

Miscellaneous supplies 2 . 46 

Drill parts (including steel) 1 . 02 

Bonus .48 

$19.91 

"Administration" includes superintendence, office supplies, and general 
charges. "Miscellaneous supplies" includes candles, light globes, shovels, 
picks, blacksmiths' supplies and fuel, and machinists' supplies. 

I^ewhouse tunnel. 

Important Details. — Location: Idaho Springs, Colo. Purpose: Drainage 
and transportation. Cross section: Square. Size: 8 by 8 ft. Length: 
22,000 ft. Character of rock penetrated: Idaho Spring gneiss. Type of 
power: Purchased electric current. Ventilator Pressure blower. Size of 
ventilating pipe: 18 ins. Drills: Pneumatic hammer. Mounting of drills: 
Vertical column. Number of holes per round: 14 to 22. Number of drill 
shifts per day: 1 and 2. Explosive: 40 per cent gelatin dynamite, with some 
100 per cent in the cut holes. Number of muckers per shift: 3. Number of 
mucking shifts per day: 1 and 2. Type of haulage: Electric. Wages: 



1272 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Drillers, $4 to $4.50; helpers, $3.25 to $4; muckers, $3.50; motormen, $3.50; 
dumpmen, $3; blacksmiths, $3.50 to $4.50; helpers, $3. 

Cost of Driving the Newhouse Tunnel 

Jan. to Aug. Sept. to Dec. Apr. to Aug. 

1909, 

2,233 ft. 

Labor $ 6.72 

Explosives 4. 15 

Fuse and caps .39 

Transportation of materials broken ... 1 . 49 

Power 1.99 

Blacksmithing 1 . 57 

Use of drills, repairs and steel. ........ 1 . 50 

Equipment, ties, rails, pipe, etc 1 . 74 

Sundries .79 



1909, 


1910, 


1,098 ft. 


693 ft. 


$ 6.98 


$11.73 


3.52 


4.57 


.36 


.44 


1.47 


2.22 


2.16 


2.82 


2.61 


2.00 


2.74 


2.86 


1.78 


2.19 


.80 


1.85 



$20.34 $22.42 $30.68 

RAWLET TUNNEL 

Important Details. — Location: Bonanza, Colo. Purpose: Mine drainage 
and development. Cross section: Trapezoidal. Size: 8 ft. wide at the base, 
7 ft. wide at the top, 7 ft. high. Length: 6,235 ft. Character of rock pene- 
trated: Tough, hard andesite. Type of power: Steam with wood for fueL 
Ventilator: Pressure blower. Size of ventilating pipe : 12 and 13 ins. Drills: 
2, pneumatic hammer. Mounting of drills: Horizontal bar. Number of 
holes per round: 23 to 25. Average depth of round: 8 to 9 ft. at first, 5 
to 6 ft. later. Number of drillers and helpers per shift : 2 drillers and 2 helpers. 
Number of drill shifts per day: 2 at first, 3 later. Explosive: 40 per cent and 
60 per cent gelatin dyanmite (in the proportion of about 2 to 1). Number of 
muckers per shift: 4. Number of mucking shifts per day: 2 and 3. Type 
of haulage: Horses and mules. Wages: Drillers, $4.50; helpers, $3.75; 
muckers, $3.50; blacksmiths, $4.50; drivers $3.50; power engineers, $4. 
Maximum progress in any calendar month: 585 ft., July, 1912. Average 
monthly progress: Approximately 350 ft. 

Cost of Driving the Tunnel, 6,235 Ft.* 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

Drilling and firing $ 5 . 25 

Mucking 2. 16 

Tramming 1.13 

Track and pipe .44 

Miscellaneous underground expenses 1 . 44 

Power plant 2.50 

Blacksmithing .73 

Miscellaneous surface work .83 

General expenses 1 . 98 

Permanent plant 3 . 24 

Timbering (1,618 ft.) 1 . 18 

Boarding house, debit balance .04 

$20.98 
Credit by salvage on permanent plant 1-11 

$19.87 
* A more detailed statement of the cost of this tunnel may be found in an 
article entitled "A Problem in Mining, Together with Some Data on Tunnel 
Driving," by F. M. Simmons and E. Z. Burns, Bull. Am. Inst. Min, Eng., March, 
1913, p. 369. 



SMALL TUNNELS 1273 

"Drilling and firing" includes labor, powder, fuse, caps, supplies, and 
repairs. " Mucking," " Tramming," and " Track and pipe " include labor and 
supplies. "Miscellaneous underground expenses" include wages of foremen, 
underground telephone, etc. "Power plant" includes labor, supplies, and 
fuel. " Blacksmithing " and " Miscellaneous surface work" include labor and 
supplies. " General Expenses " include salaries, office supplies, telephone, etc. 
"Permanent plant" includes machinery and buildings, with labor of installa- 
tion, steel rails, permanent supplies, and repairs. " Timbering " includes labor 
and supplies. The salvage of the permanent plant is approximately 50 per 
cent on salable articles, such as machinery, rails, cars, etc. 

ROOSEVELT TUNNEL 

Important Details. — Location: Cripple Creek, Colo. Purpose: Mine 
drainage. Cross section: Rectangular, with large ditch at the side. Size: 
10 ft. wide by 6 ft. high. Length: 15,700 ft. Character of rock penetrated : 
Pikes Peak granite, chiefly. Type of power: Purchased electric current. 
Ventilator: Purchased electric current. Vei^tilator: Pressure blower. Size 
of ventilating pipe: 16 and 17 ins. Drills: 3, pneumatic hammer. Mounting 
of drills: Horizontal bar. Number of holes per round: 24, usually. Average 
depth of round : 6 to 7 ft. Number of drillers and helpers per shift : 3 drillers, 
2 helpers. Number of drill shifts per day: 3. Explosive: 40 per cent, 60 
per cent, and some 100 per cent gelatin dynamite. Number of muckers per 
shift: 4, usually. Number of mucking shifts per day: 3. Type of haulage: 
Horses and mules. Wages: Drillers, $5; helpers, $4; muckers, $3.50; power 
engineer, $4; blacksmith, $5; helper, $3.50; dumpman, $3.50; drivers, inside, 
$5; outside, $4. Maximum progress in any calendar month: 435 ft., portal 
heading, January, 1909. Average monthly progress: Portal heading, 300 ft.; 
shaft headings, 270 ft.; all headings, 285 ft. 

Cost of Drfv^ing Tunnel 

Total cost of portal work $111,980.06 

Contractor's percentage 11,404.88 

Cost of shaft heading 262, 126. 55 

Total cost of tunnel , $386,421 .49 

Number of feet driven 14 , 167 

Average cost per foot • $ 27 . 27 

Cost of Driving the Portal Heading 

Cost 

Feet per foot 

1908— 

February and March • 514 $22. 690 

April 262 30. 970 

May 268 26.760 

June 187 35.010 

July 203 29. 600 

August 300 21.760 

September 351 19 . 600 

October. ; 287 23 . 000 

November ., 360 21 . 120 

December 334 18 . 350 

1909— 

January 435 16 . 410 

February 290 22.206 

March 340 21 .745 

April 316 21 . 266 

May 402 18,762 

June (8 days) 62 40. 600 



1274 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Cost of Driving Shaft Headings 

Cost 

Feet per foot 
1908— 

October (2 headings) 49 $105. 52 

November (2 headings) 141 44.38 

December (2 headings) 177 40. 11 

1909— 

January (2 headings) 261 24 . 06 

February (2 headings) 601 23 . 70 

March (2 headings) 639 26 . 256 

April (2 headings) 670 25 . 02 

May (2 headings) 552 28 . 34 

June (2 headings) 498 27 . 375 

July (1 heading) 319 32.871 

August (1 heading) 410 27 . 747 

September (1 heading) 355 32 . 40 

October (1 heading) 380 28. 178 

November (1 heading) 298 34 . 20 

December (1 heading) 251 35. 153 

1910— 

January (1 heading) 282 28 . 82 

February (1 heading) 259 30 . 636 

March (1 heading) 344 27 . 62 

April (1 heading) 376 25 . 313 

May (1 heading) 393 24 . 856 

June (1 heading) 373 26 . 616 

July (1 heading) 350 25.247 

August (1 heading) 372 25 . 029 

September (1 heading) 342 28 . 45 

October (1 heading) 372 27.361 

November (1 heading) 192 27.786 



Typical Distribution or Expenses, Portal Heading, July, 1908, 203 Ft 

• Cost per 

foot of 
tunnel 

Machinery and repairs. $ 0.61 

Air drills and parts .99 

Picks, shovels and steel 1 . 90 

Ditch men 1 . 09 

Explosives : 6 , 90 

Candles . .36 

Oil and waste .09 

Electric power ; 2 . 06 

Blacksmith supplies ,09 

General expense ,16 

Liability insurance ,17 

Lumber, ties and wedges .01 

Horses and feed .01 

Compressor men ." 1 , 79 

Drillers and helpers 4,21 

Blacksmiths and helpers 3 . 43 

Muckers and drivers 4.11 

Foremen 1 . 50 

Bookkeeper .12 

$29.60 



SMALL TUNNELS 1275 

Typical Distribution of Expenses, Shaft Heading, February, 1910, 259.Ft. 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

Maintenance of buildings, tents, etc $0,096 

Machinery and repairs 1 . 158 

Air drills and parts 1 . 930 

Shovels, picks and steel 1 . 930 

Pipe and fittings 193 

Ditch men 1 . 480 

Explosives 5 . 032 

Lamps and candles 217 

Oil and waste 252 

Electric power 2 . 440 

Blacksmith supplies 150 

Liability insurance •• • • .213 

General expense 342 

Lumber, ties and wedges ' 119 

Horses and feed 324 

Machine men and helpers 4 . 050 

Muckers 3 . 065 

Blacksmiths and helpers 1 . 362 

Engineers 1 . 300 

Pipe and track men 675 

Drivers and dump men 2 . 355 

Foremen . . , 1 . 752 

Mine telephone 008 

Bookkeeper 193 

$30,636 
btilwell tunnel 

Important Details. — Location: Telluride, Colo. Purpose: Mine drainage 
and development. Cross section: Square, with ditch at side. Size: 7 by 
7 ft. Length: 2,950 ft. Character of rock penetrated: Conglomerate and 
andesite. Type of power: Purchased electric current. Ventilator: Fan. 
Size of ventilating pipe: 10 ins. Drills: Started with electric drills, finished 
with pneumatic piston drills, using 2 in the heading. Mounting of drills: 
Vertical columns. Number of holes per round: 16. Average depth of 
round: 6 to 6H ft. Number of drillers and helpers per shift: 2 drillers and 2 
helpers. Number of drill shifts per day: 1. Explosive: 40 per cent gelatin 
dynamite. Number of muckers per shift: 3. Number of mucking shifts 
per day: 1. Type of haulage: Horses. Wages: Drillers, $4.50; helpers, $4; 
muckers and trammers, $3.50; blacksmith, $4.50. Maximum progress in 
any calendar month: 170 ft., August, 1904. Average monthly progress: 
150 ft. (last 10 months.) 

Cost of Driving the Tunnel 

Cost per 
foot of 
Feet tunnel 

1901. 12 $23.88 

1901-2 490 22.98 

1902-3. 377 27.94 

1903-4 702 21.69 

1904-5 1 , 077 21 . 19 

1905 292 30.37 

Average for 2,950 $23.38 

These costs include all labor, supplies, repairs, powder, fuse, caps, candles, 
tools, lubricants, and general expenses, and the total value qu the electric- 



1276 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



drill plant with which the tunnel was started, and the total value of the air- 
drill plant which succeeded it, together with tunnel buildings, pipe, rails, and 
the ventilator, with no credit for salvage on any of this permanent equipment. 
The fiscal year dated from Sept. 30. The tunnel was driven in 1901-3 with 
electric drills, and the high cost for 1905: 292 ft., $30.37. 



STRAWBERRY TUNNEL 

Important Details. — Location: Utah and Wasatch Counties, Utah. Pur- 
pose: Irrigation and reclamation. Cross section: Straight bottom and walls, 
with arched roof. Size: 8 ft. wide by 9H ft.^high. Length: 19,100 ft. 
Character of rock penetrated: Limestone with interbedded sandstone, and 
sandstone with interbedded shale. Type of power: Electric power generated 
in a hydraulic, plant operated in connection with the tunnel. Distance of 
transmission from west portal to power house approximately 23 miles. 
Ventilator: Pressure blower. Size of ventilating pipe: 14 ins. Drills: Piston 
pneumatic, usually 2 in the heading. Mounting of drills: Vertical columns. 
Number of holes per round: 16 to 18. Number of drillers and helpers per 
shift: 2 drillers and 2 helpers. Number of drill shifts per day: 3. Explosive: 
40 per cent gelatin dynamite. Number of muckers per shift: 6. Number of 
mucking shifts per day: 3. Type of haulage: Electric after first 2,000 ft. 
Wages: Drillers, $3.50; helpers, $3.25; muckers, $2.75; motormen, $3.25; 
brakemen, $2.75; blacksmiths, $4; helpers, $2.75. Maximum progress in any 
calendar month: 500 ft., November, 1910. Average monthly progress: 320 
ft. per heading. 

Cost of Driving the Tunnel 



Feet 

West heading — 

Previous to 1909 1,613 

During 1909 3,892 

During 1910 5 , 021 

During 1911 3 , 491 

January to July, 1912 2,382 

East heading, October, 1911, to July, 1912 2,682 

Average for 19,081 



Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 

$60.05 
33.58 
30.56 
41.52 
36.79 
33.04 



$36.78 



Detailed Cost of Driving the West Heading for the Year 1909, 3,892 Ft. 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 
Labor — 

Engineering . $ . 49 

Superintendence .73 

Shift bosses 1.22 

Timekeepers .36 

Drillmen and helpers 3. 15 

Miners (for handwork, trimming, etc.) .23 

Muckers 2.96 

Track and dump men .74 

Mule drivers .39 

Motormen and brakemen .44 

Electricians and blower men .07 

Disabled employes .19 

Timbermen .22 

Miscellaneous .40 

$11.59 



SMALL TUNNELS 1277 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 
Materials — 

Powder, fuse, caps, etc 3 . 08 

Lumber .29 

Oils, candles, etc .22 

Ventilating pipe .64 

Track, including ties .68 

Pressure air pipe .40 

Drill repair parts (including hose) .18 

Miscellaneous .19 

$ 5.68 
Repairs— 

Machine shop expense (including labor and supplies) .93 

Blacksmith shop expense (including labor and supplies) 1.22 

$ 2.15 
Power (all purposes) 7 . 65 

Depreciation — ■ 

Haulage equipment .09 

General equipment 1 . 00 

$ 1.09 

General expense 3 . 96 

Camp expense 1 .-21 

Corral expense .25 

$ 5.42 

Total $33. 58 



" General expense" includes a proportionate charge for the expenses of the 
Provo office, such as salaries, stationery, telephone, and supplies; also a 
proportionate charge for the expenses of the Washington, the Chicago, and 
the supervising engineer's offices. The Provo office covers approximately 
68 per cent of this charge, the Washington office 23 per cent, the Chicago 
office 2 per cent, and the supervising engineer's office 7 per cent. 



Detailed Cost op Driving the West Heading for the Year 1910, 5,021 Ft. 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 
Labor — 

Engineering 0.61 

Superintendence 60 

Shift bosses 1 . 25 

Timekeepers 22 

Drillmen and helpers 2. 85 

Miners 28 

Muckers 2. 93 

Track and dump men 71 

Motormen and brakemen 1 . 49 

Electricians and blower men 13 

Disabled employes 16 

Timbermen 28 

Miscellaneous 07 

$11.58 



1278 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 
Materials — 

Powder, fuse, caps, etc 3. 52 

Lumber , 22 

Oils, candles, etc 20 

Ventilating pipe 65 

Track, including ties , 74 

Pressure air pipe 28 

Drill repair parts (including hose) 24 

Miscellaneous 07 

$ 5.92 
Repairs — 

Machine shop expense (including labor and supplies) 90 

Blacksmith shop expense (including labor and supplies) 1. 23 

$ 2.13 

Power (all purposes) 5. 70 

Depreciation — 

Haulage equipment 20 

General equipment ; 1 . 00 

$ 1.20 

General expense 3. 32 

Camp expense 63 

Corral expense 08 

$ 4.03 

Total $30. 56 

Detailed Cost of Driving the West Heading, for the Year 1911, 3,419 Ft. 

Cost per 
foot of 
Labor — tunnel 

Engineering $ 0. 45 

Superintendence .82 

Shift bosses 1 . 65 

Timekeepers .38 

Drillmen and helpers 4. 07 

Miners 37 

Muckers 5.13 

Track and dump men 2 . 00 

Motormen and brakemen 1 . 87 

Electricians and blowermen '. .08 

Disabled employes .48 

Timbermen 1 . 72 

Miscellaneous .05 

$19.07 
Materials — 

Powder, fuse, caps, etc 2.61 

Lumber .80 

Oils, candles, etc .43 

Ventilating pipe .77 

Track, including ties 1 . 52 

Pressure air pipe ; .36 

Drill repair parts (including hose) .34 

Miscellaneous .25 

$ 7.08 
Repairs — 

Machine shop expense (including labor and supplies) 2. 16 

Blacksmith shop expense (including labor and supplies) 1: 54 

$ 3.70 
Power (all purposes) 5. 20 



SMALL TUNNELS 1279 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 
Depreciation — 

Haulage equipment 1 . 85 

General equipment .50 

$ 2.35 

General expense 3 . 00 

Camp expense 1.10 

Corral expense .02 

$ 4.12 

Total $41 . 52 



Detailed Cost of Driving the West Heading, January to July, 1912, 2,382 

Ft. 

Cost per 
foot of 

Labor — tunnel 

Engineering $ 0. 36 

Superintendence .56 

Shift bosses 1. 08 

Timekeepers .26 

Drillmen and helpers 3. 08 

Miners .43 

Muckers 4. 95 

Track and dump men 1.55 

Motormen and brakemen 1 . 33 

Electricians and blowermen .18 

Disabled employes .48 

Timbermen. 2. 59 

$16.85 
Materials — 

Powder, fuse, cap, etc 2. 72 

Lumber 2. 13 

Oils, candles, etc .32 

Ventilating pipe .70 

Track, including ties 1.51 

Pressure air pipe .30 

Drill repair parts (including hose) .32 

Miscellaneous - .39 

$ 8.39 
Repairs — 

Machine shop (including labor and supplies) 1. 39 

Blacksmith shop (including labor and supplies) 1. 02 

$2.41 
Power (all purposes) 3. 75 

Depreciation — 

Haulage equipment 2. 20 

General equipment .50 

$ 2.70 

General expense 1 . 90 

Camp expense , .79 

$ 2. 69 

Total $36. 79 



1280 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Detailed Cost op Driving the East Heading, October, 1911, to July, 1912, 

2,682 Ft. 

Cost per 
foot of 
tunnel 
Labor — 

Engineering $ 0. 49 

Superintendence .77 

Shift bosses 1 . 36 

Timekeepers .31 

Drillmen and helpers 3. 62 

Muckers 4. 03 

Track and dump men 2 . 00 

Mule drivers .89 

Timbermen 1 . 80 

Electricians and blowernlen .30 

Disabled employes .09 

Miscellaneous .21 

$15. 87 
Materials- 
Powder, fuse, caps, etc $ 2. 67 

Lumber .93 

Oils, candles, etc .36 

Ventilating pipe -. .45 

Track, including ties .56 

Pressure air pipe .12 

Drill repair parts (including hose) .38 

Miscellaneous .21 

$ 5.68 
Repairs — 

Machine shop expenses (labor and supplies) . .62 

Blacksmith shop expenses (labor and supplies) .65 

$ 1.27 

Power (all purposes) $ 3. 21 

Depreciation — ■ 

Haulage equipment .47 

General equipment 1 . 02 

1.49 

General expenses 1 . 86 

Camp expenses 1 . 35 

Corral expenses .95 

$ 4. 16 
Pumping (labor and material) 1 . 36 

Total $33. 04 

Labor Costs of Constructing Six Small Tunnels and Shafts in Earth and 
Rock, Chicago. — The tollowing data are abstracted and greatly condensed 
from the original given by Myron B. Reynolds in Engineering and Contract- 
ing, July 3, 1912. 

There were constructed during the year 1906-7 six water pipe tunnels for 
the city of Chicago, three in clay and three in limestone. During construc- 
tion inspectors were kept on the work for the full 24 hours. From the inspec- 
tors' reports which classified the different labor the costs given further on have 
been compiled. These costs are believed to be fairly accurate for the actual 
labor on the work. No costs are given for materials, office expenses, interest 
or depreciation, or for capital put into plant or into financing the work. No 
costs of teams or scows or other charges for the disposal of spoil are included 
other than the actual labor required to remove it out of the way of the work 
or say within a radius of 200 ft. from the shafts. In the rock tunnels the stone 



SMALL TUNNELS 1281 

excavated was crushed and removed for use in the concrete and no cost of this 
is given. It is doubtful whether any money can be saved by so using the 
excavated stone unless the work is so large that a plant for screening can be 
installed. 

The data common to all tunnels were as follows: 

Inside diameter all shafts 10 ft. 

Outside diameter of shafts in earth 12 ft. 

Outside diameter of Ashland Ave. shaft in rock. . . 10 ft. 8 ins. 

Outside diameter of other shafts in rock 12 ft. 

Inside dimensions of egg-shaped tunnels . .7 ft. X 8 ft. 2 ins. 

Concrete lining Ashland Ave. tunnel 4 ins. 

Concrete lining all other tunnels 12 ins. 

Excavation per foot depth shafts in earth 4.2 cu. yds. 

Excavation per foot depth shafts in rock 4.2 cu. yds. 

Excavation per foot Ashland Ave. shaft in rock. . 3.33 cu. yds. 

Excavation per foot Ashland Ave. Tunnel 2 cu. yds. 

Excavation per foot all other tunnels 2.8 cu. yds. 

Lining per foot Ashland Ave., shaft in rock 0.42 cu. yd. 

Lining per foot all other shafts 1.3 cu. yds. 

Lining per foot Ashland Ave. tunnel 0.31 cu. yd. 

Lining per foot all other tunnels 1.1 cu. yds. 

ASHLAND AVE. WATER PIPE TUNNEL 

The shafts of this tunnel were through clay and solid rock, and the tunnel 
was entirely in rock requiring no timbering. The shafts in earth were exca- 
vated and lined with concrete and the shafts in rock and tunnel were exca- 
vated complete before concreting was begun. 

The work was started under one foreman but he was soon discharged and 
the work placed in charge of a first-class man, who, as is shown by the table 
of excavation cost, reduced the cost per foot. 

An average of eighteen holes were drilled, six cut, four helpers and eight 
rim holes. The cut holes were finished with a 6-ft. steel and the other holes 
with a S^^-ft. steel. A round comprised generally three shots, the cut first. 
The guns left from the cut were reloaded and again fired together with the 
helpers and side rim holes. The top and bottom holes were fired last. About 
5 ft. were broken down per round. 

For the purpose of ballast for track from 2 to 3 ft. of muck was left in the 
bottom, and upon removing was found to be very expensive, being very 
compact on account of trampling, water and blasting. Men would not work 
very hard at it with a pick because occasionally they would find a quarter of a 
stick of dynamite or live cap. 

The cost of the different classes of work in the construction of the Ashland 
Ave. tunnel are based upon the following rates of wages. 

Per shift 

Foreman $8. 00 

Assistant foreman $5. 00-$6. 00 

Miners $3. 75 

Miner's helpers 3. 00 

Laborers, top , 2. 75 

Laborers, bottom 2. 75 

Engineers 4. 80 

Firemen 2.40 

Carpenters 4 . 20 

Blacksmiths 4. 80 

Blacksmith's helper 3. 00 

Teams and drivers 5. 50 

Timekeeper 2. 50 

Watchman 2, 50 

81 



1282 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The above rates of wage are also applicable to the other tunnels described in 
this article. 

Preliminary and General Work. — The" cost of unloading coal, sand, cement, 
etc., from cars; clearing shaft and tunnel; sharpening and maintaining tools, . 
placing ladders and general work; was $5,479.35 divided as follows. 

Cost per ft. charged to shaft $ 5 . 20 

Cost per ft. charge to tunnel 2 . 60 

Installing Plant. — The cost of installing plant was: South Shaft — $724.50; 
North Shaft — $290.90, divided as foUows: 

Cost per ft. charged to shaft $ 1 .00 

Cost per ft. charged to tunnel .50 

Shaft Sinking in Earth. — The character of ground encountered in the South 
Shaft was: l.S.ft. macadam; 14.9 ft. fill; 12.1 ft. blue clay; 7.5 ft. hard clay; 
16.7 ft. hardpan and boulders : Total 52.7 ft. Powder was used tor lower half. 
On the North Shaft (60.6 ft. deep; powder was used for the bottom 40 ft. 
The following costs include lagging up the sides and placing iron rings. 

South shaft North shaft 

Total $550. 95 $496. 00 

Per lin. ft : . . . 10. 45 8. 20 

Per cu. yd 2 . 45 1.95 

Shaft Sinking in Rock. — The time distribution was: Setting up, 5%; drill- 
ing, 44 % ; shooting, 24 % ; mucking 27 % . The costs follow. 

Total — South shaft $ 809. 75 

North shaft 1422. 50 

Per Hn. ft 44. 50 

Per cu. yd. 13.30 

Excavation of Tunnel. — As noted before the change in foreman had a marked 
effect on the cost. This is shown clearly in the following unit costs 

South end North end 

Foreman Foreman Foreman Foreman 
No. 1 No. 2 No. 1 No. 2 

Per lin. ft $17.20 $12.40 $27.00 $10.80 

Per cu. yd ^ 8.10 6.20 13.50 4.40 

Length excavated, ft 340. 5 596. 5 61. 5 669. 

The average unit costs for the total length were $13.30 per lin. ft. or $6.65 
per cu. yd. 

Trimming and Mucking Bottom. — The mucking consisted of 400 CU. yds. of 
rock which had been left for ballast. The unit cost of trimming and mucking 
bottom was $5.00 per lin. ft. 

Lining Shafts and Tunnel. — The following are the unit labor costs for lining 
shafts and tunnel. The costs for concreting the shafts in rock are high due 
to the fact that the shafts were excavated larger than called for in the specifica- 
tions, thus necessitating about 3 times as much concrete as should have been 
used. 



SMALL TUNNELS 1283 

Unit Labor Costs of Lining Shafts and Tunnel.— 

Lining Shafts 

South shaft North shaft 
In earth — 

Depth, ft 50 58 

Cost per lin. ft $5. 30 $5. 40 

Cost per cu. yd 4. 10 4. 13 

Bailing and removing forms — 

Cost per lin. ft. 1.65 2.35 

Cost per cu. ft 1.27 1.81 

Total cost per cu. yd. 5. 37 5. 94 

In rock — 

Cost per lin. ft 7. 50 7. 00 

Cost per cu. yd 5. 90 . 6. 85 

Concreting and Plastering Tunnel 

Concreting — per lin. ft $2. 85 

per cu. yd 5. 70 

Plastering — per lin. ft 0.18 

DRAINAGE CANAL TUNNEL AT WESTERN AVE. 

This tunnel was similar in section to the Ashland Ave. Tunnel except that 
the lining of the tunnel was 12 ins. instead of 4 ins. of concrete. A great 
amount of water was encountered in driving the shafts and tunnel. The speci- 
fications required the lining to be water-tight. To accomplish this end a 
large number of 1-in. pipe weepers were inserted as the lining progressed, 
to which afterward was to be attached a hose to permit grout to be pumped 
in behind the lining. The grout passed out into crevices in the rock and the 
scheme was abandoned. Plastering was of no avail. An average of 10 ft: 
per 24 hours was maintained in the driving of this tunnel, and 3 to 4 ft. in the 
shafts in rock. 

This work was prosecuted under the direction of a competent foreman. An 
average of 18 holes were drilled and shot in the same manner as in the Ashland 
Ave. Tunnel. 

The cost of the different classes of work in the construction of the Drainage 
Canal Tunnel follow. 

Cost of Preliminary and General Work. — This included: erecting headframe; 
setting engine and compressor; fitting up pump; building engine house; 
overhauling plant ; installing cage and track ; placing ladders in shafts ; grout- 
ing tunnel; etc. The total cost was $2,524.10 which is charged to shafts and 
tunnel in the following proportions: cost per ft. shaft $6.60; cost per ft. tunnel 
$3.30. 

Shaft Excavation in Earth. — South Shaft 12 ft. clay, dry; 10 ft. stiff blue 
clay, wet; 22 ft. hardpan; 19.5 ft, hardpan and boulders, wet. North Shaft 
17 ft. clay fill; 23 ft. medium blue clay; 10 ft. hardpan and boulders. 

South shaft North shaft 

Total cost $837. 30 $943. 90 

Depth, ft 63.5 60.4 

Cost per lin. ft 13.20 15.65 

Cost per cu. yd .. 3.15 3.70 

Shaft Excavation in Rock 

South shaft North shaft 

Total cost $744. 30 $1 , 367. 95 

Progress, ft 26 37. 6 

Cost per lin ft 28. 80 36. 50 

Cost per cu. yd , 0.80 6.70 



1284 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Tunnel Excavation, Drainage Canal Tunnel 

Three 8-hr. Two 10-hr. 
shifts per day shifts per day- 
Total cost $1,495.45 $2,980.40 

Cost per ft 14; 50 10. 20 

Cost per cu. yd 5. 20 3. 65 

Total per cu, yd 5. 75 4. 20 

Lin. ft 103. 2 292 

Trimming and Mucking, Drainage Canal Tunnel 

Working two 10-hr. 
shifts per day 

Total cost $597. 20 

Cost per ft 1 . 50 

Cost per cu. yd 0. 55 

Lin. ft 395 

Concreting Shafts in Earth, Drainage Canal Tunnel 

South shaft North shaft 

Total cost $296. 50 $232. 40 

Progress, ft 60 57 

Cost per ft 4. 95 4. 10 

Cost per cu. yd 3. 80 3.15 

Removing Shaft Forms in Earth, Drainage Canal Tunnel 

South shaft North shaft 

Total cost $81. 80 $157. 40 

Cost per ft 1 . 35 *2. 80 

Cost per cu. yd 1 . 05 2. 10 

Cost of concreting and removing forms per cu. yd . . , 4. 85 5. 25 
* Forms under water 60 days. 

Concreting Shafts in Rock, Drainage Canal Tunnel 

South shaft North shaft 

Total cost $296. 40 $276. 95 

Cost per ft 7. 90 7.10 

Cost per cu. yd 5. 30 5. 20 

Depth, ft 37. 6 f 26 shaft 

\ 13 tunnel 

Removing Forms, Shafts in Rock, Drainage Canal Tunnel 

Total cost $40. 85 

Progress, ft f 63. 6 shaft 

\ 13 tunnel 

Cost per lin. ft $ 0. 65 

Cost per cu. yd 0.15 

Total cost of concreting and removing forms per cu. yd.; North Shaft, $5.45; 
South Shaft, $5.35 

Concreting Tunnel, Drainage Canal Tunnel 

Total cost $1 , 536. 95 

Cost per ft 4. 00 

Cost per cu. yd 3. 65 

Length ft 382 

WESTERN AVE. TUNNEL UNDER THE WEST FORK OF THE SOUTH BRANCH OF THE 
CHICAGO RIVER 

This tunnel was similar in all respects to the tunnel under the Drainage 
Canal. The first 10 or 15 ft. of the north shaft in rock had to be timbered, 
the rock being of such loose character. 

On account of a change in alignment 150 ft. of the bottom varying in depth 
from to 3 ft. had to be removed in order to obtain the proper grade. The 
charge of this should not be made directly to the tunnel excavation. The 
method of blasting was the same as in the Ashland Ave. Tunnel, the work 
being done under the supervision of the same foreman. 



SMALL TUNNELS 



1285 



The costs of the different classes of work in the construction of the West 
Fork Tunnel follow. 

Cost of Preliminary and General Work, West Fork Tunnel 
This includes erecting head frame, setting machinery, building engine house, 
installing cage and track, etc. 

Total cost $3 , 145. 35 

Cost per ft. charged to shaft 11. 00 

Cost per ft. charged to tunnel 5. 50 

Excavation, Shafts in Earth, West Fork Tunnel 

South shaft North shaft 

Total cost $358. 00 $186. 20 

Depth, ft 37 21 

Cost per ft 9. 70 8. 90 

Cost per cu. yd 2.30 2.10 

Ground— South Shaft; 5 ft. fill; 1.1 ft. blue clay; 16 ft. hard dry clay; 5 ft. 
hardpan and boulders. North Shaft; 6 ft. fill; 10 ft. medium clay; 5 ft. hardpan 
and boulders. 

Shaft Excavation in Rock, West Fork Tunnel 

South shaft North shaft 

Total cost $439. 05 $1 , 444. 65 

Depth, ft 19 46 

Cost per ft. < 23.00 31.50 

Cost per cu. yd 5. 50 7. 50 

Tunnel Excavation, West Fork Tunnel 

Total cost $5,495. 95 

Length, ft 350. 00 

Cost per ft 15. 65 

Cost per cu. yd 5. 60 

Excavating Bottom, 150 ft. X 2 ft. Deep 

Total cost $ 841. 65 

Cost per ft 5. 60 

Cost per cu. yd 2. 50 

Trimming Tunnel 

Total cost $ 103. 00 

Cost per Hn. ft 0. 30 

Concreting Shafts in Earth, West Fork Tunnel 

South shaft North shaft 

Total cost $244. 40 $117. 80 

Depth, ft 35 19 

Cost per ft 7. 00 6.15 

Cost per cu. yd 5. 40 4. 70 

Concreting Shafts in Rock, West Fork Tunnel 

South shaft North shaft 

Total cost $237. 60 $393. 05 

Depth, ft 19 46 

Cost per ft 12.50 8.55 

Cost per cu. yd 9. 60 6. 00 

Concreting Tunnel, West Fork Tunnel 

Total cost $1 , 670. 20 

Length, ft 325 

Cost per ft 5.15 

Cost per cu. yd 4. 70 

INDIANA ST. WATER PIPE TUNNEL 

This tunnel was constructed under favorable circumstances to its comple- 
tion. But little water (bailing only was necessary at times) was encountered, 
and in only two places was it necessary to hold up the roof by timbering. 



1286 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

When the full shift was at work 16 ft. were mined and concreted during the 
three 8-hour shifts. Mining was carried on from 12 o'clock midnight until 
3 o'clock P. M., and on the 3-11 shift the concrete linning was placed. 

It was first attempted to use 40 per cent dynamite to loosen up the clay, but 
following the first shot a lump of clay fell on the leg of one man and broke it, 
after which the ground was grubbed out. The bottom half was hard clay 
and hardpan and the top half was medium clay. 

In the shafts with four miners per shift working 10 ft. were excavated per 
24 hours. About 4H cu. yds were averaged per 8 hours for each man digging 
in both the shafts. 

In concreting the shafts the steel rings holding the lagging were removed 
from the shaft and the lagging taken away from the excavation and placed 
against centers for forms. A platform was made to fit over the forms and 
upon it the concrete was dumped and then shoveled into place and tamped. 

In concreting the tunnel the bottom was first placed and graded to templet. 
A board floor was then laid over this concrete, the centers placed and the lag- 
ging set in as the concrete came up. 

The concrete was hand mixed on a platform at the top of the shaft, loaded 
into cars and let down on a cage into the tunnel. 

The costs in the different classes of the work in the construction of the In- 
diana Street Tunnel follow. 

Preliminary and General Work, Indiana Street Tunnel 

Total cost $1 , 185. 35 

Cost to be charged to shaft per ft 3. 60 

Cost to be charged to tunnel per ft 1 . 80 

Shaft Excavation, Indiana Street Tunnel 

East shaft West shaft 

Total cost $1,004.30 $775.00 

Depth, ft 92 73 

Cost per ft 10. 90 10. 60 

Cost per cu, yd r 2. 60 2. 50 

Tunnel Excavation, Indiana Street Tunnel 

Total cost $2,080.85 

Progress, ft 335 

Cost per ft 6. 25 

Cost per cu. yd 2. 25 

Excavation Avas half medium and half hard clay. 

Concreting Shafts, Indiana Street Tunnel 

East shaft West shaft 

Total cost $444. 60 $365. 90 

Lin. ft 90 71 

Cost per ft 4. 95 5.15 

Cost per cu yd 3.80 3.95 

Concreting Tunnel, Indiana Street Tunnel 

Total cost $1,156.40 

Lin. ft 335 

Cost per ft $ 3. 55 

Cost per cu. yd 2 . 25 

ILLINOIS AND MICHIGAN CANAL TUNNEL AT WESTERN AVE. 

This tunnel was constructed by the same firm and under the supervision 
of the same foreman as was the Indiana tunnel. Powder was used in excava- 
ting this tunnel, but the clay was too springy for good results. 

Some bad cement was delivered and used before testing which did not 



SMALL TUNNELS 1287 

set up. As a consequence, 60 ft. of the tunnel lining had to be removed and 
replaced. 

The north shaft of this tunnel was excavated and hned by using a windlass 
for raising and lowering. It appeared as cheap as though a hoisting engine 
had been used, but the time was much longer. 

The costs of the different classes of work in the construction of the Ilhnois 
and Michigan canal tunnel follow. 

Cost of Tunnel Work, Illinois and Michigan Canal Tunnel 

Total cost $1 , 138 . 40 

Cost per ft. to be charged to shaft 4 . 80 

Cost per ft. to be charged to tunnel 2 . 40 

Cost of Excavating Shafts, Illinois and Michigan Canal 

North shaft South shaft 

Total cost $672. 60 $830. 10 

Progress, ft 58 58 

Cost per ft.. . 11.60 14.30 

Cost per cu. yd. . 2.75 3.25 

Cost of Excavating Tunnel, Illinois and. Michigan Tunnel 

Total cost: $1,571.30 

Progress, ft 225 

Cost per ft 7. 00 

Cost per cu. yd 2. 50 

Excavation was hard clay. Powder was used. 

Cost of Concreting Shafts, Illinois and Michigan Tunne 

North shaft South shaft 

Total cost $332. 30 $365. 90 

Progress, ft 55 58 

Cost per ft 6. 05 6. 30 

Cost per cu. yd 4.65 4.85 

Cost of Concreting Tunnel, Illinois and Michigan Tunnel 

Replacing con- 
Concreting demned lining 

Total cost $793. 00 $263. 40 

Progress, ft 225 60 

Cost per ft 3.50 4.40 

Cost per cu. yd 3. 20 4. 00 

DIVERSEY BOULEVARD TUNNEL 

This tunnel and shafts were shown on the plans to have the same cross 
section as the other water pipe tunnels in clay. The borings indicated, how- 
ever, that quicksand would be encountered in the sinking of both shafts and 
that the tunnel would be in solid rock. Acting on this the contractor elected 
to use 8 X 8 ft. octagonal bracing instead of the usual circular iron rings. 
This necessitated placing a much larger amount of concrete In the shaft 
lining than was actually called for in the specification. 

Upon excavating the shafts to about half their depth the method of holding 
up the excavation was changed from timbering to the use of a steel shield, 
which was let down in sections and jacked into place as the excavating pro- 
gressed. Water in large amounts was encountered, a large Nye pump being 
used in both shafts all the time. 

When the elevation was reached for the tunnel grade no rock other than 
large boulders was found, and a boring 10 ft. deeper did not discover rock. 
It was presumed that in the original borings large boulders had been struck 
and mistaken for solid rock. The tunnel was driven through water beariag 



1288 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

sand and gravel on top and hard clay on the bottom from the east shaft and 
through hard clay from the west shaft. 

When the eye in the west shaft was cut for the tunnel the ground fell into 
the shaft and the surface of the ground at the top of the shaft sunk 10 ft., 
tipping over the hoisting engine and compressor. 

No timbering was necessary to hold the ground in the tunnel from the west 
shaft, but the tunnel sides, roof and face from the east shaft had to be sheeted 
tight. 

In the timnel from the east shaft one miner worked with two muckers each 
shift. The miner on one shift was an Assyrian with experience in this class 
of work. The tunnel was excavated and lined in 4 ft. sections. The excava- 
tion was started at the crown, and by removing the upper half the center verti- 
cal plank, which had been previously placed to hold up the face, the wet sand 
and gravel could be removed by hand until there was room to place the crown 
plank and place a post under it. This method was continued down each side 
in turn until the springing lines were reached, at which point ground was 
reached which would stand up. The timbering, except the posts, was left in 
and the concrete lining placed. The posts were removed as reached by the 
concrete. 

The costs of the different classes of work in the construction of the Diversey 
Blvd. tunnel follow. 

Cost of General Work, Diversey Blvd. Tunnel 

Total cost $2 , 820. 50 

Cost per ft. to be charged to shaft 7. 80 

Cost per ft. to be charged to tunnel 3. 90 

Cost of Shaft Excavation Diversey Blvd. Tunnel, East Shaft 

— Excavating Timbering — Placing shield 

Total cost $1,074.50 $405.50 $174.50 

Progress, ft 65. 8 

Depth of timbering, ft 50 

Depth of shield, ft 16 

Cost per ft 16. 30 8.10 10. 90 

Cost per cu. yd 3. 05 

Cost of Shaft Excavation, Diversey Blvd, Tunnel, West Shaft 

— Excavating Timbering — Placing shield 

Total cost $1,122.50 $482.75 $211.00 

Progress, ft 71 

Depth of timbering, ft 35 

Depth of shield, ft 36 

Cost per ft 15.80 13.75 5.85 

Cost per cu. yd 2. 80 

Cost of Excavating Tunnel, Diversey Blvd. Tunnel 

From From 

East shaft West *shaft 

Total cost $2,747.00 $1,190.00 

Progress, ft 328 122 

Cost per ft 8.40 9.75 

Cost per cu. yd 3.00 3.50 

Cost of Concreting Shafts, Diversey Blvd. Tunnel 

From * From 

East shaft West shaft 

Total cost $718.00 $485. 50 

Progress, ft 62 69 

Cost per ft 11.60 7.05 

C(»t per cu. yd 4.00 4.70 



SMALL TUNNELS 



1289 



Cost of Concreting Tunnel 

From From 

East shaft West shaft 

Total cost $695. 00 $309. 50 

Cost per ft 2. 10 2. 50 

Cost per cu. yd 3. 10 3. 30 

Progress, ft 328 122 

Tables I to III give a summary of the foregoing costs. 



Table I. — Summary of Unit Costs op Shafts and 

Sinking and driving 
only 

Cost per Cost per 

cu. yd. lin. ft. 

Ashland Avenue tunnel — 

Shaft in clay $ 2. 20 $ 9. 35 

Shaft in rock 10. 70 35. 75 

Tunnel in rock 6. 65 13. 30 

Drainage Canal tunnel — 

Shaft in clay 3. 40 14. 40 

Shaft in rock 7.75 32.65 

Tunnel in rock 5. 00 13. 85 

West Fork tunnel — 

Shaft in clay 2.20 9.30 

Shaft in rock 6. 50 27. 25 

Tunnel in rock 5. 60 16. 00 

Indiana Street tunnel — 

Shaft in clay 2. 55 10. 75 

Tunnel in clay 2.25 6.25 

Illinois & Michigan Canal tunnel — 

Shaft in clay 3. 00 12. 45 

Tunnel in clay 2. 50 7. 00 

Diversey Boulevard tunnel — 

Shaft in clay 4.85 25.25 

Tunnel in clay 3.15 9.10 



Tunnel Excavation 
Preliminary and over- 
head charges added 
Total cost Total cost 
per cu. per lin. 
yd. ft. 



$ 3.10 

12.30 

7.75 

4.50 
9.05 

5.85 

4.05 
8.35 
7.20 

3.15 
2.65 

3.80 
3.10 

6.35 
4.20 



$12.85 
40.85 
15.50 

18.80 
37.90 
16.40 

17.00 
34.95 
20.10 

13.15 
7.45 

15.80 
8.80 

31.45 
11.70 



Table II.- 



-SUMMARY OF UnIT CoSTS OF ShAFTS AND TUNNELS CONCRETE 

Linings 



Ashland Avenue tunnel — 

Shaft in clay 

Shaft in rock 

Tunnel in rock 

Drainage Canal tunnel — 

Shaft in clay 

' Shaft in rock 

Tunnel in rock 

West Fork tunnel — 

Shaft in clay 

Shaft in rock 

Tunnel in rock 

Indiana Street tunnel — 

Shaft in clay 

Tunnel in clay 

Illinois & Michigan Canal tunnel- 
Shaft in clay 

Tunnel in clay 

Diversey Boulevard tunnel — 

Shaft in clay 

Tunnel in clay 



Cost of p 


lacing lin- 
only 
Cost per 
ft. 


Miscellan 

ad( 

Cost per 
cu, yd. 


eous work 


Cost per 
cu. yd. 


Cost per 
ft. 


$ 5.65 
6.40 
5.70 


$ 7.35 
7.00 
3.05 


$ 7.75 
6.60 
5.50 


$10.05 
8.10 
3.95 


5.05 
5.40 
3.65 


6.60 
8.15 
4.00 


6.75 
7.30 
4.30 


8.80 
9.50 
4.75 


5.05 
7.80 
4.70 


6.55 

10.50 

5.15 


7.60 
6.70 
6.00 


9.85 

14.35 

6.55 


3.90 
3.25 


5.05 
3.55 


4.80 
.3.80 


6.25 
4.15 


4.75 
3.20 


6.20 
3.50 


6.00 
3.70 


7.80 
4.10 


4.50 
3.20 


9.20 
2.30 


6.00 
3.70 


10.80 
3.60 



1290 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



^ 



Table III. — Summary op Unit Costs, Giving Cost Per Lin. Ft. for General 
AND Plant, and Grand Totals Per Lin. Ft. for Shafts and Tunnels 



Ashland Avenue tunnel — 
Plant and general per lin. ft. . 
Grand total per lin. ft 

Drainage Canal tunnel — 
Plant and general . . ... 


Shafts in 
clay 

$ 6.20 
22.90 

6.60 
27. 60 

11.00 
26.85 

3.60 
19.40 

4.80 
23.60 

7.80 
32.25 


Shafts in 
rock 

$ 6.20 
48.95 

6.60 
47.40 

11.00 
49.30 


Tunnels 
in clay 

$ 1.80 
11.60 

2.40 
12.90 

3.90 
15.30 


Tunnels 
in rock 

$ 3.10 
19.45 

3.30 


Grand total 


21.15 


West Fork tunnel- 
Plant and general 


5.50 


Grand total 


26.65 


Indiana Street tunnel — 

Plant and general 




Grand total 




111. & Mich. Canal tunnel — 
Plant and general 




Grand total ... 




Diversey Blvd. tunnel — 

Plant and general 




Grand total 





Cost of Tunnel for the Tallulah Falls Hydro -Electric Development in 
Georgia. — Charles G. Adsit and Eugene Lauchli give the following data in 
Engineering and Contracting, May 6, 1914. 




Fig. 2. — Section of tunnel, Tallulah Falls development. 

The tunnel 6,665 ft. long and of dimensions indicated in Fig. 2 was driven 
to convey water from the diverting dam to a forebay or surge reservoir. 

The tunnel was driven on a 2 in 1,000 grade, sloping from the intake down 
to the forebay, through a grey blueish granite, dipping downstream at an 
angle of 22°, wich occasional mud seams. The ground stood well generally, 
and only 6 per cent of the tunnel length required timbering during construction. 



SMALL TUNNELS 1291 

For the purpose of expediting the work, it was found desirable to drive the 
tunnel from the intake and forebay ends, as well as from two adits 7 ft. high, 
13 ft. wide, 105 and 217 ft. long, respectively, (adits No. 1 and 2) driven on a 
1 per cent grade. Before starting work at the intake end, 4,000 cu. yds. of 
material, mostly rock, had to be excavated. At the forebay, consisting of a 
shaft 35 ft. wide, 75 ft. long and 70 ft. deep, some 10,800 cu. yds. of rock had 
to be excavated. Later on, adit No. 3, 150 ft. long, was provided and an 8 X 
10-ft. shaft, 112 ft. deep, was sunk between the intake portal and adit No. 1. 

The work under consideration involved the following quantities: 

Cu. yds. 

Adit excavation 1 , 250 

Main tunnel: 

Heading 23 , 330 

Bench 29 , 650 

Concrete lining within specified lines 15, 430 

Concrete lining beyond specified lines 3 , 540 

Seventy-five per cent of the tunnel length was driven with a top heading and 
bench, and the balance with a bottom heading, the overlying material being 
stoped down on the heading floor. Attention is called here to the fact that, 
owing to the relatively small section of the tunnel, heading excavation repre- 
sented about 49 per cent of the total excavation. 

Power Plant and Equipment. — The contractor, the Northern Contracting 
Co., built a temporary power plant housing two 500-HP. S. Morgan Smith 
hydraulic Francis turbines, operating under an average head of 48 ft. and 
driving two Laidlaw Dunn Gordon air compressors, each having a capacity 
of 2,500 cu. ft. of free air per minute, 110 lbs. pressure. A wooden dam, 10 
ft. high and 60 ft. long, was thrown across the Tallulah River, at Lador Falls, 
and a 7.5-ft. steel penstock 80 ft. long served to convey water from a masonry 
intake located at one end of the dam to the turbines. A 3-ft. diameter steel 
penstock also diverted water from the intake to 125-HP. Francis turbine 
driving a 50-KW. generator used for lighting purposes. 

The tunnel sub-contractor, Condon, Graham & Millner of Knoxville, Tenn., 
was furnished, free of charge, with 4,000 cu. ft. of air per minute and also with 
electric current. Owing to low water conditions, in 1912, it was found neces- 
sary to increase the capacity of the air plant, and a steam-driven Sullivan 
straight line air compressor, with a capacity of 1,875 cu. ft. of free air per min- 
ute, and two 200-HP. Scotch Marine type boilers were installed near to the 
forebay and connected with the main air line, consisting of 10, 8 and 6-in. 
wrought iron pipe, partly laid along the T. F. Ry. track. 

Piston drills were used first, but owing to the hardness of the rock and its 
abrasive properties, necessitating much sharpening, thus being a serious hind- 
rance to progress, Leyner water core air drills No. 7. were adopted, and their 
use immediately caused a general improvement in progress. With piston 
drills, starting holes was found a chief difficulty to overcome, and drilhng of 
dry holes gave little satisfaction. 

No. 2 Leyner bit sharpeners were installed at each adit and points of attack. 
At the shaft the following plant was installed : 

1 set 10 X 15-in. Jaw crushers. 

1 set sand rolls. 

1 60 H.P. steam engine. 

1 two-drum 18 H.P. hoist engine operating the shaft cage. 

1 set of sand screens. 

1 cement house. 



1292 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Owing to the steepness of the gorge, at the mouth of the adits and intake 
portal, much of the tunnel muck, necessary for the concrete aggregate was lost, 
and it was found necessary to open a quarry at adit No. 3. 

As a whole, the labor available was extremely poor and unreliable for this 
class of work. Negro labor was used chiefly. Some Hungarians and Chero- 
kee Indians gave somewhat better results. Rainy weather (annual rainfall 
varying from 70 to 80 ins.) was a serious hindrance to progress. During 
holidays a large number of men would leave, thus resulting in onerous trans- 
portation charges, and it was no small task to organize and break in two shifts 
of men for 10 working points. Thus labor conditions account chiefly for 
the somewhat slow progress in driving the tunnel. 

Two shift were worked per day at each heading, a shift consisting of 4 
drillers, 4 helpers, 6 muckers, 2 trammers, 1 foreman. Mules were used for 
haulage. At the adits, forebay and intake, one blacksmith and one helper 
did the drill sharpening. 

The following wages prevailed: Drillers, $2.50; drill helpers, $1.75; muckers, 
$1.65; foremen, $4.50; blacksmiths, $3.50; helpers, $2.00; carpenters, $3.00; 
concrete men, $1.75. 

Work at the intake heading and driving of adit No. 1 was started during 
July, 1911, and work at adit No. 2 on the following month. The intake top 
heading was first excavated for a length of 800 ft. ; at this point ground pressure 
necessitated heavy timbering and in some instances the roof caved in for a 
height of 10 ft. Progress was very slow and costly; some water was encoun- 
tered, and as the tunnel was being driven down grade, pumping had to be 
resorted to in order to keep the heading dry. It was then deemed advisable 
to carry the bench excavation close to the heading, and work was suspended 
pending the completion of the bench excavation. 

The headings at adit No. 1 and 2 were carried at the top of the tunnel. A 
top heading was also started in September, 1911, from the bottom of the fore- 
bay, the material excavated being handled with a derrick located at the mouth 
of same. After the heading had been driven some 500 ft., a soft seam was 
struck, necessitating timbering. 

In June, 1912, after the shaft between the intake and adit No. 1 had been 
sunk to grade, and adit No. 3 had been driven to the main tunnel, headings 
8 ft. high were driven at the bottom of the tunnel section, and the overlying 
material was stoped down on the tunnel floor. 

The average progress for heading and bench excavation during the year 
1912 was 30 and 38 ft., respectively, per week (6 days). Twice the progress 
was made in stoping work as in bench excavation, at a less cost of about 50 cts. 
per cubic yard. During April, 1912, about 1,784 cu. yds. of bench material 
were excavated at a cost of $4,315 per cubic yard, and during May of the same 
year 3,807 cu. yds. of rock were stoped down at a cost of $3,789 per cubic 
yard, or at a lesser cost of $0 526 per cubic yard. The cost of bench and 
stoping work was as per Table IV. 



SMALL TUNNELS 1293 

Table IV 

Per cu. yd. Per cu. yd. 
stoping work bench work 

Labor $2,415 $2,965 

Supt. and walking bosses . 141 . 067 

General expenses . 036 . 101 

Office force 103 .085 

Storeroom force , .027 . 028 

Repairmen .115 . 102 

Carpenters - 053 .050 

Dynamite 339 .416 

Exploders 029 .038 

Connecting wire .015 .014 

Kerosene 002 .002 

Lubricating oil 013 .012 

Tamping bags 002 .002 

Lamps Oil .010 

Piping and fittings 015 .029 

Drill repairs 204 .095 

Miscellaneous supplies . 041 . 063 

Drill steel 107 .080 

Blacksmith coal 027 .027 

Freight : 063 .079 

Feed 031 .050 

Total $3. 789 $4. 315 



The cost of driving 830 lineal feet of heading (2,856 cu. yds.) was as given 
in Table V, 

Table V 

Cost 
Items — per cu. yd. 

Labor . , $4.18 

Overhead charges . 295 

Blacksmiths' repairs . 107 

Machinists' repairs . 135 

Supply house labor . 043 

Office force .082 

Outside force .12 

Drill steel 0.06 

Blacksmith's coal . 035 

Mules' feed .051 

Freight . 144 

Drill repairs . 324 

Piping and fittings . 09 

Miscellaneous supplies . 076 

Dynamite .035 

Exploders . 051 

Connecting wires .033 

GasoUne .013 

Lubricating oil . 033 

Tamping bags .006 

Total $6. 913 



1294 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The cost of excavating 39,831 cu. yds. of tunnel, from February, 1912, to 
April, 1913, was as given in Table VI. 

Table VI. — Total Cost op Tunnel Excavation, 39,831 Cu. Yds. 
February 1, 1912 to April 31, 1913 

Cost 
Items — per cu, yd. 

Labor $3. 833 

Explosives . 604 

Lubricants . 019 

Piping 026 

Drill repairs . 1 72 

Miscellaneous supplies . 237 

Freight 087 

Transportation . 247 

Liability insurance .181 

Miscellaneous charges , . 066 

Depreciation on equipment .150 

Power* 306 

Total . $5,928 

* This item represents that part of the original cost and cost of operation of 
compressor plant No 1 chargeable to tunnel excavation. 

Concrete Lining, — -Work on the lining was not started until September, 1912. 
i.e., at a time when the tunnel had been practicaUy completely excavated. 
About 120 ft. of tunnel invert was concreted first at adit No. 3, and Blaw 
collapsible steel forms were then erected and concreted. It was soon found 
out that it would be preferable to concrete the side walls and arch first, and 
later on the invert, and this procedure was then followed throughout. 

A total length of 240 lin. ft. of Blaw forms were used, the lining being carried 
on simultaneously at three points. Three concreting machines furnished by 
the Concrete Mixing & Conveying Co. of Chicago were installed and operated 
by air at 100 lbs. pressure. The best results were obtained when conveying 
concrete to the steel forms, erected in 20 ft. lengths only, through 6-in. 
diameter spiral pipes. The concrete was a 1:3:5 mixture, the aggregate being 
not over 2 ins in size. In using these concrete conveying machines, great 
care had to be exercised in order to prevent the formation of voids within 
the lining, as its thickness was relatively small. In general, it was found that 
a somewhat better finish would have been obtained had the lining been given 
a greater thickness, as it was somewhat difficult to clean thoroughly the forms 
after these had been used. However, the results obtained were satisfactory 
for the purpose intended; in wet places the concrete was somewhat honey- 
combed, but this defect was corrected during the grouting process. 

In places where the tunnel roof was high, it was found cheaper to use con- 
crete rather than spalls for back filling, inasmuch as all voids were to be 
grouted. 

The average progress of concreting varied from 30 to 60 ft. per week (6 
days), the average for the whole tunnel being about 60 ft. The invert was 
laid without air concreting machines, as it was found that, in order to obtain 
satisfactory results, the concrete had to be delivered in a confined space. The 
invert was laid at a rate of about 745 ft. per week. 

The cost of the concrete lining is given in Table VII. Cement was sold 
by the Northern Contracting Co. to the sub-contractor for the sum of $1.80 
per barrel. 



SMALL TUNNELS 1295 

Table VII 

Cost 
per cu. yd. 
Items — 

Labor $5.12 

Cement 2. 995 

Miscellaneous materials v 0. 411 

Lumber 0. 138 

Freight 0. 066 

Transportation 0. 157 

Insurance 0. 168 

Royalty on concreting machine 0. 420 

Miscellaneous expenses 0. 106 

Crushing rock 2. 02 

Quarrying rock 0. 87 

Plastering concrete 0. 206 

Cleaning up tunnel 0. 382 

Total* * $12,041 

* Blaw concreting forms and depreciation on equipment not included. 

Grouting. — The specifications called for a mixture to be used for this purpose, 
consisting in 1 to Ij/^ part sand to 1 part cement. Grout and vent pipes V/^ 
ins. in diameter were provided in the tunnel arch, or in other places where 
necessary, 15 ft. apart, more or less. Four grouting machines were used for 
this purpose, under 40 lbs. pressure. Little trouble was encountered, although 
in a few places local flaking of the lining occurred where voids had been left. 
In wet places the grout oozed through the honeycombed concrete, thus mak- 
ing a somewhat rough surface, which was smoothed up later up. The cost 
of grouting was about $1.10 per cubic yard of concrete placed. 

Cost of Driving 8,700 Ft. of Tunnel by Station Men. — In connection with 
the reconstruction of its canal system the Naches-Selah Irrigation District, 
comprising sorae 10,500 acres of orchard lands in the Yakima Valley, Wash- 
ington, will construct 16 tunnels of an aggregate length of 21,000 ft. Eight of 
these tunnels, totaling 8,718 ft., were constructed in 1918. The following 
data are given in Engineering and Contracting, Dec. 17, 1919 by E. M. 
Chauder who prepared the designs for the work. 

The tunnels are 7 ft-, wide in the clear, with flat bottoms, side walls from 4 
to 5H ft. high to the spring line of a segmental arch with a 2 ft. rise. The 
reinforced concrete lining, except in the -timbered sections is 6 in. thick, with 
the exception that in rock the floor thickness is 4 in. The tunnels were driven 
through soft and dry sand rock and shale, and in all cases but one the drilling 
was done with coal augers. 

The tunnels were driven by station men, who in some instances were paid 
at the rate of $6 per lineal foot. Three men constituted a shift. The tunnel 
driving was doubled ended and double shifted. The station men netted from 
$10 to $15 per day, and at the same time set the pace for speedy, economical 
tunnel driving. 

The holes were bored about 8 ft. deep, usually 9 ft. on a face. No springing 
was required. The coal auger was held in place by being jacked against the 
floor and roof. Varying lengths of auger were used as the hole progressed. 
About an hour usually was required to drill and load the holes. The three 
men did the mucking, using large scoop shovels for this purpose. One of the 
three drove the loaded car hauled by a mule to the dump. The haul was short 
and took only a few minutes. An average of 20 lin. ft. per day was made on 
some of the tunnels driven in soft shale. 



1296 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

In the tunnels where sandrock was encountered, a little more time for 
drilling and more powder were required; but there was very little difference 
in the progress made. 

In Uning the tunnels, the floor was run in first, contrary to the usual 
practice, then the sides and then the roof. The mix for the latter was 1 :3 :5 ; 
for the floor and sides it was 1 :2 :4. The mixing was done outside by machines 
and carried in by cars on track. Four men in the tunnel, two taking turns 
shoveling overhead, and two, one on each side, tamping back into place, would 
ordinarily put in 60 ft. of roof in 8 hours. The maximum run was 70 ft. in 8 
hours. 

During most of the work labor was paid $4.50 per 8-hour day, and part of 
the time $5.50. 

The following tabulation summarizes the cost of driving and lining the 
eight tunnels: 



Tunnel No. Length, ft. 

1 1,920.0 

2 782. 5 
9 1,363.0 

10 1,080.5 

11 883.0 

12 893.0 

13 651.0 

14 1,145.0 



Total cost per 


Excavation cost 


Lining cost 


lin. ft. 


per cu. yd. 


per cu. yd. 


$21.20 


$4.10 


$22. 20 


24.20 


5.20 


22.80 


20.00 


3.33 


23.40 


19.70 


3.39 


22.30 


18.20 


3.89 


21.00 


18.00 


3.51 


22.00 


18.70 


3.32 


22.40 


19.60 


3.13 


27.20 



Total 8,718.0 $20.10 $3.73 $23.00 

Tunnel No. 1 — Sandstone of varying hardness and irregular fracture. 

Tunnel No. 2 — Cemented gravel and large boulders. Could not use augers or 
machine drills. Much overbreak. 

Tunnel No. 3 — Soft sandstone. Concrete run in from one end only. 

Tunnel No. 4 — Soft sandstone. - 

Tunnel No. 5 — Soft shale with considerable gravel intermixed. 

Tunnel No. 6 — Soft shale. Lined in winter. Water hauled several miles 
under bad conditions. 

Tunnel No. 7 — Soft shale. Concrete material hauled 5.7 miles. 

Tunnel No. 8 — Soft shale with considerable overbreak. Concrete material 
hauled 6 miles and water 3 miles in winter over almost impassable roads. 



Cost of Cross Cutting, Amador County, California. — Important factors 
in cross cutting based on actual mining operations are outlined by Edwin Hig- 
gins in a bulletin issued on July 1 by the California Metal Producers' Associa- 
tion. The data are the result of an investigation conducted at the mines in 
Amador County, California. The matter following is taken from an abstract 
of the bulletin published in Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 19, 1917. 

A summary of the data relating to the driving of 10 cross cuts in various 
California mines is given in Table VIII. In this table costs are figured only 
on labor and explosives, the following charges being made for labor: Drill 
men, $3; chuck tenders and muckers, $2.50. 

All the cross cuts are in the hard greenstone of Amador County except 
operation No. 8 (hanging wall slate), operation No. 9 (andesite and schist) 
and operation No. 10 (slate). Five degrees of hardness were selected, No. 5 
being the hardest. Most of the rock encountered was uniformly hard. The 
strength of the caps used was 6X. 



SMALL TUNNELS 1297 



Table VIII - 


-Data Relative 


TO THE Dr 


CVING OP Ti 


:n Cross 


Cuts in 


Various 








California Mines 










'o 


0) 


1 


■ft 


? 






i 




09 
OS 

C3 1 


> 

o 
o 






13 

•3 




5^ 

» 03 


'o 


6 




1* 


02 ^ 




Si 


o 
a 
2 






1 


5 


94 


6 X 8- 

7 X 9 


Various 


Piston 


Cross 


85-90 


5K-6 


2 


5 


346 


7 X9 


Various 


Water 

Hammer 

Water 


Carr 


85-90 


5M-6 


3 


4 


100 


5 X 63^ 1000 


Hammer 


Carr 


90 


5 












Stoper 








4 


4 


500 


6 X93^ 


275 


Water 
Hammer 
Water 


Carr 


90-95 


5 


5 


4 


427 


5>^ X 7 


1318 


Hammer 


Cross 


70-90 


5 -6 


6 


5 


172 


7 X 9 


140 


Piston 


Cross 


75 


5 -6 


7 


4 


357 


7 X 9 


180 


Piston 


Cross 


80 


5K-7 


8 


3-4 


450 


5 X 6 


2190 


Piston 


Cross 


80 


6 


9 


4-5 


150 


6 X 73^ 


85 


Water 
Hammer 


Cross 


90 


5 -6 


10 


3 


432 


5 X 7 


210 


Piston 


Cross 


85 


5 




OS 


n3 


ft - 


1^ 


1 


S3 
1 


u 


'a 


d 


'o 
o o 


O 

il 


ID'S 

11 




-§1 


a 

o 
30% 


il 


fed 


1 


15-16 


3 


1.5-2 


2 DP 


Comet 


Ammo- 
Gel. 
30% 


62 


$6.12 


2 


15-16 


l-l^^ 


4.0 


2 DP 


Comet 


Ammo- 
Gel. 


62 


3.82 


3 


16 


1 


4.25 


1 DP 
DP 


Delay 

Expl. 

Delay 


35% 
Gel. 
Dyn. 


50 


3.62 


4 


16 


1 


4.5 


2 


Expl. 
Eclipse 


35% 
Gel. 
Dyn. 


50 


3.42 


5 


11-13 


m 


2.60 


1 DP 


Special 


40% 
Gel. 
Dyn. 

40% 


30 


4.38 


6 


15 


2 


2.0 


3 D^ 


Pacific 


Ammo- 
Gel. 
40% 


50 


5.87 


7 


12 


1 


5.0 


2 C 


Pacific 


Ammo- 
Gel. 


62 


3.94 


8 


11 


IH 


3.66 


3 DP 


* Anerolc 


L 40% 

Nit. 
Gly. 

35% 


30 


4.07 


9 


12 




5.0 


3 DP 


Pacific 


Ammo- 
Gel. 
40% 

Ammo- 


38 


3.07 


10 


8-10 


H 


4.5 


1 C 


Pacific 


30 


3.36 














Gel. 






* Bonus paid: Machinemen received $3 


per day; chuck tenders and muckers 


$2.50 per day. 


For 


every 5 ft. 


over 50 ft. 


per week, all men received 25 cts. per 


day additional 


















82 

















1298 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

For fear of creating an erroneous impression regarding the use of some 
particular drill, it was decided not to mention the make, but simply to divide 
the drills into two classes, piston drills using solid steel, and hammer drills 
using water through hollow steel. In practically all of the operations 1-ton, 
steel, end-dump cars were used, and shoveling was done either from a steel 
sheet or from planks. Hand-tramming was used in all of the operations except 
No. 3, in which mules were used. The track gage in all cases was 18 in., and 
16-lb. rails were used except in operations Nos. 6 and 10, where 12-lb. rails 
were used. No. timber was used, except in operations Nos. 5, 6 and 7, which 
required a few sets each. 

Operation No, 1 : This work was done in 1915, the cost of the 94 ft. being 
as follows: 

Percentage 
of total 
Cost cost 

Drilling (labor) $295.25 41.2 

Mucking and tramming 192 .50 26 . 8 

Supplies 48.50 6.8 

Powder (at 11 cts. per lb.) 181.45 25.2 

Total $717.70 

or $7.63 per ft. 



Operation No. 2: Of the 346 ft., 239 were driven in 1916 and 107 ft. in 1917. 
The 1916 costs were as follows: 

Percentage 
of total 
Cost cost 

Drilling (labor) : $ 785.25 31.4 

Mucking and tramming 583 .25 23 . 3 

Powder 946.45 37.9 

Track, ties and incidentals 186 .43 7.4 

Total $2,501.38 

or $10.46 per ft. 

The costs during 1917 (107 ft.) were as follows: 

Percentage 
of total 
Cost cost 

Drilling (labor) $ 292.00 27.6 

Mucking and tramming 327 .00 30. 9 

Supplies 84.20 8.0 

Powder (at 17 cts. per lb.) 354.20 33.5 

Total : ^ $1,057.40 

or $9.88 per ft. 



Operation No. 3: Firing was done electrically from a 110-volt line with 
switch, using delay exploders. 

Cycle of Operations: Machineman goes to work at 7:00 a. m., finding clean 
set-up. He drills and shoots at about 3 :00 o'clock. Two muckers go on at 
7:30 p. m., muck out, clean up and put in platform for next shift. All drill 
parts are kept available in duplicate. 

Operation No. 4: Practically same cycle of operations as No. 3, except that 
two shifts are worked. Machineman comes on to a clean set-up, drilling and 



Percentage 




of total 


Cost per 


cost 


foot 


1.8 


$0.12* 


36.9 


2.54 


17.8 


1.22 


22.8 


1.59 


0.6 


0.04 


20.1 


1.38 



SMALL TUNNELS 1299 

shooting about 3: 30 p. m. Two muckers come on at 4: 00 p. m. and muck 
back for a clean set-up. They muck out their round, machineman coming on 
at 7 : 00 p. m. He drills and shoots at about 3 : 30 a. m. Two muckers come on 
at 4 : 00 a. m. and muck back so that a machineman coming on at 7 : 00 a. m. 
will have a clean set-up. 

Since this work was done a change has been made which has resulted in 
greater efficiency. The 13^ -in. round, hollow steel, with cross bit, one set of 
which sufficed to drill only one hole, has been discarded in favor of 1-in. 
hexagon, hollow steel, with Can bit. Drilling speed has increased 25 per cent 
or more and new steel drills from five to eight holes without resharpening. 
The drill has been equipped with a striking block, or anvil block. 

Operation No. 5: Most of this work was done with one drillman on the first 
shift and one mucker on the second shift. The 426.5 ft. were driven in the 
period from July, 1916, to February, 1917, at the following cost: 



Cost 

Timbering $ 51 . 88 

Drilling 1,084.16 

Mucking and tramming 521 . 73 

Explosives 670. 48 

Candles 18.60 

Hoisting 591 . 10 

Total $3,937.95 100.0 $6.89 

* Not timbered throughout. 



163.5 drill-shifts were worked, which gives an average advance of 2.6 ft. per 
drill shift. 

Operation No. 6: The cost for the 172 ft. was $1,255 ($7.30 per ft.), which 
does not include air, hoisting, drill sharpening or superintendence. The work 
was done in July, 1916. 

Operation No 7 : Drillers and muckers made from $4 to $4.50 per foot on 
contract. Ventilation was by compressed air, with water spray used after 
shooting. 

Cycle of operations : Driller, chuck tender and two muckers came on at 7 : 00 
a. m. Machine was set up for back and breast holes and muckers started 
mucking. By noon the round was half drilled and the muck was all out. 
After dinner the round was finished, muckers putting in track and platform. 
Shot at 3: 20, blowing out with compressed air. Next shift comes on at 6: 00 
p. m. and has the same cycle of operations. 

Following is detailed cost per foot : 

Drillers (2) $2.78 

Trammers and shovelers 2. 22 

Timbermen 30 

Powder.' 2.42 

Fuse 19 

Caps .06 

Candles 10 

Timber 36 

. Powder .58 

$9.01 



1300 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cost per foot for 1,015 ft. of drifting under all conditions; all timbered and 
from soft to very heavy ground: 

Drillers $ 3.90 

Engineers .12 

Trammers and shovelers 3 . 81 

Timbermen 1 . 20 

Powder 1 . 19 

Fuse : 13 

Caps .05 

Candles 20 

Timber 1 . 90 

Power 60 

$13.10 
Operation No. 9: Detailed cost for 150 ft. of cross cut: 

Explosives $ 142 . 00 

Steel 20.00 

Timber 37 . 30 

Pipe 22.50 

Air 20.00 

Labor 993 . 60 

Total. $1 , 235 . 40 

or $8.24 per ft. 

Track, superintendence, surveying and power bring the total cost up to 
$10.34 per foot. 

Cycle of Operations: Start setting up horizontal bar and machine at 7:00 
a. m. Top holes drilled by noon and by the time muckers had the previous 
round mucked out; would then tear down and set up for the lifters. Round 
would be ready to shoot by 2:00 p. m. This operation continued for three 
shifts. 

Operation No. 10: The best progress was 53 ft. over a 10 day period, or at 
the rate of 160 ft. per 30 days. The average rate was about 120 ft. per month. 
Actual drilling time for a round was 5 hr., setting up and tearing down taking 
up 2 hr. 

Expenses over a distance of 100 ft.: 

700 lb. power, at 17 cts $119.00 

220 caps, at $1.30 per 100 2.86 

1320 ft. fuse, at $5.20 per 100 ft 6.86 

160 lb. steel, at $0,093 cts. per lb 14.90 

100 ft. 2-in. pipe, at 16 cts. per ft 16.00 

Contract 100 ft., at $4.50 per ft 450.00 

Air 20.00 

Total . $629 . 62 

or $6.30 per ft. 

Track, superintendence, surveying, assaying, apportionment of power, 
hoisting, etc., bring the cost up about $3.60 per ft., making the total cost $9.90 
per ft. 

All drilling and shooting was done on day shift. Mucking and laying planks 
and track was done on night shift. 

378.5 man-shifts were worked, or 153 shifts day and night. 

Comments on the Various Operations. — Nos. 1 and 2: These two operations 
afford a fair comparison of the solid-steel, piston drill, as compared with that 
of the water hammer drill. The 94 ft. of operation No. 1 were driven with a 



SMALL TUNNELS 1301 

piston drill, 5 shifts being required to put in a round of holes. At this point 
(see operation No. 2) a change was made to the water-hammer drill, after 
which a round of holes was drilled in from 1 to IH shifts. 

Attention is directed to the greater percentage of total cost chargeable to 
driUing in operation No. 1, as compared with No. 2. The increased cost of 
explosives and supphes in operation No. 2 is due largely to the increase in the 
cost of these materials in 1916 and 1917. 

No. 3: This is one of two operations out of the ten in which delay exploders 
were used. A minimum of misfires occurred and results were reported better 
than blasting with cap and fuse. This cross cut was run with a hammer stoper 
and good progress was made. The section of the drift was small compared with 
the other operations. It was reported that the fact that drilling was done on 
one shift and mucking on the next made for economy, but not speed. Keep- 
ing of drill parts in duplicate was an important factor in lessening delays. 

No. 4: This was an efficient operation. Note that the muckers came on 
three hours ahead of the drillers. A very important bit of information was 
brought out at this mine, namely: the change from l}4 in. hollow, round steel, 
with cross bit, to 1-in. hollow, hexagonal steel, with Carr bit, whiph greatly 
increased the driUing speed and the number of holes that could be drilled with 
one set of steel. 

No. 6: The striking feature here is the slow progress made with the solid- 
steel, piston drill. 

No. 7: This is a case in which good progress was made with the piston drill. 
However, the ground was not of the hardest at all times and the fact that the 
work was done on contract had some effect on the speed. The detailed costs 
are interesting. 

No. 8: This operation is a striking illustration of what can be done in cross 
cutting by day's pay plus a bonus. An average of 77 ft. was made every 
week. A little figuring will show plainly that the company was the gainer by 
paying the bonus. 

No. 9: This operation showed the lowest cost in labor and explosives. 

No. 10: The total cost shown for this operation was abnormally high, for 
the reason that there was no other work being done in the mine and all charges 
were directed towards this one cross cut. The progress was excellent, but 
on account of the fact that the ground was not as hard as any of the other opera- 
tions it is hardly fair to use this operation in comparison with the others. 

As indicated previously, it is believed that Operations 1 and 2 afford the 
best comparison between the solid-steel, piston and the water-hammer drills. 
However, one such operation cannot be taken as conclusive. While compari- 
sons from the table are by no means accurate, on account of varying condi- 
tions, it is of interest to note the following: Omitting operation No. 10, the 
average number of shifts required to drill one round of holes was 1.81 for solid- 
steel, piston drills, and 1.14 for the water-hammer drills. The average ad- 
vance per drill-shift was 3.10 ft. for the piston drills, and 4.07 ft. for the water- 
hammer drills. The average cost per foot in labor an explosives was $5 for 
the piston drills, and $3.66 for the water-hammer drills. 

Making a further distinction, the average cost per foot in labor and explo- 
sives shows $3.62 for the water-hammer drills using the Carr bit; $3.72 for 
the water-hammer drills using the cross bit, and $5 for solid-steel piston drills, 
with cross bit. 

Important Con.'<iderations. — Based on the information secured during this 
investigation, the following conclusions and suggestions are offered: 



1302 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

In the hard greenstone and slate found in the Amador Comity mines, the 
water-hammer type of drill is superior to the solid-steel piston drill. 

Apparently the Can bit does faster work in this rock. 

Working by day's pay with a bonus makes for speed and economy. 

The use of 1-in. hollow, hexagonal steel, with Can bit, as against 13<4-in. 
hollow, round steel, with cross bit, makes for speed and economy. 

It was brought out that in an operation the same progress was made by 
working two shifts as had previously been made working three shifts. This 
was due chiefly to the fact that the ventilation was very poor. The further 
fact was brought out that in poorly ventilated headings the efficiency of the 
men is often impaired, and sometimes they are entirely overcome, by powder 
gas. It appears that this trouble is more acute where the rock is hard. Best 
results seem to have been attained by blowing out the heading with a combined 
air and water spray after blasting. Where water is available the muck pile 
should be sprayed from time to time, as an aid in keeping down powder gas. 

Inasmuch as the prime factor in drilling efficiency is the force and frequency 
of the blow struck by the drill, it is of importance to keep compressors working 
up to efficiency and to watch carefully for leaks in the air line so that the proper 
pressure may be maintained at the drill. 

Drilling economy may be secured by conducting experiments on the proper 
strength and amount of powder to be used, the kind of bit to be used and the 
proper number, angle and size of drill holes. 

Electrical blasting is recommended where current is available. 

The keeping of detailed costs on each operation enables the operator to esti- 
mate closely the cost of proposed work. It also affords a check on work in 
progress, the operator at any time being able to locate any item that might be 
causing an unnecessary increase in cost. 

Costly delays may be eliminated by keeping duplicate drill parts close at 
hand. 

Misfires are a most important factor in causing delays. It is recommended 
that records be kept of misfires so that remedial measures may be taken should 
they exceed 2 per cent. 

A good drill-steei blacksmith is an absolute necessity for efficient work. 

Cost of 10 X 12 Ft. Tunnel at Copper Mountain, B. C. — Very rapid prog- 
ress was made in the driving of the main haulage level at the Copper Mountain 
Mines of the Canadian Copper Corp., Ltd., near Princeton, B. C. The 
methods employed in this work were described by Oscar Lachmund, in a 
paper presented in the fall of 1918 at the Chicago meeting of the A. I. M. E. 
from which the matter in this article was abstracted in Engineering and Con- 
tracting, March 19, 1919. 

Conditions were unfavorable for economical operations. The cost of power 
was high, for the fuel was of poor grade; besides, during the time the work was 
in progress, very little other power was needed so that most of the power cost 
was charged against the footage. The transmission line consisted of No. 4 
galvanized iron wire with the result that the line loss was considerable. The 
voltage transmitted was about 30,000. The plant was operated under a 
lease, which was due to expire about the same time this work was sup- 
posed to be completed ; an extension was refused ; therefore speed was most 
important. 

The plans called for a straight adit 2,900 ft. in length. At a point 2,800 ft. 
from the portal, two raises were to be put up to the next nearest workings, a 
difference in elevation of about 800 ft. One of these was to be a 2-compart- 



SMALL TUNNELS 



1303 



ment hoistway and the other a zigzag ore pass, or muck run. A location for 
these raises had been determined by a number of diamond-drill holes, but the 
material to be penetrated by the adit was not known. It seemed imperative 
to get the tunnel work completed as rapidly as possible, in order to allow for 
delays in the raising program, which were certain to occur. 

The plans called for a tunnel 9 ft. high by 11 ft. wide; but owing to the 
*'blocky" nature of some of the rock a considerable "over break" occurred. 
This enlarged the tunnel cross-section to 10.4 ft. by 12 ft. indicated by mea- 
surements taken at 200-ft. intervals after the work was finished and slowed up 
the work on account of. the extra waste handled, besides increasing the cost 
per foot of driving. Several regions of geological disturbance were crossed 
and the heavy ground encountered called for timber supports. More than 
350 ft. of heavy timbering was necessary at various points along the course 
of the tunnel; this also retarded the work to the extent of about 6 ft. per day 
for each set of timber placed. Once the working force was organized and the 
work well under way, three shifts were put on, working 8 hours each. 









I 

1 




P 17 6 fl 18 \\ ' ' / / 6 P 19 20p' % 



Hi' OHIO \« // Op 19 20\\ j^ 

,^21 •'fl22 ^ft.23 24<^^ ^ 




Fig. 3. — Drift round in main haulage head. Copper Mountain, British 
Columbia. 



Letters Indlcote Order of Firing 



The drills used were the dreadnaught No. 60. They were mounted four 
on a horizontal bar, from which position all but the four bottom holes or 
"lifters" were drilled, the miners working on the muck pile. Upon comple- 
tion of the upper part of the round, most of the muck had been removed; that 
which was left was rapidly thrown back from the face, all hands helping on 
this work. The horizontal bar was then torn down and dropped to the lower 
position, from which the lifters were drilled. The change of the bar from the 
upper to the lower position, together with drilling the lifters, loading, and 
firing the entire round, was frequently made in 50 minutes. The holes were 
pointed to pull a 7-ft. round and average about 9 ft. in depth. The center, or 
*' cut holes" were fired first, after which followed the side holes, then the back 
holes, and finally the lifters. The drift round commonly used in this work is 
illustrated in Fig. 3, which also indicates the firing of the holes in groups. The 
blasting was done by hand, the fuses being "spit." The timing of the shots 
was regulated by cutting the fuse in different lengths; the shortest for the 
center holes, the next longest for the side holes, and so on. The lifters were 
loaded with extra heavy charges of powder, so as to throw the muck back from 



1304 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

the face as much as possible. This was sometimes helped by placing charges 
of explosive outside and beneath the lifters; these were called muckers, and 
were set to go off after the rest of the round had been fired. 

The powder used was a non-freezing kind, varying in strength from 40 to 
60 per cent nitroglycerin, depending on the hardness of the rock at the face. 

The rock was handled in small, V-shaped, hand-dump cars of about 1,000-lb. 
capacity. Tramming was done by hand until the distance from heading to 
dump became too great, when horse haulage was substituted; later this was 
replaced by an electric installation. Steel plates were laid on the bottom for 
a distance of 30 to 40 ft. from the face, to facilitate shoveling, also to permit 
shunting empty cars past the loaded trains and thereby eliminating the need 
for double track. 

The cars, being light, were easily pulled from the track and, with bodies 
tilted, were passed on the steel plates, alongside of the loaded cars and then 
pushed back on to the track at the muck pile and loaded. Temporary track 
was laid close up to the face before firing a round. The T-rails were laid on 
their side, allowing the flanges of the car wheels to run on the grooves thus 
formed. 

The foul air and gases were removed, after each round was fired, by a 
Connersville rotary blower of 10 cu. ft. capacity, stationed at the portal of 
the tunnel. Later, a similar machine was placed about halfway in the adit 
and worked in tandem with it. The blowers were set to exhaust toward the 
surface through a 12-in. wire-wound, wooden stave pipe. The men were able 
to return to the heading within 15 minutes after firing. 

The mucking crew was divided into three gangs, on each shift, averaging 11 
men per shift. The work was divided so that one gang was shoveling muck, 
another was picking down from the muck pile, while the third was bringing 
up empty cars and forming them into trains after they were loaded. This 
latter work did not take up the entire time, so that this gang had an opportun- 
ity to rest. As soon as a train was loaded, the gangs changed jobs; that is, 
the pickers went at shoveling, the car handlers took the picks, and the shov- 
elers took the easy work, and so on. Greater efficiency was maintained in 
this manner, as the change of work tended to rest the men and they were able 
to work continuously. 

A bonus system was also a large factor in keeping the men up to the mark. 
This was based on a daily advance of 9 ft., upon which the then "going 
wages were guaranteed; for all advance over 9 ft., $6 per foot was added as 
bonus. For each set of timber placed, an allowance of 3 ft. was made, which 
applied on the bonus. Current wages at the time were $4.50 for miners, $4 
for helpers, and $3.50 for common labor. The bonus distribution brought 
these amounts up to $5.91 for miners, $5.25 for helpers, and $4.59 for muckers. 
The foreman and the shift bosses also shared in the bonus, the distribution 
being made by pro-rating the bonus in the same ratio as the amount of regular 
wage received by each man. Everybody seemed satisfied and no difficulties 
were experienced as far as the labor situation was concerned. 

The work was begun on Oct. 9, 1917, and the tunnel was finished March 11, 
1918, a total of 154 days. The actual working time was 150 days, four days 
being lost on account of a break in the power line. 

The length of the adit is 2,903 ft. and the daily average progress was 19.3 ft. 
for each working day. The greatest advance in any one month was in Decem- 
ber, 1917, when a total of 645 ft. was driven. The amount of rock handled is 
estimated at 185 tons per day. The material penetrated was granodiorite. 



SMALL TUNNELS 1305 

for the greater part of the distance. The total cost of driving the tunnel was 
$103,242, which brings the cost per foot of tunnel to $35.56. Certain equip- 
ment and supplies were charged against the work that should have been carried 
in a suspense account, as most of these had a certain salvage value because it 
was intended to use them in the future operation of the mines. For reasons 
already mentioned, such as expensive power, the cost given does not really 
represent the actual expense of driving. Had speed not been so important 
no doubt the work could have been done more cheaply. 
The cost items are as follows: 



Total driving cost: Per ft 

Labor $ 8.80 

Explosives 5.72 

Drills, parts and repairs 0.95 

Steel, sharpening and replacement 1 . 37 

Miscellaneous supplies 0. 66 

Power . . . 2.90 

$20.40 
Rock disposal: 

Labor $ 7.52 

Supplies . 57 

Power . 20 

$ 8.29 
Timbering: 

Labor $ 0.46 

Timber and supplies . 86 

$ 1.32 
Indirect expense: 

Air and water lines $ 1 . 88 

Electric lighting 0.35 

Ventilation 1.10 

Dump, tracks and trestles 0. 17 

Depreciation on drills . 33 

Depreciation on cars 0.11 

Surface hoisting and hauling 1 . 19 

Miscellaneous supplies . 42 

$ 5.55 

Total cost $35 . 56 

Timbering details: 

53 sets timber installed, cost per set $72. 62 

354 ft. of tunnel timbered, cost per foot 10 . 83 

Drilling details: 

Actual drilling hours 8 . 022 

Actual working days 149i3''£2 

Average drilling hours per day 53 . 50 

Cost of upkeep per drilling hour, in cts 22 . 53 



Organization and Progress in Driving 7 X 12 Ft. Drift, in Hard Gneiss. — 

Engineering and Contracting, June 16, 1920, abstracts the following data from 
the Engineering and Mining Journal. 

A 7-ft. X 12-ft. drift at the Harmony Mines at Mineville, N. Y., was driven 
a distance of 213 ft. in 36 8-hour shifts. The gang per shift consisted of two 
machine men and three men mucking and tramming. No. 248 IngersoU- 



1306 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Leyner drills with IK -in. round hollow drill steel with crossbits and >i-ln. 
change were used. The gage of the starter bit is 23^ in., four changes were 
made, and the holes drilled according to the V-type cut system. Time fuses, 
No. 8 caps, and Du Pont gelatin were utilized in blasting. The two machine 
men drilled, loaded, and fired 26 9-ft. holes per shift, which is 234 ft. of drilling 
per round. The muckers loaded the dirt in l^^-ton cars and pushed them to 
the main slope. 



Size of drift 7 ft. X 12 ft. 

Holes drilled per round 26 

Number of feet drilled per round 234 

Number of men per shift 5 

Advance of heading per shift , 5 . 92 ft. 

Advance of heading per man per month 31 . 93 ft. 

Cu. ft. rock removed per man per shift 99. 46 



Cost of Small Tunnel for Sewer in Very Hard Rock. — In Engineering News 
Record, May 3, 1917, Charles C. Hopkins gives the cost of a tunnel 410 ft. 
long driven under his supervision in 1904-5 at Saugerties, N. Y. in very hard 
rock — Cauda galli formation. 

The tunnel was 4 X 6 ft., with no water to contend with, and was to contain 
a sewer. The mucking was distributed and at a short distance from the tunnel 
entrance. The contract price for the tunnel was $7 per lin. ft. and the con- 
tractor sublet the labor at $6, furnishing the mucking equipment, explosives 
and hand drills. The equipment consisted of a second-hand car and track. 
The actual cost of 183 ft. of this tunnel was as follows: 



1,500 lb. dynamite @ 10|cts $ 157.50 

2,000 ft. fuse @ ^ct 10.00 

1.100 exploders @ 3cts 33.00 

800 fuse caps @ let 8 . 00 

Labor @ $6.00 per ft 1,098.00 

Total $1,306.50 

Cost per lineal foot 7 . 14 

The use of the plant would be covered by not to exceed lOcts. per ft. No 
appreciable difference in cost was noticeable in the driving of the remainder 
of the tunnel. The contractor made no money on this work, but the sub- 
contractor, after paying his helpers, earned $454.55 for the 1110 hours of his 
time on the 183 ft., or 40cts. per hour. The subcontractor paid his men 20 
and 15cts. per hour and made about 2^^ ft. per day. 

Cost of One-Man-Per-Heading Tunnel Driven Through Shale. — Engineer- 
ing News-Record, April 12, 1917, gives the following: 

A sewer tunnel 3147 ft. long, lined with vitrified-clay segmental blocks to an 
interior diameter of 36 in., is a feature of the Close's Creek sewer system at 
Des Moines, Iowa. The tunnel is in hard shale rock that disintegrates on 
exposure. It is 50 to 60 ft. below the surface. Shafts for manholes were 
sunk at intervals of 300 ft. and headings driven in both directions from each 
shaft. 

The excavation was sublet to miners, who used coal miners' hand drills as 
a rule. There was one man to each heading, and he loaded his own car and 



SMALL TUNNELS 1307 

ran it to and from the shaft. The cars were of wood, with a capacity of 8 
cu. ft. and ran on a track of 24-in. gage. The price for excavation was $1.75 
per ft., the contractor supplying the dynamite and installing the shaft hoists. 
No cages were used, the cars being hitched to chain slings. The muck was 
dumped into wagons for removal. Some gas was encountered, and men were 
overcome at times, owing to lack of ventilation. No explosions occurred. 
There was very little water. The progress averaged 2 ft. per heading per 9- 
hr. day, with six to eight headings under way most of the time. 

Cost of Constructing Brick Sewer in Tunnel Under Compressed Air. — 
Ivan A. Greenwood, gives tlie following in Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 
10, 1912. 

The Main Intercepting Sewer of Cleveland extends 13 miles along the lake 
shore with an outlet about 9 miles east of the center of the city. 

The size varies from 5 ft. up to 13 ft. 6 ins. The grade is 2 ft. to the mile, 
giving a velocity of about 4.3 ft. per second and about 405,000,000 gals, 
capacity for 24 hours at the outlet. 

The contracts for the sections completed between East 61st St. and East 
79th St. were let to John Wagner, Bratenahl, Ohio. This section, 12 ft. 3 ins. 
in diameter, 6,850 ft. long, built by tunneling about 40 ft. under ground, was 
constructed with three rings of No. 1 shale brick laid with Portland cenient 
mortar mixed in the proportions of 1 to 2. A 6-in. ring of wooden cants 
extended around the outside of the brickwork. The cants served the double 
purpose of providing a temporary roof during the mining and also saved 
the brickwork from damage when the shield was shoved forward by the 
hydraulic jacks, which braced directly against the cants. 

The material encountered for the most part consisted of hard blue clay 
which was readily knifed. Two pockets of quicksand were encountered one 
of which necessitated open cutting. 

But two shafts were used, one situated at the west end of the work, at East 
61st St., operated with one heading; the other, situated at about two-thirds 
of the way between beginning and end of the work at East 70th St., had two 
headings. The working plant at the East 70th St. shaft contained a hoisting 
engine which operated the cage used for conveying material; two hydraulic 
pumps with a capacity for a pressure of 6,000 lbs. per sq. in., one being used 
on each heading; two compressors, one for each heading; two 60 h. p. boilers; 
one dynamo capable of lighting 200 electric lights at 110 volts, and a 30 h. p. 
engine for operating the dynamo. The cants were made at this plant in a 
separate shed by sawing sticks of 6 X 8-in. timbers, 3 ft. long, so as to conform 
to the circumference of the tunnel. The East 61st St. shaft had practically the 
same machinery, with the exception that only one boiler, one compressor and 
one hydraulic pump were required. The Lake Shore & Michigan Southern 
Ry. furnished convenient facilities for receiving material. 

The work was carried on day and night. The mining was done during 
the day and the bricklaying at night. The work was started Oct. 1, 1909, and 
finished April 1, 1911. Considerable difficulty was encountered due to water 
and poor roof at each of the shafts when the headings were first started, and 
before compressed air was used. As soon as about 50 ft. of sewer had been 
built, brick masonry locks were constructed and the compressors started. 
About 14 lbs. pressure was all that could be obtained, as beyond that, the air 
could not be held because of the comparatively shallow depth. The average 
pressure used was scarcely 6 lbs. and served to keep the face and roof dry. 
The 3-in, pipe conveying the air was not stopped at the face end of the locks, 



1308 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

but was carried along with the construction. Another similar pipe extended 
from the shaft side of the lock up to the face. This was provided with a valve 
and was used to take out any water accumulating at the face. It also served 
as a means of rapidly changing the air at the face. 

The shields were of the ordinary variety, consisting of a circular steel shell 
with a 4-ft. follower for the roof. Two different sizes were used, one only 
slightly in excess of the required diameter of the tunnel and the other about 
4 ins. larger. The larger proved to be much more satisfactory, for the reason 
that if the shield were tipped slightly in order to go up for grade, the rear end 
of the follower of course would come down, the result being that the cants were 
forced downward. This often made it difficult to get in the three full rings 
of brickwork in the arch. Since the removal and replacement of the cants in 
the arch was an arduous and sometimes dangerous piece of work, it was found 
much more satisfactory to have a larger shield and to carry this a little high 
as the time saved much more than compensated for any slight excess of brick- 
work required. Each shield was provided with eight hydraulic jacks 4 ins. 
in diameter. While it was possible to obtain a pressure of 6,000 lbs. to the 
square inch, as a matter of fact a pressure much over 2,000 lbs. per square inch 
was seldom used, because the lesser pressure proved sufficient to move the 
shield. The jacks were the ordinary single action jacks, long enough to shove 
the shield 2 ft. The jacks were pushed back into their cylinders after a shove 
by releasing the water and prying them with crowbars. The double acting 
jacks would have been much more satisfactory for this purpose. The water 
from the hydraulic pump was carried in a high pressure ^^-in. pipe, especial 
care being used to secure perfect joints at the coupling. An extension arrange- 
ment at the shield fitted with movable joints allowed the shield to progress 
without uncoupling during a shift. 

Progress. — The actual process of mining was carried on by a force of six 
miners, two muckers, one timber man for the cants, and a boss miner. These 
men by means of knife and mattocks would dig out the clay about 2 ft. ahead 
of the shield. The shield would then be forced ahead, and cants set and the 
process repeated. Each shove would take about five or ten minutes, but the 
mining for each shove generally took about two hours. As a rule about five 
shoves a day were made. The greatest distance made for one heading in one 
day was a little over 17 ft., but the average p6r heading was about 9 ft. As 
fast as the material was cut out, it was placed on cars, each holding ^ cu. yd., 
and hauled by mules to the shaft. The cars ran directly from the tunnel onto 
the hoist and were raised to a platform, above the street, run out on the plat- 
form and dumped into wagons, which carried the clay to the lake shore where 
it was dumped into the lake. At the East 70th St. shaft the clay was dumped 
into cars which were hauled on a narrow gage track to the lake about a quarter 
of a mile away. The brick shift came on at about 7 o'clock in the evening, 
and stayed until the brickwork was brought up to the face. Two bricklayers 
with seven helpers could take care of the day's work in eight hours. Steel 
ribs with wooden lagging 2 ins. square and 12 ft. long were used for the arch, 
with 2-ft. strips of block lagging for the key. 

The contractor employed one superintendent for each shaft. Each super- 
intendent was assisted by a boss miner and mason foreman. 

The sawing of the cants was sublet by the contractor. One sawing equip- 
ment did the work for both shafts. 

The following tables show the make-up of each shift together with the 
average wage paid for each class of labor: 



SMALL TUNNELS 1309 

Mining Shift at East 61st St. Shaft (One Heading) 

6 Miners at $4.50 per day $27 . 00 

1 Timberman at $4.50 per day 4. 50 

2 Muckers at $2.50 per day 5.00 

1 Boss miner at $5.00 per day 5.00 

2 Mule drivers at $2.50 per day 5 . 00 

1 Lock tender at $2.50 per day 2. 50 

1 Cage man at $2.00 per day 2 . 00 

1 Tipple man at $2.00 per day 2 . 00 

2 Yard laborers at $2.00 per day 4 . 00 

2 Dump laborers at $2.00 per day 4. 00 

2 Teams at $5.00 per day 10.00 

1 Engineer at $4.00 per day 4 . 00 

1 Repair man at $4.00 per day 4 . 00 

1 Fireman at $2.00 per day 2 . 00 

1 Superintendent at $6.00 per day 6. 00 

25 Total $87.00 



Bricklaying Shift at East 61st Street Shaft 

2 Bricklayers at $8.00 per day $16. 00 

7 Helpers at $2.00 per day 14 . 00 

1 Lock tender at $2.50 per day 2. 50 

2 Mule drivers at $2.00 per day 4. 00 

3 Laborers at $2.00 per day 6.00 

1 Engineer at $4.00 per day 4 . 00 

1 Foreman at $3.50 per day 3 . 50 

17 Total $50.00 



Mining Shift at East 70th Street Shaft (2 Headings) 

12 Miners at $4.50 per day $ 54 . 00 

4 Muckers at $2.50 per day 10.00 

2 Timbermen at $4.50 per day 9 . 00 

2 Boss miners at $5.00 per day 10. 00 

4 Mule drivers at $2.00 per day 8 . 00 

2 Lock tenders at $2.50 per day 5 . 00 

2 Cage men at $2.00 per day 4. 00 

1 Tipple man at $2.00 per day 2 . 00 

2 Dump men at $2.00 per day 4 . 00 

4 Yard laborers at $2.00 per day 8 . 00 

1 Engineer at $4.00 per day 4 . 00 

1 Repairman at $4.00 per day 4 . 00 

1 Fireman at $2.00 per day 2 . 00 

1 Superintendent at $6.00 per day 6 . 00 

39 Total.... $130.00 



Bricklaying Shift at East 70th Street Shaft 

4 Bricklayers at $8.00 per day $32 . 00 

12 Helpers at $2.00 per day 24.00 

2 Lock tenders at $2.50 per day 5. 00 

2 Mule drivers at $2.00 per day 4 . 00 

1 Foreman at $3.50 per day 3. 50 

1 Cageman at $2.00 per day 2 . 00 

3 Yard laborers at $2.00 per day 6 . 00 

1 Fireman at $2.00 per day 2. 00 

1 Repairman at $3.00 per day 3 . 00 

1 Engineer at $4.00 per day 4 . 00 

28 Total $85.50 



1310 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



The tables show clearly the advantage in economy of operating two head- 
ings from one shaft. As a matter of fact this did not work out all the time, 
due to a bad quicksand pocket struck in the heading going east from East 
70th St., which delayed that heading until the other two headings came 
together. 

About 750 bricks per running foot were used in construction laid with 3^-in. 
joints. The cement used was Lehigh Portland; between 7 and 8 bags being 
used with about 0.6 cu. yds. sand per running foot. The cants required 
about 282 ft. B. M. per running foot. The contract price for the section 
running between E. 61st St. and E. 67th St. was $35.97 per lin. ft. and for the- 
section running for E. 67th St. to E. 79th St. it was $32.73 per lin. ft. 

Cost of Water Works Tunnels Through Waban Hill, Newton, Mass. — 
William E. Foss* gives the following data in Engineering and Contracting, 
July 22, 1914. 




___ , ^lopWds'-mo \ '^-^<v.. 

337 Laicf -^•tobf i^Qiald ^with ConcKVr^ Lined ibelaid: 
'laid' 



Aqueduct 



'; lld'tobe- 

1 _h-_(9/?( 

Tunnel ^-^^Aquet 




CochVfuat€"gft' South of Press.Tun. Aqueduct- 



Steel re th 




6 7 6 24 25 26 27 28 

iZOft above Boston city base 

P rof i I e , • j--Hole for pouring 
Mortor lining 



29 30 31 32 33 




Established Line for Tunnel Exca. 

Typical Section inTunnel Steel Pipe Steel pvpe in Rock 
^' jnEarthTrench Trench 



Clearance Line 



-Mortar Lining 

Established line for 
Yf^ock Excavation 



-■5-Z-^ 



Fig. 4. — Profile and sections of pipe lines and pressure tunnel of Sect. 7 of the 
Weston Aqueduct supply mains. 



The pressure tunnel in rock through Waban Hill in Newton, Mass., profile 
of which is shown in Fig. 4 was carried on under contract in 1910 and 1911, and 
included the construction of 2,042 ft. of 76-in. concrete lined pressure tunnel 
in rock, the laying of 363 ft. of 80-in. steel pipes in deep cut and lining them 

*Asst. to the Chief Eng., Metropolitan Water & Sewerage Board, Boston, Mass. 



SMALL TUNNELS 1311 

with cement mortar, and the laying of 935 ft. of 60-in. cast-iron water pipe. 
In this article the item numbers used in the specifications are retained. 

The work was begun May 24, 1910, and was suspended for the winter on 
December 31 of that year. It was resumed on April 1 of the following year 
and completed on Nov. 25, 1911. 

Prior to July 1, 1911, the working day included 9 hours, from 7:30 a. m. to 
5 p. m. with 3^ hour for lunch, with the exception that during the driving of 
the tunnel the night shift worked from 7:00 p. m. to such time as the drilling 
was completed, with one hour for lunch. As blasting was not allowed between 
6:30 p. m. and 6:30 a. m., the night shift remained on the work until the blast- 
ing was completed after 6:30 a. m. The steam plant was operated continu- 
ously through the 24 hours, the engineers working 8-hour shifts. 

After July 1, 1911, all work was conducted on an 8-hour per day basis. The 
work of lining the tunnel with concrete was carried on continuously for six 
days per week. All wages were substantially the same for the 8-hour day as 
for the 9-hour day. 

Steam plants for driving air compressors, for operating the drills, dynamos, 
for lighting the tunnel, and the engines for operating the stone crushers were 
installed at both ends of the tunnel, and the work was carried on from both 
portals. 

Construction Plant. — An approximate estimate of the value of the plant when 
new is as follows: 



Plant at East End of tunnel: 

2 Erie City Iron Works 75 hp. horizontal locomotive type boilers, 

54 ins. diameter, 18 ft. long $1,800.00 

1 Buffalo Forge Co. dynamo engine 500. 00 

1 30 kw. Eddy 120-volt D.C. dynamo, with appurtenances 500.00 

1 Rand Drill Co. 110 hp. air compressor 1 , 650. 00 

1 Air receiver. 45 . 00 

1 No. 3 Austin gyratory stone crusher, conveyor and screens, 

complete 1,975.00 

1 Nagle 55 hp. crusher engine 535 . 00 

1 Blacksmith's outfit, complete 65 . 00 

2 2-in. Canton duplex pumps 120 . 00 

1,200 ft. 2-in. iron pipe 120. 00 

1,200 ft. %-in. iron pipe 40.00 

1 wooden water tank, 4 ft. by 5 ft 25 . 00 

Total cost of plant at East End $7,375.00 

Plant at West End of Tunnel: 

2 Erie City Iron Works 75 hp. horizontal locomotive type boilers, 

54 ins. diameter, 18 ft. long $1 ,800. 00 

1 Nagle 32 hp. dynamo engine 500 . 00 

1 110-volt D.C. dynamo, with appurtenances 550. 00 

1 1890 Model Rand Drill Co. 110-hp. air compressor 1,650.00 

1 Air receiver 45 . 00 

1 No. 4 Austin gyratory stone crusher, conveyor and screens, 

complete 2,365.00 

1 Buckeye Engine Co. 50 hp. crusher engine 500.00 

1 Friction hoist 400 . 00 

250 ft. ^-in. cable 45.00 

1 Blacksmith's oufit, complete 65. 00 

1 2-in. Canton duplex pump 60 . 00 

2,800 ft. 2-in., 1-in. and ^-in. iron pipe 270. OO 

Total cost of plant at West End $8,250.00 



1312 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

General plant: 

15 tons steel rails $ 600 . 00 

1 Smith concrete mixer, H cu. yd. capacity 700. 00 

13 3>i-in. Rand rock drills 2,795.00 

6 ^-in. Chicago Tool Co. jap drills 300. 00 

9 columns, arms, etc., for rock drills 450 . 00 

3 tripods for rock drills 135 . 00 

1 Tidewater Iron Works Cunniff type grout machine 200 . 00 

42 steel dump cars, % cu. yd. capacity 2 , 100 . 00 

10 slip scrapers 70 . 00 

2 single dump carts 150 . 00 

1 2-horse wagon 150 . 00 

1 4-ton differential hoist 76 . 00 

1 large vise 5 . 10 

1 pipe vise 4 . 00 

2 2-in. pipe stocks and dies 7 . 20 

1 lead heating outfit 36 . 50 

1 breaking up plough 24 . 50 

6 wheelbarrows 22 . 50 

1 stiff leg pipe derrick 56 . 00 

Total cost of General Plant $ 7 , 881 . 80 

Total estimated value of entire plant when new $23 , 506 . 80 

Total Cost. — Including an allowance at the rate of 25 per cent per year on 
this valuation, for interest and depreciation on the plant during the time that 
it was in use, the total cost of the work exclusive of the expense of the con- 
tractor's Chicago office, his personal traveling and other expenses, and his 
expenses in connection with the litigation and settlement of the claims made 
by several property owners in the vicinity of the work for alleged damages 
from the blasting, is as follows: 

Interest and depreciation on plant $ 7,386.81 

Labor and teaming, on payrolls 47 , 821 . 56 

Materials and expenses, on bills 43,744.74 

Expenditures for extra work not included above. . . . 504.88 

Total expenditures $ 99,457.99 

Amount of final estimate 114,472. 13 

Profit $ 15,014.14 

Profit per cent of expenditures 15. 1 

Wages. — The prices paid for labor were as follows: 

Superintendent, per month $200 . 00 

Clerk, per month 100. 00 

Brick mason, per day $4 . 00 and 5 . 60 

Blacksmith, per day $3 . 50 and 4 . 00 

Calker, per day $3.00 and 3.60 

Carpenter, per day 4 . 50 

Drill runner, per day 3 . 50 

Drill runner's helper, per day 2 . 50 

Engineer, per day $3 . 00 to 5 . 00 

Foreman, per day $4 . 00 and 5 . 00 

Sub-foreman, per day. $2 . 50 and 3 . 00 

Laborers (per day); 

Crusher man, lead man, powder man, stableman and teamster 2 . 50 

Tunnel man 2.25 

Ordinary 2.00 

Teams (per day): 

4-horse hitch, with driver and helper 12 . 00 

2-horse cart and driver ,. 6 . 00 

1-horse cart with one driver for two carts 3 . 00 

Mules, cost of maintenance at contractor's stable, per day 1.03 



SMALL TUNNELS 1313 

Materials and Miscellaneous Expenses. — The prices paid for materials and 
miscellaneous expenses on bills were as follows: 



Accidents, damages, etc $ 48. 64 

Blacksmith and jobbing 579 . 99 

Bond premium (S5 per annum per $1,000 on amount of contract, as 

shown by canvass of bids) 818 . 14 

Bricks, at $9.50 per M 171 . 50 

Brick mason 49 . 70 

Cement, delivered on work $1.72 per bbl., including cost of bags — 
actual net cost on work, including teaming, storage, loss of bags 

and cement damaged, 7,308 bbls. at $1.386 10,129.21 

Coal— 

1,226 tons bituminous at $3.83 f. o. b. cars per gross 

ton $4,694.02 

152 tons at $4.60 delivered on work per gross ton. ... 698.63 

Blacksmith, 8.69 tons at $4.85 42. 12 

5,434.77 

Drills and incidentals 2,394.73 

Dynamite — 

40 %, 951 lbs. at $0.1225 $ 116. 50 

60%, 25,294 lbs. at $0.1625 4,110.29 

Exploders, 2,000 at $3.43 per 100 68. 60 

4,295.39 

Express 294.95 

Forms for concrete and mortar lining, rental 1 , 617 . 00 

Grouting machine, rental. 18 . 00 

Hay and grain 1 , 379 . 33 

Insurance 1 , 486 . 03 

Jute, 400 lbs. at $0.06 24 . 00 

Lead, 1,050 tons at $95.00, 4.772 tons at $97.50 565. 10 

Livery 65 . 93 

Lumber — Georgia pine at $35.00; hemlock boards at $25.00; spruce, 

8-in, and under, at $28.00; spruce, over 8-in., at $30.00 2,516.95 

Oil — Castor at $0.35 per gal. f. o. b. Boston; compressor at $0.20 per 
gal., f. o. b. Boston; cylinder at $0,215 per gal., gasoline at $0.15 
per gal.; kerosene at $0.13 per gal., machine at $0,185 per gal 502.94 

Repairs to plant 1 , 079 . 25 

Sand — 

Coarse, 1,830.4 cu. yds. at $0.90 delivered on work $1 , 647 . 36 



Fine, 238.3 cu. yds. at $1.25 delivered on work 298 . 20 



,945.56 

Sand blasting steel pipe 701 . 80 

Teaming 1 , 292 . 32 

Telephone 231 . 19 

Tools, hardware and miscellaneous 4,490. 28 

Transporting plant 1 , 183 . 97 

Water 428 . 07 



Total for materials and miscellaneous $43 , 744 . 74 



Itemized and Unit Construction Costs. — The cost of the various items of 
work under this contract, in detail, was as follows: 

Item 1. — Top Soil Excavation (1412 cu. yds.) — Under this item the top soil 
was excavated from an area of about 0.95 of an acre for an average depth of 
11 ins., where other excavations were to be made or embankments were to be 
83 



1314 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

built. The material was loosened with plows and transported about 180 ft. 
to spoil banks and slip scrapers. The cost of the work was as follows: 

Cost 

per 

cu. yd. 

Superintendence and general labor $0 . 04 

Labor 0.21 

Teaming 0. 11 

Small tools, etc . 02 

Incidental expenses and insurance . 014 

Plant, interest and depreciation 0.01 

Total cost $0 . 404 

Value of work . 60 

Profit , $0. 196 



Item 2. — Top Soil Surfacing (1390 cu. yds.) — Under this item an area of 
about 1 acre was covered with loam from spoil banks to an average depth of 
6 ins. at the west end of the tunnel, and at the east end an area of about 0.27 
acre was covered to an average depth of 1 ft., and another area of about 0.27 
acre was covered to an average depth of 3 ins. The entire work was done 
with teams. The haul averaged about 210 ft. The cost of the work was as 
follows: 

Cost 

per 

cu. yd. 

Superintendence and general labor $0. 05 

Labor 0.25 

Teaming 0. 19 

Small tools, etc 0.03 

Incidental expenses and insurance .' . 015 

Plant, interest and depreciation . 001 

Total cost $0 . 536 

Value of work 0.546 

Profit $0.01 



Item 3. — Earth Excavation in Open Trench (4184 cu. yds.) — Under this item 
about 480 lin. ft. of trench for the 60-in. pipe line and 350 lin. ft. of trench for 
80-in. pipe line was excavated at both ends of the tunnel. The trench for the 
60-in. hne averaged about 8 ft. in depth, and that for the 80-in. line was made 
in open cut and varied from 10 to 25 ft. in total depth in earth and rock, the 
depth of the earth ranging from 5 to 14 feet. The width of the trench was 
from 20 to 35 ft. at the top and 10 ft. at the bottom, and no attempt was 
made to brace the sides, which were allowed to take a natural slope. The 
earth was loosened with picks and shoveled into cars, which were hauled by 
mules to the spoil banks. The haul averaged about 350 ft. The earth exca- 
vated in the 80-in. pipe trench at the east end of the tunnel was a compact 
binding gravel; so hard that dynamite was used in loosening it. The large 
percentage of loss on this item was due to the extremely hard material in the 
80-in. pipe trench at the east end of the tunnel, and to the nature of the mate- 
rial in the 60-in. pipe trench at this end which was largely a mixture of stone 



SMALL TUNNELS 1315 

chips and clay and was hard to excavate and brace. The cost of the work was 
as follows: 



Cost 
per 
Item cu. yd. 

Superintendence and general labor $0.11 

Labor . 64 

Teaming . 05 

Lumber for bracing 0.01 

Small tools, etc . 07 

Incidental expenses and insurance . 04 

Plant, interest and depreciation . 02 



Total cost $0 . 94 

Value of work . 52 



Loss $0. 42 



Item 4. — Rock Excavation in Open Trench (788 cu. yds,) — About two-thirds 
of the rock excavation under this item was in the deep open cut at the east 
end of the tunnel, where the rock was extremely hard. On account of the 
liberal dimensions of the trench and the isolated location, conditions were 
favorable for excavating the rock cheaply. The rock was loaded on cars and 
transported by mules to the crusher. The haul averaged about 380 ft. The 
cost of the work was as follows: 



Cost 
per 
Item cu. yd. 

Superintendence and general labor $0. 20 

Labor 1.11 

Teaming . 10 

Explosives 0.19 

Drill incidentals 0.25 

Small tools, etc 0. 16 

Incidental expenses and insurance 0.10 

Plant- 
Transportation erection, repairs, operation and dismantling 0.94 

Interest and depreciation . 27 

Total cost $3.32 

Value of work : 3.26 

Loss $0.06 



Item 5. — Refilling Operi Trenches and Building Embankments (8,569 cu. yds.) 
In refilling the pipe trenches and building embankments selected fine mate- 
rial thoroughly consolidated with rammers and tamping irons was used for 
bedding the pipe. The remainder of the material was delivered from the 
spoil bank in cars and was spread in 6-in. layers. About one-fourth of the 
material paid for under this item was a sharp sandy gravel from the spoil 
bank of the surplus material from the 60-in. pipe trench on the adjoining 
section to the west. The remainder of the material was a clayey gravel 



1316 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

excavated from the trenches. The average haul for this work was about 300 ft. 
The cost of the work was as follows: 

Cost 
per 
Item cu. yd. 

Superintendence and general labor $0 . 05 

Labor . 33 

Teaming . 03 

Small tools, etc . 03 

Incidental expenses and insurance . 025 

Plant, interest and depreciation . 009 

Total cost $0,474 

Value of work . 554 

Profit $0.08 



Item 6. — Tunnel Excavation (2,042.5 lin. ft.; 6,125 cu. yds.) — The tunnel was 
excavated in rock for the entire length of 2042.5 lin. ft. The volume of mate- 
rial excavated was 6,125 cu. yds. which is equivalent to an average excavation 
of 3 cu. yds. per lineal foot. The average cross-sectional area of 81 sq. ft. is 
equivalent to the area of a circle 10.15 ft. in diameter, and as the established 
line for tunnel excavation provided for an excavation 9 ft. in diameter, with 
a cross-sectional area of 63.62 sq. ft. the actual cross-section exceeded the 
established section by 17.38 sq. ft., or about 27 per cent. It was provided that 
the excavation should be trimmed so that the minimum distance from the 
axis of the tunnel to the rock should be 3 ft. 11 ins., which would leave 9 ins, 
as a minimum thickness for the concrete lining. Very little trimming was 
necessary. 

For a distance of 600 ft. from the easterly portal the tunnel was excavated 
in hard trap rock. For the remainder of the distance the excavation was in 
conglomerate with quartzite pebbles varying from 3 or 4 ins. to yi in. in diam- 
eter. The felsite cement was very hard in some places and extremely soft at 
other points, where it had changed to kaolin. About 75 ft. from the west 
portal a seam of clayey gravel was encountered in the roof of the tunnel, and 
it was necessary to support the roof on timbers for a distance of about 26 ft. 
Timbering was also necesssary at five other points to support the side of the 
tunnel where the excavation broke through into the loosely backfilled shafts 
of the old Cochituate Aqueduct tunnel, which is located about 9 ft. south of 
and 20 ft. below the new tunnel. This old tunnel was constructed by the 
city of Boston in 1848. At one of the old shafts the entire filling caved into 
the tunnel and had to be removed. Less drilling and explosives were required 
for the excavation of the trap rock than for the conglomerate, but it frequently 
broke wide of the desired line and formed an unnecessarily large section, which 
delayed the progress of the work because of the increased quantity of material 
to be moved and the caution required to prevent accidents from falling rocks. 
The work was carried on at both headings with day and night shifts. From 
15 to 21 holes from 5 to 6 ft. in depth were drilled and blasted per shift at 
each heading. The force usually employed included about 12 men and 1 
mule. The progress averaged about 5 ft. per shift at each heading. The 
drilling was done with Ingersoll-Rand drills mounted on vertical columns and 
operated by compressed air under a pressure of about 100 lbs. per square inch. 
The following cost of the tunnel excavation includes the cost of loading the 



SMALL TUNNELS 1317 

excavated material on cars and transporting it to the crusher or dumps by- 
mules. The haul averaged about 750 ft. 

Cost per Cost per 

Item lin. ft. cu. yd. 

Superintendence and general labor $1 . 13 $0. 38 

Labor 6.40 2.13 

Teaming 0.62 0.21 

Explosives 2.03 0.68 

Lumber 0.05 0.02 

Drill repairs 1 . 08 0. 36 

Small tools, etc 0.96 0.32 

Incidental expenses and insurance 0.78 . 26 

Plant- 
Transportation, erection, repairs, operation and dismant- 
ling 5. 43 1 . 80 

Interest and depreciation 1 . 85 . 62 

Total cost $20.33 $6.78 

Value of work 25.01 8.33 

Profit $4.68 $1.55 

Item 7.— Crushing Stone (9,779 cu. yds.) — About 80 per cent of all the rock 
excavated was crushed. At the east portal the rock was delivered directly on 
the crusher platform and at the west portal the rock was hauled from the 
tunnel in cars which were left in the open cut at the foot of an incline, up which 
they were hauled to the crusher platform by a friction hoist operated by the 
crushing machinery. At both crushers the product was screened and separ- 
ated into three sizes, one including stones 2 ins. to ^ in. in diameter, another 
stones ^i to >^ in. in diameter, and the remaining portion included all materials 
less than ^4= in. in diameter. At the east portal it was necessary to haul about 
70 per cent of the product about 100 ft. to storage piles, and at the west portal 
the entire product was hauled about 125 ft. to storage piles. Most of the 
rock was delivered to the crusher in convenient size for crushing and very little 
hand breaking of material was necessary. The large crusher at the west 
portal was operated during the day only and crushed the 24-hour output from 
the tunnel easily, as there were ample storage facilities for the muck at this 
place. At the east portal, on account of the limited storage facilities and 
smaller size of the crusher, it was necessary to operate the crusher during 
both shifts. The cost of the work was as follows: 

Cost 
per 
Item cu. yd. 

Superintendence and general labor $0. 03 

Labor 0. 17 

Teaming. 0. 02 

Small tools, etc . 03 

Incidental expenses and insurance 0. 013 

Plant- 
Transportation, erection, repairs, operation and dismantling 0.15 

Interest and depreciation 0. 19 

Total cost $0. 603 

Value of work . 75 

Profit $0. 147 

Item 8. — Portand Cement Concrete Masonry in Tunnel. (2,330 cu. yds. were 
placed within the line of the established excavation; 144 cu. yds. were placed 
in old shafts; 1,268 cu. yds. were placed beyond line of established excavation 



1318 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

but only 50 per cent of this last amount was estimated for payment, according 
to terms of the contract; total, 3,742 cu. yds.) 

The 3,742 cu. yds. of concrete placed in lining the tunnel is equivalent to an 
average of 1.83 cu. yds. per linear foot. The concrete was mixed in the pro- 
portion of 380 lbs, of Portland cement, 8 cu. ft. of loosely compacted sand, and 
15 cu. ft. of loosely compacted mixture of 2-in. and ^-in. size crushed stone, 
giving a 1:2.22:4.17 mixture. The concrete was mixed in a steam-driven 
Smith mixer of >^-cu. yd. capacity, set on the platform at the tunnel so that 
the concrete was discharged directly into cars which were run through to the 
point where the lining was being placed. The concrete was dumped upon a 
temporary floor of steel plates inside of the circular forms which consisted of 
channel iron ribs spaced 5 ft. on centers, to which the curved side plates were 
bolted. The concrete was shoveled from the floor into the space between the 
forms and the rock walls and was thoroughly spaded and churned. Successive 
side plates were bolted to the ribs as the work progressed, and this portion of 
the work was completed by filling the key space at the top, the keying plates 
being 2.5 ft. in length, so that the concrete could be firmly packed. One 
hundred and fifty linear feet of forms were used, and as no inside braces were 
required cars could be run through them. The forms made the mould for 
the entire cross-section of the tunnel, except the invert strip which was 2.5 
ft. wide. In placing the concrete the bottom layer was put in to within 1 ft. 
of the invert. The side walls and key were then filled and the 2.5 ft. wide 
invert was placed later. 

In the westerly portion of the tunnel the bottom layer was placed on both 
sides of the track, which was left supported on a central strip of muck which 
was later removed, just before placing the invert. 

In the easterly portion of the tunnel the track was thrown to one side while 
the bottom layer of concrete was placed on the opposite side. The track 
was then shifted on to the concrete already placed and concrete was then 
placed on the other side. The work was carried on in three 8-hour shifts. 
Forms were removed and set up in one shift and concrete was placed during 
the remaining 16 hours. The average progress per 24 hours was about 35 
lin. ft. of completed section, except for the 2.5 ft. invert strip which was placed 
and finished to line with a screed after the track and forms were removed. 

The concrete was transported an average distance of 620 ft and the crushed 
stone an average distance of 240 ft. from the storage pile to the mixer. The 
sand and cement were usually delivered to within a short distance of the mix- 
ing platform. 

The cost of this work has been sub-divided to show the cost of forms sepa- 
rate from the cost of mixing and placing the concrete, as follows: 

Cost 
per 
Item cu. yd. 

Forms: 

Superintendence and general labor $0. 08 

Labor 0.45 

Teaming 0.06 

Lumber 0.03 . 

Small tools, etc 0. 07 

Incidental expenses and insurance . 06 

Rental and transportation of forms . 40 

Plant- 
Transportation, erection, repairs, operation and dismantling 0.38 

Interest and depreciation 0. 06 

Total cost $1 . 59 



SMALL TUNNELS 1319 

Cost 
per 

Item cu. yd. 
Mixing and placing concrete: 

Superintendence and general labor $0 . 20 

Labor 1 . 13 

Teaming " 0.11 

Sand 0.38 

Cement 2.11 

Small tools, etc 0.17 

Incidental expenses and insurance 0. 13 

Plant- 
Transportation, erection, repairs, operation and dismantling . 96 

Interest and depreciation . 27 

Total cost $5.46 

Total. 

Superintendence and general labor $0 . 28 

Labor 1 . 58 

Teaming •: 0.17 

Lumber . 03 

Sand 0.38 

Cement 2.10 

Small tools, etc . 24 

Incidental expenses and insurance 0.19 

Rental and transportation of forms 0.40 

Plant- 
Transportation, erection, repairs, operation and dismantling 1 . 35 

Interest and depreciation . 33 

Total cost $7 . 05 

Value of work 8 . 44 

Profit $1 .39 



Item 9. — Portland Cement Concrete Masonry in Open Trench (451 cu. yds.) — 
With the exception of a little concrete used for anchorages and backing on the 
60-in. cast-iron pipe line, the concrete masonry placed in open trenches was 
used for covering the 80-in. steel pipe line. The quantity used for this purpose 
averaged about 0.84 cu. yd. per linear foot of pipe line. This concrete was 
mixed in the proportion of 380 lbs. of Portland cement to 10 cu. ft. of loosely 
compacted sand and 18 cu. ft. of a loosely compacted mixture of 2-in. and ^- 
in. size crushed stone, making a 1:2.78:5 mixture. 

At the west portal the concrete was hand mixed and as the trench was almost 
entirely in earth, wooden forms were used for the entire section. At the east 
portal, where the trench was almost entirely in rock, the concrete was placed 
up to the springing line of the arch, without forms, wooden forms being used 
for the remainder of the section. At this place the concrete was mixed in a 
steam-driven Smith mixer and hauled about 100 ft. Before constructing 
the forms and placing concrete around the steel pipe, it was braced inside to 
true circular form, and the outside was cleaned to bright iron with a sand 
blast and then painted with a thick coat of cement paint made by mixing 10 
lbs. of cement with 5 lbs. of water. Holes were left in the concrete at the 
top of the pipe, through which the cement mortar lining was placed later. 

The cost of the work has been sub-divided to show the cost of forms separate 
from the cost of mixing and placing the concrete, as follows: 



1320 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cost 
per 

Item cu. yd. 
Forms: 

Superintendence and general labor $0. 12 

Labor . 65 

Teaming . 05 

Lumber 0.20 

Small tools, etc . 07 

Incidental expenses and insurance 0.04 

Plant, interest and depreciation 0. 001 

Total cost. $1,131 

Mixing and placing concrete: 

Superintendence and general labor $0.27 

Labor 1 . 50 

Teaming 0. 13 

Sand 0.53 

Cement 1 . 63 

Sand blasting 0.78* 

Small tools, etc 0.20 

Incidental expenses and insurance 0.12 

Plant — 

Transportation, erection, repairs, operation and dismantling 0. 60 

Interest and depreciation . 07 

Total cost $5.83 

Total: 

Superintendence and general labor $0. 39 

Labor 2. 15 

Teaming 0. 18 

Lumber 0.20 

Sand 0.53 

Cement 1 . 63 

Sand blasting outside of 80-in. pipe . 78 

Small tools, etc . 27 

Incidental expenses and insurance 0. 16 

Plant — 

Transportation, erection, repairs, operation and dismantling 0. 60 

Interest and depreciation . 07 

Total cost $6.96 

Value of work 6 . 43 

Loss $0 . .53 

* Cost per sq. ft. of surface cleaned = 4.6 cts. 

Item 10. — Brick Masonry (36 cu. yds.) — This item included brick masonry- 
used in constructing valve chambers and raising manholes on the Cochituate 
Aqueduct. The CQSt of the work was as follows: 

Cost 
per 
Item cu. yd. 

Superintendence and general labor $ 0. 84 

Labor 6. 12 

Sand, obtained on work 0. 14 

Cement 2.19 

Bricks , ; 4 . 62 

Small tools, etc . 53 

Incidental expenses and insurance 0. 34 

Plant, interest and depreciation O.OI 

Total cost $14.79 

Value of work 15.59 

Profit $ 0.80 

Item 11. — Cement Grout in Tunnel (292 cu. yds.) — When the concrete tunnel 
lining was placed, IK -in. steel pipes with couplings on the outer ends, which 



SMALL TUNNELS 1321 

were temporarily plugged with wood, were run into all seams and cavities 
which could not be properly filled with concrete. The spacing of the grout 
pipes was governed to a large extent by the character of the walls of the tunnel 
at various points. Extra pipes were placed at each of the old shafts on the 
Cochituate Aqueduct, and in the section where the roof was supported by 
timbers in the gravel about 75 ft. from the west portal. Under ordinary 
conditions the average distance between grout pipes was about 20 ft. The 
pipes and couplings were furnished by the Commonwealth. The specifica- 
tions provided that grout pipes should be placed so that all voids could be 
filled without forcing the grout more than 10 ft. in any direction, but it was 
found that the grout actually traveled much greater distances. 

The grouting was not begun until after the lining was entirely completed 
and the concrete had attained considerable strength and most of the shrinkage 
cracks had developed. It was required that the sand used for grouting should 
all pass through a sieve having 64 meshes per square inch, and that at least 
40 per cent should pass through a sieve having 1 600 meshes per square inch. 
In making the grout 4 cu. ft. of sand was mixed dry with 380 lbs. of Portland 
cement. The mixed material was then divided into nine equal parts and put 
up in bags in which it was transported to the point where grouting was in 
progress. Three bags of this material and 1.2 cu. ft. of water were used in 
charging the grout machine. The machine was a tight steel cylinder about 
4 ft. high and 18 ins. in diameter, with a 1-in. connection for admitting the 
compressed air, and a 2K-in. outlet. It was charged through an opening at 
the top provided with a heavy cover fitted with a rubber gasket. The com- 
pressed air for operating the machine was obtained from the plant at the east 
portal, which at this time it was necessary to keep in operation solely for this 
purpose. The pressure averaged about 80 lbs. per square inch. The grout 
was mixed by turning in compressed air at the bottom, which kept the mixture • 
"boiling" and prevented the sand and cement from settling and choking the 
outlet pipe. About 0.14 cu. yd. of grout was used per linear foot of tunnel. 
Three hundied and eighty pounds of cement made about 0.9 cu. yd. of grout. 
The amount of grout required was probably increased about 25 per cent on 
account of the amount required at the old Cochituate Aqueduct shafts and 
at the point where timbering was required near the west portal of the tunnel. 
The cost of the work was as follows: 

Cost Cost 
per per 

Item cu. yd. lin. ft. 

Superintendence and general labor $ 0. 60 $0. 09 

Labor 3.34 0.48 

Teaming 0.01 0.002 

Sand 0.76 0.11 

Cement 4 . 58 . 65 

Small tools, etc 0.50 0.07 

Incidental expenses and insurance . 30 . 04 

Rental, transportation and repairs of grout machine 0. 09 0.013 

Plant- 
Transportation, erection, repairs, operation and dis- 
mantling 2.83 . 40 

Interest and depreciation . 22 . 03 

Total cost $13.23 $1,884 

Value of work 12.66 1.810 

Loss $ . 57 $0 . 074 



1322 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Item 12. — Cement Mortar Lining of SO-In, Steel Pipe (363 lin. ft.) — The 
mortar lining for the 80-in. steel pipe was made 2 ins. thick and was cast in 
place by pouring a thin mortar into the space between the steel pipe and a 
central collapsible steel form of the Blaw type, which was held in correct posi- 
tion by means of adjustable bolts, located around the circumference of the 
form and which were brought to a bearing upon the steel pipe so as to provide 
the desired 2-in. space for the mortar. The forms were made in sections 7 ft. 
long, each section consisting of five circular segments bolted together with an 
adjustable wooden key piece at the top. The mortar was poured through 2- 
in. holes in the top of the pipe, the lining being cast in sections 14 ft. long, 
without interruption in the flow of mortar after the pouring of a section was 
once started. 

The end of the section was closed by means of a hose extending around the 
circumference and expanded by means of water pressure, forming a bulkhead 
at the end of the annular space between the steel pipe and the form. 

Before setting up the forms, the interior of the pipe was cleaned to bright 
iron with a sand blast and it was then painted with a cement wash in the same 
manner as the outside of the pipe, described under Item 9. The mortar 
was mixed in the proportion of 1 part of Portland cement, two parts 
of sand and water amounting to about 25 per cent of the volume of these 
materials. 

On account of the short length of pipe to be hned, the mortar was mixed 
by hand in barrels supported on a wooden platform above the top of the pipe. 
One cubic yard of mortar required four barrels of cement, and was sufficient 
for lining 7.9 ft. of the pipe. 

The cost of the work has been sub-divided to show the cost of forms separate 
from the cost of mixing and pouring the lining, as shown in Table IX. 



Table IX. — Cost of Placing 2-In. Mortar Lining op 80-In. Steel Pipe 

Cost per 
Cost per sq. ft. 
lin. ft. surface 
Item of pipe covered 

Forms: 

Superintendence and general labor $0.13 

• Labor 0.74 

Teaming . 04 

Small tools, etc. 0.08 

Incidental expenses and insurance . 05 

Rental, transportation and repairs of forms 0.77 

Plant, interest and depreciation . 002 

Total cost $1,812 $0,086 

Mixing and pouring lining: 

Superintendence and general labor $0. 12 

Labor 0.67 

Sand blasting . 97 

Sand 0.21 

Cement 0.74 

Small tools, etc . 07 

Incidental expenses and insurance 0. 05 

Plant, interest and depreciation . 002 

Total cost $2,832 $0,135 



SMALL TUNNELS 1323 

Table IX. — Continued 

Cost per 

Cost Cost sq. ft. of 

per per surface 

cu. yd. lin. ft. covered 

Total: 

Superintendence and general labor $ 1 . 97 $0. 25 

Labor 11.10 1.41 

Teaming . 29 . 04 

Sand blasting 7 . 62 . 97 

Sand 1.66 0.21 

Cement 5 . 80 . 74 

Small tools, etc 1.24 0.15 

Incidental expenses and insurance 0.79 0. 10 

Rental, transportation and repair of forms 6. 03 0. 77 

Plant, interest and depreciation . 03 . 004 

Total cost $36.53 $4,644 $0,222 

Valueofwork 45.50 5.78 0.276 

Profit $8.97 $1,136 $0,054 

Items 13 and 15. — Laying 60-Jn. Cast Iron Pipe (935 lin. ft.) — The work of 
laying the 60-in. cast iron pipes included the teaming of the pipes about two 
miles, unloading them from the wagons and laying them in trenches, including 
the furnishing of all materials required. The excavation and refilling of the 
trenches was paid for under Items 3, 4 and 5. The cost of the portion of the 
work included under these items was as follows: 

Cost 

per 

Item lin. ft. 

Superintendence and general labor $0 . 23 

Labor 1 . 30 

, Teaming 0.38 

Jute . 03 

Lead 0.60 

Blocking and wedges 0.14 

Small tools, etc 0. 02 

Incidental expenses and insurance . 05 

Plant, interest and depreciation . 003 

Total cost $2. 753 

Value of work 2 . 113 

Loss ; $0.64 

The cost of teaming the pipe was $0.38 per ton mile. 

Item 14. — Laying SO-In. Steel Pipe (363 lin. ft.) — The 80-in. steel pipe was 
delivered to the contractor in sections 20 ft. in length and was hauled by him 
to the work, a distance of about two miles. It was necessary to roll the pipes 
on skids for an average distance of 100 ft. from the point of delivery to place 
them in position. The steel pipes were furnished by the Hodge Boiler Works 
of East Boston, and were placed, riveted together, lined and covered by the 
contractor for building the tunnel. Each 20-ft. section of the pipe was made 
of three alternately large and small courses, each course being formed of a 
single sheet of flange steel 6 ft. 11 ins. wide and ^{e in. thick. The longitudi- 
nal joints were lapped 4% ins. and double-riveted with ^-in. rivets spaced 
. 2J4 ins. from center to center. The circular joints were lapped 2}4 ins- and 
single-riveted with ^-in. rivets spaced about 2}4 ins. on centers. At intervals 
of about 40 ins., pads 6 ins. in diameter and ^^ in. in thickness were riveted on 
top of the pipe, through each of which was drilled and tapped a hole for a 2-in. 



1324 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

diameter steel plug. As previously stated these 2-in. holes were used for 
introducing the Portland cement mortar for lining the steel pipe. At the 
junction between the 76-in. mortar-lined steel pipes and the 60-in. cast iron 
pipes, 76 X 60-in. cast iron branches were set and the 60-in. outlet capped for 
future use when an additional main shall be required. The cost of the work 
under Item 14 was as follows: 

Cost 
per 
Item lin. ft. 

Superintendence and general labor $0. 374 

Labor, laying pipes ". 1 , 08 

Labor, riveting 1 . 03 

Teaming . 20 

Small tools, etc : . 234 

Incidental expenses and insurance 0.15 

Plant, interest and depreciation . 004 

Total cost : $3 . 072 

Value of work 3 . 376 

Profit $0. 304 

The cost of teaming the pipe was $0.62 per ton mile. 

Item 16. — Extra Work. — The extra work required under the contract in- 
cluded the excavation and timbering of six old shafts on the Cochituate Aque- 
duct tunnel, where the excavation for the new tunnel broke through into these 
old shafts, and also some miscellaneous work. For this work the contractor 
received the actual cost of the work plus 15 per cent, and the total amount 
paid under this item was $925.89. 

Organization and Progress of St. Louis Water Works Tunnel. — C. H. 
HoUingsworth, superintendent for the contractors, gives some interesting 
data in regard to the St. Louis Waterworks Tunnel in Engineering and Con- 
tracting, May 6, 1914, and Engineering Record, May 9, 1914, from which 
articles the following data are taken. 

The tunnel was driven in both directions from a drainage shaft at the river 
bank, the shore tunnel being 537 ft. long and the river tunnel 2252 ft. 

When the work became well organized it was found that with only one shot 
in eight hours there was considerable spare time. About 1^ hours were 
required to muck out the heading, H hour to set up, 3 hours to drill the round 
of holes, from 3^ to ^ hour to blow out and load and from 50 minutes to 1 
hour to shoot. This left from 1 to 13^ hours idle time per shift, part of which 
was taken up in clearing out the smoke. The smoke was taken care of by a 
No. 2 Roots reversible blower with 10-in. opening. 

Arrangement of Holes. — If it had been possible a longer round would have 
been drilled to take up the spare time. As it was, however, an 8-ft. round was 
drilled and would not break the ground to advantage. The trouble was that 
the tunnel was so narrow that it was impossible to give the cut holes much of 
an angle with each other. A center cut of six holes, three on each side, was 
adopted after several other methods had been tried. The arrangement of 
the holes used through the gi eater part of the work called for sixteen holes, 
but occasionally seventeen were drilled. By drilling a 6 or 7-ft. cut and a 4 or 
6-ft. side round the ground could be broken with less powder. 

Late in December a schedule of four shots in twenty-four hours was started. 
Working this way the day shift came on at 8 a. m. when the preceding shift 
had finished shooting. They mucked out the heading, set up, drilled and fin- 



SMALL TUNNELS 1325 

ished shooting at 2 p. m. Then they mucked out and set up the machines 
ready for the next shift. The 4-to-12 shift drilled a round and finished 
shooting it about 8 p. m., and then mucked out, set up and drilled ten or 
twelve holes on the second round before midnight. The 12-to-8 shift then 
came on and finished the drilling of the round and shot it about 2 a. m., 
after which they mucked out, set up, drilled and shot another round before 
8 o'clock. 

While it was found that after getting this system working the gangs had 
plenty of time for the various operations, the scheme never worked satisfac- 
torily, for the reason that it is never advisable for one shift to leave work for 
the next shift to complete. For instance, the way in which the columns were 
set up by the day shift never suited the 4-to-12 shift and they often tore them 
down and reset them, while the 12-to-8 shift was always displeased about the 
way the 4-to-12 shift started the round of holes and claimed that they often 
had to drill some of them over again. 

The time taken for the different operations with four shots per day was 
about as follows: Mucking out, 1 hour; setting up, 30 minutes; drilling, 3 
hours; blowing out and loading, 30 minutes; shooting, 45 minutes; blowing out 
smoke, 15 minutes. 

In order to arrange so that the shifts would each finish their own work I 
decided to try two shots every shift, and if necessary drill shorter rounds. At 
first a 6-ft. cut with a 4-ft. side round was drilled, but after the gangs had 
shaken down to the proper swing 7 and 8-ft. cuts and 5 or 6-ft. side rounds 
were drilled. The only extra men put on to carry out this schedule were an 
extra helper in the heading and a foreman and from four to six men on the day 
shift to fix track and attend to the ditching. 

With four shots per day all three shifts used the columns and when the six 
shots per day started one of the gangs preferred the columns as the heading 
foreman on that shift was not familiar with the use of the bar. The bar, 
however, was finally used on all three shifts. A 43^-in. bar 10 ft, long with 
a single screw was used with four arms on it. The machines were mounted 
on clamps on these arms, two above and two below the bar. It was necessary 
even with the bar to muck out the heading to a great extent before setting 
up the drills, as there was positively no room for even one mucker in the 
heading after the machines were up and the heading gang working. To help 
clear the muck away from the face after the four-shot schedule was started 
two muck shots were placed in the heading and fired with the last holes of the 
round. These muck shots consisted of from 7 to 10 lb. of powder each, and 
one was placed on each side of the tunnel close to the face. 

When the two-shots-per-shift program was in progress the time was divided 
about as follows: Mucking out heading, 45 minutes; setting up, 15 minutes; 
drilling, 2 hours; blowing out and loading holes, 20 minutes; shooting, 30 
minutes ; clearing out smoke, 10 minutes. 

Plant. — The plant used on the tunnel work included three 75-h.p. locomo- 
tive-type boilers supplying steam for the compressors for the pumps at the 
bottom of the shaft and for the hoisting engine for the cages. While sinking 
the shaft a stiffleg derrick was used and this was later used on the excavation 
for the screen chamber. The pumps used to take care of the water from the 
tunnel included a Knowles piston pump and two duplex Worthington plunger 
pumps. A Norwalk two-stage compressor was used, assisted later on by a 
single-stage IngersoU compressor. Current was obtained from the city at 
2300 volts, alternating current, and transformed to 220 volts. 



1326 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Mucking. — A 3-ton General Electric storage-battery locomotive was used 
to handle the muck cars to and from the shaft after the headings had prog- 
ressed a few hundred feet from the shaft. The muck cars were specially- 
designed for the work and were wooden box cars, with a door in one side for 
dumping, and an incline in the bottom of 1 ft. toward the door. The bottom 
of the car was covered with steel plate and the box itself was built of 2-in. oak 
well bolted together and fastened at the corners with angle irons. At the 
ends were eye-bolts running through the frame so that the cars could be 
coupled in a train. Usually three cars were handled by the locomotive. 

In the heading slick sheets of ^^-in. boiler plate were used to cover the end 
of the track and to facilitate the shoveling. In working into the muck pile 
only four men, or occasionally five, could work abreast, and even then it was 
necessary to select carefully the right and left hand shovelers and keep them 
on their respective sides. The usual method was to use four men abreast 
with two more on the muck pile throwing over their heads and loosening up the 
muck. Two more men worked behind the car picking up bottom, fixing track 
and helping dump the cars off the track and back on again. On the locomo- 
tive there was a motorman and also a switchman, both of whom helped dump 
off cars. 

At the bottom of the shaft were two men who pushed the cars on and off the 
cages and on top were a top man and three men for pushing cars. One man 
took care of the pumps which were at the bottom of the shaft and did the pipe 
fitting. An extra gang consisting of a foreman and from four to six men was 
employed on the day shift cleaning out the ditch along the tunnel and laying 
new track. All permanent track was laid on the day shift. The other two 
shifts put down short sections of rail temporarily. From forty to sixty-five 
cars of muck were taken out of the one heading on each eight-hour shift, the 
cars holding about 1 cu. yd. of muck. 

Organization and Wages. — In the regular gangs on each shift there were the 
following men at the rates given: 

Force on top: Rate 
Number and grade per day 

1 compressor engineer at $7 . 00 

1 hoisting engineer at 7 . 00 

1 fireman at 3 . 20 

1 signal man at 2 . 80 

3 top men or car pushers at , 2.40 

Force in the tunnel: 

1 pump man and pipe fitter at 4 . 00 

2 cage men at 2 . 80 

1 motor man at 4 . 00 

1 switchman at 2.80 

1 muck foreman at 4 . 80 

6 to 8 muckers at .• 2 . 80 

1 heading foreman at 5 . 00 

4 drill runners at 3 . 60 

4 or 5 helpers at . 3.00 

1 nipper at 3 . 00 

1 electrician at 4 . 00 

Force of extra men on Day Shift (on top): 

1 blacksmith at 5.00 

1 helper at 4 . 00 

1 machinist at 4 . 00 

1 machinist helper at 2,40 

In the tunnel: 

1 extra muck foreman at 4 . 80 

4 to 6 extra muckers at 2 . 80 



SMALL TUNNELS 1327 

Rate of Progress. — Taking all things into consideration, the progress was 
very satisfactory, especially while making the six shots per day. 

During the month from 8 a. m. Jan. 21 to 8 a. m. Feb. 21 the progress was 
744.7 ft., and for the best week, which was the week ending at 8 a. m. Feb. 20, 
the progress was 184 ft. This latter was for the full week of seven days or 21 
shifts. The month's progress, however, was for 29 days and two shifts, as 
during the 31 days of the month there were four shifts lost time. The best 
progress made in one day was 29.1 ft. 

The east heading was finished March 4, and a gang on each shift was started 
immediately cleaning up the bottom and trimming. The gang on each shift 
consisted of a foreman and ten men mucking, besides one drill runner and 
three helpers, with the usual cage men, top men, etc. On March 19 a second 
gang was started on each shift, there being a foreman and ten men in this 
second gang also. . One of these gangs worked from the heading toward the 
shaft and the other worked from the shaft toward the heading, and on April 1 
the trimming was completed and practically all of the bottom had been taken 
up. In places there were from 50 to 75 ft. that required no trimming at all 
and less than 200 ft. of the roof required trimming. On the other hand there 
was less than 100 ft. of the roof that was outside of the 11 ft. circle. 

Bonus System. — A bonus system was put in force in the early stages of the 
work and helped materially in the progress. A minimum of 72 ft. of tunnel 
per week was set and for all over that the following bonus rates were paid: 

Cts. per ft. 

Heading foreman 50 

Muck foreman 30 

Drill runners 30 

Drill helpers 20 

Nipper 20 

Muckers and cage men 10 

From the total weekly progress ending every Friday morning at 8 o'clock 
72 ft. was subtracted and each shift received bonus on one-third of the re- 
mainder, each shift being credited with one-third of the extra progress. 

Cost of Tunnel No. 7 of the Los Angeles Aqueduct. — The following study 
by C. H. Richards, Division Engineer Little Lake Division, Los Angeles 
Aqueduct (Engineering News, Nov. 18, 1909) covers the unit costs of driving 
a timbered tunnel during the 15 day period from Aug. 15 to Aug. 29, 1909. 
The figures refer to the north heading only. 

During this period 90 ft. were driven in 15 8-hour shifts. The tunnel is 
approximately 10 X 10 ft. in section and contains 33^ cu. yds. in place per 
lineal foot to pay line. The over-breakage was about 17 per cent, making a 
total of 63^ cu. yds. of broken material per foot of tunnel. 

The heading is 800 ft. in from the portal. It is Hghted by electricity in 110 
volts, and ventilated by a No. 3 Champion blower through 12-in. pipe, the 
heading being cleared in fifteen minutes after shooting. 

DrilUng is done by one No. 7 Leyner drill, water being forced through the 
hollow steel. This drill used approximately 66 cu. ft. air per minute at 83 lbs. 
pressure, drilling holes to 10 ft. in depth. 

Mucking is facilitated by steel sheets laid down before shooting. The 
muckers use No. 3 D-handle square-point shovels. Dirt is hauled away in 32 
cu. ft, rocker dump cars pulled by a 3H-ton locomotive running on a single 
24-in. gage track laid with 25-lb. steel. 



1328 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



The rock is a close-grained hard gray granite, with numerous seams, causing 
the drill to run from alignment, but it breaks well. The seams and water 
combined make it necessary to timber all this ground. The ground carries 
enough water to make disagreeable mucking, and to require pumping. 

The timbering comprises sets of 6 X 8-in. Oregon pine, spaced 5 to 8 ft, 
apart, as ground permits, and 2X6 lagging. Each set consists of two vertical 
posts and a four-segment arch. 

The crew consisted of one shift boss at $3.50 per day; four miners at $3 
five muckers at $2.50, and one trammer at $2.50. The blacksmith doing the 
repair work was paid $4 per day. 

The four miners worked on day shift, drilling the ground, timbering and 
shooting. The muckers followed on night shift. This arrangement resulted 
in a clean heading for the drill crews, and nothing interfered with the mucking 
crew. 

The cost of work during the 15-day period is tabulated below in detail (Table 
X). 



Table X. — Showing Unit Costs of Tunneling and Timbering, North 

Heading of Tunnel No. 7, Little Lake Division of Los Angeles Aqueduct 

For 15-day period, Aug. 15- Aug. 29, 1909; advance 90 ft. 

Totals for 90 ft. length Cost 

Labor / lin. ft. 

Class of work Hours Cost tunnel 
Labor: 

Inside labor: 

Squaring heading 23. 5 $ 9 . 03 $ 0. 10 

Setting up and tearing down machine (1 ) 36 . 16 . 59 .184 

DriUing, incl. time of shift boss 55 . 33 43 . 21 .48 

(3.6 cts. per ft. of hole) 

Blowing out holes 5 . 75 4 . 15 .046 

Loading and shooting 56.25 22.31 .248 

Mucking (412 cars).. 835.0 268.44 2.98 

Trimming, stulling, caves, etc 102.0 39.24 .436 

Timbering ($11.32 per M) 107.25 40.82 .453 

Lost time 40.75 15.66 .174 

Bonus (30 cts. per man per ft. over 2.3 

ft. per shift) 112.08 1.24 

Repairs to trolley, pump, etc 3.25 1 . 20 . 013 

Totals, inside labor 1,265.08 $ 572.73 $6,354 

Outside labor: 

Sharpening steel (with Leyner No. 2 

machine) 44.0 $ 17.83 $0,198 

Repairing drill 7.5 2.88 .032 

Framing timbers at shop ($2.42 per M) 8 . 75 .097 

Light and power 90.0 33.75 .375 

Totals outside labor 141 . 5 $ 63 . 21 $ 0. 702 

Auxiliary labor: 

Laying track, 90 ft 31.5 $ 12.75 $0,141 

Drainage line, 90 ft 43.5 14.33 .16 

Ventilation line, 72 ft 11.0 3.44 .048 

Trolley line, 95 ft 18.0 6.35 .067 

Airline, 80ft 2.5 .80 .01 

Water line, 80 ft 2.5 .79 .01 

Lights line, 90 ft 8.0 2.86 .032 

Totals auxiliary labor 117.0 $ 41.32 $0,468 

Local administration and engineering: 

Proportion of division engineer and assistant's time $50.40 $ 0.56 

Total labor cost $ 727.66 $ 8.084 



SMALL TUNNELS 1329 

Table X. — Continued 
Material: 
Construction Material and Supplies: 

Drill repairs $ 22.47 $ 0.25 

($0,018 per ft, hole) 
Drill supplies, oil steel, coal 9.41 . 104 

($0,008 per ft. hole) 

Mucking supplies, oil, etc .73 . 008 

Power and lighting current 71 . 52 . 795 

(4,207 kw. hrs., at 1.7 cts.) 
Explosives, powder, fuse, caps, etc 157.69 1.752 

(11.66 lbs. powder per ft. "tunnel) 
Timbers, wedges, dowels, nails, etc 122. 16 1 . 36 

(3,579 ft. B. M. = 40 ft. B. M. per ft. tunnel) 
Lighting (candles $8.59, el. It. globes $3.09) 11 . 67 .13 

Totals, constr. material $ 395 .65 $ 4 . 399 



Auxiliary material: 

Trackage, 25-lb. rail, ties, etc. $ 21 . 11 $ 0. 235 

Drainage, 2-in. pipe and el. wire 7 . 87 .087 

Ventilation, 12-in. pipe (for 72 ft.) 29 . 21 .405 

Trolley, wire, etc. (for 95 ft.) 9 . 73 .102 

Air line, pipe, etc. (for 80 ft.) 7 . 25 .09 

Water line, pipe, etc. (for 80 ft.) 7 . 25 .09 

Lights line, wire, etc 2 . 22 . 025 

Totals, auxiliary material $ 84 . 64 $ 1 . 034 

Total material $ 480 . 29 $ 5 . 433 

Live stock: 

Mule, 15 days at 90 cts $ 13.50 $0.15 

Total direct and auxiliary field charges $1 , 221 . 45 $13 . 667 



To explain the table further the following particulars are noted as to drilling 
and powder: 

Drilling. — During the 15-day period 150 holes were drilled, aggregating 
1,202.3 ft. in length. The average depth of hole therefore was 8 ft. The 
average speed of drilling was 21.74 ft. hole per hour of actual drilling time, 
or 15.84 ft. per hr. if lost time is included. This means that the average hole 
(8 ft.) was drilled in 22 mins. The fastest hole, however, was 9 ft. 6 ins., 
drilled in 10 mins., while the slowest was 8 ft. 6 ins., drilled in 78 mins. The 
average cost of drilling per foot of hole was 3.6 cts., as given in the table. 

Explosives. — There were used 650 lbs. of l>^-in. 40 per cent gelatine; 250 
lbs. 1-in. 40 per cent gelatine, and 150 lbs. 1-in. 60 per cent gelatine, a total of 
1,050 lbs. This is 11.66 lbs. per lin. ft. of tunnel, or 3.3 lbs. per cu. yd. place 
measurement. The cost (delivered) was $140.87. Adding the cost of fuse 
(2,700 ft. $13.85), caps (306 = $2.49), and tamping stick ($0.48), makes the 
total cost $157.69, which is about $0.50 per cu. yd. place measurement and 
$0.27 per cu. yd. loose. 

The following summarized the above cost, together with the field and office 
charges assessable to the work. Attention may be called to the fact that the 
figure $12,165 given as direct charge differs from the previous total of $13,667 
by the amount ($1,502) charged for tracks, the latter being included in the pre- 
vious detail tabulation. In the recapitulation the auxiliary charge is reduced 
by the estimated amount of salvage on the track material. 
84 



1330 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Recapitulation of Unit Costs 

Cost per foot of 

Class of charge — tunnel *-- 

Direct charges: 

Labor $7 . 056 

Material and supplies 4 . 399 

Local administration and engrg 0. 56 

Live stock service 0.15 



Auxiliary charges: , 

Labor on tracks, etc $0 . 468 

Material for tracks, etc 1 . 034 



$1 . 502 
Salvage on material about 66 % 69 



$12,165 



0.812 



Roads and trails * 1.50 

Buildings* 0. 20 

Water supply* 0.22 

Machinery and tools 1 . 06 



Total fixed charges : $15. 957 

Add 3 % for executive office administration . 475 



Total cost of tunnel, timbered and ready for lining, per lin. ft $16,432 

* The total cost of these works on the entire division, apportioned to the severa 
parts of the permanent construction, gives as estimated charges per foot of this 
tunnel the figures noted. 

Deducting from the total of $13,667 of Table X the charges that obviously 
belong to timbering we get a cost of $11.75 per lin. ft. for excavation, which is 
equivalent to $3.36 per cu. yd. 

Bonus System for Tunnel Work of the Los Angeles Aqueduct. — The follow- 
ing notes are abstracted from the Report on the Los Angeles Aqueduct. 

To complete the Los Angeles Aqueduct within a reasonable time limit so as 
to avoid undue interest charges on the bond issue the controlling factor was 
recognized by all to be the great length of tunnels, 164 in number, and especi- 
ally the Elizabeth Tunnel, which is more than 5 miles long. This tunnel, 
passing through the crest of the Coast Range, more than 20 miles from a rail- 
road base of supplies, had to be driven from two headings only and lined 
throughout with concrete. A fair rate of progress for tunnels of this size, and 
in a similar geological formation, has been a mile a year from the two headings, 
or five years in all. 

It was therefore important to devise some method of work which would 
develop speed and the bonus scheme was adopted. This was modified from 
time to time, as experience was gained in its application, and the following 
schedule is the final outcome. 

Theory of the Bonus System. — The tunnels were driven for a few months, 
and the number of men who could work efficiently in the headings, together 
with their progress, was noted under different conditions. A standard size 
crew was then authorized, which could not be exceeded. In the Elizabeth tun- 
nel, the number was 16 men for untimbered tunnel and 23 for timbered tunnel. 
Only those engaged inside on the driving of the heading, trimming, timbering, 
etc., were included in the bonus crew. The required progress was fixed. At 
the EUzabeth tunnel it was 8 feet per day, or 2^ feet per shift for untimbered 
tunnel, requiring the excavation of 4.18 cubic yards per lineal foot, and 6 feet 
per day, or 2 feet per shift for timbered section of the tunnel, requiring the 
excavation of 5.02 cubic yards per lineal foot, and the placing of 115 feet board 
measure of lumber. A base wage was paid of $3.00 per day for miners and 



SMALL TUNNELS 1331 

timbermen, and ^2.50 per day for muckers (shovelers). In wet tunnels, 50 
cents a day additional was paid. Eight-hour shifts were worked. 

For all excess footage over th6 base rate made by a shift each man on the 
shift was paid 40 cents a foot in the Elizabeth tunnel. In other tunnels the 
bonus paid varied from 20 cents to 40 cents per foot, depending on the char- 
acter of the rock. Each tunnel was inspected by the Chief Engineer or his 
assistant, and a reasonable rate of progress and bonus pay determined, which 
when approved by the Board of Public Works, was effective for that tunnel. 
The superintendent and foremen did not share in the bonus pay, as it was their 
duty to see that the quality and quantity of the work was up to par. Meas- 
urements were made on the 10th, 20th and last day of each month to deter- 
mine the progress. Any man receiving bonus was required to work continu- 
ously through the ten-day bonus period. 

The theory of the schedule is to pay the men a fair wage for the day's work, 
and in addition to give them a share approximating 50 per cent of the esti- 
mated saving, in case the base rate of progress is exceeded. It must be kept 
in mind that the labor charge per day for the driving of a tunnel is a fixed 
amount, including not only those engaged in the tunnel, but also the outside 
organization of mechanics, superintendent ajid clerks. The cost of explosives 
and power varies with the footage made. Therefore, the greater the rate of 
progress, the lower the final unit cost of the work will be. 

Effect of the Bonus. — The sharing of the benefits with the men by means of 
the bonus system resulted in an improved relation with them. They became 
interested in the success of the work. The men in a bonus crew themselves 
eliminated the drones and did not tolerate loafing. The duties of the foremen 
and superintendent were almiost entirely confined to getting the necessary 
supplies and equipment. As the bonus profits materialized, the miners not 
only remained longer on the work, but sent for other workmen whom they 
knew and who would do their share in increasing the speed. 

In fixing the bonus and the base rate, it is important to reach a reasonable 
balance, which will allow the men a fair share in the saving, giving them a 
chance to earn from $10.00 to $30.00 a month as a reward for unusual effort. 
In some places where the bonus has been tried by other organizations, the base 
rate was placed so high that there was little opportunity for the men to profit 
by it, resulting in discouragement to them and no benefit to the organization. 

In November, 1909, the tunnel work on the Los Angeles Aqueduct was in 
full swing. This particular month is selected for consideration only because 
the bonus pay rolls were so large that the City Auditor asked for an investiga- 
tion of the bonus system to justify its use. A detailed study was made of it, 
which satisfied the Board of Public Works that it was decidedly beneficial. 
During this month, 9,131 feet of tunnels were excavated, of which 4,033 feet 
was excess footage over the base rate as fixed, which is an increase in speed of 
72 per cent. Ninety per cent of the crews earned bonus ranging from 12 cents 
to *$1 .95 per day for each man. In the 39 tunnel headings, the total wages for 
that month were $76,837.38, of which $13,133.94 was bonus, or 17 per cent. 
The average cost per foot of tunnel for labor and bonus was $9.87. If only 
the base progress, which was the estimated ordinary progress, had been made, 
the cost per foot for labor would have been $13.80. The footage gained over 
the estimated base rate cost in bonus pay an average of $3.25 per foot for all 
tunnels. 

In the Elizabeth tunnel, the base progress of 420 feet for the two headings 
for the month was exceeded 429 feet. In this tunnel, where speed was particu- 



1332 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

larly desired, the muckers, who had the hardest work to do and who largely 
controlled the rate of advance, worked in relays. A car holding 33 cubic feet 
would be pushed up to the pile of debris thrown down by the explosion and four 
of these shovelers would fill it. They would then push it back to the switch, 
and four fresh men shoved up an empty car and filled it— the first crew mean- 
time doing light work or resting. This process was kept up, so that a fresh 
crew would come up with each empty car. The result was that the American 
records for rapid hard rock tunnel work were repeatedly broken, .and the 
world's record for soft rock tunnel driving, (so far as known) was beaten at 
Tunnel 17 M, in the Jawbone Division, where 1,061 feet were driven at one 
heading by hand work in August, 1909. The material in Tunnel 17M was a 
soft sandstone which could be bored with augers. 

The entire 26,870 feet of the Elizabeth tunnel was completed on February 
28, 1911. The four years and seven months time set for the driving of this 
tunnel was beaten by 450 days, or 32 per cent. The average progress was 
10.8 feet per day for each heading. This includes the time during which 
the tunnel was driven by hand, while the equipment was being purchased and 
installed. The rock is granite, favorable for rapid work at the south end, but 
uneven, full of water, difficult and dangerous at the north end. 

The average cost per foot of the Elizabeth tunnel was : 

Excavation, including timbering $41.35 

Lining 9 . 65 

Local administration and superintendence 2. 10 

Equipment 7 . 92 

Buildings, water supply, etc. 5. 8S 

Engineering and surveys 1 . 00 

Total $67.85 

This does not include general administration costs, which amounted to 3.55 
per cent or $2.35 per foot, making a total cost of $70.20 per foot. The esti- 
mate of the Board of Consultng Engineers was $75.33 per foot plus 16.5 per 
cent for contingencies and water supply, making a total of $87.93 per-^oot. 
The saving therefore amounted to approximately $18.00 per foot or about 
$500,000 for the entire tunnel. 

On the Jawbone division, bids were asked for all the construction of this 
part of the work, excluding siphons, but including 65,000 feet of tunnel. They 
ranged from $2,294,000 to $4,258,000. After a consideration of the bids 
received, it was decided that the work would probably cost the City less if it 
were done by day labor under the Engineering Department. This was done — 
the bonus system was used in all of the tunnels and the actual field cost of all 
the work was $700,000.00 less than the lowest price bid. 

Rules Governing Payment for Bonus Footage. — 1. Ten days shall constitute 
a period. The first period to be from the 1st to the 10th of the month, 
inclusive; the second from the 11th to the 20th inclusive; the third from the 
21st to the end of the month. Bonus payments shall be allowed upon the 
basis of measurements made at the close of each ten-day period. 

2. The following named classes of employes shall be allowed to participate 
in bonus payments: 

Tunnel Foremen, 

Shift Bosses, 

Miners, 

Muckers 



SMALL TUNNELS 1333 

3. The tunnel foreman shall not be considered as one of the crew except 
when in charge of a single shift, when he shall share in the bonus on the same 
basis as the men of the crew under his direction. If he is in charge of more 
than one shift, he shall be allowed bonus based upon the average bonus prog- 
ress of all headings under his supervision. 

4. The shift boss shall be considered as one of the shift crew. He will 
participate in the bonus on the same basis as the men of the crew under his 
direction. An exception to this rule is made when a shift boss is placed in 
charge of two or more shifts in different headings. In this case, he would be 
placed on the same basis as a foreman — to wit: not to be considered as one 
of the crew, and would, be allowed bonus upon the mean bonus progress. 

5. The number of shifts worked in a heading during a day of 24 hours shall 
be determined by the engineer or superintendent in charge of the work after 
consultation with the Chief Engineer. 

6. All back trimming must be done by the crew sharing the bonus. If the 
timbers are placed by the miners from the standard crew in a given ten-day 
period, then the portion of the tunnel shall be considered as a timbered section; 
otherwise it shall not be so considered. 

7. Only men who work continuously through the ten-day period, with the 
following exceptions, shall be entitled to bonus: 

(a) Any employe, entitled to bonus earnings, who is injured or becomes ill 
during a period from conditions arising directly from tunnel construction, shall 
participate in bonus in proportion to the number of shifts worked by him dur- 
ing said period. 

(b) If an employe, entitled to bonus earnings, is transferred during a period 
from a heading to another part of the work for reasons other than his own 
request, he shall participate in bonus in proportion to the number of shifts 
worked by him on such heading. 

8. If the work is interrupted by the failure of power, shortage of material 
or supplies, floods, cave-ins, or other causes beyond the control of the men, the 
men shall be entitled to bonus pay in proportion to the number of shifts 
worked by them during period in which such interruptions occurred. 

9. To establish a uniform system of computing bonus earnings in above 
case, the following formula will be used: 

X -f y 



^l 



= Average base rate per shift. 



Let x = Timbered progress = 25 ft. 

y = Untimbered progress =30 ft. 

a = Required timbered per shift = 2 ft. 
b = Required untimbered per shift = 2.5 ft. 
s = Number of shifts during period = 20 



Then 



- = shifts required at base rate. 

y 

V- = shifts required at base rate. 



Or substituting values, 
25 



2 *= 12.5 shifts required at base rate. 

30 
x-R == 12.0 shifts required at base rate. 



1334 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Total 24.5 shifts required at base rate 
25 + 30 



24.5 



2.245 average base rate. 



20 X 2.245 = 44.9 = progress required. 
55 - 44.9 = 10.1 ft. = bonus footage. 

10. The computation of bonus footage shall be made by dividing the total 
number of feet run during the period by the total number of shifts worked dur- 
ing the period. From this average footage per shift there shall be deducted 
the base rate of progress required, and the remainder, if any, will be the bonus 
footage per shift. The bonus earned per man during the period will be the 
number of shifts in which he worked, times the average bonus footage, times 
the bonus price per foot. (Provided all conditions as outlined in these rules 
are complied with.) 

Example 1. — 3 shifts working 10 days 

Total progress for period — 150 feet. 

3 shifts X 10 days = 30 shifts worked. 

150 ft. -^ 30 shifts = 5 ft. per shift. 

Base rate of progress 3.5 ft. per shift. 

Bonus footage 1.5 ft. per shift.* 

Bonus earned for per man =1.5 ft. X 10 shifts X 25 cts. per ft. « S3.75. 

Example 2. — 1 shift working 10 days 

Total progress for period — 50 feet. 
1 shift X 10 days = 10 shifts worked. 
50 ft. -h 10 shifts = 5 ft. per shift. 
Base rate of progress 3.5 ft. per shift. 
Bonus footage 1.5 per shift. 

Bonus earned for period per man = 1.5 ft. X 10 shifts X 25 cts. per ft. ■= 
$3.75. 

Bonus Schedule for Tunnel Work in the Little Lake Division 

No. of Rate per 
men per man per 
shift bonus foot 



Capacity of 

tunnel 
430 sec. ft. 
430 sec. ft. 
430 sec. ft. 
430 sec. ft. 
430 sec. ft. 
430 sec. ft. 
430 sec. ft. 
430 sec. ft. 
430 sec. ft. 
430 sec. ft. 



Class of 
rock 
Soft 
Soft 
Hard 
Hard 
Hard 
Hard 
Hard 
Hard 
Hard 
Hard 



Timbered or 

untimbered 

Untimbered 

Timbered 

Untimbered 

Timbered 

Untimbered 

Timbered 

Untimbered 

Timbered 

Untimbered 

Timbered 



Class of Base rate 
work per shift 



Hand 

Hand 

Hand 

Hand 

Machine 

Machine 

Machine 

Machine 

Machine 

Machine 



4.5 ft. 
4.5 ft. 
2 . 5 f t. 
2 . f t. 
3.0 ft. 
2.3 ft. 
3.0 ft. 
2.3 ft. 
5.0 ft. 
4.3 ft. 



9 
9 
10 
10 
11 
11 
11 
11 
14 
14 



20 cts. 
20 cts. 
25 cts. 
25 cts. 
30 cts. 
30 cts. 
40 cts 
40 cts. 
30 cts. 
30 cts. 



Bonus Schedule for Tunnel Work in the Elizabeth Tunnel, North and 



South Portals 



Class of rock 
Hard 
Soft 



Timbered or 
untimbered 
Untimbered 
Timbered 



Class of 

work 
Machine 
Machine 



Base rate 
per shift 

2H ft. 

2 ft. 



No. of men 

per shift 

16 

23 



Rate per 

man per 

bonus foot 

40 cts. 

40 cts. 



Noteworthy achievements in tunnel driving by the Aqueduct organization 
were at Tunnel 17-M, which is in a soft sandstone at the head of the Red Rock 
Canyon, where a tunnel 10,596 feet in length was excavated in seven months 



SMALL TUNNELS 1335 

from two headings. As far as known the driving of 1,061.6 feet in the month 
of August, 1909, is the world's record for fast tunnel driving for one month's 
run. This tunnel was completely lined in eight months. In other words, this 
two-mile tunnel was driven and lined in a year and a quarter. 

One hundred and sixty-four tuimels were excavated, and practically all 
of them were driven from two or more headings. There was not an error in 
instrumental work, either in line or grade, in any of the tunnels, or elsewhere 
on the work. 

Cost of Tunnel in Clay for the Alton, 111. Sewer Outlet. — Engineering and 
Contracting, Feb. 10, 1915, publishes the following data given by J. E. 
Schwaab'in a paper before the Thirtieth Annual Meeting of Illinois Society of 
Engineers and Surveyors. . 

The outlet necessitated the construction of 1,000 ft. of tunnel through a 
ridge. The grade of the tunnel varied from 20 ft. to 39 ft. below the natural 
surface of the ground. Shafts were sunk every 200 ft. These shafts were 
made 4 ft. by 8 ft. in dimension and were properly braced with oak timbers. 
.Clay was removed from the tunnel by the use of 5 cu. ft. wooden buckets 
which were r^tised and lowered into the shafts by the means of an ordinary 
hoisting engine and swinging boom. This equipment was also used for lower- 
ing the 12-in. cast-iron pipe into the shaft and for dragging it along the tunnel. 
At the bottom of the shaft the heading was driven in both directions for a 
distance of 100 ft. at the same time. The sides and top were sheeted with 
3-in. oak planking as the tunnel was being driven. To operate one shaft 
there were five men in the tunnel — one man to hook the cable onto the buckets, 
two men at the headings, and two men wheeling muck to the shaft. On the 
top there were three men, one man unhooking the bucket and emptying it, 
and one man with team and scraper to remove the earth from the shaft, and 
one man to cut timber. 

One difficulty experienced was the lack of ventilation. It was impossible 
to keep a light burning in the tunnel so that the men could see. The air 
became foul, thus preventing the men from remaining in the tunnel. This 
obstacle was overcome by the use of an ordinary blower fan operated by a IK- 
HP, gasoline engine. To the discharge end of the blower fan 3-in. spouting 
was connected and run down into the shaft and each way into the headings. 
This fan furnished sufficient air to enable the men to work in the tunnel with- 
out experiencing any discomfort as regards ventilation. 

The time required to complete this tunnel was 60 days, average progress 
being 17>^ ft. per day. The maximum progress was 34 ft. per day. The 
total cost, including labor, material and lumber, was $10,000. 

Following are the wages paid for the labor for constructing the tunnel. 
Each shift consisted of: 

One foreman, per month $75.00 

One engineer, per hour . 25 

Two diggers, per hour . 30 

Five laborers, per hour . 25 

One team, per hour 0. 50 

One water boy, per day 1 . 00 

Eight hours constituted a day's work for each shift ; at times there were 
three shifts working in the 24 hours. 

The material through which the tunnel was driven was wet, sandy clay 
excepting 50 ft. of small gravel and quicksand. The elevation of ground water 



1336 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

was 13 ft. below the natural ground surface. The men at the headings used 
ordinary round pointed spades; picks were used when gravel was encountered. 

Cost of a Circular Brick-Lined Water Works Tunnel 8-Ft. in Diameter*-^ 
The following data are taken from Engineering and Contracting, April 2, 
1913. 

The Chicago Avenue Tunnel connection, completed in March, 1913, for 
the Chicago Water Works, is 8 ft. in diameter; is lined with three rings of 
brick, and is 1,216 ft. long. It cost $34.82 per lineal foot. This is a moderate 
figure, considering the quality of the work done; the length of the tunnel; the 
curves and grades upon which it is built; that air pressure was used, and that 
engineering and inspection costs are all included. The new tunnel joins the 
lake section of the 7-ft. Cross Town Tunnel with the 8-ft. Blue Island Avenue 
Tunnel, which was completed in 1909. The tunnel parallels the curb 10 ft. 
away on LaFayette Court for a distance of 721 ft. It has a compound curve 
at the south end consisting of one arc 308.5 ft. long on a radius of 175 ft. and 
one arc of 55 ft. radius and 141.2 ft. long, which connects with the lake end of 
the old Cross Town Tunnel. At the north end the main tangent is deflected . 
30° on a curve of 12 ft. radius, to avoid making a right angle connection with 
the Blue Island Ave. Tunnel. From this curve the tangent continues about 
30 ft. to the juncture with the Blue Island Tunnel with which it makes an 
angle of 60°. 

The grade on which the tunnel is built is level between the construction 
shaft and the Blue Island Avenue Tunnel, then rises at a rate of 1.3 per cent 
from the shaft south to the point of curvature whence it dips at a rate of 6 per 
cent on a curve to the junction with the lake end of the old Cross Town Tunnel. 
The rising grade is introduced to provide a safe clearance between the new 
tunnel and three other tunnels which pass under the new bore. 

Shaft Construction. — Construction was commenced on May 20, 1912, with 
the erection of the office building and tool house. The following month was 
occupied in building a cement shed and men's dressing house ; the head house 
framing; the frames and sheeting for starting the excavation for the shaft; 
in assembling the 1-cu. yd ..tunnel cars, which were built at the city water works 
shops, and in setting the 100-hp. fire-box boiler, and building under it a founda- 
tion and ash pit. The preparations for active work excavating the shaft were 
continued during the early part of July and the actual excavation was started 
July 15, 1912, when a hole 15 ft. square was started. This had been carried 
about 10 ft. below the surface using 2 X 10-in. sheeting held in place by three 
sets of timber frames spaced 3 ft. apart vertically, when water was encountered. 
The excavation was then interrupted until the first sections of the steel shell 
could be placed. 

The shell was built by John Mohr & Sons, Chicago, and delivered in place 
for $930. It consisted of five sections each 11 ft. 5 ins. in diameter and 6 ft. 
high, made of %-m. boiler plate. The two bottom sections were riveted 
together in the shop and provided with a beveled cutting edge stiffened around 
the inside with an additional plate and a 6 X 8 X ^^-in. angle 1 ft. above the 
cutting edge. The total weight of the shell was 21,385 lbs. with the rivets. 
Its cost delivered was, therefore, 4.35 cts. per pound. Each section was 
thoroughly calked and all the rivets were countersunk on the outside of the 
shell. By July 26 the two bottom sections had been placed and another 6-ft. 
section had been riveted and calked. The shell had also been lined up by 
vertical guide timbers placed on four sides. The brick lining was then started, 
the 6 X 8-in. angle serving as a footing; and on July 30 had been carried to a 



SMALL TUNNELS 1337 

height of 14 ft. With this additional weight the shell was forced down to 
elevation —4 or 16.6 ft. below the street grade. Preparations were then made 
to sink the 18 ft. of erected shell deep enough to permit the erection and rivet- 
ing of the remaining two sections. 

All the material removed from the shaft was taken on cars running on a 
narrow-gage track to a dump on the east side of the street where, by previous 
arrangement, the city had obtained permission to fill in vacant property to the 
level of the street. A No. 4 Nye pump was suspended in the bottom of the 
shaft at this time as the material encountered was a water-bearing stratum 
of lake sand. This sand was 13 ft. deep, overlying the soft blue clay through 
which the balance of the shaft was sunk. 

By Aug. 8, 1912, the last two sections of the steel shell were erected and the 
brick lining was then completed to within 6 ins. of the top of the shell. The 
excavation was next resumed and the shell gradually sank, with the weight of 
the brick lining, until it reached an elevation of — 13 or 25.6 ft. below the street, 
when it became necessary to add weight to sink it further. About 20 tons of 
pig iron were loaded on 10 X 10-in. timbers placed across the top of the shell. 
With this additional weight the cutting edge was sunk 4 ft. or to elevation — 17. 
More weight was added and the shell was finally sunk to elevation —24.20. 
The total weight used to sink the shell was 163,646 lbs. With the weight of 
the timbers the entire load amounted to 82 tons. 

To estimate the friction between the soil and the shell we have: 

Pounds 

Load 184 , 000 

Shell 21,385 

Brick Hning V 126 , 904 

Total weight 312,289 

The total area of the shell in contact with the soil when it reached its final 
position was 970 sq. ft. Dividing the total weight by 970 gives approximately 
322 lbs. friction per square foot of contact area. Comparing this figure with 
the friction indicated when the shell was sunk to elevation —4, we find that 
at that time the weight of the shell and its brick lining was about 116,000 lbs. 
and that the area of contact between the shell and the soil was approximately 
240 sq. ft. This indicates that a friction of 480 lbs. per square foot existed 
when the shell ceased to sink at —4. In this case the shell was forcing its 
way through sand, the area of contact with sand being 145 sq. ft. and with 
earth fill about 94 sq. ft. In its final position the shell was forcing its way 
through clay and was in contact with 405 sq. ft. of clay, 471 sq. ft. of sand, 
and 94 sq. ft. of earth fill. This indicates that the coefficient of friction was 
reduced as the percentage of area of the shell in contact with clay increased. 

The excavation of the shaft was carried 20 ft. below the cutting edge to the 
top of the tunnel bore and the brick lining from 13 to 18 ins. thick was placed 
after each day's excavation. The brick lining was suspended by eight 1 in. 
hanging rods having plate washers. Each rod had an eye at its lower end, 
which supported the plate and provided for hooking on the next rod below. 
In the 6 X 8-in. angle which supported the brick work for the steel shell, 
small eye bolts were placed before any brick work was started, and to these 
were attached the first set of rods. The shaft was carried down to tunnel 
grade, and the two tunnel "eyes" excavated 10 ft. each way from the shaft 
and lined during the last four days of August. A sump also was built, as 



1338 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



shown by Fig. 5 with ledge projecting 4 ins. inside the 10 ft. diameter of 
the shaft to support the cage landing and the floor built over the sump. 



5urfa^l3 

>J^WJn^ Ann in l340BricK5bblsUrica 
^ ^ ■ ■- -^j^'''tibbl5pcrtdydsd.Sona 

~ Aug 9 Datum Line 




J," 366 bricK per Running ft 

>'^r^'3496 Brick ofShell 

\^IObbl5.UticQ 



'^•f-'5b bi3 Port 32 uds-dSana 
~~] '^"■July30 ^ 

L 33lZbncK-9bbls.Utico 
~, [??^2bbb part 3ucl5B5anct 

' JulLj29-l9lZ 



b-ld40 brick 5bbl5 utica 
^^bblspqrt.llyds d^Sona 



■t4Z0 Augzi 



f^ C3j*r-CO C: r^: 



^'^Dote shell W05 
AugZ3 completed 

■Aug Id 

■AuQ.16 
AuQ.V 

Total material 
used in constructing 
the bricK lining of 
the shaft and turning 
the fyvo tunnel eyes 



-55.47 

56.67 s 

dricK 392dd 1^7.00 ^ 
deachSond 34yds.(^l.05 
Utica Cement 96Db!s.0VO 
Portland Cem 43 "^"^139 



Materia/ used L—.q?/. 
in5ump6ept.3,m 
3300 brick 

0EbblsUt/ca-3ibb/sPort 
^3ydsdeach3and 
4"ledgebuilforounclentirecircumrosupportf!over5ump 

Fig. 5. — Completed shaft. 

The total cost of the material and labor for the construction of the shaft 
including the two tunnel eyes and the brick lining was $4,675, or $66.79 per 
lin. ft., as follows: 



39,288 brick at $7 

34 cu. yds. beach sand at $1.05. . . . 

96 bbls. Utica cement at $0.90 

48 bbls. Portland cement at $1.39. 
3,000 ft. lumber at $25 

Steel sheet 

Hanging rods . 



$ 275.00 

35.70 

86.40 

66.72 

75.00 

930.00 

50.00 

Labor.... 2,981.18 



Teaming, for pig iron . 



175.00 



Total, 70 lin. ft • $4,675.00 

Cost per lin. ft 66.79 



SMALL TUNNELS 1339 

The cage, used for the balance of the work, consisted of a light platform 
suspended in a frame, and was operated by a cable from the hoisting engine 
in the power house. 

Tunnel Construction. — Mining was begun in the south heading on Sept. 5, 
1912. The bore of the tunnel was made 10 ft. 2 ins. to accommodate the 13 in. 
brick lining laid in cement mortar. Labor troubles at this time caused a 
suspension of mining for four days, during which time a new gang was organ- 
ized, and an air compressor installed. Air pressure on the tunnel was provided 
as a precautionary measure to prevent leaks from the four water tunnels over 
which the new tunnel passed and to prevent damage to the apartment build- 
ings near which the tunnel passed. A Laidlaw-Dunn-Gordon compressor, 
12 X 18 X 18 ins. of 626 cu. ft. capacity at 50 lbs. pressure was installed in 
the power house. It was at first rented for $100 per month, and later was 
purchased for $800. 

The air locks were not installed until Sept. 25, when the mining and lining 
had proceeded to a point 107 ft. from the shaft. The driving tunnel was then 
stopped for five days during the installation of the airlock diaphragms. These 
were placed 21 ft. 7 ins. apart, the nearest one being 63.2 ft. from the shaft. 
The lock was not quite long enough for the cars on account of the space needed 
to swing the outer door. The assembling and bricking in of the diaphragms 
required five days' time. 

To insure tightness of the lock, a slot was ciit through the tunnel lining about 
2 ft. south of the south diaphragm and the soil around the south end of the 
lock was grouted. The lock walls and the walls of the tunnel for 35 ft. south 
from the diaphragms were washed with Portalnd cement grout. Tests were 
made to determine air leakage and the Portland cement grout was put on dur- 
ing a pressure of about 18 lbs. No trouble was had because of leakage 
throughout the work and the compressor was able to maintain 10 to 15 lbs. 
pressure running at its lowest speed. 

About 135 ft. from the shaft the character of the ground changed from a 
hard blue clay, that required picking, to a soft clay with a tendency to swell. 
After this point was reached clay knives were used. This work proceeded 
without change from this time until the end of the tunnel was reached on 
February 8, 1913. 

The average progress made during October was 7.98 ft. per day, during 
November 8.25 per day, during December 11.8 per day and during January 
13.58 ft. per day. After Dec. 12, to the end of the work, two shifts per day 
were worked. The progress per shift during this time was 7.8 ft. for Decem- 
ber and 6.79 ft. for January. The work slowed up, it will be noted, on the 
long curve on a — 6 per cent grade. 

The south end of the tunnel joins the lake end of the old crosstown tunnel at 
a point midway between two 10 ft. shafts which are about 200 ft. apart. This 
short section of tunnel was cut out by closing a gate at each shaft. To over- 
come any leaks around the gate in Shaft F, this shaft was filled with soft blue 
clay to elevation —22. 

When the drift was excavated to within a few feet of this tunnel, a hole was 
drilled through to the old tunnel and a suction pipe connected. The pump 
was then started and the air pressure run up to from 42 to 48 lbs. to aid the 
pumping. After the water was pumped out about 10 lbs. air pressure was 
maintained while the remainder of the excavation was made and the connec- 
tion bricked up. The material excavated in making the tunnel connections 
was thrown back into the abandoned tunnel towards Shaft F, 



1340 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The work in the north drift had been extended 12.6 ft. or to 23.6 ft. from the 
shaft by two days' work during the month of September. It was resumed on 
Feb. 11, and completed to a point 55.4 ft. from the shaft and 13.8 ft. from the 
connection with the Blue Island tunnel. A gate shaft about 350 ft. west of 
the connection permitted the closing of this section of the Blue Island tunnel 
as the end of this tunnel is about 100 ft. east of the connection. The tunnel 
was pumped out and the connection made. As the Blue Island tunnel is 
lined with concrete, this material was used to make the connection and was 
carried back in the connecting tunnel for a distance of 14.55 ft. 

The compressor was shut down on Feb. 9 and the pressure allowed to give 
out by the working of the air lock during the work of tearing up track. The 
lock shields were removed and the slots, left in the lining by their removal, 
were concreted. By Feb. 28 both drifts were entirely cleaned out and a cover 
of steel beams and concrete was placed on the shaft. The equipment and 
construction buildings were then removed, leaving the site clear by March 15. 

The total itemized labor time in days, and of labor costs are shown in Table 
XII. This includes the time of all men and teams for the work from the 
commencement of operations until March 17 when all plant and buildings, 
with the exception of the office boiilding, had been removed. The total cost 
as given is $50,556.29. 

Table XI. — Total and Unit Costs 

-Shaft Tunnel Grand 



Per Hn. ft. Total Per lin. ft. Total total 
Engineering and 

inspection $10.12 $ 708.04 $2.05 $2,434.47 $3,142.51 

Labor 34.97 2,447.96 24.90 29,529.06 31,977.02 

Materials 21.70 1,519.00 7.02 8,320.27 9,839.27 

Plant 8.32 582.05 4.23 5,015.44 5,597.49 



Total $75.11 $5,257.05 $38.20 $45,299.24 $50,556.29 

Table XI gives the total and unit costs for the work as distributed for the 
various classes of work on the shaft and on the tunnel. The unit cost for the 
shaft is given in this table as $75.11 as compared with $66.79 given previously. 
The difference is due to the addition of a proportionate charge to the shaft 
work of the total cost of the plant. The plant included in this charge is as 
follows: 

Machinery, cars, etc $3 , 757. 51 

Rails and switches 464. 59 

Lumber 773. 52 

Pipe fittings 138. 98 

Miscellaneous 462. 89 



Total $5 , 597. 49 

The plant has been charged entirely into the work according to the figures 
In Table XI and distributed between the shaft and tunnel proportionately to 
the total costs of those items. This charge is an arbitrary charge and should 
be reduced by charging only the depreciation of the plant against the work. 
To do this 2 per cent of its value should be charged against the work each 
month, or 20 per cent for the ten months. This would reduce the plant charge 
on the shaft by $6.64 making the total cost of the shaft $68.47 per lin. ft., 
and would reduce the cost of the tunnel $3.38 per lineal foot making this item 
$34.82 per lineal foot instead of $38.20. In calculating the unit cost of the 
tunnel 1,186 lin. ft. was used as the total length, as 30 ft. of the length of the 



SMALL TUNNELS 



1341 



tunnel is included in the construction of the shaft and in the turning of 
the eyes, and this length was charged to the shaft construction. 

The materials used per lineal foot of tunnel are indicated by the following 
table which Is prepared from a record of materials used from Oct. 4 to Jan. 
16, during which time 840 lin. ft. of tunnel were built: 

Number brick per lin. ft. of tunnel 522. 5 

Barrels Utica cement per lin. ft .92 

Barrels Universal cement per lin. ft .50 

Cu. ft. sand per lin. ft 1. 14 

The tunnel was constructed by the City by day labor under the supervision 
of the construction division of the Bureau of Engineering. 

Table XII. — Total Itemized Labor Cost of Chicago Avenue Tunnel 
' Connection 



Asst. engineer 

Rodman 

Mining inspector . . . 
Supt. and foreman . . 
Supt. and foreman . 
Bricklayer foreman . 
Bricklayer foreman . 

Tunnel miners 

Muckers 

Laborers 

Hoist engineers 

Firemen 

Firemen 

Carpenters 

Blacksmith 

Watchmen 

Heading boss 

Lock tender 

Bricklayers 

Laborers 

Bricklayer tenders . . 
Mule and driver .... 

Electrician 

Double teams 

Asst. foreman 



Rate 






per 
day 








Time 


Amt. 


$ 5.61 


227 


$ 1,380.69 


2.96 


240 


836. 82 


5.00 


185 


925.00 


8.06 


'147' " 




*250. 00 


1,387.02 


11.00 


"isei^' 




*250. 00 


1,968.50 


4.00 


1,2333^ 


4,934.00 


3. 50 


7403^ 


2,591.75 


3.00 


1,423^ 


4,270.88 


5.80 


416K 


2,413.89 


♦90. 00 


* '475' 




2.90 


1,587.94 


5.20 


336 


1,747.20 


5.00 


216 


1,080.00 


2.50 


443 


1,163.50 


4.50 


2253^ 


981.75 


4.00 


2363^ 


1,024.00 


10.00 


222H 


2,223.00 


2.75 


72 


198.00 


4.00 


5813^ 


2,330.88 


5.50 


69.2 


380. 46 


6.00 


SVs 


53.25 


5.50 


228 


1,254.00 


6.00 


64>^ 
7,977.65 


387.00 




$35,119.53 



Totals 

* Month. 

Cost of a Brick Lined Tunnel for 36^In. Water Main Under Chelsea Creek, 
Boston, Mass. — William E. Foss gives the following data in Engineering and 
Contracting, Aug. 5, 1914. The work was done by day labor. 

For the purpose of guarding against the interruption of the supply of the 
East Boston low-service district by the breaking of the existing mains, a new 
36-in. main was laid in a different location. This new main connects with 
existing 20-in. and 24-in. mains in Chelsea and extends along the northerly 
shore of the creek to a point near the Chelsea Street bridge leading to East 
Boston, where it turns easterly and crosses under the channel through a tunnel 
504 ft. long to the East Boston shore. Construction of this brick-lined tunnel, 
for carrying the 36-in. cast-iron water main under the creek, was carried out 
by day labor from July, 1910, to January, 1911. 

The tunnel is located about 25 ft. down stream from the westerly side line 
of the Chelsea Street bridge, and includes a vertical shaft at each side of the 



1342 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

creek, 9 ft. 4 ins. outside diameter, with top at elevation 14 on the Chelsea 
shore and at elevation 10 on the East Boston shore. The horizontal section 
of the tunnel, joining the shafts, is 400 ft. in length, 8 ft. 2 ins. outside diameter 
with the top 36 ft. below mean low water at the Chelsea end.. The shafts 
were constructed with 12-in. and the horizontal portion of the tunnel with 8-in. 
brick walls. 

The Chelsea shaft rises about 12 ft. above the bed of the creek and is pro- 
tected by a steel casing which extends about 13 ft. into the silt bottom. The 
East Boston shaft was sunk through the earth filling, back of the masonry- 
sea wall, and is protected by a steel casing for a distance of 8 ft. below the top. 

The axis of the horizontal section of the 36-in. pipe, which was laid in the 
tunnel, is at elevation — 40. The pipes were laid with 3^ -in. opening between 
the end of the spigot and the bottom of the socket, and the joints were run solid 
with lead and were calked both inside and outside after the pipe was laid. The 
space between the pipe and the brick wall was filled with Portland cement 
concrete. 

Special 36-in. branches were used at the junction of the horizontal and verti- 
cal portions of the pipe line. Thirty-six-inch 3^ curves with manholes were 
set at the top of the shafts. The pipes used were 1.61 ins. thick. 

The steam plant for operating the air compressors, hoists and electric light- 
ing plant was set up on the Chelsea shore of the creek during the latter part of 
July, and the work of sinking the shaft was begun during the week ending 
August 13. After August 21, when the air lock was in place, the work was 
carried on continuously during 24 hours per day, with three shifts. While 
excavating the mud and silt just below the bed of the creek some inconven- 
ience was experienced on account of gas, which entered the shaft and affected 
the eyes of the workmen. 

The work of excavating and lining the shaft was completed about Septem- 
ber 1. An air lock was then built at the entrance to the horizontal portion 
of the tunnel, and the small lock which had been used for sinking the shaft was 
removed. The excavation and lining of the horizontal portion of the tunnel 
progressed at the rate of about 5 ft. per day. The air pressure maintained 
varied from 14 to 23 lbs. per square inch, according to the stage of the tide in 
the creek above. 

On October 13 a blow-out occurred about 150 ft. from the Chelsea shaft at 
a point where a pile had been removed. As a result, the tunnel was flooded 
with water to a depth of about 4 ft. After the hole was stopped the water 
was pumped out, and the work proceeded without further mishap. 

On the East Boston side of the creek the material excavated was hardpan 
containing boulders, which required some blasting, so that the rate of progress 
was less than it had been in the sand and clay on the Chelsea side of the creek. 
A 2}4An. steel pipe was driven, during the week ending November 12, on the 
center line of the tunnel near the East Boston end, from the surface of the 
ground to the center of the tunnel, for use in supplying compressed air for 
sinking the East Boston shaft. 

Work in the tunnel was discontinued on November 17, when steel sections 
of the East Boston shaft and the hoisting engine were set up on the East 
Boston side of the creek. On November 18 the work of excavating the East 
Boston shaft was begun, and on November 24 air pressure was applied. 

An opening was made from the bottom of the shaft into the tunnel on 
December 3. All excavation and the brick lining for the tunnel were com- 
pleted on December 6, and the air pressure was removed on the morning of 



SMALL TUNNELS 1343 

December 9. A total of 104 lin. ft. of shaft and 400 ft. of tunnel were built. 
The tunnel was cleaned out and plastered and, after calking a few small leaks, 
was substantially watertight. 

The force employed on this work while working continuously under air 
pressure averaged about 15 men for each of the three shifts. After the air 
pressure was removed the work was carried on with three shifts working six 
days per week, the force employed averaging about 16 men per shift. The 
wages paid, price of materials and general expenses were as follows: 

Prices Paid for Labor 

For 8-hour day 

Engineer in charge of plant $5.*00 

Engineer 4. 00 

Fireman 2. 40 

Head miner and foreman 4 . 00 

Miner 2. 80 

Tunnel laborer 2. 40 

Laborer 2. 00 

Calker 3. 50 

Head mason 7. 20 

Mason 6. 40 

Boy 1 . 60 

Double team with driver 5. 00 

Prices Paid for Materials 

Brick, delivered on work, per M $9. 70 

Portland cement, delivered on work in bags (credit for empty bags 

returned, 63^ cts. each), per bbl 1. 68 

Coal, delivered on work (for 14,700 B.t.u. per pound of dry coal), per 

gross ton 4. 10 

Ipswich sand, delivered on wharf, for brickwork, per ton 0. 75 

Plum Island sand, delivered on wharf, for concrete, per ton 0. 75 

Bank sand, delivered on cars at bank, per cu. yd 0. 35 

Freight, additional, per cu. yd 0. 35 

Teaming, additional, per cu. yd 0. 40 

Screened gravel for concrete, delivered on cars at bank, per cu. yd 0. 75 

Freight, additional, per cu. yd 0, 35 

Teaming, additional, per cu. yd 0. 43 

Broken stone for concrete, delivered on work, per ton . : 1 . 50 

Lead, per 100 lbs 4. 675 

General Expenses 

Superintendence and rental of plant $ 7 , 700. 00 

Installing plant: 

Labor $ 412. 90 

Teaming 130. 00 

Supplies 121. 19 

664.09 

Housing plant: 

Labor 525. 85 

Lumber, $743.77; $205.36 received for old lumber . . 538. 41 
. Miscellaneous supplies 39 . 78 

Operating plant: 

Labor 4,234.40 

Coal 1,947.65 

Water for boilers and compressors 225. 35 

Miscellaneous supplies 538. 49 

Removing plant: 

Labor 230. 80 

Teaming 106. 00 

336.80 

Rental of land 195. 00 

Miscellaneous expenses 88. 35 

Total general expenses $17,034. 17 



1,104.04 



6,945.89 



1344 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The plant was operated from 7 a. m. Aug. 11, 1910, to 4 p. m. Jan. 11, 1911, 
a total of 4,017 hours. The cost of general expenses per hour was therefore 
$4.24. 

Earth Excavation. — About 1,040 cu. yds. of earth were excavated under air 
pressure of 14 to 23 lbs. per square inch. Work was continuous for three 
shifts per 24 hours. The mud and silt was excavated just below the bed of 
the creek at the shaft on Chelsea shore. Fine sand and gravel were excavated 
for 10 ft. below the silt, and the bottom 5 ft. of excavation was in clay. 

The shaft on the East Boston shore was excavated through filling of clay 
and ashes for a depth of 25 ft., coarse gravel for a depth of 15 ft., and below this 
line the excavation was in hard pan. The horizontal portion of the tunnel 
was excavated through stratified sand, clay and gravel, the strata dipping 
about 6° towards the Chelsea shore, so that for the first portion of the work the 
floor was in clay and the arch in sand. As the work progressed the floor was 
in gravel and the arch in clay, and at the East Boston end the entire excava- 
tion was in hard pan, with some boulders which required blasting. The cost, 
of earth excavation was as follows: 

Per cent 

Cost of total 

General expenses $10, 190. 40 40. 

Steel casings for shaft 833. 00 4.1 

Roof plates for tunnel 1 , 387. 31 6.8 

Lumber 98. 96 0.5 

Tools 112. 36 0. 5 

Labor 7,778.70 38.1 

Total $20,400. 73 

Cost per lin. ft. of tunnel 40. 68 

Cost per cu. yd 19. 62 

Brick Lining. — ^Approximately 320 cu. yds. of brick masonry were built 
under air pressure of 14 to 23 lbs. per square inch. Work was continuous for 
three shifts per 24 hours. 

Per cent 
Cost of total 

General expenses $ 3,078. 64 29. 2 

Brick 1,971.52 18.7 

Cement 1,129.00 10.7 

Sand 331.39 3.1 

Mason 1,210.80 11.5 

Labor 2,786.25 26.5 

Miscellaneous supplies 36. 76 0. 3 

Total $10,544.36 

Cost per lin. ft. of tunnel 21 . 03 

Cost per cu. yd. of tunnel 32. 95 

Laying 36-7n. Pipe. — Five hundred and three feet of 36-in. 0ipe were laid. 
Work was continuous for six days per week with three shifts per 24 hours. 

Per cent 

Cost of total 

General expenses $1 , 708. 96 42. 2 

Lead 382.41 9.4 

Calking 252. 00 6.2 

Labor 1,661.10 41.0 

Tools and miscellaneous 50. 25 1.2 

Total $4,054. 72 

Cost per lin. ft. of tunnel 8. 08 



SMALL TUNNELS 



1345 



Portland Cement Concrete Protection for Pipe. — Four hundred and seventy- 
eight yards of concrete were placed. Frost was removed from the sand and 
gravel for concreting, by steam. The materials were mixed in the following 
proportions: 380 lbs. of cement, 10 cu. ft. of sand, 18 cu. ft. of gravel. Work 
was continuous for six days per week with three shifts per 24 hours. 



Per cent 

Cost of total 

General expenses $2 , 056. 17 35. 8 

Cement 917. 11 16. 

Sand and gravel 744. 15 13. • 

Labor 1 , 994. 70 34. 8 

Miscellaneous expenses 25. 00 0. 4 

. Total. $5,737. 13 

Cost per lin. ft. of tunnel 11. 44 

Cost per cu. yd. of tunnel 12. 00 



Cost op Cast Iron Pipe and Specials 

The cost of the cast iron pipe and special castings was as follows : 

36-in. cast iron pipe, class H: 

157.348 tons straight pipe, delivered on wharf, at $24.40 per ton $3 , 839. 29 

Cost per lin. ft. of tunnel 7. 65 

36-in. cast iron specials: 

11,1605 tons, delivered on wharf, at $49 546. 86 

Cost per lin. ft. of tunnel 1 . 09 



Summary of Costs 

Cost per 

Total Hn. ft. 

cost of tunnel 

Earth excavation .• $20,400. 73 $40. 68 

Brick lining 10,544. 36 21. 03 

Laying 36-in. pipe . . ; 4,054. 72 8. 08 

Portland cement concrete protection for pipe 5,737.13 11.44 

$40,736.94 $81.23 

6-in. cast iron pipe $3, 839. 29 $ 7. 65 

36-in. special castings 546. 86 1. 09 

Total* $45,123.09 $89.97 



* Exclusive of land damages and engineering and testing and miscellaneous. 
These items amounted to a sum of $5,687.53 additional, making the total cost 
$50,810.62. 
85 



1346 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Construction Plant. — Following is a list of the construction plant unitB 
employed and their estimated value when new: 

Est. value 
when new 
1 air compressor, IngersoU No. 119, 24 X 24^ X 30 ins. . ■ $ 2,700 

1 air compressor, Ingersoll No. 82, 18 X 183^ X 24 ins 2,200 

2 75 hp. vertical Manning boilers, 60 X 13 ins 2,400 

1 60 hp. horizontal Economical boiler, 50 ins. X 10 ft 700 

2 air receivers, 4 X 12 ft 200 

1 shaft lock, 6 X 6 ft 700 

1 tunnel lock, 6 X 12 ft 225 

1 4 X 3-in. Worthington duplex pump 200 

1 4 X 3-in. Knowles duplex pump 200 

1 head house and conveyor 200 

1 12 hp. Paine dynamo engine 500 

1 Crocker- Wheeler generator, 50 amperes, 110 volts, 12,000 r.p.m. . . . 130 
1 two-drum, 20 hp. double cylinder, Floyd Mfg. Co. hoisting engine 

and boiler * .* 1 , 200 

1 20 hp. double cylinder Kendal & Roberts hoisting engine, without 

boiler 600 

5 tons steel rails 200 

3 car trucks, with wheels, axles and boxes 105 

Centers, ribs and lagging 100 

Pipe and fittings 500 

Total $13,240 

6 skips, 5 X 2H X 23^ ft 180 

Cost of Water Pipe Tunnel Under Mystic River, Chelsea, Mass. — The work 
of widening and deepening the draw at the Mystic River bridge between 
Charlestown and Chelsea necessitated an extension, in 1912, of the existing 
tunnel a distance of 273 ft. from the old shaft on the Charlestown side of the 
former channel. William E. Foss describes this work in Engineering and 
Contracting, Oct. 14, 1914, from which article the following data are taken. 

The work was begun March 8 and was completed Sept. 11, 1912. It was 
done by the pneumatic process, the pressure varying from 19 to 27.5 lbs. per 
square inch. The work was carried on continuously with a day labor force 
working in three 8-hour shifts per 24 hours. 

The work of setting up the boilers, air compressors, electric light plant, 
hoisting engines, pumps, etc., was begun on March 8, and during the week 
ending March 23 the water was pumped out of the old tunnel, the old pipes 
removed from the shaft and a brick bulkhead 24 ins. thick built into the tunnel 
about 12 ft. from the shaft. An air lock was then bolted to the top of the 
shaft and on April 1 the air pressure was applied. The brick lining was then 
removed at the bottom of the shaft and the work of driving the tunnel exten- 
sion began on April 8. While a circular steel shield, and wooden lagging were 
used in 1900, steel roof plates have been used and the wooden lagging has been 
omitted in all subaqueous tunnel work since that date. 

Rock was encountered in the lower part of the heading and rose as the head- 
ing advanced until at a distance of 24 ft. from the center of the old shaft the 
tunnel was entirely in rock and so continued for a distance of 200 ft. The 
work of lining the tunnel with brick was commenced on April 13 and both 
excavation and lining were carried forward at the rate of about 2 ft. in 24 hours 
until July 17, when the brick lining had been advanced 206.5 ft. beyond the 
old shaft. A brick bulkhead was then built near the end of the finished brick- 
work and the lined portion of the tunnel cleaned, plastered with cement mor- 
tar and washed with cement grout. A concrete bulkhead reinforced with steel 



SMALL TUNNELS 1347 

rails was then built into the old shaft, above the tunnel, and on July 25 the 
removal of the brickwork of the old shaft was commenced. 

The tunnel is 6 ft. in interior diameter with a 12-in. wall of brick masonry, 
except at places in soUd rock where the wall is 8 ins. thick. The center line 
of the tunnel is about 43.5 ft. below mean low water. 

The following prices were paid for labor : 

Engineer, per week averaging 53^ days $25. 00 

Fireman, per week averaging 5}i days 17. 00 

Head miner, per week averaging 7 days 33. 60 

Miner, per 8-hour day 3. 20 

Miner, per 8-hour day 2. 80 

Locktender, per 8-hour day 2. 80 

Topman, per 8-hour day 2. 80 

Laborer, per 8-hour day 2. 40 

Laborer, per 8-hour day 2. 25 

Blacksmith, per 8-hour day 3. 00 

Mason (day work), per 8-hour day 6. 40 

Mason (piece work, tunnel), per linear foot of tunnel 2. 00 

Mason (piece work, shaft), per linear foot of shaft 3. 00 

The following prices were paid for materials: 

Brick, deUvered on work, per M $ 9. 20 

Portland cement, delivered on work in bags, per bbl 1. 46 

Coal, per ton 5. 25 

Coal, per ton 4. 20 

Coal, per ton 3.95 

Lumber, spruce, per M. ft. B. M $24 to 29.00 

Lumber, hard pine, per M. ft. B. M 35. 00 

Sand, dehvered on work, per cu. yd 1. 30 

Stone, broken, delivered on work, per ton 1. 40 

Clay, delivered on work, per cu. yd 2. 50 

Dynamite, not delivered, per 100 lbs 18. 40 

Large tunnel plates, each 1 . 00 

Small tunnel plates, each 0. 65 

Lighter, per day (and lump sum prices for special work) .... 25. 00 

Rental of plant and services of assistant per day 30. 00 

Construction Plant. — The construction plant employed was as follows: 

Estimated 

value 
when new 
1 Air compressor, Ingersoll-Rand, 18 X 14 X 24-in. 

1 Air compressor, Knowles, 12 X 18 X 18-in. 

2 75-hp. vertical Manning boilers, 60 ins. X 13 ft $2,400. 00 

1 Air receiver, 3 ft. X 7 ft. 

1 Shaft lock, 6 ft. X 6 ft 700.00 

1 Knowles 4 X 3-in. duplex pump 200. 00 

1 Worthington 2 X 1-in. duplex pump 200. 00 

1 Edson pump, 13^^ -in. discharge. 

1 Head house wheel, 2.75-ft. diameter, 

1 12-hp. Paine dynamo engine 500. 00 

1 Generator, 50 amperes, 110 volts . . 130. 00 

1 Two-drum, 20-hp., double cylinder hoisting engine and boiler 1 , 200. 00 

1 Ton steel rails 40. 00 

3 Car trucks with wheels, axles and boxes 105. 00 

3 Skips, 5 X 2.4 X 2.1 90. 00 

6 Cylindrical buckets 180. 00 

5 3-ft. radius ribs for lagging. 

Pipe and jfittings. 
36 12-in. bracing jacks. 

1 Portable forge 30.00 

2 Wheelbarrows 6. 00 

1 150-lb. medium anvil. 



1348 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

General Expenses. — The following general expenses were incurred: 



Superintendence $ 2 , 400. 00 

Rental of plant and services of assistant 5 , 520. 00 

Installing Plant: 

Labor $ 690. 03 

Teams and lighter 135. 00 

Supphes 562. 76 

1,387.79 

Hoisting plant: 

Labor $ 797. 00 

Lumber 532. 92 

Supphes 54. 20 

1,384.12 

Operating plant: 

Labor $7,860.22 

Coal.... 2,889.60 

Miscellaneous supplies 208. 52 

Miscellaneous teaming 48. 00 

11,006.34 

Removing plant: 

Labor $ 421.25 

Teams and lighter 190. 00 

611.25 

Preliminary and incidental expenses: 

Pumping water from old tunnel $ 388. 32 

Building and removing bulkheads 382. 58 

Cutting brickwork in old tunnel 491. 08 

Cleaning out finished tunnel, etc 276. 38 

1,538.36 

Total general expenses $23 , 847. 86 



The plant was operated 4,248 hours, from 7: 30 a. m., March 13, to 7: 30 a. 
m., Sept. 6, 1912. Cost of general expenses per hour, $5.61, 

Earth Excavation. — About 301 cu. yds. of earth was excavated under air 
pressure of 19 to 27K lbs. per square inch. Work was continuous for three 
shifts per 24 hours. Material encountered in the shaft varied from fine silty 
sand at the bed of the river to sand and coarse gravel, with some boulders, at 
the elevation of the tunnel. In the horizontal portion of the tunnel the mate- 
rial was largely blue gravel. 

Per cent 
of total 

General expenses $5 , 277. 34 56. 8 

Steel casing for shaft 760. 00 8.2 

Roof plates for tunnel 510. 85 5. 5 

Clay 96.99 1.1 

Tools 21. 58 0. 2 

Miscellaneous supplies 23. 86 0. 3 

Labor 2,506.10 26.9 

Use of lighter setting steel Casing 93. 33 1.0 

Total $9 , 290. 05 

Cost per linear foot $61 . 18 

Cost per cu. yd. of excavation 30. 90 



Rock Excavation. — ^Approximately 302 cu. yds. of rock was excavated in 
the horizontal portion of the tunnel. The rock was of a hard, though seamy, 
texture and required blasting. The air pressure used was the same as when 



SMALL TUNNELS 1340 

the heading was in earth. When the heading was in soUd rock, about 2.6 lbs. 
of dynamite was used per linear foot. 

Per cent 
of total 

General expenses $12,025. 43 59. 1 

Roof plates for tunnel 493. 53 2.4 

Blasting supplies 91. 38 0.5 

Clay 60.45 0.3 

Tools 21.56 0.1 

Miscellaneous supplies and expenses 47. 22 0. 2 

Labor 7,594.73 37.4 

Total $20,334.30 

Cost per linear foot $130. 85 

Cost per cu. yd. of excavation 67. 29 

Brick Lining. — About 310 cu. yds. of brick masonry (including concrete 
base at foot of new shaft and concrete plug in old shaft) was built, with an 
air pressure of 19 to 273^ lbs. per square inch. Brick masons were paid largely 
by piece work. 

Per cent 
of total 

General expenses $ 4 , 368. 84 39. 7 

Brick 1,304.96 11.8 

Cement 727. 22 6. 6 

Sand 186.37 1.7 

Lumber 53. 48 0.5 

Miscellaneous supplies 88. 52 0. 8 

Use of lighter placing shaft 121. 67 1. 1 

Brick mason 793. 40 7. 2 

Labor 3 , 369. 08 30. 6 

Total $11,013.54 

Cost per linear foot : $33. 18 

Cost per cubic yard 35. 55 

Removing Old Shaft. — ^About 29 cu. yds of brickwork were removed from the 
old shaft with the use of dynamite and bull pointing. The upper 18 ft. of 
brickwork were left in the steel casing, which was withdrawn by lighters and 
transported to the Naval Hospital pier. 

General expenses $2 , 176. 25 

Blasting supplies 19. 91 

Clay 30.05 

Miscellaneous 32. 37 

Labor 1,155.36 

Use of lighter handling shaft 440. 00 

$ 3,853.94 

Credit for steelwork sold as junk 72. 00 

Total for removing old shaft $ 3 , 781. 94 

Cost per linear foot $ 74. 16 

Summary of Costs 

Earth excavation $ 9 , 290. 05 

Rock excavation 20 , 334. 30 

Brick lining 11,013.54 

Removing old shaft 3, 781. 94 

$44,419.83 
Engineering 2,200. 63 

Total cost $46 , 620. 46 

Cost per linear foot of complete tunnel 140. 85 

The total cost per foot of the original tunnel built in 

1900-1901 was $ 156. 00 



1350 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cost of Two Tunnels in Rock Under the Erie Canal for the Buffalo, N. Y., 
Water Works. — In order to run four 60-in. mains from the new pumping 
station to the main part of the city of Buffalo all four are obliged to cross the 
Erie Canal a short distance from the pumping station. Two of these mains 
run up Jersey St. and two up Porter Ave. and it was decided to tunnel under 
the canal at these two points. 

The following data relative to this work are taken from a series of articles 
by C. H. HoUingsworth, Supt. for the contractors, appearing in Engineering 
and Contracting, April 17, May 1 and May 8, 1912. 

The sections of the Jersey Street and Porter Ave. tunnels were the same in 
size and length, i.e. — 18 ft. wide by 10 ft. high (finished) and 220 ft. c. to c. of 
shafts. The main difficulties arose in excavating the shafts where large vol- 
umes of water had to be pumped. The finished dimensions of the shafts 
were 10 by 21 ft. in plan and 56 and 65 ft. deep respectively. 

Since the work had to be carried on in winter (in order not to block the 
towpath during the summer months while the canal is in use) the difficulties 
were greatly intensified. Mr. HoUingsworth gives no data relative to the 
cost of excavating the shafts but says: 

The shaft sinking was one of the hardest propositions in that line that the 
writer has ever seen, At the dryest shaft (No. 4) the pumpage averaged 300 
gals, per minute when the shaft was sunk to grade. At Shaft 3 the leakage was 
350 gals, per minute after it had been sunk the full depth, but at times during 
the sinking the leakage amounted to 1,050 gals, per minute. At shaft 2 the 
leakage at times during the sinking ran as high as 1,650 gals, per minute and 
when the shaft was down to grade it was 400 gals, per minute. In Shaft 1 the 
leakage at times ran as high as 1,300 gals, per minute, and when sunk to grade 
the leakage ran about 500 gals, per minute. From these figures it can be 
seen that the pumping was a very considerable item and after drilling a round 
it was a serious problem to remove the pumps before shooting and replace 
them after the shot. Oftentimes there was 6 ft. of water in the shaft before 
the shot could be fired. Added to this was the fact that the severe weather 
caused eyerything in the shafts to be coated with ice and it was remarkable 
that the men stuck so well to the work. Only one shaft pump was used and 
all the other pumps — of which there were 12 in all, used at different times — 
were horizontal, duplex plunger pumps of various sizes. These pumps were 
hung in the shaft, being suspended from the timbering. 

Jersey St. Tunnel. — The Jersey St. tunnel was driven from Shaft 4 and was 
started Feb. 6, but as the first two rounds had to be drilled from tripods, allow- 
ing the use of only two machines, the progress was retarded for the first two 
days. The rock in this tunnel was partly black flint and partly a very hard 
limestone. The rock being hard, the blasting made considerable concussion, 
and as the district nearby was thickly populated, a steady stream of com- 
plaints began to come in. To make matters worse, the weather, which at the 
start of the blasting was mild and wet, suddenly turned very cold, freezing the 
ground so that the slightest shock was transmitted a long way. Windows 
were broken and crockery was shattered. In order to shut off some of the 
complaints, the following system was tried: First a, round of 8-ft. holes was 
drilled and fired every eight hours in the heading, the holes being spaced as 
shown by Fig. 6, and two rounds were drilled on the bench. In shooting, in 
order to make as little disturbance as possible, the four bottom cut holes were 
fired first, next the two top cut holes, next the six holes in the side round and 
lastly the five dry holes. This did not, seem to please the public any better 



SMALL TUNNELS 



1351 



than when the entire six holes in the cut were fired in the first shot, so shorter 
holes were tried. The scheme was to drill a 6-ft. round in the heading and 
shoot four times in 24 hours, instead of three times. The result showed that 
about the only way to please the residents in the neighborhood was to stop 
blasting entirely, and as this could not be done, the writer concluded to try a 
method of his own, which was to hurry up and get the agony over, so the three 



Vis 



'.-S-O'-zx 



^^ 






-fM'^^ 




Sec /-/on of /^eacf/nq 







\\ 

w 
w 
w 



\\ l' 'll 

fh\\/0 I4\\\ 

-/S-O'- J^....'^:q.: 

P/oo a/ F(7cc of//€c7cf/ng 





pQce o/ 3e/7c/7 



Bench P/an 

Fig. 6. — Spacing of holes for blasting in tunnels. 
Holes 6, 7, 8, 11, 12 and 13 = cut holes, 1st shot in heading — ordinary exploders. 
Holes 2, 3, 4, 15, 16 and 17 = side round, 2d shot in heading — 1st delay exploders 
Holes 1, 5, 9, 10 and 14 = dry holes, 2d shot in heading — 2d delay exploders. 
Holes 18, 19, 20, 21 and 22 = trench holes, 1st shot in heading — ordinary 

exploders. 
Holes 23 and 24 = 1st shot in trimming — ordinary exploders. 
Holes 25, 26, 27 and 28 = 1st shot in trimming— 1st delay exploders. 

shot schedule was resumed, and 8 ft: rounds were drilled, the entire cut being 
fired in the first round. As an interesting side fight on the question of short 
holes versus long holes in drifiing a heading, it was found that, while the three 



1352 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

shots could easily be made in 24 hours, with an average advance of about 5.5 
ft. the four 6-ft. rounds could not be drilled and shot in 24 hours. The best 
that could be done was at the rate of seven shots in two days, averaging 4.1 
ft. per shot; so that with the long holes the daily advance was 15.6, while 
with the short holes the daily progress was 14.3, showing a percentage in favor 
of the former method. The amount of work required by the short hole 
method was also vastly greater for the small progress, as it required an extra 
setting up and tearing down, and the shooting time, instead of coming at the 
end of the shift, came to all sorts of unseemly hours. The heading was taken 
out 15 ft. wide and 7 ft. high, leaving a bench of 5>^ ft. Three drilling gangs 
were used, each working an eight-hour shift, and each composed of one head- 
ing foreman, one nipper, four drill runners and four helpers in the heading and 
one runner and one helper on the bench. This gang had to muck out, set up, 
drill an 8-ft. round and shoot in eight hours, and this they did without any 
trouble. In shooting, delay action exploders were utilized in the following 
way: The cut holes and first round on the bench were loaded, using the 
ordinary exploders, the side round and second round on the bench were loaded 
with first delay exploders and the dry holes were loaded with second delay 
exploders. The cut and the two bench rounds were fired first. Then if the 
cut needed reloading this was done, using ordinary exploders, after which it 
and side round and dry holes were all connected up and fired, making only two 
shots. In drilling, IngersoU E-24 drills with 33^-in. cylinders were used, 
mounted on arms and 6H-ft. columns. An air pressure of about 105 lbs. at 
the compressors was maintained, giving an effective pressure at the drills of 
about 90 or 95 lbs. The powder used was 60 per cent dynamite and the 
compressed air was used to blow out the smoke after every shot. As the 
tunnels were short, there was not much trouble from smoke. The heading 
was at all times kept about 25 ft. ahead of the bench. 

In mucking a muck foreman and 14 to 16 men were used. The muck was 
loaded into 1}4 cu. yd. dump buckets, the same as used in sinking the shafts. 
These buckets were set on flat cars and when loaded were run out to the shaft, 
picked up by the derrick and dumped into the bottom dump wagons, which 
hauled the muck to a dump a short distance away. These wagons took just 
one bucketful each. The buckets were each provided with a safety chain, 
with a snap hook in case the tripping lever of the bucket should catch on any 
of the timbers. In loading the buckets in the tunnel a double track was laid 
from the shift into the bench without any switches, and one bucket was run 
In and loaded partly from muck wheeled out from the heading in wheelbarrows 
and partly by shovelers working at the foot of the bench. While this bucket 
was being loaded, the one on the other tracks had been pushed out, set up, 
dumped and returned. Instead of using a hook on the derrick to hook on 
to the buckets, a special block and clevis was used. This was to prevent 
accidents from the bucket striking a timber when being lowered and becoming 
unhooked. The clevis was about as quick to attach and take off as a hook, 
and was much safer. Owing to the hard and blocky nature of the rock in this 
tunnel, no extra fast progress was made, although a fair rate was maintained. 
During the first week a progress of 77.5 ft. was made, but for the first two 
days of the week only two drills on tripods could be used in starting the head- 
ing from the shaft and a shot was lost later on, as the gang had to be taken back 
to the shaft to drill a sump and some trimming holes. For the second week, 
ending Monday forenoon, Feb. 20, the progress was 108.2 it. of both heading 
and bench. The third week the heading was completed on Wednesday fore- 



SMALL TUNNELS 1353 

nooR, Feb. 22, and up to then 35.3 ft. were driven, making the total distance 
from the south side of shaft 4 to the south side of shaft 3 of 222 ft. in 15 work- 
ing days (including time of turning the heading), or about 15 ft. per day. 

In trimming off the additional 5 ft. to widen the tunnel to 20 ft., it was first 
trimmed out to full width for a distance of about 20 ft. at a point midway 
between the two shafts. From this point the trimming was worked both 
ways, using four drills mounted on two 10-ft. columns. The column was set 
up close to the rib and the two machines mounted on it. Then 8-ft. holes were 
drilled running parallel with the tunnel line. Four holes were drilled close to 
the rib and two about 2 ft. out. The latter were fired first and the other four 
holes later. In this way each shift advanced about 7 ft. in each direction, 
or 14 ft. in all, and the 220 ft. of trimming took just 16 shifts, or 5H days. A 
line of 12 X 12-in. timbers on the exact center line of the tunnel was placed 
with the timbers 12 ft. centers. These timbers were kept about 12 ft. behind 
the face of the trimming. The tracks for the muck cars were left in their 
original locations and used for the trimming work, as the greater part of this 
muck was thrown well across both tracks. 

Table XIII. — Cost op Excavating Jersey St. Tunnel 
(Progress 18 lin. ft. per day; area excavated ISl^i sq. yds.; cubic yards per 

24 hours, 121) 
Excavation per day: Cost 

Same as at Porter ave.. Table XIV $199. 50 

Disposal per day: 

Same as at Porter ave.. Table XIV 99. 00 

Total * $298. 50 

Summary 
Item Per cu yd. 

Excavation $1 . 65 

Disposal : .82 

3 lbs. powder at 14 cts .42 

Exploders, wire, etc .04 

Total $2 . 93 

The cost of widening this tunnel from 15 to 20 ft, was $2.97 per cubic yard. 

Porter Avenue Tunnel. — The Porter Ave. tunnel was driven from Shaft 1, 
the heading being turned Monday, Feb. 13. The heading was in a belt of 
fine grained hard sandstone about 7 ft. thick, reaching from the roof grade 
to the top of the* bench. This stratum was without any slips or seams what- 
ever and was excellent rock. In spite of the fact that the heading was turned 
with two machines on tripods, they drilled and shot a 10-ft. round in eight 
hours. The heading and bench were carried on by the same methods as the 
Jersey St. tunnel. ' Owing to the scarcity of men, only two drilling shifts were 
put on at first, and the heading ran about 50 ft. ahead of the bench the first 
week, but this was reduced to 25 ft. during the second week. As the rock 
drilled and broke well, a 10-ft. round could have been drilled and fired every 
eight hours, but for the fact that the city authorities about this time limited 
the depth of holes to 8 ft. on account of complaints regarding the jar of the 
blasting. The progress was much better in this tunnel than at Jersey St. 
As stated before, only two drilUng shifts were worked during the first week, 
and the progress for that week ending Feb. 20 was 96 ft., including in this, 
however, two shots made on Sunday, the 19th, or 15 shots in all, averaging 
6.4 ft. per shot. On Monday, the 20th, three drilling gangs and three full 
mucking gangs of 14 to 16 men each were started and the progress for the week 



1354 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

ending Monday forenoon, Feb. 27, was 126 ft. of heading and bench. In fact 
a gain of 25 ft. was made on the bench. This progress was made in the six 
days and one extra 6-ft. round fired on Sunday to finish up the tunnel to the 
further side of Shaft 2. The advance made on the 6-ft. round was 5 ft., and 
deducting this the average advance of the other 18 shots was 6.7 ft. per shot. 
The only difference between here and the Jersey St. work in the men employed 
was that at Porter Ave. during this last week an extra muck foreman was used 
in the heading and this resulted in a much faster handling of the muck with 
the same number of muckers. The entire distance of 222 ft. was taken out in 
34 shots or 113^ working days, averaging about 6.5 ft. per shot. 

Table XIV. — Cost op Excavating Porter Ave. Tunnel, Original Section 

(Progress 21 lin. ft. per 24 hours; and of section excavated 187>^ sq. ft.; cubic 
yards per 24 hours 146) 

Excavation per shift: Cost 

1 heading foreman $ 5. 00 

5 drill runners at $3 15. 00 

5 helpers at $2.25 11. 25 

1 nipper 2. 25 

1 muck foreman 3. 00 

14 muckers at $2.00 28. 00 

1 bottom signal man 2. 00 

Total per shift $ 66. 50 

Total per 24 hours (three shifts) $199. 50 

Disposal per shift: 

1 top signal man $ 2. 00 

2 dumpers at $1.75 , 3. 50 

2 men at dump at $1.75 3. 50 

4 teams at $6 24. 00 

Total per shift $ 33 .00 

Total per 24 hours (three shifts) $ 99. 00 

Grand total $298. 50 

Summary 
Item Per cu. yd. 

Excavation $1. 36 

Disposal .68 

Powder 2% lbs. per cu. yd. at 14 cts .39 

Exploders and wire .04 

Total $2. 47 

Table XV. — Cost of Widening Porter Ave. Tunnjel prom 15 Ft. to 20 Ft. 

(Progress 42 lin. ft. per day; and excavated 623^ sq. ft.; cubic yards per 24 

hours 97) 

Excavation per shift: Cost 

1 heading foreman $ 5. 00 

4 drill runners at $3 12. 00 

4 helpers at $2.25 9. 00 

1 nipper 2.25 

1 muck foreman 3. 00 

10 muckers at $2 20. 00 

1 bottom signal man 2. 00 

Total per shift ; $ 53. 25 

Total per 24 hours (three shifts) $ 159. 75 

Disposal per shift: 

(Same as in Table XIV.) 

Total per 24 hours (three shifts) $ 99. 00 

Grand total $258. 75 



SMALL TUNNELS 



1355 







W^'^-r ^ ^-i ^Bottom i. 

Fig. 7. — Installation of Haines mixer in shaft. 




1356 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Table XV. — Continued 

SUMMABY 

Item 

Excavation 

Disposal 

Powder 2 lbs. at 14 cts 

Exploders, wire, etc 



• cu. yd. 


$1 


64 


1 


02 




28 




03 



Total $2.97 

In placing the concrete lining of the tunnels and shafts, a Haines mixer 
was installed in one shaft in each tunnel and all concrete carried from that 
point in cars as shown in Figs. 7 and 8. 

The floor of the tunnel was poured first then the walls and roof. Fig, 8 
shows the forms clearly and indicates the general method by which the work 
was done. 

Table XVI. — Cost op Concreting in Tunnels 

(Progress 24 lin. ft. per day; and of section 70 sq. ft.; yardage 62 cu. yds.) 

Per 
Mixing: Total cu. yd. 

1 foreman $ 3. 00 

6 men at $1.75 10. 50 

2 mixer men at $2.00 4. 00 



Total per shift $ 17. 50 

Total per 24 hours (3 shifts) $ 52. 50 $0. 847 

Placing: 

1 foreman $ 3. 00 

8 laborers at $2.00 16. 00 

2 car pushers at $2.00 4. 00 . . 

Total (one shift) $ 23. 00 

Total per 24 hours (3 shifts) $ 69. 00 $1. 113 

Forms: 

Boss carpenter $ 4. 00 ...... 

8 carpenter at $2.80 22. 40 

Total (one shift only) $ 26. 40 $0. 430 

Grand total $147. 90 $2. 39 

Table XVII. — Cost of Concreting in Shafts 

(Progress 12 ft. per day; area 66 sq. ft.; yardage 29 cu, yds.) 

Mixing: Cost 

1 foreman $ 3. 00 

6 laborers at $1.75 10. 50 

2 mixer men at $2.00 4. 00 



Total one shift $17. 50 

Total (two shifts) per day .' $35. 00 

Placing: 

1 foreman $ 3. 00 

8 laborers at $2.00 16. 00 



Total (one shift) $19. 00 

Total (two shifts) per day $38. 00 

Forms: 

Boss carpenter $ 4. 00 

8 carpenters at $2.80 22. 40 

One shift only $26. 40 

Grand total $99. 40 

Total per cu. yd ; . . .$ 3.43 

Comparative Cost of Constructing Concrete Lining Using Gravity Chute and 
Steam Mixer. — W. D'Rohan gives the following in Engineering and Contract- 
ing, July 6, 1910. 



SMALL TUNNELS 1357 

In a project to irrigate 12,000 acres of the Mesa lands lying south of the 
Grand River between Palisades and Grand Junction, Colo, part of the con- 
struction consists of a tunnel 6X7 ft., 1,740 ft. long, driven through 940 ft. 
of black shale rock, and 800 ft. of dirt. The dirt section was timbered, roof 
and sides, in 4-ft. sections, being lined with 2-in. sheeting, supported by 6 X 6- 
in. posts with caps and sills. 

The original intention was to line the timbered section with 9 ins, of con- 
crete and let the shale section go, but as the shale quickly disintegrated in 
the air, it became necessary to concrete the whole tunnel. 

This contingency totally unexpected, found the company in a remote local- 
ity with but one steam mixer available and only two months to complete a 
large amount of concrete work. Extra machinery was immediately wired for, 
and as it would take from three to four weeks to ship it from Chicago, the 
writer, as superintendent of construction, suggested the use of a gravity chute 
through the central air shaft, 82.5 ft. deep. This plan was adopted. 

Starting at the bottom, a trestle 7 ft. high was built and arranged so as not 
to interfere with the form work, and from this was placed a series of platfroms 
8 ft. apart, supported by 2 X 8-in. girders sunk into the walls of the shaft 
which was 4 ft. in diameter, all being connected with short ladders. 

The chute proper was simply a trough 10 X 10 ins. with a series of baffles 
nailed on alternate sides, spaced 2 ft. apart. The baffles were made by cutting 
4 X 4s diagonally. The first section rested on the trestle, and the remaining 
parts were held in place by cleats and so braced that each platform bore the 
weight of its own section. Three sides were securely nailed, and the fourth, 
which was cut to suit the platforms, was held in place by clamps made of two 
pieces of 2 X 4s with two bolts ^ in. X 16 ins., two clamps to each section. 
This made it easy to remove one side for repairs. The top of the chute had 
two V-shaped hoppers at an angle of 45° with the vertical fitted with a wooden 
slide door. Into these hoppers the gravel and cement were dumped from 
wheelbarrows, six wheelbarrows of gravel making a hopper full. This was 
placed as follows: Two wheelbarrows of gravel, then 1 sack of cement spread 
over it, 2 more barrows of gravel and another sack of cement, finishing off with 
2 barrows of gravel. This kept the cemeat from blowing away. One hopper 
was kept continually full so that no delay resulted. A cowbell with some wire 
and 3 sections of ^^-in. hose made a first-class telephone. It was originally 
intended to apply the water by means of a hose about 30 ft. down the chute, 
but this was abandoned as much better and more uniform results were ob- 
tained by fixing an old bucket with perforated bottom at the top of the chute, 
and getting water, cement and gravel all together at the start. The mix went 
down slowly, the vertical stream being continually broken by the rebound of 
the rest from the baffles, and v/as caught at the bottom in }4 cu. yd. wooden 
scoop cars, and conveyed to the shovelers on an 18-in. gage track. The forms 
were built in 12-ft., 14-ft. and 16-ft. sections, resting on a 2 X 6-in. sill and 
braced to the rail. They were so arranged that when the sill was removed the 
side dropped down and could be moved ahead, while the arches for the roof 
were built in 4-ft. sections, all the segments being cut from a pattern and so 
arranged that each section could be bolted to the last one filled, thus ensuring a 
uniform roof line. 

The concrete mixed as above described, was of a good texture, and although 
the weather varied from freezing point to zero and no mechanical means of 
heating either water or materials was used and the ice formed on the tanks 
2 ins., the concrete quickly set up and was harder and looked better than the 



1358 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

machine mixed concrete, where water heated by the exhaust steam was used. 
In handUng the steam mixer, 6 men and an engineer were required, while with 
the chute, 3 men got out twice as much concrete, and so satisfactory to the 
engineers, promoters and contractors that the new machinery was never used. 

A total of 1,500 cu. yds. of concrete were mixed in this manner, and required 
but one renewal of the baffles, the second set being placed opposite the 
worn ones to keep the sides from wearing into holes where the concrete hit 
on the rebound off the baffles. The total cost of chute, renewal of baffles and 
labor of building in place was $75 or 5 cts. per cu. yd. 

Gravel, cement, lumber and water for this work had to be hauled 5 miles 
over a rough mountain road and were delivered by contract at $1.25 per yard 
for gravel, cement 75 cts. per ton, and water 10 cts. per barrel. Lumber cost 
$30 per M. ft. B. M. Ideal Portland cement, a Colorado product, cost $3.25 
on the job; labor cost $2.50 for carmen and outside men, $2.75 for overhead 
shovelers; carpenters 40 cts. per hour, and foremen $4 per day. Two 10- 
hour shifts were worked and the whole tunnel lining of 2,400 cu. yds. of 
concrete was completed in 40 working days. 

The comparative itemized cost of lining by steam mixing and by the chute 
were as follows : 

Steam Mixer 

1 engineer $ 4. 20 

4 men feeding 10. 00 

1 roustabout 2. 50 

2 men loading into cars 5. 00 

4 men placing in forms 11. 00 

3 carpenters 12. 00 

3 carpenters' helpers 7. 50 

2 carmen : . . . . 5. 00 

1 trackman 2. 50 

1 general foreman 6. 50 

Total labor for 15 yds $66. 20 

Labor, per yard $ 4. 41 

Gravel, per yard 1 . 50 

Cement, per. yard 2. 50 

Water 0. 20 

Lumber 0. 08 

Light '. 0. 10 

Coal and oil for mixer 0. 25 

Wear and tear of mixer 0. 25 

Total cost per yard $ 9. 29 

Gravity Chute 

3 men mixing $ 7. 50 

4 carmen 10. 00 

6 men placing in forms 16 . 50 

4 carpenters 16.00 

4 carpenters' helpers 10. 00 

2 trackmen 5. 00 

1 general foreman . . . •. 6. 50 

Total labor for 35 yds $71. 50 

Labor, per yard 2. 04 

Gravel, per yard 1 . 50 

Cement, per yard 2. 50 

Water 0. 20 

Lumber 0. 08 

Light 0. 10 

Mixer 0. 05 

Total cost per yard $ 6. 47 



SMALL TUNNELS 1359 

The biggest run with steam mixer was 26 cu. yds. and the smallest 8 cu. yds., 
due to breakdowns, while the chute made 54 cu. yds. maximum and 21 mini- 
mum, due to water giving out. ♦ 

Cost of Lining Wilson Ave. Water Supply Tunnel Chicago with Pneumatic 
Mixer. — The following extract, Engineering and Contracting, May 15, 1918, 
is from a paper by H. B. Kirkland presented before the Western Society of 
Engineers. 

This tunnel is 8 miles long and 12 ft. in finished diameter for 1 mile of its 
length at the lake end. It is located in solid limestone rock about 150 ft. 
below datum and has a monolithic concrete lining 1 ft. thick. In lining this 
tunnel the concreting was carried on simultaneously with the mining, the mine 
run rock excavated from the heading being used for concrete work. 

A pneumatic mixer was mounted on wheels, together with air supply tanks 
and a measuring hopper above it. In addition a belt conveyor outfit, also 
mounted on wheels, was used to convey the rock from under the screen to the 
measuring hopper over the mixer. Upon the framework which held this belt 
conveyor an electric winch was mounted for hauling 1 cu. yd. cars of mine run 
up the incline, to be dumped over a flat screen with 43^^-in. holes. The rock 
which passed through the holes fell onto the belt conveyor and was carried up 
to the measuring hopper. The rejections passed over the screen and fell into 
an iron plate laid on the floor, from whence they were shoveled into the car to 
be hauled from the tunnel. 

Two Blaw traveling steel forms were used. One of these forms was about 
500 ft. away. The 8-in. pipe for conveying the concrete from the mixer to the 
forms was laid alongside of the tunnel through the first form to the second one, 
and there it was directed up a 45° angle and into the top of the form. When 
this form was filled with concrete the pipe was disconnected and arranged for 
filling the other form and as the concrete set the forms were moved alternately 
toward the mixer, until about 1,000 ft. of tunnel was completed. The 
mixer was then moved 1,000 ft. farther and the same cycle of operation was 
repeated. 

One of the new features of placing the concrete at the Lawndale shaft was 
the use of the pneumatic mixer for placing the concrete in the footing wall. 
This footing wall is usually built by hand in advance of the regular concrete 
work and is a wall about 1 ft. high, used as a guide for the forms to follow. 
In placing this at the Lawndale shaft the concrete was first delivered to the 
Blaw forms by the pneumatic mixers in the regular manner. But a keyplate 
was left out of the steel forms and a chute was placed in it, operating so that 
the concrete being placed by the pneumatic method would overflow through 
the chute into the car placed beneath the forms under the chute. The car 
then carried the concrete ahead and dumped it into the forms for the footing 
wall. In this way the footing wall was placed about three times as fast as it 
could have been placed by hand. 

The number of men required for the operation of the concrete work was as 
follows : 



Screening rock from heading — 

3 men pushing up cars to incline, hooking on cable, dumping same on screen 
and pushing back empty cars to make train bound for heading. 

1 man operating motor hoist for pulling cars up incline and operating belt 
conveyor for carrying screened rock to hopper over mixer. 

2 men shoveling rejections from screen into cars to be hauled out of tunnel. 



1360 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cement Delivery — 

2 men unloading cars of cement and storing same on platform above air tanks 
adjacent to mixer hopper. 

Mixing and placing concrete — * 

3 men operating hopper over mixer, feeding cement, water and screen run rock. 
1 man operating mixer, air valves. 

1 man at end of pipe in concrete form. 



When there was sufficient rock on hand for continuous concreting the forms 
were filled very rapidly, one form having been filled in 1 hour and 40 minutes. 
The forms contained from 50 to 70 yd., of concrete, depending upon the exca- 
vating section. During January, 1917, one machine at Lincoln Ave. placed 
2,707 lin. ft. of tunnel lining. 

Working between 16 and 24 hours a day, one machine at the Lincoln shaft 
put in 2,900 lin. ft. of tunnel in a month, and the yardage of the lining runs 
2 cu. yd. per lineal foot. The ultimate capacity of the mixer is 60 cu. yd. per 
hour. 

Quantity of Grout Required for Typical Aqueduct Tunnel. — The following 
data are taken from an article by James F. Sanborn, published in Engineering 
Record, April 15, 1916. 

The Canniff tank is well adapted for handling grout rapidly. As high as 
1,500 batches or 115 cu. yd. of grout have been placed in one day of three 
shifts by a pair of tanks. A small force operates the tanks and no high- 
priced men are required for repairs or operation. Either rich or weak 
grout can be used, and the tank is adapted for low as well as for very high 
pressure. 

A disadvantage of the Canniff tank is shown when used for high pressure 
work, when the grout is discharged very slowly into fine seams, taking a long 
time. -In such cases the cement has time to settle out of the mixture and clog 
the openings. However, as very thin grout should be used in such cases, the 
difficulty is not very serious practically. 

The quantity of grout placed in a typical stretch of 12-ft. tunnel of the Cats- 
kill Aqueduct was as follows: 

Length of 

tunnels 

grouted 

Low pressure grouting* 10 ,113 ft. 

High pressure groutingf 10 , 113 ft. 

* Most of the grout placed in the low pressure operation filled the space above 
the concrete in the tunnel roof. 

t Most of the high pressure grouting was to cut off leaks from seams in the 
rock, and to fill pans. 



The Overbreakage in the Catskill Aqueduct Tunnels. — In building the 
Catskill aqueduct to New York City careful records were kept of the amount 
of overbreakage in the different sections of the 49 miles of tunnel. The speci- 
fications were so drawn as to encourage the contractors to reduce the over- 
breakage to a minimum. Engineering and Contracting, Aug. 15, 1917, gives 
the following brief outline of the specified method of determining the pay 
yardage both of excavation and of concrete lining and a summary of the 
data as to overbreakage. 



No. of 






connect- 


Shifts 


Cu. yd 


ions 


worked 


liquid 


made 




grout 


170 


69 


1,744 


1,670 


113 


150 



SMALL TUNNELS 1361 

Where the tunnel dipped below the hydraulic grade line and there would 
consequently be an internal pressure of water on its walls, it was 41 ft. in 
diameter inside the concrete lining. Let us call this inside concrete line (a 
circle 14 ft. diam.) "the inside line." Parallel to this hne and 10 ins. outside 
of it is another line within which no rock must project, and this may be called 
" the clearance line." Parallel thereto and 23 ins. outside of " the inside line" 
is the "payment line," beyond which neither excavation nor concrete is paid 
for at the regular contract price. Excavation beyond this "payment line" 
may be called "overbreakage." 

In the Catskill aqueduct specifications it was provided that the contractor 
should be paid 2.50 or $3 per cu. yd. of overbreakage as compensation for both 
this extra excavation and the extra concrete lining necessitated by the over- 
breakage. Since the contractor did not furnish the cement, it was believed 
by the engineers that this payment for overbreakage would be a fair compen- 
sation for any unavoidable overbreakage, but not so large a compensation as 
to make it profitable to the contractor. Between "the payment line" and 
"the clearance line" there was another line that may be called "the average 
line," which was 15 in. outside "the inside line;" and it was specified that the 
concrete in any cross-section must average 15 in. thick. 

The above dimensions relate to the "pressure tunnel" sections, aggregating 
35 miles in length. There were 14 miles of "grade tunnels" of horseshoe sec- 
tion that did not dip below the hydraulic grade line, and the inside maximum 
dimensions of a "grade tunnel" were 13 ft. 4 in. across by 17 ft. high. The 
"clearance line" of a "grade tunnel" was 5 to 7 in. outside "the inside line;" 
and the "payment line" was 13 in. outside the "clearance line." These lines 
relate only to the side walls and roof. 

There was considerable variation as to overbreakage, not only because of 
difference in the kind of rock (which ranged from soft shale to tough granite) , 
but because of the position of the tunnel with respect to the dip of the rock 
strata, also because of the variation in the managerial skill of the different 
contractors. In nearly 12 miles of tunnels through shale and slate, there was 
no overbreakage at all, as the average of 8 contracts ; but in fact the average 
excavation fell half an inch inside of "the payment line." One contractor 
managed to average a full inch inside "the payment line," but another con- 
tractor averaged an overbreakage 2>i in. outside "the payment line." 

In four tunnels through limestone, totaling about l>i miles, the overbreak- 
age averaged 1^ in. outside the payment line. 

In 19 tunnels through granite and gneiss, totaling about 8 miles, the over- 
breakage averaged 3^ in. outside the "payment line;" but in one 900 ft. 
tunnel there was an average underbreakage of ^ in., while in another tunnel 
(7,330 ft.) the overbreakage averaged 5% in. In this last named tunnel the 
contractor purposely excavated well beyond "the payment line" in order to 
avoid the expense of trimming projecting rock. Moreover this gneiss was 
blocky and joints were numerous. 

In 10 tunnels through Manhattan schist, totaUng about 8K miles, the aver- 
age overbreakage was 2K in., but in one tunnel the overbreakage averaged 
only ^ in., whereas in another it averaged 8 in. because the schist was much 
disintegrated. 

Those experienced in tunnel work will see that the overbreakage would 
have been somewhat less had it not been for the specifying of an average thick- 
ness of concrete (see "the average line" above defined). Ordinarily only a 
"clearance line" (or neat line) and a "payment line" are specified. 
86 



1362 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

In the softer rocks, like shales and limestones, where air-hammer drills can 
be effectively used in trimming the sides, the overbreakage averages consider* 
ably less than in the tough rocks, like granite, gneiss and schist. In tough 
rocks the contractor drills his blast holes deep enough to insure breakage 
beyond the "payment line," so as to reduce the trimming. One of the con- 
tractors used a large number of horizontal rim holes in excavating the lower 
half a pressure tunnel through gneiss, and thus secured an underbreakage of 
>^ in. inside the "payment line." 

Cost of Excess Yardage in Tunneling. — The following data are given in the 
Report on the Los Angeles aqueduct. 

Too much care cannot be exercised to avoid overshooting in tunnels, because 
of the excess yardage that is involved when it comes to lining them with con- 
crete. Some tunnels were driven and trimmed so closely that this excess 
yardage of concrete did not exceed 15 or 20 per cent of the theoretical yardage 
of concrete, but the cost of this trinuning amounted to as much as $2.00 per 
lineal foot of tunnel, and probably too much time and care were put upon it. 
As a rule the excess yardage of concrete was from 40 to 50 per cent of the theo- 
retical, and in some tunnels as much as 100 per cent. Experience indicates 
that rock tunnels should be driven so that the excess yardage of concrete lining 
may not be over 30 or 40 per cent. In driving tunnels, frequent measure- 
ments should be made of their cross-section to determine what this excess is. 
Where a yard of concrete to the lineal foot of tunnel is being placed, 100 per 
cent excess could readily amount to $6.00 or $7.00 per foot, and a 30 per cent 
excess would represent $1.80 per foot. Tunnels in ordinary rock should be 
driven with a small amount of trimming; as close as this percentage. It has 
been found to be the best practice to so excavate the sub-grade at the start 
that the top of the ties is on the bottom of the theoretical sub-grade, so as to 
avoid expensive trimming and delays when it comes to concrete lining. 

Depth and Number of Drill Holes in Tunnels. — The following tables are 
taken from Bulletin 57 of the Bureau of Mines prepared by D. W. Brunton 
and J. A. Davis, as abstracted in Engineering and Contracting, July 8, 1914. 
The authors in summarizing the discussion of the advantages of shallow and 
deep holes state that it is, of course, impossible to set any definite standard 
or guide for the proper depth of hole that will be applicable to all cases. There 
are too many variables influencing the result. The proper depth must be 
determined by experiment in each individual case. However, from an ex- 
tended examination of the results obtained from the methods employed in 
American practice, from a careful analysis of European practice as outlined 
in available published accounts, and from a study of all other procurable 
modern authority, the authors are of the opinion that for the majority of cases 
the proper depth of drill hole, the one that most equitably balances the ad- 
vantages and disadvantages inseparal^le from the problem, is 60 to 80 per cent 
of the width of the tunnel heading. Table XVIII gives an analysis of Ameri- 
can practice in this respect. 



SMALL TUNNELS 



1363 



og 



punoj oS'BjaA'B JO ' 
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1364 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Determination of the niunber of holes which secures the best results in 
driving tunnel headings is afifected by too many conditions to permit in any 
work of precisely following previous experience. Such experience, however, 
furnishes hints which are of use and for this reason Table XIX is given. 



Table XIX. — Number 



Name of tunnel 

Burleigh 

Buffalo (water) 

Carter 

Catskill aqueduct: 

Rondout siphon 

Wallkill siphon 

Moodna siphon 

Yonkers siphon 

Central 

Chipeta 

Fort William (water) . . . 

Gold Links 

Grand Central sewer . . . 

Gunnison 

Joker 

Laramie-Poudre 

Lausanne 



OP Holes Used in Driving Tunnel Headings in 
Various American Tunnels 

Sq. ft. of heading 

Approx. per hole 

Num- area of Sedi- 

ber of Character of heading, mentary Igneous 

holes rock penetrated sq. ft. rocks rocks 

16 Gr. and gn. 42 2. 6 

22 L. 120 5. 5 

10-11 Gn., gr. and po. 41 3. 7-4. 1 

22 L., sn., and sh. 120 5. 5 

24 Sh. 120 5.0 

24 Sn. and sh. 120 5. 

21 Gn. 120 5.7 

18-24 Gn. 35 1.5-1.9 

15-19 57 3.0-3.8 

14-20 Ba. 35 1.7-2.5 

12 Gn. and gr. 48 4.0 

18 Gn. 40 2.2 

24 Gr. 60 2. 5 

19-21 130 6.2-6.9 

21-26 Gr. 70 2. 7-3. 3 

15-21 Sh., cong. and 85 4.0-5.6 



Los Angeles Aqueduct: 

EUzabeth Lake 25 

Little Lake division .. . 14-16 

Grape Vine division. . . 20-21 

Lucania 25 

Marshall-Russell 18-20 

Mission*. 12-14 

Newhouse 19 

Nisqually 18 

Northwest (water) 22 

OpheUa 20-24 

Rawley -25-27 

Raymond 14 

Roosevelt 24-26 

Siwatch 12 

Snake Creek 16 

Spiral 21 

Stilwell 16 

Strawberry 16-18 

Utah Metals 12-16 

Yak 18 



coal 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. and gn. 

Sh. and si. 

Gn. 

Rhy. 

Sed. 

Gr. 

And. 

Gn. and gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Dia. 

L. 

Cong, and and. 

L., sn, and sh. 

Qu. 

L., sn., sh. andgr. 



145 
90 
90 
65 
72 
37 
65 
95 

110 
80 
55 
80 
60 
45 
65 

175 
50 
50 
80 
50 



2. 6-3. 1 



5.0 



8.4 

3.1 

2.8-3.1 

5.0-6.6 

2.8 



5.8 
5.6-6.4 
4.3-4.5 

2.6 
3.6-1.0 

' "'3:4 
5.2 

3! 6^4! 6 

2.0-2.2 

5.7 

2. 3-2. 5 

3.7 

4.0 



Comparative Drilling Speeds As Reported at Twenty-Four Tunnels. — 
The rate of drilling as reported at 24 tunnels is recorded in Table XX, 
abstracted in Engineering and Contracting, Aug. 5, 1914, from Bureau of 
Mines, Bulletin 57, by D. W. Brunton and J. A. Davis. 



SMALL TUNNELS 



1365 






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1366 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Air Pressures Used in Tunneling. — Engineering and Contracting, July 1, 
1914, gives the pressures of air employed at different tunnels as compiled in 
Bureau of Mines Bulletin 57 by D. W. Brunton and J. A. Davis as follows: 

Tunnel — Lbs. Tunnel — Lbs. 

Carter 112 Nisqually 90-95 

Central 120 Rawley 100 

Gold Links 100 Raymond 90 

Gunnison 90 Rondout 100 

Laramie-Poudre 120 Roosevelt 110 

Mauch Chunk 100 Siwatch 80 

Los Angeles Aqueduct 100 Snake Creek 110 

Lucania 115 Stilwell 100 

Marshall Russell 110 Strawberry 85 

Mission 100 Utah Metals 110 

Modern 95-100 Wallkill 110 

Newhouse 110 Yak 90 



Average 102 

Cost of Repairs of Drills Employed in Tunneling. — From data collected 
by personal visit's to and special reports from a large number of tunnels, D. W. 
Brunton and J. A. Davis, in Bulletin 57, Bureau of Mines (reprinted in Engi- 
neering and Contracting, July 22, 1914) present the following statement: 

From September, 1905, to March, 1906, hammer drills were employed at the 
Gunnison tunnel with a drill-repair cost per machine of 13 cts. per foot of hole 
drilled; but when piston drills were substituted the repairs were reduced to 
3 cts. per foot. In addition to the cost of materials these figures include also 
a charge for the labor of the machinist making the repairs, which is not em- 

Table XXL-^Cost of Repairs for Hammer Air Drills, Little Lake 
Division, Los Angeles Aqueduct, July, 1909, to May, 1911 

Cost of drill 

Distance. ex- 
Name of tunnel 

IB, south 

2, north , 

2, south , 

2A, north , 

2A, south , 

3, north 

3, south 

4, north 

4, south 

7, north . ; 

7, south 

8, north 

8, south 

9, north 

9, south 

10, north 

10, south 

lOA, north 

lOA, south 





repairs per 


Distance, ex- 


foot of 


avated, lin. ft. 


tunnel 


1,030 


$0. 156 


926 


.195 


419 


.154 


460 


.100 


375 


.148 


864 


.131 


2,149 


.235 


448 


.149 


725 


.297 


1,911 


.209 


1,024 


.482 


225 


.651 


1,334 


.398 


7.77 


.297 


2,479 


.163 


2 , 626 


.223 


1,776 


.325 


1,373 


.221 


1,756 


.204 



Average $0. 24 

braced in any of the values which follow. This fact must be considered in 
making comparisons. Two years later (September, 1907, to August, 1908), 
in driving the last 3,000 ft. of the Yak Tunnel, the cost of materials only for 
repairs to the hammer drills employed was only l^i cts., approximately, per 



SMALL TUNNELS 1367 

foot of hole. At the Marshall-Russell tunnel, where hammer drills were 
employed, the average cost of drill repairs from June, 1908, to June, 1911, was 
IH cts. per foot drilled. Piston machines were used at the Strawberry tunnel 
from January, 1909, to September, 1911, the cost for repairs being nearly 
2}i cts. per foot drilled. On the Little Lake division of the Los Angeles 
aqueduct, where hammer drills were employed, the average cost of drill- 
repair materials from July, 1909, to May, 1911, as shown by Table XXI, was 
only 24 cts. per foot of tunnel excavated. As each of the two machines in the 
heading drills approximately 8 ft. of hole for every foot of tunnel excavated, 
the cost per machine per foot of hole is 13^ cts. 

For 1910 and the first half of 1911 the repair cost of hammer drills at the 
Carter tunnel was 2 cts. per foot drilled. At the Lucania tunnel the repairs 
cost ^^ ct. per foot drilled, but the hammer drills had been in use only one 
month at tne time the tunnel was visited. The hammer drills at the Rawley 
tunnel were new also, the repairs for June and July, 1911, averaging 1 ct. per 
foot of hole. 

Adequate Ventilation Greatly Increases Tunnel and Shaft Progress. — 
The following note is given in Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 17, 1917. 

An interesting example of the effect of poor ventilation on the efficiency of 
men engaged in underground work was cited by Dr. A. J. Lanza of the Bureau 
of Mines in a paper presented at the recent meeting of the National Safety 
Council. A mine, driving a long drift about 3,000 ft. below the surface, was 
paying $15 per foot, day's pay. The place was hot and moist. A small 
blower fan was installed at the entrance to the drift, with a canvas pipe lead- 
ing nearly to the working face, and without any other change the cost was 
reduced to $8 per foot, day's pay. In shaft sinking this mine had made 50 ft. 
in OT'i month and 60 ft. in another. A small blower with canvas pipe was 
installed and the next month 120 ft. was the progress made. 



CHAPTER XX 

LARGE TUNNELS 

References. — In Section XI of the "Handbook of Cost Data*' by Gillette, 
the first 60 pages contain many valuable data on the cost of railway tunnels. 
Further information on this subject will also be found in Gillette's " Handbook 
of Rock Excavation." 

Cost of Beck with Pass Tunnel of Western Pacific Ry. — The Beckwith Pass 
Tunnel of the Western Pacific Ry. at the summit of the Sierra Nevada moun- 
tains was constructed between 1906 and 1909. It is a single track bore 6,000 
ft. in length. The roof of the tunnel is 24.08 ft. above the top of the foot block; 
the top of the wall plate is 16.54 ft. above grade, and the width between plumb 
posts is 17 ft. Cost data on the construction of this tunnel are given by H. 
Devereux, consulting engineer, San Francisco, Cal., in the Feb., 1917, Western 
Engineering, from which the matter in this article is abstracted in Engineering 
and Contracting, Feb. 21, 1917. 

The quantities per linear foot of tunnel were as follows: 

Excavation, Cu. Yd. 

Heading Bench 

Neat section 3. 25 lyjr.39 

Enlarged section, side-lagged 4. 905 12. 351 

Enlarged section, lagged 12. 04 

Enlarged section, increase lagged ],. 961 

Packing between lagging and 3-in. line 0. 267 0. 306 

Timber, Ft. B. M. 

Heading Bench 

SoUd sets 327. 4 408. 

2-ft. centers 285. 210. 4 

3-ft. centers 234. 6 141. 6 

4-ft. centers 209. 4 107. 2 

For full lagging, add 124 ft. B. M. per linear foot of bench. 

Iron, Lb. 

Large 

1-bolt 2-bolt washers 

Solid sets 10. 786 11 . 571 12. 000 

2-ft. centers 5.687 6.374 6.750 

3-ft. centers 3.944 4.355 4.881 

4-ft. centers 3. 056 3. 607 3. 906 



Large washers were used after Nov. 1, 1907. 

The following scale of wages was in force. As a result of the business 
depression, the force and in many cases, the wage-rates were reduced on 
Nov. 25, 1907. Wages are per day unless otherwise noted. Men paid by the 
month received their board also. 

1368 



LARGE TUNNELS 



1369 



Before After 
Nov. 25, 1907 Nov. 25, 1907 

Foreman $ 4. 50 $ ^.50 

Machine-men 4. 00 3. 50 

Machine-helpers 3. 50 3. 00 

Shovelers 3. 00 2. 50 

Teamsters 3. 00 2. 50 

Cornermen 3. 50 2. 75 

Nippers 3. 00 2. 50 

Carpenters 4. 00 3. 50 

Carpenters' helpers 3. 00 2. 50 

Pump-men 3. 00 3. 00 

Steam-shovel engineer 150. 00* 150. 00* 

Steam-shovel cranesmen 100. 00* 100. 00* 

Dinkey skinners 75. 00* 75. 00* 

Brakemen 50. 00* 2. 50 

Pitmen 3. 50 2. 75 

Dumpmen 2. 50 2. 25 

Timbermen 3. 00 2. 50 

Outside laborers 2. 50 2. 00 

Two-horse teamsters 2. 75 2. 50 

Blacksmiths 100. 00* 3. 50 - 

Blacksmiths' helpers 2. 75 2. 50 

Electrician 75. 00* 75. 00* 

Compressor engineer (day) 90. 00* 90. 00* 

Compressor engineer (night) 75. 00* 75. 00* 

Master mechanic 125.00* 110.00* 

General foreman 150. 00* 150. 00* 

Car repairer 75. 00* 75. 00* 

* Per month. 



The following force was employed during December, 1907, when both head- 
ings were closed: 

Outside op Tunnel 



Compressor engineer 

Compressor fireman 

Dinkey skinner 

Brakeman 

Dumpmen 

Blacksmiths 

Blacksmiths' helpers 

Carpenters 

Electrician 

Car repairer 

General foreman 

Total 13 



— East 


end 


West end 


Day 


Night 


Day 


Night 


1 






1 


1 






1 


1 






1 


1 






1 


2 








2 








2 








1 








1 




"2 


1 


1 




1 





13 



In the Tunnel 



East end West end- 



Day Night Day Night 



Foreman 1 

Drillers 4 

Chuckmen 4 

Nipper 1 

Shovelers 8 

Cornermen 

Pitmen '^ 4 

Teamsters 2 

Timbermen 6 

"Jumbo" engineer 

Shovel crew 2 

Total. 32 



1 


1 


1 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


1 


1 


1 


8 


16 


16 




4 


4 


4 






2 


1 
6 


1 




1 


1 



24 



30 



1370 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

When the headings were being driven an additional force of 21 men per shift 
was required inside the tunnel or 84 men in all. On the outside, seven addi- 
tional men were required on each shift on the west end, and three additional 
men on each shift on the east end, or forty in all. On the west end, a travel- 
ing platform called a "jumbo" was used to load the material, and on the east 
end, a model No. 20 Marion shovel operated by air. 

The rock at the west end was a decomposed granite. At the east end the 
granite was hard, "blocky" and "seamy." The cost per cubic yard to the 
contractor was as follows: 

— Heading — Bench 

East West East West 

Drilling and blasting $3. 65 $2. 93 S2. 10 $1. 20 

Shoveling and loading 1.95 2.14 1.15 1.50 

Powder 0.80 0.35 0.20 0.12 

Outside men 0. 63 0. 55 0. 35 0. 30 

Plant : 0.49 0.33 0.32 0.19 

Fuel oil 0. 69 0. 59 0. 43 0. 29 

Superintendence - 0.20 0.17 0.11 0.10 

Total $8. 41 $7. 06 $4. 66 $3. 70 

Labor timbering 0. 58 0. 73 0. 25 0. 45 

Average, $5.40 per cubic yard. 

Powder cost, $0.15 per lb. and fuel oil, $1 per barrel. 

Mount Royal Tunnel — Methods and Progress. — The following data are 
given in a series of articles published in Engineering Record, Jan. 8, 15, and 
22, 1916, by S. P. Brown, Chief Eng'r., Mount Royal Tunnel and Terminal 
Co., Ltd. 

Features of Mount Royal Tunnel, — The Mount Royal tunnel forms the entry 
into Montreal for the Canadian Northern Railway, the new transcontinental 
line. The tunnel under Mount Royal, 3.1 miles long between station sites, 
is double-track, roughly 22 X 30 ft. in excavation, sufficient space being 
allowed for a central wall and bench between the tracks. In general it will 
be lined throughout with concrete. 

The character of the ground encountered was very diverse and in places 
extremely complex. The headings were in soft ground in both station sites, 
and at the city end the tunnel roof was in soft ground for about 3^ mile. 
Here a roof shield was used with O'Rourke interlocking blocks. The rock 
at the two ends of the tunnel was Trenton limestone, massive at the west end 
and somewhat stratified at the city end for the first 1800 ft. Toward the 
mountain proper the limestone became more crystalline, especially on the 
west side, where it was unusually hard and dense. The main body of the 
mountain is an igneous intrusion of Essexite, very hard and tough with a 
specific gravity of about 3.4. The number of steels dulled per foot of hole 
in this rock often ran from five to seven, although as a usual thing it required 
only about 1000 steels sharpened per day in one heading averaging 20 ft. of 
progress. All the main bodies of rock in the mountain were cut by numerous 
dikes and sheets of other very hard igneous rock, such as Bostonite, Campton- 
ite, Tinguite, Nepheline Syenite, etc., running up to several feet ^n thickness. 
These dikes intersected the tunnel and each other in every direction, some- 
times averaging several score in 100 ft. This necessitated drawing the temper 
of every steel to color suitable for the particular rock encountered. The ordi- 
nary method of plunging the steel proved an absolute failure. Of many steels 
tried, the best was F.J.A.B. (Swedish). 



LARGE TUNNELS 1371 

The method of excavation adopted in the Mount Royal tunnel was briefly 
as follows: First, a bottom heading, 7}4 to 10 ft. high by 12 to 14 ft. wide was 
driven on subgrade along the center line. The points of attack were in the 
two portal station sites, 3.5 miles apart, and at an intermediate shaft, 234 ft. 
deep, 1 mile from the west portal. As the headings progressed break-ups 
were started, at 500 to 800-ft. intervals, along the heading, where the full- 
sized tunnel was excavated above the grade of the heading roof. At these 
break-ups, the heading was timbered, so as to give a substantial roof over the 
tracks, upon which the upper portion of the tunnel excavation could be 
blasted down safely and through which the niuck, thus dislodged, could slide 
into cars in the gangway below, with a minimum of labor. After the break-up 
excavation was completed the timbering was removed and the benches, 
remaining on either side of the heading gangway, were drilled and blasted for 
air-operated steam shovel excavation. This completed the entire excavation 
of the tunnel cross-section. Drill carriages were used, first, in the headings, 
second, on the bench ahead of the steam shovel, and finally for trimming the 
finished section. In common with all modern drill carriages, these carried the 
full drilling equipment assembled complete and permanently connected with 
the manifolds. and main hose lines. 

The ordinary method of heading excavation was by means of a horizontal 
bar mounting four drills. The drills were supported on arms similar to those 
used on the columns common to American tunneling operations, or on special 
saddle arms particularly designed for this job. Sullivan reciprocating, or 
percussive, drills were used, so constructed that where the ground made it 
economically desirable a jet of water and air could be injected through the 
pistons and steel into the bottom of the holes being drilled. For this reason 
hollow steel was generally used. 

Heading Without Drill Carriage. — Before the rock in the heading became so 
hard as to require very heavy drills, no drill carriage was used, the drilling 
equipment being carried and erected by hand. By this method in Trenton 
Limestone, before the rock had become too crystalline, the maximum progress 
of 810 ft. was made in an 8 X 12-ft. heading in 31 working days, a record- 
• breaking performance. Six rounds were drilled and fired each day, two each 
shift.' The maximum day's progress was something over 30 ft., while on 
days when igneous dikes of importance were encountered the progress would 
sometimes drop below 20 ft., and occasionally a shot would be lost. 

Seven muckers were used to handle this excavation, three casting back from 
the face and four shoveling into the cars. All mucking was done off slick 
sheets and the cars were designed especially low. Thus the four muckers 
shoveling into the car handled all the muck made on their shift, which 
amounted to from 12 to 15 cu. yd. per man per shift. This record is particu- 
larly interesting when it is remembered that nearly 2 hours out of each 8-hour 
shift were lost in blasting. 

To break this rock required from 18 to 22 holes and about 500 steels per day 
for an advance of 26 ft. Four 2^ -in. Sullivan water drills were used, with 
the water emulsion through the steel. Each driller averaged about 12.5 ft. 
per hour, deducting only the time lost in blasting. About 6.8 ft. of hole were 
drilled per cubic yard of place measurement and about 5.5 lb. of 60 per cent 
Forcite powder were used per cubic yard with 30-grain detonators. 

Headings With Drill Carriages. — As the rock became harder and more com- 
plex, requiring more powerful drills, it became imperative to devise some 
mechanical means of handling the equipment, which had attained a weight of 



1372 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



several tons. The common type of European drill carriage, was not suitable 
in the present case. This was principally because the Mount Royal headings, 
averaging from 50 to 100 per cent larger than the Alpine tunnel headings, 
broke so much ground that time could not be spared to muck out the heading 
before setting up the drills. It was, therefore, necessary to devise a drill 
carriage with a long cantilever arm by which the drilling equipment could be 
extended ahead over the muck pile in the heading, without any material delay 
after the blasting was completed. 

In order to bring the carriage near enough the face for an arm of reasonable 
dimensions to reach the point where the drills were to be set up the track on 
which the carriage ran was riveted to steel plates, which could act as slick 
sheets and could be mucked off rapidly. Thus, after the blasting, the muckers 
cleared this track to within about 25 ft. of the face by throwing the muck that 
had fallen on it to the sides. As soon as this was done the drill carriage was 




Rear Elevation 



Side Elevation 



Fig. 



1. — Simplest type of carriage, a long adjustable cantilever arm extends 
drills on horizontal bar over muck pile. 



run in, hard up against the muck pile, the cantilever arm carrying the drill 
bar was extended and the drill bar jacked into place. The drills were thus 
always in the heading by the time drillers had the roof and sides barred down 
and sufficient muck thrown back from the face to permit the drill bar to be set. 
While the drillers were jacking up the bar the pipe-fitter was connecting the 
two large drill carriage hoses to the ends of the water and air pipes entering 
the heading. None of the drills was ever dismounted from the bar or dis- 
connected from its manifold. The drillers started work as soon as the bar was 
tight. 

Two types of carriages were designed and built. One (Fig. 1) was very 
simple, for use in the small 8 X 12-ft. heading; it was merely a carriage proper 
somewhat similar to the Carter carriage except that the cantilever beam moved 
with the drill bar instead of having the bar slide on the beam. The other 
(Fig. 2) had the moving beam, and as it was for use in the large heading, 10 X 
13 to 14 ft., it also had a muck-handling attachment for transporting the 
excavated material from the face to cars in the rear. 



LARGE TUNNELS 1373 

Although the muckers lost a few minutes while placing the machine, and 
only one central track was used at the face, no more muckers were required to 
clear out the heading with the drill carriage than were used before the drill 
carriage was installed. This was probably due to having the track cleared 
down the center of the heading, whicli permitted all the muckers to work to 
better advantage while the mucking was actually going on. 

Drill Carriage Increases Progress. — The effect of drill carriage work is shown 
by the results obtained, for instance, in heading 3 E where the muck-handling 
drill carriage operated for over six months. For the six months prior to the 
installation of the drill carriage in this heading the average progress was 350 
ft. per month in crystalline limestone cut by numerous dikes and in places 
highly impregnated with various contact minerals. For the six months after 
the installation of the drill carriage the average progress was 485 ft. per month, 
almost entirely in Essexite. The hardness of the rock may be realized from 
the fact that 20 to 24 holes were required to break the ground and about 
1,000 steels were used a day for an advance of 19 ft. 

Saving Effected. — Four 3^ -in. Sullivan drills v/ere used. The water attach- 
ment was not used, as the length of time required to put down a hole caused 
the water to freeze and gave trouble in operation. Each driller averaged 
about 8 ft. per hour, deducting only the time lost in blasting. About 7 ft. 
of hole were drilled per cubic yard of place measurement, figuring the heading 
9K ft. high by 13 ft. wide. About 7 lb. of 60 per cent powder were used per 
cubic yard with 30-grain detonators. As the force employed with the drill 
carriage was practically the same as that employed without it the increase of 
38 per cent was made at considerable saving. 

It is interesting to note that the progress made with the simple drill carriage 
was almost identical with that made with the muck-handling drill carriage, 
the former requiring slightly more muckers per cubic yard. 

Muck-Handling Carriage. — The muck-handling drill carriage, which was the 
first one to be actually built (Fig. 2) , was a very heavy machine, having all 
of its parts operated mechanically, and was designed to remain in the heading 
while the drilling and mucking were going on. The conveying belt, 16 in. 
wide by 75 ft. between head and tail pulleys, was driven by a Dake air engine. 
All other power was electrical. The carriage consisted actually of two sepa- 
rate machines or carriages: First, the drill carriage proper, which supported 
and operated the cantilever arm carrying the drill bar; and, second, the muck 
conveyor, which slipped through the lower part of the drill carriage and was 
supported a few inches above the track on cross shafts. The belt was elevated 
in order to cantilever out over three muck cars in the rear. 

When the tracks were cleared and the drill carriage run in, one man at the 
electric switches was able to extend the beam over the muck pile, raise or 
lower it, or swing it to right or left, as the case might be, to fit the heading as it 
happened to break. Although this machine appears at first glance to be cum- 
bersome and complicated it is an interesting fact that breakdowns of any sort 
were very rare. In fact, during the six months of its operation the total delays 
in any way connected with the drill carriage did not aggregate one shift in lost 
time. 

The principal advantages of the muck-handling drill carriage are these: As 
the carriage remains in the heading after the drills are set up the mass behind 
the drills is so great as to practically eliminate all vibration during the drilling. 
Its movements are mechanical, so that the setting up and taking down are 
more rapid. Sinte the muck is thrown off the track to the side, the carriage 



1374 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 




B 






a 5 

ll 

Hid 









p. 
B 
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LARGE TUNNELS 1375 

track being laid at one side of the gangway, the muckers can work with equal 
efficiency anywhere along the line. As the conveyor is very low, less exertion 
is required by the men than in shoveling into the higher cars. Three cars are 
run in at a time by the locomotive so that the muckers lose less time through 
the shifting of cars. 

Heading Carriage Conclusions. — In a heading Where the section is large, or 
the rock reasonably soft, so that the yardage to be handled each day. is very 
considerable, the muck-handUng drill carriage is far preferable to the simple 
carriage. This is especially so where the drilling is rapid, so that a good num- 
ber of shots per day are obtained, since the time saved in setting up and taking 
down, as well as the rapidity of mucking, is an important factor. If, however, 
the rock is hard and the heading small the simple drill carriage will give just 
as good progress and for a reasonable amount of muck the cost per yard is just 
as low. 

It is the writer's opinion, after having operated both machines under very 
similar conditions, that the simple carriage is superior to the heavier machine 
except where a large volume of muck has to be handled or inefficient muckers 
must be employed. This is principally on account of first cost, since that of 
the simple carriage is insignificant. 

Bench Excavation. — After the heading and break-up work in the tunnel had 
been completed, two benches remained to be excavated, one on either side of 
the original heading gangway. These benches aggregated from 8 to 10 cu. 
yds. of solid excavation per foot of tunnel. The problem of drilling on the 
benches was a particularly difficult one due to their tendency to slope toward 
the gangway and the extreme irregularity of their tops. Another complica- 
tion was the continuous traffic in the gangway since the drilling had to be 
started long before the completion of the break-up excavation in the central 
part of the mountain. It was decided therefore to use a drill carriage for this 
work also and the bench drill carriage as finally designed is quite original both 
in type and detail. Mr. Brown found this carriage was the greatest money 
saver in the excavation equipment at Mount Royal. 

Bench Drill Carriage. — The carriage proper consi^.ted of a heavy traveler, 
30 ft. long, which was moved along the heading gangway as the drilling pro- 
gressed. The wheels were double-flanged and had very heavy axles, sufficiently 
long to give lateral play that would enable the wheels to follow the local 
irregularities of the track horizontally. The vertical play required was given 
by the spring of the traveler frame itself. The gage of the carriage track was 
of such a width that the side trusses comfortably cleared the gangway sides 
in all places and at the same time permitted a single muck track to operate 
between them. The traveler was fitted at each side with an adjustable out- 
rigger supporting a horizontal quarry bar, which in turn carried from four to 
six drills mounted on column arms or special saddle arms and connected to 
the air line through a single manifold thus giving great flexibility in setting up 
and operating. 

The extra width in the tunnel allowed at the haunch for the arch support 
very much facilitated the drilling. Two parallel lines of bench holes were 
usually drilled. The outside line next the rib acted as channel or line holes, 
varying in spacing from about 4 ft. to 8 in., depending on the character of the 
rock and the accuracy of the line required in the tunnel wall. The second line 
of breaker holes was spaced farther apart. The line holes were only loaded 
when the rock was such that it would not break to line from the breaking holes. 
Thus the sides of the tunnel were not shattered by heavy blasting, and the 



1376 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

overbreak was unusually small. This was also true of the break-up excava- 
tion, since all the blasting there, being to two faces, required only the lightest 
kind of shooting. While the headings used 5 to 7 lb. of 60 per cent powder 
per cubic yard, the break-up and bench excavation averaged less than 1 lb. 
to the yard. 

As the drill carriages kept well ahead of the blasting, and as all the bench 
muck was handled by steam shovel, only two muckers were required in each 
drill-carriage crew. These two men cleaned off the top of the bench and ex- 
tended the drill carriage track, with the aid of the helpers, as the carriage 
moved ahead. One electrician attended to all the trolley and lighting work 
connected with both drill carriages, and one mechanic did all the pipe-fitting 
and drill repairs necessary for both drill carriage outfits. The platform on 
each carriage above the muck track was mainly used for repairing drills and 
the storage of extra drills, spare parts, steel and supplies for daily use. 

Progress. — The progress obtained with this drill carriage amounted to from 
30 to 90 ft. of tunnel per day, depending principally upon the character of the 
rock and the configuration and condition of the bench. When the ground was 
particularly irregular and was cut by dikes or when the bench was found to 
be somewhat shattered from previous blasts the drilling would be slow and 
uncertain, often several holes being necessary to secure one of the proper depth 
and direction. Again, when the top of the bench was very irregular or sloped 
at a steep angle, it was often tedious work to start the holes. Compared with 
the time required for drilling with columns or tripods, however, the progress 
was more than merely satisfactory. 

It has been found that even under favorable conditions on outside rock the 
lost time in tripod drilling often amounts to 50 per cent of the time actually 
spent with the machines. This is due not only to the delay in setting up, but 
to the time lost in shifting the tripod to "follow the hole." Practically all of 
this lost time is eliminated in the case of the drill carriage, where the drills 
supports are rigid and the drills may be shifted accurately and expeditiously 
with a minimum of labor. 

After the drill carriage had got a good start a powder crew was sent in from 
the west portal and the benches blasted well ahead of the steam shovel. By 
this method the shovel, a model 41 Marion, never had to back up for shooting, 
full time being spent in excavation. Five to six hundred cars of muck were 
usually handled per day of two 10-hr. shifts. This aggregated 1,200 to 1,500 
cu. yd. of loose material, or about 700 to 1,000 cu. yd. solid. The linear prog- 
ress of the shovel sometimes exceeded 600 ft. per week where there was noth- 
ing but bench excavation removed. 

The Trimming Carriage. — The final trimming of the tunnel section, prepara- 
tory to lining, is too often a very measurable percentage of the total cost of 
any tunnel excavation. There are many cases where the cost of trimming, 
added to the cost of extra concrete and packing required to fill in cavities 
left by falls and careless or inaccurate excavation, has exceeded the actual 
first cost of excavation. For some reason this is an item very often overlooked 
by a contractor, especially if he is not thoroughly experienced in making up 
his bids for tunnel work. In the case of the Mount Royal Tunnel however, the 
actual overbreakage averaged less than 5 per cent and the cost of trimming 
including squaring up the hitch for the concrete arch and removing the debris 
ready for the concrete form carriages, added less than 5 cents to the yardage 
cost of tunnel excavation. 

The trimming drill carriage is very similar in construction to the bench 



LARGE TUNNELS 1377 

carriage except that it is only 20 ft. long instead of 30 ft. In fact, much of 
the material used in its construction came from one of the bench drill carriages. 
It consists of two side trusses, 20 ft. long, traveling on six double-flanged 
wheels. As in the former carriages these trusses are so spaced as to permit the 
passage of a train of tunnel cars, both for muck and concreting materials. 
Immediately above the track is a platform for storage and repairs. In this 
carriage, however, the outriggers with their quarry bars and heavy drilling 
equipment are at the bottom, where the only heavy drilling occurs. These 
outriggers mount heavy piston drills and were used in excavating the toe lift 
in places because the bench was so high that the line holes could not be drilled 
to sub-grade. 

Self -rotating hand hammer drills, operated from extension platforms were 
used for drilling for the hitches and were also used from the top platform for 
trimming. 

The advantages of this carriage are its lightness and ease of movement. 
It also eliminated the laborious scaffolds usually required for trimming and 
also the danger to the workmen from these scaffolds which are hurriedly and 
too often carelessly erected. Moreover, it is a noteworthy fact that a man 
works faster and more effectively where he has a sense of security and is 
entirely familiar with his immediate surroundings. 

Cost of Tunnel of the Canadian Pacific Ry. — The Rogers Pass tunnel of the 
Canadian Pacific Ry. was completed Dec, 1916, 11 months ahead of the con- 
tract time. It is a double track tunnel, slightly more than 5 miles in length. 
One of the most interesting features of the construction was the employment 
of a pioneer or auxiliary heading. The methods employed in the driving 
of the tunnel are described by A. C. Dennis, superintendent in charge of the 
work for the contractors, in a paper presented before the A. S. C. E. and 
printed in the Jan. Proceedings of the Society, from which the following is 
abstracted in Engineering and Contracting, March 21, 1917. 

The tunnel, except for 1,200 ft. of the east end and 400 ft. of the west end, 
is all in solid rock, classified as quartzite in the geological reports, but consist- 
ing largely of schists. 

East Pioneer Heading. — The east pioneer heading was started in September, 

1913, about 50 ft. north of the main tunnel, 700 ft. west of the east portal, and 
about 60 ft. above the main tunnel level. This location was adopted in order 
to save 700 ft. of pioneer tunneling, to reduce the quantity of soft ground 
heading, to enable work on the heading to start sooner than that on the ap- 
proach cut, and to get rid of the muck readily. The power was furnished by 
the temporary erection of an old compressor along the Canadian Pacific Ry. 
track above and a pipe line down the hill to the work. This heading was run 
as nearly level as drainage would permit. The grade of the main heading 
reached the grade of the pioneer at the third cross-cut, the two former cross- 
cuts being driven to the dip, and material from the main heading being 
hoisted up the incline. The heading reached solid rock about 600 ft. in, at 
which point the first inclined cross-cut was started, at about the beginning of 

1914. The pioneer tunnel, in rock, was driven about 2 miles in 1)4 years. 
The maximum progress was 776 ft. The daily average was 20 ft. for the 
entire drift in rock. 

West Pioneer Tunnel. — The west pioneer heading was started by an incline, 

300 ft. long, from the rock outcrop, 700 ft. east of the west portal, about 150 

ft. above the main heading level, and 50 ft. south of the main tunnel line. 

This location was selected in order to provide dumping ground, shorten the 

87 



1378 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

length of heading to be driven, avoid soft ground tunneUng, and permit an 
earher beginning than by waiting for the approach cut excavation. This 
inchne was very wet and took 2 months to drive, being finished in the latter 
part of July, 1914. This pioneer tunnel was driven for a length of more than 
1J4 miles in less than a year, the maximum monthly progress being 932 ft. 
The daily average of 24 ft. for nearly a year, largely through very hard quartz- 
ite is also unusual. 

Pioneer Headings in General. — The pioneer tunnel, in rock, was 7 ft. high 
and 8 ft. wide. It was driven with light hammer drills, using hollow steel, 
with water attachments. Three drills, in general, but four in the hardest 
rock, were used in a heading. Spare drill machines, for the replacement of 
drills out of order, were kept conveniently at hand in the heading. No repairs 
were made under ground. The hammer drills are convenient and rapid, the 
delay and expense of their constant breakage perhaps balancing the advantage 
of speed under ordinary conditions. The drills are mounted on a light hori- 
zontal bar, about 18 in. below the roof line. Air and water are taken over the 
muck pile, or on hooks in the side, by a single hose line for each, to a manifold 
from which short individual hose lines supply the drills. 

Light cars (3^ cu. yd.) were used for niuck, and the latter was taken off the 
track, instead of building sidings for this purpose. Shoveling plates were used 
at the face and on the side away from the track for some distance back of the 
face, in order to facilitate the handling of empty muck cars. The ventilating 
pipe was a 12-in. wooden water pipe connected to the Connersville blowers 
used for the exhaust. This pipe was hung on the side away from the track, 
close up to the roof, and was carried to within 20 ft. of the face. Little damage 
was done to this pipe by blasting. The blowers were started exhausting when 
the first shot was fired, or a little before, and were run for 20 minutes. The 
men got back to work in from 5 to 10 minutes. No compressed air was allowed 
to be blown out for ventilating purposes. After a round was shot, the drillers 
followed the smoke back, barring down the roof, bringing explosives to 
reshoot, and wetting down the muck piles, sides, roof and face with water 
hose. The muckers cleared the track and began loading the muck which was 
scattered back. 

When no further blasting was required, the lights were hung, the foreman 
sighted the line and grade point in the face, and the drilling gang set up the 
horizontal bar, placed their drills and proceeded. There was rarely any 
muck to be handled before the driUing could be started, as it was thrown back 
from the face by the heavy loading in the bottom holes and the fact that they 
were shot last, for this purpose. There were two helpers to three drills, who 
brought up and changed the steel and adjusted the drill machines. When 
the drilling from the upper set-up was completed, the drillers took down the 
machines and carried them back, with the hose connections still attached, and 
oiled them up. After the mucking was done, the bar was dropped to the lower 
set-up, near the floor, and the drills were set to drill the bottom holes or lifters. 
The drills were carried forward, put on the bar, and were drilling sometimes 
in less than 2 minutes after the bar was dropped. While the bottom holes* were 
being drilled, the muckers laid the track, adjusted and covered the mucking 
sheets with muck, and brought up the explosives. The holes were loaded by 
the machine men, helpers and foremen. 

For the small part of the tunnel where re-shooting was not necessary, an 
8-hour shift could do two rounds per shift, or a little better. Two men pick 
down the muck, and three men load the car and push it out, while three others 



LARGE TUNNELS 



1379 




1380 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

stand by with an empty car, ready to put it on the track and load it. The 
three men taking out the loaded car return near the face with an empty car, 
take it off the track, and rest until the load comes out. The men get a rest 
from the monotony of steady continuous shoveling, and the empty car is 
available at once after the load goes back. The pipes for ventilating, and for 
air and water were laid by a pipe man and helper, who looked after several 
headings. 

Doing this work with muckers was unsatisfactory. Much cars were taken 
from the heading back to a siding by a single mule, and from there to the dump 
by two or three-mule team driven tandem, until this method became inade- 
quate, and then compressed-air locomotive haulage was substituted for the 
long haul. The heading muck cars, after the shovel and switching track had 
cleared a cross-cut, were taken to the cross-cut, pulled up an inclined trestle 
by air hoist and cable, and dumped into standard-gage cars. The cross-cuts 
are from 1,500 to 2,000 ft. apart. Air pressure was maintained at about 90 
lb. at the drills, which required 125 lb. at the compressors toward the end 
of the work. 

The rounds were usually 6 ft. The cut holes were generally shot once or 
twice, and the remainder of the cut was shot with the rest of the round. All 
shooting in headings was done with fuse. The explosives used were 40 and 60 
per cent, low-freezing gelatine, with No. 8 caps. The rock was hard to break, 
and the quantity of explosives was necessarily high. From 21 to 28 holes 
were drilled in the pioneer face. Change of shifts was made at the heading, 
the shift coming on taking the tools out of the hands of the shift finishing. 
Three shifts a day were worked every day in the year, except for one day at the 
east end, due to the burning of the fan house, and one day due to the breaking 
of the air main by a snowslide. The pioneer gang drove the cross-cuts be- 
tween the pioneer and the main tunnel heading. The pioneer tunnel was not 
driven for the last mile, connection being made by the main heading only, 
which was all drilled up for enlargement before the enlargement blasting 
reached this section. The main heading work had to be completed before 
the enlargement blasting and mucking reached the last cross-cut, as it would 
have been impossible to maintain the air connections, or ventilate the main 
heading, after that time, so as to allow continuous work. 

Main Heading. — The main heading was entirely through the rock section. 
It was 11 ft. wide and 9 ft. high, the center line being the same as that of the 
completed tunnel and the bottom being 6 ft. above the sub-grade. The posi- 
tion and size were such that lateral holes could be drilled from this heading to 
break the enlargement to the required dimensions. The air, water and ven- 
tilating pipes for this heading were branches from the mains laid in the pioneer 
heading. Access to this heading was obtained through the cross-cuts from 
the pioneer, and muck was handled around the enlargement operations by 
the pioneer route. This heading was generally driven in a westward direc- 
tion, on account of the drainage. The system of driving was similar to that 
in the pioneer. The rounds averaged about 7 ft., and 32 holes were drilled 
in the hardest rock. The main heading was sometimes driven from several 
faces. The average daily progress per heading at the east end was slightly 
more than 16 ft., and the maximum monthly progress was 621 ft. The aver- 
age daily progress per heading at the west end was 20 ft. ; the maximum 
monthly progress was 762 ft. 

Headings in General. — The headings were sublet at a price per foot and a 
bonus for more than 450 ft. per month, the sub-contractor furnishing the labor 



LARGE TUNNELS 



1381 



and explosives only. This arrangement proved unsatisfactory, and was dis- 
continued in September, 1914. After this time a substantial bonus, based 



I- 




Fig. 4. — Half section of main tunnel and center heading, showing column and 
drill setting for ring drilling. 

on the monthly footage and equated for hard rock, was given and divided 
among all men directly connected with the heading driving, in proportion to 



1382 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

their regular wages earned for the month. It was agreed that the rate of 
bonus would not be reduced. The latter arrangement resulted in 23 per cent 
greater speed, and a large saving in compressed air and other items furnished 
to the sub-contractor under the former arrangement. 

Enlargement Drilling. — Each hole was pointed by clinometer, the column 
carrying the drill being set always at the same distance off the center line, and 
the arm for the lower and upper sets being always the same distance above 
the sub-grade. Line and levels were furnished by the Railway Company's 
engineers, and a string was stretched by which the columns and arms were 
located. Each drill hole has its proper distance from the arm. The drill 
holes were thus bottomed at a regular distance beyond the neat line of the 
completed excavation. The holes, being bottomed with reference to the 
line and grades given by the engineers, were not affected by irregularities in 
the heading driving. The columns were set by men for that purpose, so that 
the drillers and helpers had only to do the drilling. The drill steel was brought 
to the drillers, and the dull steel was taken away. The drillers and helpers 
were paid their wages in any event, but the footage for each man was kept, and 
if the price set per foot drilled amounted to more than his wages, he was given 
the difference as a bonus check. Air and water connections were made for 
every third ring of holes, and only one drill machine, though handled by 
each runner of the three daily shifts, completed the three rings, and then 
moved to the head of the line, taking the next three rings. Congestion of men 
and material was thus avoided, and each man had a fair chance to work on an 
equal quantity of hard and soft rock. 

There was extreme variation in the quantity drilled by different men in 
different rock. The same man might do only 6 ft. a shift in the hardest quart- 
zite, and more than 100 ft. per shift ih the softer schist. New men, after a 
month's practice, generally made more footage than men of long experience 
in mining. In general, it was found better to train green men than to try to 
get men accustomed to piston drills to learn to run hammer drills. 

Most of the rings were 6 to 6K ft. apart. When explosives rose in price 
it was found economical to space the rings 5 ft. apart, as the extra drilling 
cost was balanced by the saving in explosives, with the added advantage that 
the muck was broken into smaller pieces and scattered farther back. Where 
the roof was soft and full of slips, so that trouble was anticipated, the upper 
set of arms on the column was lowered 1 ft., in order to leave some trimming of 
the roof to be done by jack-hammer, flat holes and light blasting. The air 
and water for the enlargement drilling, as well as the supplies, came by the 
pioneer tunnel and the cross-cuts, so that this drilling was not disturbed by 
the enlargement blasting. The drilling for the last mile, where no pioneer 
tunnel was driven, was started at the middle and progressed toward the portal, 
the track, pipe, etc., being removed as the drilling was finished. 

The stopping of the pioneer tunnel was well-timed, as the main heading was 
driven and the enlargement drilling completed just in time to avoid delaying 
the enlargement blasting and mucking at the east end. 

Enlargement Blasting. — There was considerable difficulty in breaking the 
bottom to sub-grade when the rock excavation was first started. This was 
overcome by dropping the floor of the main heading 1 ft. and drilling the holes 
in the bottom 1 ft. deeper. Difficulty was found also in getting the sides 
below the springing line to break for the full width. This was overcome by 
drilling one or two relief holes at this locality in tough breaking rock. In 
tough rock, two, four, six and sometimes eight holes were sprung. If over- 



LARGE TUNNELS 1383 

sprung, the ring being shot was hkely to break into the next ring and explode 
it, or shake it up so as to spoil the effect of the blast. 

Generally from 10 to 15 rings were kept loaded ahead. Any part of a hole 
which had not broken, and could be found, was reloaded and shot with the 
next ring. Generally a little muck was left in the face by the power shovel in 
order to prevent the first ring from scattering back too far. If the previously 
shot material had not broken to the required width, however, all the muck was 
loaded, and jack-hammers were used to drill up this tight rock, after which it 
was shot before the regular rings were blasted. Several bottom rings were first 
blasted, then a top and bottom ring were blasted together until the muck piled 
up to within 4 or 5 ft. of the roof. Then blasting was discontinued, and the 
men scaled and trimmed the roof, working from the muck pile. Where no 
holes had to be reloaded, rings could be blasted at intervals of from 15 to 20 
minutes. The blasting was done with a battery in the main heading, and the 
bottom holes were all loaded ahead, the wires being wound up and stuck in 
the holes, from which they could readily be pulled out and connected. The 
upper holes were loaded, but no primers were put in until ready to blast. 
The holes were loaded to within 4 ft. of the collar, whether sprung or 
otherwise. 

When retiring in the main heading to blast, the blasting gang took back the 
scaling tools, so that they might examine and scale the roof of the heading if 
necessary as they returned. After several rings had been blasted, the power 
shovel crew commenced to clean up the beginning of the muck heap, and only 
retired a few minutes for the following blasts. Several top rings were gener- 
ally held and shot at meal times, when the shovel had excavated sufficient 
muck to provide room for more without blocking the airway and manway over 
the pile. 

The smoke and gas from the blasting were quickly taken out by the fresh 
air forced into the pioneer tunnel by a " Sirocco fan" at the portal. The air 
circulated through the pioneer tunnel and the cross-cut ahead of the blasting, 
and then back through the main heading, over the muck pile, and out at the 
portal of the main tunnel. This circulation was prevented from short cir- 
cuiting by stopings and doors in the cross-cuts passed by the shovel. The 
quantity possible to shoot depended on the distance the muck was thrown back, 
or the quantity of muck for which there was room without interfering with the 
scaling and trimming of the roof; it varied from 24 to 110 ft. Much time was 
lost in taking up the track before blasting, in cleaning up the thinly scattered 
muck directly after a blast, and by other delays incidental to each clean up, 
which made it desirable to shoot as many rings as possible. 

Enlargement of Mucking. — Mucking was done with small steam shovels, 
with cylinders enlarged so as to be efficient at 100 lb. air pressure, and with the 
boom sheaves set back so as to shorten the booms and protect the sheaves. 
The shovels loaded the muck into 12-yd., standard-gage, air-dump cars. The 
cars were shifted to the shovel by two small compressed-air locomotives, and 
were taken from a spur near the shovel to the portal by a larger compressed- 
air locomotive ; they were taken by a steam locomotive from the portal to the 
dump. During the past year the shovels mucked 18,550 ft. throughout S}4 
miles of tunnel, or more than 2 ft. per hour. Blasting and trimming took 
about one-quarter of the time. The best monthly run for one shovel was 
946 ft. at the east end, and 1,030 ft. at the west end. The ground between the 
third and fourth cross-cuts at the west end became so dangerous, owing to the 
material in the roof and sides falling, that one shift out of three had to be 



1384 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

devoted to scaling this section until it was concreted. About 2,500 cu. yd. 
fell or was scaled in this section, on account of the disintegration of the mate- 
rial on exposure to the air. The scaling car throughout the work was handled 
by the air locomotive, and the scaling was done by the shovel crew or others 
during the time the shovel was stopped for enlargement blasting. Any rock 
not broken to the required dimensions was drilled off the muck pile, or from the 
floor, as the shovel cleaned up as far as possible, or from a car left at the shovel 
crew's meal time, and shot before the next rings were blasted. The enlarge- 
ment drill holes were the general guide as to the trimming required, such points 
as were missed being marked by the Railway Company's engineer. There 
was very little over-breakage. 

Concreting. — About 1}4 miles of the tunnel, including the soft gi^ound at 
each end, required concreting. This work was sublet. The sub-contractors 
used wooden forms, and deposited the concrete from a platform near the roof 
reached by an inclined trestle. The concrete mixer was on the car, and the 
materials were on other cars back of it. The concrete from the mixer flowed 
into a small car which was hauled by cable up the trestle incline to the high 
platform, from which it was shoveled into the forms. Much of the lining 
required back as well as front forms, and the space behind the back forms was 
filled with rock or wood. This back form and back-filling work was slow and 
expensive, especially where there were only a^ew inches between the back 
forms and the rock. 

Mr. Dennis in Engineering and Contracting, April 18, 1917, states that the 
cost of the total improvements which includes considerable line outside of the 
tunnel was approximately $6,500,000. 

The tunnel proper for excavation, concreting and so forth, including con- 
tractor's profit, was below $150 per foot, which, being a double-track tunnel, 
compares very favorably with $180 per foot for the Great Northern single- 
track tunnel. 

The general wages paid were 40 cts. per hour to drill runners and 35 ct. per 
hour to others. The bonus probably averaged 25 per cent in addition to these 
rates. 

Summing up the reasons for the rapid progress and low cost of the Rogers 
Pass tunnel, they seem to be: 

First, the method of tunneling, involving the driving of a pioneer tunnel 
off the line of the main tunnel. 

Second, the excellent administration of the work. 

Third, the payment of liberal bonuses to the workmen, which bonuses were 
adhered to. 

Fourth, the use of hammer drills. 

In the Aug. (1917) Proceedings of the A. S. C. E., as showing the probable 
economics of using the pioneer tunnel method, J. G. Sullivan, chief Engineer of 
the railway, quotes the following from his report of March 13, 1913, to 
officials of the Canadian Pacific Ry. : 

This method, of course, is only applicable where the rock will stand without 
artificial support, at least during the time of construction. Where the mate- 
rial must be artificially supported, then the top heading is the surest, and I 
think, the best way. The progress of the work by this method, as I said 
before, depends only on the speed that the pioneer tunnel can be driven. If 
rock is self-supporting, I see no reason why from 20 to 25 ft. per day could not 
be made. Placing the cost of driving the small tunnel at $30 per foot, that 
is the only part of the work that would be rushed under high pressure, and the 



LARGE TUNNELS 1385 

heading proper can be taken out at least $5 per foot cheaper than if the work 
must be done under pressure, then the bench containing 18 cu. yd. per foot 
(neat section) can, on account of there being no interruptions to wait for drill- 
ing or cleaning up to put in breast holes or knocking down material in order 
to get pipes into the heading, at a low estimate, be taken out 75 cts. per cubic 
yard cheaper, or $13.50 per foot, which would make a saving in excavation of 
tunnel proper of $18.50 per foot, leaving $11.50 to be taken care of in interest 
saved account making greater speed. In my report to you of Oct. 22, 1912, 
I estimated an annual saving of about $226,000, but all my figures were very 
conservative, and I took into account only one or two of the larger factors of 
the extra expense. Mr. Bogue's more accurate figures show a saving of over 
$370,000. However, his estimate for fuel per hp. hour was 40 per cent higher 
than the figure I used, and the price of coal was 17 per cent higher than the 
price I assumed. His price is more accurate than the one I used, but assuming 
for the sake of being conservative, that the average between the two estimates 
would be approximately correct, that would mean, say $300,000 per year 
saving, to say nothing of the interest on the $3,000,000 or $4,000,000 that 
will be invested in construction, from which we will not be receiving any 
benefit until the work is completed. Therefore, if this tunnel can be com- 
pleted one year sooner by using this method, the saving thus made will a 
great deal more than save the $11.50 additional cost of the pioneer tunnel. 

The results, states Mr. Sullivan, proved that these estimates were conserva- 
tive. The pioneer tunnel, from the most careful studies of the information at 
hand, cost about $28 per foot instead of $30, as estimated. There was a 
great deal larger difference than 75 cts. per cubic yard between the actual cost 
of enlarging the tunnel by this method and the estimated cost of enlarging 
without the use of the pioneer tunnel; and another item, not taken into account 
in this estimate, was the fact that the pioneer tunnel only had to be driven less 
than four-fifths of the total distance. 

It has been stated by some that this method is not applicable where there 
are soft spots in the rock. If the soft rock encountered does not exceed 50 
per cent of the total, Mr. Sullivan is confident that this method would still 
prove more economical than any other which has yet been tried, for the reason 
that when the soft places are encountered, there is plenty of time to stope out 
the upper part of the arch and timber it, so that when the steam shovel arrives 
at those places, there will be no delay whatever, and, instead of having to 
stope out the entire section by hand, as is necessary in the under-heading 
method, only about half, or less, of the material in the section requires to be 
removed in this manner. 

Regarding the actual costs Mr. Sullivan quotes further from the report of 
March 13, 1913: 

I figure that by this method the pioneer tunnel can be driven for about $30, 
the main heading for about $40, and that the bench can be taken out for about 
$54, making a total of $124. There will be incidentals; contractors' profit 
should not amount to over $20 per foot. Of course, this method of driving 
the tunnel, working so many drills at one time, will require a larger plant than 
if only one heading was driven, and that at a lower speed than we con- 
template. 

The expectations of the railway company, stated Mr. Sullivan, have been 
more than realized, as is proved by the speed and the cost of the work. The 
cost of driving this tunnel through rock, including in this price the cost of 
driving 19,610 lin. ft. of pioneer tunnel, 12 cross-cuts, each about 40 ft. long, 



1386 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

erecting the plant (including freight) , the proportionate cost of building about 
5 miles of temporary railway tracks, and other overhead charges, plus 10 per 
cent on all expenditures, will amount to a little less than $5 per cu. yd. for 
excavation in the tunnel proper. 

In his discussion, Mr. Dennis, who was in charge of the work for the con- 
tractor, stated that the idea of the pioneer heading originated in the desire 
to get away from the congestion, smoke, general confusion, and interference 
of one operation with another, observed in tunnel driving, and to provide 
muck in large quantities for handling by shovel. His work in coal mines, with 
air course run with the main entry, suggested the pioneer as a means to the 
desired end. 

Cost of the St. Paul Pass Tunnel. — The following data are taken from an 
article by K. C. Weedin, in Engineering and Contracting, April 5, 1911. 

The St. Paul Pass tunnel is on the line of the Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget 
Sound Ry. where the latter crosses the Bitter Root range of mountains on the 
Montana-Idaho state line. It is 8,750 ft. long; 3,412 ft. being in Montana and 
5,338 ft. in Idaho. The summit grade in tunnel is elevation 4,169 ft. at a 
distance of 3,520 ft. west of the east portal and this point is 1,020.7 ft. below 
the surface. The gradient is 0.2 per cent in both directions from the summit. 
The location lies in a zone of extremely great snow fall, possibly the greatest in 
the United States; the actual fall during the winter of 1907-08 being 33 ft. 
4 ins. Fortunately there is little wind. 

Construction was begun Jan. 18, 1907, and was completed March 4, 1909. 
The writer assumed charge for the company on Dec. 6, 1907, or about one 
year after the work was started. 

The C, M. & P. S. Ry. practically parallels and lies near the Northern 
Pacific from Missoula to Taft, Mont. ; there they diverge. 

Taft being the nearest point to the tunnel on an operated railroad, 2.5 miles 
distant, it was decided to locate the power house there, generate the electricity 
and transmit it to substations, one at each end of the tunnel. 

A wagon road was constructed from Taft across the range at great expense, 
over which all supplies, machinery, timber, etc., were transported both for the 
west end of the tunnel and for the grading and bridge work on the west slope. 

This road required a great deal of attention. The average traffic over it 
was about 100 four-horse teams per day and the maximum about 160 four- 
horse teams. About 60 men were required in summer to keep the road open, 
and about twice that number were required in winter and spring. These men 
were stationed in three camps along the road, one at each portal and one at the 
summit. The road was about 4K miles long and the summit was about 1,000 
ft. above the portals. Fresh snow was attacked with a steel logging plow 
pulled by 24 horses, then a 30-horse wooden wedge plow was used and the 
work was finally finished with shovels. In spite of this work the road bed 
was steadily elevated during the winter until it was well up to the roofs of the 
camp houses. 

During the winter of 1907-08 a cableway one mile long was built from the 
east portal to the summit. This cableway was driven by a 30-hp. motor. 
Supplies, fuel, timber, etc., were teamed from Taft to the lower terminal near 
east portal, carried on the cableway to the summit, there transferred to wagons 
and hauled down the west slope. This method obviated the long, heavy team 
haul up the mountain and greatly lessened the time. 

The main power station equipment consisted of the following items : 



LARGE TUNNELS 1387 

6 150-hp. Atlas high pressure tubular boilers, set up in batteries of two. 
2 Blake 8 X 5 X 10-in. boiler feed pumps. 
2 Fairbanks-Morse 5H X SH X 5-in. boiler feed pump. 

1 Blake 14 X 7}i X 12-in. underwriters fire pump, normal capacity 600 gals, 
per minute. 

1 Blake 14 X 22 X 24-in. air pump and jet condenser. 

2 20 X 48-in. Corliss engines. 

1 14 X 28 X 20-in. tandem compound McEwen engine direct connected .to a 

200-kw. 3-phase, 60-cycle, 2, 200- volt generator. 
1 17 X 22-in. Atlas engine. 

1 10 X 16-in. Atlas engine, driving exciters. 

2 200-kw. 3-phase, 2,200-volt, 60-cycle, G. E. generators belted to the Corliss 

engines. 
1 200-kw. 3-phase, 2,200-volt, 60-cycle, engine type, Westinghouse generator, 

direct connected to McEwen engine. A 17j^-kw. 125-volt Westinghouse 

exciter was belted to this generator. 
1 35-kw. 125-volt G. E. direct connected generator, used for exciter. 

3 250-kw. 2,200 to 6,600-volt, 60-cycle transformers — oil cooled. 

3 Sets of 6,600-volt multigap lightning arresters with choke coils and all necessary 
switch board panels, connections, volt meters, circuit breakers, etc. 

The machine shop equipment was as follows : 

1 24-in. X 14-ft. New Haven heavy duty engine lathe. 
1 Four-jaw chuck, 16-in. diameter. 

1 20-in. Hoefer back geared drill press fitted for No. 3 drill socket. 
1 30-in. Wallcott & Wood geared shaper, extended base and counter shaft. 
1 No. 96 Forbes belt and hand driven pipe machine with dies from 1 in. to 6 ins. 
with cutting off attachment. 

1 Blacksmith outfit complete. 

The power station was protected by a good gravity water system in addition 
to that afforded by fire pmnp. The capacity of plant was 750 kw. and the 
alternating current was carried to the sub-station at each end of the tunnel — 
2}4 miles to the east end and 43^ to the west end. 

' At each sub-station the current is stepped down from 6,600 volts to 440 
volts through three 100 kw., oil cooled transformers. 

The east end sub-station equipment comprised the following items: 

2 220-hp. 60-cycle, 3-phase, 440-volt, G. E. induction motors, driving com- 

pressors. 
1 100-hp., 60-cycle, 3-phase, 440-volt, G. E. induction motor. 
1 100-kw. 575-volt, G. E., D. C. generator. 
1 50 hp. 2-pole Thompson-Houston 500-volt D. C. generator. 
1 50-hp. 500-volt Westinghouse D. C. motor. 

1 30-hp. 4-pole, 500-volt Westinghouse motor. 

2 Westinghouse-Baldwin electric locomotives fitted with 2 No. 64, 500-volt, 

D. C. motors, 24-in. gage. 

2 7M-kw. 500 volt motors. 

3 100-kw. 6,600 to 440-volt, 60-cycle, G. E., oil cooled transformers. 
3 7K-kw. 440 to 11^^20-volt Westinghouse oil cooled transformers. 

2 1,205 cu. ft. of free air per minute each, running at 135 r.p.m. IngersoU- 

Sergeant, belt driven, air compressors, type J-2. 
1 Size K Exeter fan with 2,000 ft. 16-in. galvanized iron air pipe. 
1 No. 2 Root blower with 5,000 ft, 8-in. galvanized iron air pipe. 
1 16-in. swing saw. 
1 Numa drill sharpener. 
1 No. 1, 20-in. self feed drill press. 
1 Walcott engine lathe, 18-in. swing, 12-ft. bed. 
1 Model 20 Marion shovel. 
25 Ingersoll-Rand 3>^-in. air drills. 

The equipment at the west end was practically a duplicate of that at the 
east end except that the air drills used were Wood drills made by the Wood 
Drill Works, Paterson, N. J. 

The compressors at each end furnished power to 13 drills (8 in heading and 
5 on bench), the Marion model 20 shovel, the drill sharpening machine, a 



1388 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

welding hammer and two forges. The Marion shovels were constructed 
especially for this character of work, the booms being short to permit swinging 
between the lining timbers and were equipped with l>i cu. yd. dippers. Drill 
bits were upset, reshaped and sharpened on a Numa, air driven, drill sharpen- 
ing machine that proved to be a great factor in making rapid progress. 

The ventilation of the tunnel was accomplished by the use of an Exeter 
fan operated as an exhauster, exhausting through a 24-in. galvanized iron 
pipe made up in 30-ft. lengths with flanged joints and paper gaskets. The 
end of this pipe was maintained at a distance behind the bench sufficient to 
prevent the pipe from being dented and perforated by shooting. A No. 2 
Root blower was also operated to pump fresh air into the tunnel through an 
8-in. galvanized iron pipe. The latter pipe was carried close to the heading 
face. 

The tunnel was driven by the top heading method. The material in general 
was a laminated quartzite with talc between the strata, but the character 
changed often, which necessitated changes in the method of conducting the 
work. 

The heading was, when the material permitted, driven with a full face fol- 
lowing it as closely as practicable, usually from 50 ft. to 60 ft. with the timber 
lining, but often it became necessary to drive small side drifts for the wall 
plates and carry the arch timbers within 2 ft. of the face. Usually 6 drills 
were operated abreast, driving the full heading face, two on one column about 
3 ft. each side of the center line and one on a column in each corner. These 
were followed by a " trimmer " taking off all points to obtain the correct section. 
This work was followed by a special timber crew erecting the timber lining. 

The packing back of lagging on side walls from the sills to the height a man 
could shovel is the natural material excavated from the bench; from this ele- 
vation to the wall plates and over the arch the packing is cord wood driven 
tight and wedged. Wood packing was not particularly objectionable here 
as the tunnel was very wet. The heading material was shoveled into 1 cu. yd. 
end dump cars, pushed by hand to a chute back of the bench and dumped into 
a car on a side track on the bench level. The heading track was supported 
over the bench by timbers spanning the tunnel and resting on the wall plates. 

The bench was driven by 4, and at times, 5 drills working on the floor level; 
occasionally it was necessary to drill "down" holes and also at some places 
where the material was particularly hard it was necessary to take out a sub 
bench. In fact, many different tunneling methods were resorted to, as cir- 
cumstances dictated. The timber lining on the bench was done by the regular 
bench crew. 

The air shovels loaded all bench material into IK cu. yd. Peteler cars which 
were spotted by horses, but hauled out of and into the tunnel by two 15-hp. 
electric locomotives at each end — ^from 8 to 11 cars to the train. 

The heading muck cars were run out on a platform over the bench workings 
a distance of 150 ft. to a muck chute leading to the tunnel trains on a track 
below. This platform was built ahead as the bench progressed and new chutes 
were added as required. In front of the bench were two narrow gage tracks on 
the sides of the tunnel with a crossover beyond the chute for the heading muck. 

The electric locomotive hauled the cars to the crossover and the cars were 
hauled by a horse from here to be loaded and returned to the outgoing track. 
At the east portal the dump began just outside the approach. Here a 60-ft. 
fill had to be made for the main line. At the west portal there was a haul of 
about 2,500 ft. to a 70-ft. fill about 600 ft. long. Snow gave trouble on the 



LARGE TUNNELS 



1389 



dumps and 10 or 12 men were required in winter to keep the track open on the 
west side and on the east side a temporary snow shed was erected over the 
dinky track. 

The overbreak was carefully measured every 8 ft. — oftener when necessary 
— and averaged 2.94 cu. yds. per lin. ft. of tunnel. The total quantity 
removed was 21.5 cu. yds. per lin. ft. 



/J 



ves^ occm. Sfloce mk 




Fig. 5. — Cross section of St. Paul Pass Tunnel, showing type of timbering. 



A track incline connecting the heading and bench tracks was utilized for 
transporting timber and tools to the heading. This incline was so arranged 
that, as the bench advanced, it could easily be moved forward, and the timbers 
supporting the heading track could be taken down and used ahead. The 
incline kept all heading operations away from the bench, and as the work was 
conducted on the bonus system the bench operations were not interfered with 
by the carrying of tools, machines and timber into the heading, and conse- 
quently the bench operatives could not complain of being discriminated 
against. 

The bonus system consisted in giving $2 to the foreman and $12.60 for distri- 
bution among the men for both heading and bench above 3>^ ft. per shift 
based on the monthly average. 



1390 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The progress record is shown in Table I. The monthly average for the 
twelve-month 1908, was 544.6 ft. ; for 1907, 80.3 ft. The highest records of 
daily progress were Nov. 17, 18 and 19, 1908, and were, respectively, 23.5 ft., 
32.5 ft., and 28.5 ft. 

Table I. — Progress Report of St. Paul Pass Tunnel 

Total Time to Average Best record — '■ — 

length, complete, progress, Progress, 

ft. mos. ft. Month ft. 
East end: 

Heading 4 , 549 26 175 Dec, 1908 357 

Bench 4 , 389 19 231 Feb., 1909 350 

Tunnel 4,770 27 177 Jan., 1909 337 

VV^est end i 

Heading 4,201 19 221 Jan., 1909 385 

Bench 4,361 17 256 Nov., 1908 527 

Tunnel 4,281 20 214 Jan., 1909 416.5 

Total tunnel 8,750 27 324 Jan., 1909 753. 5 

Two shifts of 10 hours each were worked until about six months prior to the 
date of completion, when the time was changed to 11 hours per shift. Shifts 
changed from day to night and vice versa every two weeks. The wage rates 
were as follows: 

For 10 hrs. 

Shift bosses ." $4. 75 

Machine runners ' 3. 75 

Machine helpers 3. 25 

Inside laborers 2. 75 

Outside laborers 2. 25 

Carpenters 4 . 00 

No complete records are available of the cost of the work but the following 
figures are averages taken on the work when it was proceeding at the usual 
rate. They do not include interest and general office expenses. 

Per 

Driving lin. ft. 

Labor $ 84. 50 

Power house labor 7. 00 

Engineering and superintendence 3. 00 

Coal, 25 tons per 24 hrs. at $2.50 4. 16 

Freight on coal 3. 20 

Plant, 50 % of cost chgd, against the work . 15. 00 

Power house repairs 8. 75 

Dynamite heading, 27 lbs. 60 % at 16> ^ cts 4. 45 

Dynamite bench, 23 lbs., 40 % at 12 cts 2. 76 

Caps and fuse 2. 10 

Rubber clothes 4. 62 

Drill repairs, small tools, etc 13. 65 

Water system .35 

Camps 1.10 

Total $154. 64 

Per M. Per 
Timbering ft. B. M. lin. ft. 

Timber delivered at Taft $18. 50 $ 9. 25 

Timber teaming from Taft, 2H miles 4. 00 2. 00 

Timber framing 4. 50 2. 25 

Cord wood: cutting $2, teaming $2 4. 00 .40 

Iron .40 

Erecting on bench 2. 00 

Erecting in heading 2. 35 

Total $ 18.65 

Grand total cost of timber lined tunnel $173. 29 



LARGE TUNNELS 



1391 



Cost of Land Sections of Pennsylvania R. R. Noith River Tunnels at New 
York. — The following data are given in an abstract in Engineering and Con- 
tracting, May 11, 1910, of a paper by B. H. M. Hewett and W. L. Brown, 
Proc. A. S. C. E., Vol. XXXVI. 

The following summary of the cost of excavating the land tunnels is based 
on actual records carefully kept throughout the work. Types of tunnel sec- 
tions are shown in Fig. 12. 



Cubic yards excavated 

Labor: 

Surface transport 

Ddlling and blasting 

Mucking 

Timbering 

Total labor 

Material: 

Drilling 

Blasting 

Timber 

Total material $ 0. 75 

Plant running $ 0. 76 

Surface labor, repairs and mainte- 
nance 0.15 

Field office administration 1 . 05 

Total field charges $ 8. 96 

Chief office administration $ 0. 34 

Plant depreciation 0. 66 

Street and building repairs 0. 27 

Total average cost per cubic yard S10.23 



'UNNELS, IN 


Dollars per 


Cubic Yard 


Manhattan 


Weehawken 


Total yardage 
and av. cost 


43.289 


8,311 


51,600 


$ 0.49 
2.37 
2.49 
0.87 


$0.87 
1.55 
2.08 
0.18 


$0.55 
2.24 
2.42 
0.76 


$ 6.22 


$4.68 


$5.97 


$ 0.15 
0.21 
0.39 


$0. 15 
0.21 
0.20 


$0.15 
0.21 
0.36 



$0.56 
$0.65 



0.08 
1.18 



$7.15 



$0.38 
1.01 



$8.54 



$0.72 

$0.74 

0.14 
1.07 

$8.64 

$0.34 
0.72 
0.23 

$9.93 



Grade 

Superintendent 

Assistant engineer . . . 

Electrician 

Engineer 

Signalman 

Foreman . 

Driller 

Driller's helper 

Laborers 14 



Total 
No. 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
3 
5 
5 



Drilling and Mucking: 
blasting: No. No. 



A typical day's working force for drilling, blasting, mucking and timbering 
was as follows. 

Rate 
per day 
$7.70 
5.80 
3.50 
3.50 
2.00 
4.00 
3.00 
2.00 
2.00 
3.00 
2.00 
4.00 
3.50 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 



Timber men 
Timbermen helpers 

Machinist 

Blacksmith 

Blacksmith helper. 

Nipper 

Waterboy 



Total 47 



203-^ 



14 



17^^ 



Timbering: 
No. 

I 



^Vs 



Where there was any large amount of soft ground in the roof, the timber 
gang was nmch larger than shown above and was helped by the mucking 



1392 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

gang. The drillers did most of the mucking out of their heading before setting 
up the drills. 

The following is an analysis of the cost of drilling. 

Analyzed Cost of Drilling 

Cost per ft. of hole drilled 

15 ft. 19 ft. 24 ft. 

Item of cost 4 in. 6 in. 6 in. Average 

Drilling labor $0. 25 $0. 28 $0.31 $0. 28 

Sharpening 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.016 

Drill steel (5 in. per drill shift) ... 0. 007 0. 007 0. 006 0. 007 

Drill repairs 0. 02 0. 02 0. 02 0. 02 

High pressure air *0. 05 0. 04 0. 07 0. 07 

Totals $0. 35 SO. 38 $0.41 $0. 385 

* This is an estimated figure, ascertained by taking a proportion of the vhole 
charge for plant running. 

Based on the records of 5 months, in which 12,900 cu. yds. were excavated, 
the following data were derived. 

Feet of hole drilled per Lbs. of powder used per 

cubic yard of excavation cubic yard of excavation 
15' 4'' 19' 6" 24' 6" 
span — span — span — 

twin twin twin 15 ft. 19 ft. 24 ft. 

Portion of excavation tunnel tunnel tunnel 4 in. 6 in. 6 in. 

Wall-plate heading* 13.0 10.97 10.97 3.77 2.85 2.85 

Total heading* 7.87 8.17 7.81 2.31 2.02 1.78 

Bench and raker bench*. 5.97 6.15 7.56 0.94 0.93 1.13 

Trench* 9.82 15.96 18.10 1.84 2.48 2.73 

Average for section*. . 6.69 7.43 8.95 1.28 1.30 1.45 

Actual amountt 6.82 7.27 8.95 1.22 1.24 1.27 

* Figures taken from typical cross-sections. 

t This gives the actual amount of drilling done and powder used per cubic yard 
for the whole period of 5 months of observation, but as this length included 280 
ft. of heading and only 220 ft. of bench, the average figures (for powder especially) 
are too low. 

Comparative Cost of Tunnelling in Soft Earth Using Poling Board Method 
and Hydraulic Roof Shields. — The following data are given in Engineering 
Record, Feb. 27, 1915. 

A pair of hydraulic roof shields, designed and built for the job, was used to 
complete the Point Defiance tunnel of the Northern Pacific Railway, near 
Tacoma, Wash. When this work was commenced, a high rate of progress 
was expected with ordinary timbering methods, owing to the apparently firm 
and well drained condition of the earth to be encountered, and to the known 
absence of rock. However, when the bore had been driven through the outer 
crust, which was comparatively dry, a wet, sandy formation was encountered, 
which called for heavy timbering and made progress by the poling-board 
method very difficult. The west heading was advanced at an average of only 
126 ft. per month for four months, and at the end of this time the contractors 
faced the necessity of finding some new method of handling the work, or 
losing heavily on the contract. 

A New Shield Developed. — The material encountered was very heavy and 
had a tendency to "flow" around the breast boards into the heading. It was 



LARGE TUNNELS 1303 

decided that some means must be provided for carrying the weight of this 
material and protecting the worlimen while handling muck and placing 
timber. Accordingly a steel shield of semi-cylindrical shape was built, de- 
signed to be thrust forward by hydraulic jacks, and just large enough to clear 
timbers and lagging placed beneath it. The weight of this shield and its load 
was carried on the wall plates at the forward end, and upon the timber seg- 
ments at the rear. 

A segmental I-beam rib, projecting on the inner side of the shield and form- 
ing part of it, A}4 ft. behind the cutting edge, served as a shoulder against 
which the jacks could thrust. Twelve 120-ton hydraulic jacks were used, 
these being set between this I-beam shoulder and the last segment placed. 
The width of the shield between wall plates was 31 ft., the rise of arch 14 ft. 10 
in., and the overall length 14 ft. In addition to the rib for taking the thrust, 
the frame had a 4 X 6-in. channel-iron brace in four segments, and a 23^-in. 
steel tie-rod with turnbuckle. The shell was built of two thicknesses of steel 
plates ^ in. thick for the inside and % in. for the outside. All bolt and rivet 
heads on the outside of the shield were countersunk. The cutting edge con- 
sisted of 1-in. plates, bolted to the shield to facilitate easy renewal. Their 
forward edges were bent upward slightly to prevent wedging. The shoes 
on which the weight of the shield was carried at the forward end were steel 
castings arranged to slide on angles laid on the wall plates. 

Equipment. — A bench, 24 to 28 ft. long, and of convenient height, was left 
in the middle of the heading, on which to handle muck and timbers, and as a 
safeguard against overbreak. The jacks were fed from a hydraulic pump, 
and driven by an electric motor, set on this bench. This motor also operated 
a conveyor belt which delivered muck from the heading across the bench to a 
Marion 40- ton steam shovel running on the tunnel floor. The shovel, which 
ran with compressed air, loaded this material into 4-cu. yd. cars and also 
excavated the bench. These cars, of 3 -ft. gage, were handled, in trains of 
two to six at a time, by a 6K-ton electric locomotive. Motor-driven belt 
conveyors were also used to remove muck from the two wall-plate drifts. 
These conveyors were arranged so that they could be reversed and used to 
carry timber into the drifts. 

The timber was sawed into standard lengths outside the tunnel and sent in 
as needed. In order to maintain easy access and thus facilitate the handling 
of timber, a "high-car" was constructed, whose platform cleared the top of 
the shovel. A bridge was used to connect this platform with the bench, and 
the car was thus kept back of the sweep of the shovel boom. The car ran on 
rails placed on either side of the track provided for the shovel. 

Operation. — The normal working pressure on the hydraulic jacks was about 
10 to 13 tons, although the initial pressure at starting sometimes rose to 30 
tons. The maximum pressure was 50 tons, or a total of 600 tons on the entire 
shield. After each advance of 4 ft., timbers for a new segment were set. The 
rate of advance through sandy formation was usually 1 in. per minute, which 
was found to be about as fast as miners and muckers could handle the material. 
In order to measure and control the movement of the shield, three measuring 
rods graduated in inches were attached to it, parallel to the tunnel, one at the 
top and one at each of the wall-plate shoes. The man who controlled the 
operation of the jacks stood where he could watch the advance of the top rod, 
and assistants at each of the other rods called to him the advance of the shield 
on each side. By closing or opening one or more jacks on either side, the 
direction of the shield was easily controlled. Curves were successfully driven 
88 



1394 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 




by maintaining different rates of 
progress on the two sides. 

In soft ground the workmen ex- 
cavating at the cutting edge stood 
on the turnbuckle thrust-rod which 
afforded a good footing while they 
leaned against the face of the head- 
ing. Four shovel men cut away the 
material a few 'inches ahead of the 
cutting edge, or took it out through 
holes in the I-beam ring when it 
packed up ahead of this projection. 
About eight muckers were usually 
required to shovel into the conveyor 
and keep the bench clear. 

The wall-plate drifts were so 
worked that their headings were 
always 18 or 20 ft. in advance of the 
cutting edge. As the shield advanced 
the earth at the sides of the bench was 
cut away below the wall plates to the 
tunnel floor, and plumb posts put in 
place in the usual way. The wall- 
plates were placed by the engineer 
in charge of the work and securely 
blocked. 

Cost and Progress. — With the poling 
board method the progress with a 
shift of thirty men had been only 4 
to 6 ft. a day, but with the shield in 
full operation the same number of 
men advanced the heading 12 to 16 
ft. a day, and eliminated all the 
false timber work required by the 
former method. The first shield 
built was tried out near the west 
portal. Progress with it was very 
satisfactory, and it was decided to 
build a second shield. The shields 
were fabricated by the Seattle Dry- 
dock & Construction Company at a 
cost of about $3500 each. They 
were made in five sections, and after 
being assembled in the shop were 
taken apart for shipment and re- 
erected in the tunnel. The shield 
was designed and patented by W. 
M. McDowell, of Tacoma, and the 
work done with it in the Point 
Defiance tunnel was carried out 
under his personal supervision. 



LARGE TUNNELS 



1395 




•->,o/,fi- 



1396 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Labor and Lumber Costs, Poling Board Method, July, 1912 

Shift boss, 30 days @ $5.00 per day $ 150. 00 

10 miners, 30 days @ $3.00 per day 900. 00 

17 muckers, 30 days @ $2.50 per day 1 , 275. 00 

False timber in place, 73,392 bd. ft. @ $10.00 per M 733. 92 

Electrician, 30 days @ $4.00 per day 120. 00 

Total for day shift $3 , 178. 92 

Shift boss, 30 days @ $5.00 per day $ 150. 00 

10 miners, 30 days @ $3.00 per day 900. 00 

17 muckers, 30 days @ $2.50 per day 1 , 275. 00 

False timber in place, 73,392 bd. ft. @ $10.00 per M 733. 92 

Total for night shift $3 , 058. 92 

Total $6 , 237. 84 

Credit (89,786 board feet of permanent timber furnished by Northern 

Pacific Railroad and put in place by contractor at $11 per M) 987. 64 

Net total for the month $5 , 250. 20 

Distance tunneled for month, 136 linear feet 
Cost per linear foot $ 37. 77 

Labor and Lumber Costs Using Shield, May, 1913 

Shield foremen, 29 days @ $5.00 per day $ 145. 00 

Shift boss, 29 days @ $5.00 per day 145. 00 

10 miners, 29 days @ $3.00 per day 870. 00 

13 muckers, 29 days @ $2.50 per day 942. 50 

False timber in place, 19,700 bd. ft. @ $10.00 per day 197. 00 

Electrician, 29 days @ $4.00 per day 116. 00 

Total for day shift $2,415. 50 

Shield foremen, 29 days @ $5.00 per day $ 145. 00 

Shift boss, 29 days @ $5.00 per day 145. 00 

10 miners, 29 days @ $3.00 per day 870. 00 

13 muckers, 29 days @ $2.50 per day 942. 50 

False timber in place, 19,700 bd. ft. @ $10.00 per day 197. 00 

Total for night shift $2 , 299. 50 

Total.. $4,715.00 

Credit (226,156 board feet of permanent timber furnished by North- 
ern Pacific Railroad and put in place by contractor at $11 per M) . . 2 , 487. 71 

Net total for the month $2, 227. 29 

Distance tunneled for month, 394 lin. ft. 
Cost per linear foot $5. 65 

Cost of Tunnel Lining By Compressed Air Mixing and Placing. — The following 
data are taken from an article in Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 12, 1916. 

Location of Mixer. — Generally speaking the location of the mixer should be 
as near the place of concreting as possible, having due regard to suitable length 
of discharge pipe. A part of the mixing process takes place in the discharge 
pipe and the length of this pipe must therefore be sufficient to complete the 
mixing process. It is assumed as an approximation that 50 ft. of discharge 
pipe are necessary. At Sandy Ridge tunnel 40 ft. of discharge pipe was 
employed at times and no defect of mixture was observed. These lengths of 
discharge may then be accepted tentatively as necessary. The upper limit 
of length of discharge pipe is determined by relative costs. Practice records 
lengths up to nearly 2,800 ft. Generally speaking, length of discharge should 
be kept well under 1,000 ft. to obtain the best results in comparative output 
and costs. 

In level, the location may (within limits) be, without detriment to results, 
considerably either above or below the point of depositing. A rise of pipe of 
15 to 20 ft. above mixer level is common experience. There are frequent 



LARGE TUNNELS 1397 

examples of rises of 20 to 30 ft. In experiments concrete has been deposited 
100 ft. above the mixer. Probably these are not the extremes, but they 
indicate generally the limits of location of mixer below the point of deposit. 
Location above the point of deposit is rare in practice. At Tallulah Falls 
tunnel, however, one mixer was located at the shaft top and operated 
successfully. 

The ideal location of mixer for tunnel lining, and particularly for lining rail- 
way tunnel, would seem to be on a car as at Sandy Ridge and Arminto tunnels. 
With an air main through the tunnel supplied from an outside compressor 
plant, a car mounted mixer gives a remarkable flexibility of lining placing 
operations. 

Discharge Pipe. — Size of discharge pipe in relation to capacity of mixer has 
an important bearing on rapid and economic operation, but ordinarily this is 
a problem that need not concern the user. As made by the companies con- 
trolling the process, mixers are given the discharge openings suited to their 
capacities. Wear of pipe, pipe alinement and pipe handling are however dis- 
tinctly users' problems and the troubles they may cause unless their solution 
is known are many. 

Pipe wear is a serious problem. Driving a batch of concrete through a 
closed pipe under crowding pressure at a speed of a mile a minute is a severe 
abrasive test. Practice furnishes rather erratic records of pipe wear, because 
in the past no uniform practice existed in quality and make of pipe used or in 
the character of the joints. Naturally, aUnement varied and especially the 
amount of curvature and the number of curves. At Tallulah Falls tunnel 
spiral riveted pipe was first tried, but the lines of rivets caused rapid wear and 
frequent ruptures. On the Stockton and Twin Peaks tunnels in San Fran- 
cisco studies of pipe wear gave the following facts: An 8-in. steel pipe was used 
and 16 cu. ft. charges were shot under 120 lb. air pressure with velocities of 
75 to 100 ft. per second. On level straight line ordinary 8-in. flanged connec- 
tion steel pipe not quite new had a life of about 6,000 cu. yd. of concrete con- 
veyed. The same pipe on an up-grade of 7 per cent wore through first on 
top. Threaded connections proved least durable ; the thinning of the section 
by threading resulted in rapid cutting through at the joints. At bends, 4 ft. 
radius, 3'^-in. steel pipe cut through in instances in 12 hours continuous con- 
veying and averaged only 60 hours' life. As a remedy cast manganese steel 
elbows were adopted and despite their greater expense proved more economical 
than ordinary steel elbows. (Note experience in the Mount Royal Tunnel 
which shows a different result.) Another influencing factor is the character 
of the coarse aggregate. Pit run gravel causes least wear, broken stone causes 
more rapid wear and slag causes extremely rapid wear. 

The causes for excessive wear indicate the remedies to be adopted. A 
straight alinement is the first remedy. Such alinement is also desirable be- 
cause it reduces friction and so saves air. Instead of even upgrade rises use 
elbows; this confines unusually rapid wear in short sections. When the 
amount of concrete to be handled is considerable substitute manganese steel 
for elbows. Have no projections inside the pipe; it should be absolutely 
smooth. Use a form of connection that makes the joint inside smooth and 
even and does not reduce the thickness of the shell. For convenience in hand- 
ling the joint connection or coupling should be one that can be quickly and 
easily made in restricted space. 

Air Consumption. — The amount of air consumed depends upon the specific 
gravity of the aggregate, size of pipe used, size of storage tank, horizontal and 



1398 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

vertical distances of discharge, kind of pipe, number of bends in the discharge 
pipe and principally upon the operator. Table II gives the theoretical capaci- 
ties for continuous operation at various horizontal distances. 

The figures in Table II are based on observation for the shorter distances 
of discharge and are computed for the longer distances. At the St. Louis 

Table II 

Distance, ft 100 200 500 800*1,000 1,200 1,500 2,000 2,500 

Time of shooting 10 15 25 40 50 60 75 100 125 

Timeof loading, sees. . 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 

Time per batch, sees . . 30 35 45 60 70 80 100 130 145 

Batehes per min 2.0 1.8 1.3 1.0 .85 .75 .6 .46 .41 

Batches per hour 120 108 78 60 51 45 36 27 24 

Yards per hour 40 36 26 20 17 15 12 9 8 

Actual free air re- 
quired, cu. ft. per 

min :. . . . 400 720 1,300 1,600 1,700 1,800 1,840 1,840 2,000 

Size of air reservoir, 

cu. ft 50 100 150 240 300 360 450 500 750 

waterworks tunnel the air consumption was from 1.2 to 1.7 cu. ft. per lineal 
foot of discharge pipe. At Richmond Tunnel, San Francisco, the consump- 
tion was 1.3 cu. ft. per lineal foot of pipe. Another tabulation given by H. A. 
Leeuw and stated to be based on three years' study and experience, is Table 
III. 

Table III. — Cubic Yards of Concrete Per Hour, Mixer Capacity ^^ 

Cu. Yd. 

Actual amount of compressed air 

required 

Cu. ft. of free air per minute 

600 

800 

1,200 

Time Studies. — Tables IV and V give two time studies which were made dur- 
ing the course of a regular day's run on one job. The air supply was about 600 
cu. ft. per minute and the mixer was a K-cu. yd. size. It was charged from 
overhead bins by hand, operated by shding gates immediately Qver the 



100 


300 


400 


uxiiai u 

600 


800 


1,000 


Lin. 


Lin. 


Lin. 


Lin. 


Lin. 


Lin. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


20 


15 


10 








30 


20 


18 


12 


6 




40 


30 


25 


20 


12 


8 







Table I 


V. — Time-study 


No. 1 






Consec. 


No. 


Charging 


Closing 


Discharging 


Wait for rise in 


of shot 


mixer, sec. 


door, sec. 


mixer, sec. 


air 


pressure, sec 


1 




10.0 


4.0 


13.0 




23.0 


2 




10.0 


2.0 


13.0 




11.0 


3 




9.0 


3.0 


17.0 




15.0 


4 




8.0 


5.0 


14.0 




16.0 


5 




10.0 


5.0 


17.0 




20.0 


6 




11.0 


2.0 


20.0 




14.0 


7 




11.0 


6.0 


19.0 




20.0 


8 




9.0 


6.0 


15.0 




29.0 


9 




10.0 
9.8 


5.0 

4.2 


18.0 
16.2 






veraee . 


17.2 



Average time per shot, 47.4 seconds. Length of conveyor pipe line, 315 feet. 
Vertical rise of pipe, 15 feet. Bends in pipe, 270 degrees. 



LARGE TUNNELS 1399 

Table V. — Time-study No. 2 



[Consec. No. of 


Charging mixer, 


Closing door, 


Discharging mixer, 


shot 


sec. 


sec. 


sec. 


1 


8.0 


3.0 


7.0 


2 


5.0 


3.0 


11.0 


3 


9.0 


1.0 


9.0 


4 


7.0 


4.0 


8.0 


5 


6.0 


4.0 


9.0 


6 


7.0 


5.0 


9.0 


7 


5.0 


5.0 


12.0 


8 


7.0 


9.0 


11.0 


9 


6.0 


3.0 


10.0 


10 


5.0 


5.0 


11.0 


11 


7.0 


5.0 


10.0 


12 


5.0 


4.0 


13.0 


Lveraere 


8.7 


4.4 


10.0 



Average time per shot, 23.1 seconds. Length of conveyor pipe, 102 feet. 
Vertical rise of pipe, 37 feet. Bends in pipe line, 205 degrees. . 

measuring hopper; two laborers controlled the sand and stone gates and one 
laborer operated the gate to the measuring hopper and also the air valves, and 
another laborer operated the water valve and assisted the mixer operator, 
making five men at the mixer. 

Note that a 600-ft. compressor was used and that the average time of 
waiting for the air pressure to come up was 17.2 seconds in time study No. 1, 
where the distance was 350 ft. In study No. 2 where the distance was only 
102 ft. there was no wait for air pressure. 

Lining Mount Royal Tunnel by Pneumatic Mixer. — The following data are 
taken from an article, by F. C. K. Stuart, published in Engineering News- 
Record, Jan. 24, 1918. 

In placing the lining of the Mount Royal tunnel several experimental 
pneumatic mixing plants were tried out before determining the best arrange- 
ment for carrying on the work. 

Table VI. — Operating Statistics of Third and Fourth Pneumatic Mixing 

Plants 

Third plant Fourth plant 

Mixer capacity J^-yd. or 2-bag-batch K-yd. or 2-bag-batch 

Minimum air pressure, lbs.<^ 70 70 

Total cu. yds. placed 18, 100 . 37,265 

Total time, mos , 6.7 8 

Best monthly output 4, 170» 5,811* 

Force employed: 

Mixer plant . 7 \ 16<* 

Forms 3-5 J 

Max. distance between mixer and 

forms, ft 1 , 200 

Average distance, ft : . 600 ^ 

Speed of discharge 1 , 200 ft. per min. 

Time required to move and set up, 

hrs 2.3 

« When air pressure got below 70 lb. plugs in line 'were frequent. 

^ March 1916, 4,170 cu. yds. were placed working two shifts and using five sets 
of forms. 

« October, 1916, 5,811 cu. yds. were placed working two shifts and using seven 
sets of forms. 

<^ The average force for one shift in the tunnel on concrete work was a foreman, 
a mixer operator, a hoist runner, thirteen laborers, three dinky runners, three 
brakemen, a pipe fitter and a handy man. The carpenters worked one shift. 



1400 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 




o 

h 
u 

w 

CO 



LARGE TUNNELS 



1401 




1402 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The best results in placing 64,040 cu. yd. of concrete were obtained by keep- 
ing the mixing plant close to the forms. This eliminated trouble with plug- 
ging the line and made it possible to operate with less compressed air. The 
plant finally developed (the fourth) was mounted on cars- which could move 
as the work progressed, and in which the mixer was charged by a skip loaded 
from a small bin, which in turn was filled by belt conveyors passing beneath 
bins, mounted on the train into which the tunnel cars were dumped. These 
cars were hauled up an incline to the top of the train, see Fig. 8. This plant 
placed more than 37,000 cu. yds. of concrete in 8 months, with 7 sets of forms, 
not only reduced the delays due to plugs, but effected such a saving in wear 
on the pipe that it was possible to finish the work without purchasing a large 
extra quantity. 

The pipe used was 8-in. mild steel that had been employed previously as an 
air line. This pipe had plain ends for Dresser joints, and these joints were- 
used. However, they were not considered to have enough strength to resist 
the pull of the concrete through the pipe, and were reinforced by fastening 
two angles to each end of each section of the pipe and connecting angles by a 
pair of ^-in. machine bolts. At the commencement of the work ordinary cast 
steel elbows were supplied by the agent of the firm which furnished the mixers. 
They proved very unreliable, one elbow standing up 1,000 yd. and another one 
for less than 100 yd. When a blowout occurred it was sometimes possible to put 
on a patch to last until the form was finished, but in a great many cases it was 
necessary to take down the elbow and replace it, wasting a good deal of time. 

The first improvement made was to get some split elbows, the idea being 
that as the backs alone wore out they could be replaced with little more than 
half the trouble required in removing the whole elbow. Four split elbows of 
manganese steel were ordered for trial, but it was found that under the same 
conditions the manganese steel only wore 50 per cent longer, while the cost was 
four times that of the old carbon steel elbows. The old elbows wore out only in 
one place, so that it was believed the most economical proposition would be to 
split a few carbon steel elbows with reliable backs, and use reliners consisting 
of blocks that could be replaced as soon as worn out, as shown in one of the 
photographs. With an elbow of this type and with proper inspection there 
should be no delays in concrete work of this character. Fifteen 45-deg. elbows 
of this type were ordered and reliners of various material, including cast iron, 
least steel, manganese steel and ferralun, were procured for trial. Pure rubber 
in the shape of old sections of motor truck tires was tried, but could not be 
held in place in the elbow. The most economical lining was found to be cast 
iron, though ferralun outlasted all the other materials. 

This elbow was a great improvement and was used for the rest of the job. 
It gave very satisfactory service, though after being relined several times the 
block reliners had a tendency to blow out owing to wear of the elbow itself 
alongside the liners. When the elbow reached this stage a forged reliner in 
one piece was put in to fill up all the worn spots. This type of elbow has 
since been patented and considerably improved. 

The pipe wear was considerable, but no figures are available as to the 
amount actually destroyed. Most of the wear occurred at the ends, and when 
a length was worn through the ends were cut off and the pipe used again until 
entirely worn out. The reinforced Dresser joints gave satisfactory service, 
but there were occasional blowouts due to bad plugs. Where the end of the 
horizontal pipe connected to the mixer elbow and to the elbow at the bottom 
of the vertical pipe, a flange was screwed on the pipe. 



LARGE TUNNELS 1403 

The compressor plants available had a capacity far above the rated require- 
ments for the mixers, but unfortunately there were so many drills and pumps 
run from the same air line that it was impossible to tell exactly the amount of 
air that the mixers used. The quantity was above 1,100-cu. ft. per minute, 
and the mixer would not operate without danger of plugging if the pressure 
dropped below 70 lb. 

Output of Special Car Plant with Pneumatic Mixer Outfit for Lining Rail- 
road Tunnel. — A car concrete plant having a number of novel features was 
used by the Carolina, Clinchfield & Ohio R. R. in lining the 7,804-ft. single 
track Sandy Ridge tunnel near Dante, Va. The arrangement was described 
by H. B. Kirkland, president Concrete Mixing & Placing Co., Chicago, in a 
paper presented before the Western Society of Engineers. The matter follow- 
ing taken from Mr. Kirkland's paper is given in Engineering and Contracting, 
May 5, 1918. 

The car is 40 ft. long, 10 ft. A)^i in. wide near the braces and 17 ft. 9 in. from 
top of rail to top of car. It has a central chamber open on the sides, 83^ ft. 
long, 9 ft. 8 in. wide and 10 ft. 3 in. high, in which on one side is located the 
pneumatic concrete mixer and on the other side the charging skip. Over this 
chamber is a water tank of 1,850 gal. capacity, which furnishes water for the 
concrete and is also connected with the cooling system for the gasoline engine. 
On one end of the car, facing the central chamber, is a stone bin of 30 cu. yd. 
capacity. Each bin has a chute 20 in. wide leading to the charging skip and 
each chute is controlled by an under-cut gate. Under the stone bin is a space 
occupied by a 96-cu. ft. receiver, standing vertically, and the storage of the 
cement in bags. 

Under the sand bin is the gasoline engine and its auxiliary equipment, com- 
pletely housed from water and dust. The charging skip in its lower position 
stands with its top rim about 1 ft. 3 in. above the floor and travels on inclined 
guide rails to its upper position over the mixer, being hoisted by a compressed 
air cylinder 9>i in. in diameter. The gate of the skip works automatically 
by means of a guide rail. The mixer is for a 2-bag batch (0.4 cu. yd.) and has 
an 8-in. outlet pipe at the bottom running horizontally and curving to the 
outside of the rear truck and thence vertically to near the top of the car, where 
it branches by means of a wye into two lines, one a 180° bend to the rear for 
"shooting" into foundations and sidewalks, and the other going to the roof 
for " shooting" into the arch. The wye is a special device with a sliding plate 
controlling the movement of material into either arm. The arrangement of 
the pipe, traveling with the car and being in position at all times for "shoot- 
ing" concrete, results in a material saving of time and expense. 

Along one side of the car, level with the main floors, is a folding platform 2 
ft. wide used by the men carrying cement and to gain access to the engine 
room. During the ordinary work of the car this platform remains down. The 
arrangement is compact and arranged with a view to save manual labor. 
One man controls the hoisting of the skip, the injection of water and the mix- 
ing and discharge of the batch. One man is placed at each chute and two 
men carry, open and empty the cement bags. 

The gasoline engine is of the 6-cylinder, 4-cycle tee-head type and is rated 
200 hp. at 350 r.p.m. It can be throttled to 125.r.p.m. The motor and its 
frame constitute one of the trucks of the car. The cylinders stand in a row 
at right angles to the track and the whole construction is compact but accessi- 
ble. The engine is started by admitting compressed air into three cylinders, 
then the explosion of the gasoUne takes place in the other cylinders and con- 



1404 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



tinues the motion. The transmission is by means of a Morse chain on the 
driven axle (one only being used) and the control is through a friction clutch 
of special design. 

The loading and storage trestle is so arranged that the concrete car goes 
under it and receives crusher-run stone, sand, bag cement and water by gravity. 
The sand and stone are drawn from overhead bins by means of under-cut 
gates. Cement is conveyed into the car by a chute. The trestle has a track 
over its deck upon which stone and sand in hopper cars are stored or unloaded 
into the bins below. There is a continuous row of 27 bins with an aggregate 
capacity of 324 cu. yd. and a total length of 162 ft., and 5 loaded cars can be 
stored over these bins to give an additional storage capacity of 200 cu. yd. 




nOOf? PLA/1 

Fig. 9. — Plan and elevation of mixer car. 



The compressor plant was exceptional for a temporary outfit. To save 
money on foundations and at the same time to increase the space, the floor 
level of the boilers and compressors was fixed 4>^ ft. above sub-grade, the 
concrete foundations and walls were built up to this height and the cellular 
space underneath was utilized for water tanks and ash pit. The building was 
built of 1-in. boards covered with tar paper. The arrangement chosen 
permitted coal to be dumped from cars on the trestle to a pile in front of the 
boilers. There were two boilers, both locomoflve type, one new one of 150 
hp., and one old one of 70 hp. The piping connections were such that either 
one could be cut in or out of service for cleaning or repairs. Tw^o compressora 



LARGE TUNNELS 



1405 



are installed, but an extra foundation for another unit was provided, for 
reasons which appear elsewhere. The compressors were alike and of the Ing- 
ersoU-Rand F. R. I. Rogler valve class, a high speed, single stage type with a 
steam cyhnder 12 in. by 12 in., an air cylinder 12 in. by 14 in., a piston dis- 
placement at 250 r.p.m. equal to 528 cu. ft., an actual output of about 375 
cu. ft. of free air per minute each. This worked under 125 lb. steam pressure 
and compressed air to 115 lb. They were cooled by water brought by gravity 
from the mouth of an old coal mine. From the compressors a 6-in. pipe leads 




CROSS 5ECTI0M THRU' 
TUNNa AtiO CAR. 

Fig. 10. — Cross-section through tunnel and car. 



to a 150-cu. ft. air receiver, from which a 4-in. pipe line led on a steady 0.5 
per cent down grade entirely through the tunnel. At the lower end was a pet 
cock to draw off any water. In order to provide for expansion and contrac- 
tion, the pipe line was laid alternately on the east and west sides of the track 
in lengths of about 1,000 ft., connected by curves of 2 ft. radius. The bottom 
of the pipe was at the level of the bottom of the ties and 1 ft. out from their 



1406 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

end. About every 100 ft. along radius tee was placed and about 20 mine 
cocks of 4-in. size were provided ; these could be shifted to the various tees as 
the progress of the work demanded. From the mine cock a 3-in. hose 60-ft. 
long connects with the 96 cu. ft. air receiver on the car which can thus be 
connected to the 4-in. pipe line from any position in the tunnel. 

Several runs of 180 cu. yd. per day and one run of 201 cu. yd. were made. 
The work consisted of putting in the foundation and the initial lift of bench 
wall 4 ft. 4 in. high, which involved moving the car more than was necessary 
when "shooting" into the arch form. 

Another feature of this plant is the short pipe through which the charge 
moved. The pipe is 41 ft. long to the chute on the front of the car and the 
mixture is good, using a ^^-yd. machine. The difficult problem on a car like 
this is to design the plant so as to charge the mixer fast enough to work to its 
capacity. The mixer can shoot a batch every 15 seconds if enough air is 
furnished and the charges can be placed in the machine fast enough. The 
time records on the work of this car are as follows: 

Aug. 17, 1915, 423 batches in 381 min., average 54.0 sec. per batch. 
Aug. 18, 1915, 323 batches in 302 min., average 56. 1 sec. per batch. 
Aug. 19, 1915, 448 batches in 340 min., average 45. 5 sec. per batch. 
Aug. 20, 1915, 325 batches in 250 .min., average 46. 1 sec. per batch. 
Aug. 21, 1915, 309 batches in 309 min., average 54. 3 sec. per batch. 

The variation is due to the condition of the material, whether wet or dry, 
which affects the rapidity with which it flows in the chutes and skip. It is 
believed that the operation can be speeded up to an average of about 35 to 40 
seconds per batch with dry material. One should observe that the door of 
the skip automatically opens as the skip reaches the position and closes as it is 
lowered away ; also that the door serves as a chute while open and that the side 
slopes are steep and unbroken, so that the skip clears quickly. The material 
when damp has a decided tendency to arch either vertically or horizontally, 
and frequently this arch must be broken by hand. The hoisting of the skip, 
the placing of the water and the discharge of the batch are all controlled by 
one operator. The inside of the car was lighted by carbide lights and the 
outside work by hand torches and carbide lights. 

Organization and Output in Lining Diana Tunnel of the L. &. N. R. R. 
with Pneumatic Mixer. — The following extract, of a paper by H. B. Kirkland 
presented before the "Western Society of Engineers, is taken from Engineering 
and Contracting, May 15, 1918. 

The tunnel is 1,520 ft. in length, 29 ft. wide and 25 ft. high. It is in lime- 
stone and shale formation and has a lining 2 ft. thick. The pneumatic mixer 
with storage bins and measuring hopper, etc., was first placed on the south 
end of the tunnel. One set of Blaw traveling forms was started at the south 
portal and the second set was started 400 ft. in the tunnel. These forms pro- 
gressed away from the mixer until the first form had reached the work started 
by the second form and the second form had reached approximately the center 
of the tunnel. Then the mixer was moved from the south end of the tunnel to 
the north end and the forms moved up so that the first form would start at 
the center of the tunnel and the second form half way between that point and 
the end of the tunnel. The forms then progressed toward the mixer until the 
tunnel was completed. 

The compressor plant consisted of two IngersoU-Rand steam-driven com- 



LARGE TUNNELS 1407 

pressors, which deUvea-ed about 960 ft. of free air per minute at the mixing 
plant. 

At the beginning of the work the engineers permitted the moving of the 
forms after 6 days, but after a time this period was reduced to 4 days. In all 
there were 41 form sections, each of approximately 35 ft. and containing 
about 250 cu. yd. in each section. The longest distance which concrete was 
transported was 925 ft. and the average distance was about 400 ft. The aver- 
age time required to concrete one 35-ft. section was approximately 24 hours, 
although some forms were filled in 15 hours. The men required to mix and 
place the concrete were as follows: 



3 men in the bins. 

1 man operating the gate levers. 

1 man to level off the measuring hopper containing the batch. 

1 man on cement. 

1 mixer operator. 

1 man on the conveyor pipe. 

1 man attending to the bulkheads. 

1 foreman and 4 men helping in the forms. 



A gang of 10 men was employed constructing footings and moving and 
setting the forms. 

Pneumatic Concreting Stockton Street Tunnel, San Francisco. — Engineer- 
ing Record, July 4, 1914, gives the following: 

The mixing plant is located in the open cut near the south portal of the tun- 
nel. Sand and stone are supplied by gravity from the material bins. The 
concrete placing machine is located about 8 ft. from the mixer, and each batch 
is dumped from the mixer into a steel trough leading to the opening in the top 
of the drum. The compressor plant, situated about midway between the two 
portals, has a capacity of 1,250 cu. ft. of free air per minute at a pressure of 
115 lbs., and is driven by a 200-hp. motor. 

A 4-in. pipe was first tried on the discharge line, and then a 6-in. pipe but 
both proved unsatisfactory. The present 8-in. pipe has proved entirely ample 
in size. 

Costs of transporting the concrete by the pneumatic method are made up 
chiefly as follows: 

1. Cost of compressor and plant (installation as well as operation), includ- 
ing power and air lines. 

2. Installation of pneumatic machine and discharge pipe, and wear and 
tear. The rapidly moving gravel and rock scour the pipe rapidly, especially 
at bends. The minimum bends on this job have 3-ft. radius, and some have 
been worn out in two days. A more durable metal, as manganese steel, is 
considered best for these sharper bends. 

3. Royalty on use of system. 

The material travels through the discharge pipe at an estimated velocity 
varying from 3 to 8 ft. per second. The impact of the discharging concrete 
mass against fresh concrete or against the steel reinforcement was found to 
erode the concrete rapidly and to displace the reinforcing steel. To remedy 
this trouble the pipe was raised so that the discharge end is about 1 ft. 
above the tunnel arch. The concrete then drops without damage into the 
forms at the crown and then runs downward on either side to fill up the arch 
ring. 



1408 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Opekating Force Required 

1 Man operating gate on chute from rock bin. 

1 Man operating gate on chute from sand bin. 

2 Cement men. 

1 Mixer operator. 

1 Man at pneumatic machine. 

2 Concrete tampers inside tunnel. 

1 Concrete foreman, who also watches the pipe line to guard 
against clogging. 

1 Man operating the air compressor. 

2 Laborers in the dumping platform above the material bins. 

The total concrete crew required is as shown above. Under the most 
favorable conditions, a batch of 16 cu. ft. can be mixed and placed in a minute. 
A rate of forty batches per hour or about 190 cu. yd. per 8-hr. day is a fair 
average when running steadily. 

Relining Brick Lined Tunnel with Steam Jetted Concrete. — The brick 
lining of the Chicago Great Western single track R. R. tunnel 2,600 ft. long 
at Winston, 111. was badly disintegrated by the action of water, coal gases and 
by freezing caused by the cold air forced into the tunnel by a Diesel engine 
driven ventilating fan. Harold P. Brown describes the situation, his recom- 
mendations and the work done in a paper, read at the Feb., 1916 meeting of the 
American Concrete Institute, and published in Engineering and Contracting, 
Feb. 23, 1916, from which the following is taken. 

About a year ago the writer was called upon to examine the tunnel and sug- 
gest a method of relining which would meet the very difficult and unusual 
conditions. It was evident that the foundation was in satisfactory shape and 
that the side walls were but little injured. The roof, however, was in danger- 
ous condition and required a lining which would take its proper share of the 
load. 

My report advised a slight lowering of the track level; the drilling of a large 
number of wfeep holes 3 in. in diameter; the washing out of the clay between 
the upper brick and the old timber lining and filling the space with grout under 
pressure, and the removal of the cracked bricks. These should at once be 
replaced by an adhering layer of steam-jetted concrete, sufficiently reinforced, 
if necessary, to take its share of the load and continued 2 in. below the old 
surface. 

In August, 1915, a work train was equipped for the job. The engine was 
provided with an extra air compressor, a steam pump and a dynamo for elec- 
tric lighting. A pressure reducing valve set at 90 lb. was connected from an 
extry heavy nipple on the dome and a 2-in. steam connection carried with 
Franklin ball and socket joints and suitable couplings to a flat car on which 
was placed the concrete atomizer. The same car carried the cement, sand and 
gravel. As it would be difficult to control by hand a nozzle for jetting the 
concrete on to the roof, I designed for this purpose a nozzle car and trowelling 
machine which would place the concrete, would indicate the depth applied 
and would trowel or finish the final layer. The second flat car in the train 
carried this machine which was mounted on a platform capable of vertical or 
lateral adjustment, so that it could be made to swing from center line of arch. 
The nozzle was secured to a shaft mounted on suitable journals and was moved 
from side to side by a reversible two-cylinder steam engine. The same shaft 
carried the distance indicator and the trowelling devices. The nozzle car 
was mounted on wheels running on channel irons and could be moved back 
and forth 10 ft. by means of a stationary windlass. Steam connections to the 
engine and to the nozzle were made by means of suspended lengths of wire 



LARGE TUNNELS 1409 

protected rubber hose. Beyond the second flat car was a box car provided 
with a railed platform on the roof. Here three men operated a water jet to 
clean the soot and dirt from the walls, and light pneumatic hammers for 
removing the defective brick. A signal whistle mounted on the engine which 
could be sounded from any part of the train was used to control the flow of air, 
water, steam and concrete. Two acetylene headlights as well as a number of 
incandescent lamps were used for general illumination. 

When the work was started on Sept. 4, I found that the pneumatic drills 
provided were not heavy enough to penetrate the brickwork for the necessary 
3-in. weep holes. Rather than delay until the proper drills could be obtained, 
I started operations at the eastern portal where water was pouring in streams 
through the roof. A mixture of 1 part cement, 3 parts of sand and 2 parts of 
pebbles were used with 10 per cent of water. These were mixed in the concrete 
atomizer at 90 lb. pressure, with the superheat obtained by dropping from 
engine working pressure through reducing valve. The concrete was carried 
through 2-in. hose and shot on to the brick by a steam jet. Although the 
pebbles at first dropped away, they nevertheless forced the mortar into all the 
interstices of the brickwork and checked the flow of water. But very little 
material bounded off and this was collected and used. 

Before shooting a load, steam was jetted through the nozzle to complete 
the cleaning of the brickwork and heat it to the temperature of the concrete. 
In some places a layer of concrete 7 in. thick was jetted on to the roof and it 
set up so quickly that the work train could be immediately followed by an east 
bound freight without trouble from the engine exhaust. 

In the final layer lime hydrate was added and the pebbles were omitted. 
The proportions were 1 part of hydrate to 10 parts of cement and 30 parts of 
sand. This gave a smooth flowing mixture and delayed the setting so that 
when the steam jet from the nozzle car was passed over the surface a second 
time without concrete, a smooth finish was obtained and trowelling was 
unnecessary. 

The work was in charge of my superintendent while the men composing the 
crew were employes of the railway. Three men cleaned the roof, one man 
operated the nozzle car, one worked the windlass, one ran the atomizer and 
two men measured and loaded the materials. The improved machine is 
arranged so that but one man is needed to work the nozzle car and the wind- 
lass. It required about 5 minutes for the gang to clean 10 ft. of roof, load the 
atomizer, steam the roof and treat and apply the load. As it was important 
not to interfere with train service upon a double track road through a single 
track tunnel, only about 6 working hours per day were available in the tunnel. 
An average of 262 ft. of lining 12 ft. wide and 3 to 4 in. thick was applied in 
6 hours, using 35 bags of cement. The concrete was f pund to be so strong that 
no reinforcement was needed, nor was it necessary to fill with grout the space 
above the arch. The work was finished in 41 days, and C. G. Delo, Chief 
Engineer, pronounced it entirely satisfactory. 

Cost Data on Lining Two Tunnels, One with Brick and One with Concrete 
and Brick. — In Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 14, 1914, George Harper 
publishes the accompanying data which give the cost of lining two tunnels,, 
exclusive of the portals. The figures for the West Virginia tunnel are for 
brick arching and packing alone. On the Pennsylvania tunnel the entire 
lining from footings up is concrete exclusive of one course of fire brick lining 
in arch area affected by gas and smoke. This single course lining was tied 
into the cpserete with headers every fourth course. 



1410 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The West Virginia work was put up by thoroughly experienced tunnel 
contractors, whose system, organization and general methods were of the 
best and had been evolved from the result of years of experience. The work 
on the tunnel in Pennsylvania was done by another firm with not so much 
experience in this line of work, and whose methods were somewhat more 
expensive, cumbersome and inexperienced. The costs are from private notes 
and from close contact with both of these undertakings. The brick lining 
cost in the tunnel in West Virginia is $26.15 per lin. ft., for the arching and 
packing, and with the concrete walls and footings added it will approximate in 
all about $40.15 per lin. ft. 

West Virginia Tunnel. — The length of this tunnel is 4,211 ft. The tunnel 
width is 31 ft. The radius of the arch is 15 ft. 6 ins. The arch consists of 
five rings of brick laid up in five courses with 1 to 3 mortar. An individual 
brick measured 3 X 4 X 9 ins. The bricklayers worked 167 shifts. Only 
one shift was worked by others than bricklayers. The time lost due to mov- 
ing, delays, etc., amounted to 28 shifts. The number of shifts as calendar 
days amounted to 196. The average length of tunnel lined per shift for the 
168 shifts of actual working time was 25 ft. The tunnel lining was carried on 
simultaneously at different points along the length of the tunnel and for this 
reason four closures were made. For each lin. ft. of arch 1,227 bricks were 
required, making in all 5,166,897 bricks in the arch. In each spandrel wall, 
spacing 5 ft. 4 ins., there were 1,564 bricks; 156,400 bricks in all were used for 
the spandrel walls. For extra work including portals, bad ground, etc., 
31,825 bricks were used. The number of culls, bats, etc., amounting to ^ 
of 1 per cent, were 40,878, making the total number of bricks used for the 
lining 5,396,000. The packing averaged 2 cu. yds. and 4 cu. ft. to each lineal 
foot of tunnel. The cost data on the West Virginia work are given in Tables 
VII to X, inclusive. The cost data on the Pennsylvania tunnel are given in 
Tables XI to XIV, inclusive. The former work was done in 1911 and 1912, 
while the latter was done in 1912, from July to December. 



Table VII. — Cost of Brick Arch Tunnel Lining (4,211 Lin. Ft.) in West 
Virginia Tunnel 

Total 

shifts 

Bricklaying 7, 392 

Moving centers 672 

Lagging 504 

Packing 2 , 520 

Key... !. 840 

Material, delivery from west portal 1 , 176 

Air service and pipe line 168 

Center erection and dismantling 168 

Mixer, erection, etc 168 

Tracks and switches 168 

Lighting, oil, etc 168 

Timekeeper, office and plant 168 

Brick (5,396,000) 168 

Cement (6,600 bbls.) 168 

Sand (3,500 cu. yds.) 168 

Packing stone (9,050 cu. yds.) 168 

Extra brick (portal and bad ground) , , , , 

Total cost $110,476 $26.21 



Total 


Cost per 


cost 


lin. ft. 


$ 20,580 


$ 4.84 


1,806 


0.43 


1,176 


0.26 


4,410 


1.05 


1,075 


0.26 


3,570 


0.85 


6,093 


1.45 


3,000 


0.71 


600 


0.14 


590 


0.12 


1,600 


0.38 


2,430 


0.55 


44,517 


10.57 


9,240 


2.20 


2,800 


0.66 


6,787 


1.61 


292 


0.07 



LARGE TUNNELS 1411 

Table VIII. — Cost for 4,211 Ft. of Brick Arching in West Virginia Tunnel 
(168 shifts were worked advancing 25 ft. per shift) 

Labor cost per 

Rate lin. ft. 

1 General foreman $6. 00 $0. 25 

1 Foreman bricklayer 9. 00 0. 36 

4 Bricklayers 8. 00 1 . 29 

1 Labor foreman 4.00 0. 16 

5 Mortar tenders 2. 25 0. 45 

1 Mortar mixer 2. 25 0. 09 

3 Mortar laborers 2. 00 0. 24 

1 Mortar box 2. 00 0. 08 

3 Mortar laborers 2. 00 0. 27 

1 Mortar mule and driver 3. 50 0. 14 

1 Mortar bolster and runner 2. 00 0. 08 

20 Brick laborers 1. 75 1. 37 

1 Water boy 1.75 0.07 

1 Light and lamp tenders 1 . 75 0. 07 

44 men $4.84 

Total 

Moving centers: 

1 Foreman carpenter $4. 00 $0. 16 

3 Laborers 2. 25 0.27 

Total $0. 43 

Lagging: 

1 Carpenter $3.00 $0.11 

2 Laborers 2. 00 0. 15 

Total $0.26 

Packing: 

15 Laborers $1. 75 $1. 05 

Key: 

1 Bricklayer $4. 00 $0. 16 

4 Laborers .60 0. 10 

Total... $0.26 

Table IX. — Miscellaneous Cost Data on West Virginia Tunnel 

Cost per lin. 

Material, delivery from W. portal to work Rate ft. 

2 Dinkeys $ 5. 00 $0. 40 

2 Dinkey engineers 2. 75 0. 22 

2 Dinkey brakemen 2. 00 0.16 

1 Dinkey watchmen 1 . 75 0. 7 

$0.85 
Air service: 

Hoisting, mixing, etc 36. 32 $1. 45 

Center erection and dismantling 1 , 000. 00 0.71 

Mixer erection and moving 200. 00 0. 14 

Tracks and switches: 

Propn. charges 500. 00 0.12 

Lighting and oils: 

9 , 000 gals, gasoline at 17 cts .17 0. 36 

200 gals, kerosene .15 0.01 

400 gals, blackoil (centers) .10 0. 01 

Interest on plant, etc. : 

Arbitrary 750.00 0.18 

Propn. timekeeper and office 10.00 0.38 

Table X. — Cost of Material for Arch and Packing of West Virginia 
Tunnel, F. O. B. Portal 

Cost per 

Rate lin. ft. 

Brick (5,396,000 M.) $8. 25 $10. 57 

Cemen.t (6,600 bbls.) 1. 40 2. 20 

Sand (3,500 cu. yds.) 80 0. 66 

Packing stone (9,050 cu. yds.) 75 1.61 

$26.14 



1412 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 






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LARGE TUNNELS 



1413 



Table XII. — Cost of Pennsylvania Tunnel Lining, Concrete Walls and 
Arching, for Engines, Cars and Labor Only 

(4,000 lin. ft.) 



Walls, bricklaying and arching 



Arching — bricklayers 

Foremen 

Labor. 

Carpenters. 

Walls — foreman, ppn 

Labor 

Bulkhead carpenter .... 
Forms — foreman, ppn .... 

Labor, ppn 

Walls and arching: 

Hoister runner 

Dinkey engines 

Dinkey engineers 

Dinkey brakemen 

Cement and brick cars . 



s = 








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1 


1 

o 


1 


39 


$1.00 


$0.98 


1 


39 


.40 


0.39 


10 


390 


.20 


1.95 


1 


39 


.35 


0.34 


K 


39 


.40 


0.20 


6 


234 


.20 


1.17 


1 


39 


.35 


0.34 


H 


39 


.40 


0.20 


2 


78 


.25 


0.49 


1 


39 


.25 


0.24 


3 


117 


.50 


1.46 


3 


117 


.27>^ 


0.80 




117 


.20 


0.58 




351 


.04 


0.35 



$9.49 



Table XIII. — Cost of Pennsylvania Tunnel Lining for Material, Plant, 
Lighting and Overhead Charges 

(4,000 lin. ft.) 

Cost per Cost per 

Estimated costs cu. yd. lin. ft. 

Cement, sand, gravel and stone $2. 9258 $20. 48 

Brick, 900 M 0. 3750 2. 63 

Blaw forms 0. 3214 2. 25 

Blaw forms, erection and dismantling (4) 0. 2760 1. 93 

Plant E. portal, boilers, machy., storage bins W. H., etc., 

erection and dismantling 0. 5357 3. 75 

Electric and gasoline lighting 0. 1690 1. 18 

Superintendence, 5>^ months 0. 0535 0. 38 

Office, etc., 5K months 0. 1236 0. 87 

Air anfi pipe lines, $50 .per day for 173 days 0. 3089 2. 16 

Tracks, switches, etc 0. 0535 0. 37 

Interest and incidentals (estimated) . . 0. 0893 0. 62 

Stock, cement, etc., mixer and labor 0. 8384 5. 87 

Walls and arching, labor and machinery 1. 3551 9. 49 

8,000 lin. ft. footings 0. 3173 2. 22 

Total cost $7. 7420 $54. 20 



1414 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table XIV. — Cost of Pennsylvania Tunnel Lining, Stock Pipe Lines, 
Cement, Wabehouse and Mixer, Labor Only 



Warehouse, material and 

mixing stock, pipe 

line, etc. 

Industrial crane engr., ppn 


(4,000 lin. ft.) 

BZ 

►; c o 
1 


III 

13 
13 
13 
26 
39 

468 
39 

117 
78 

117 
39 
39 
39 


1 

a> 

1 

$0.35 
0.25 
0.25 
0.50 
0.40 
0.20 
0.25 
0.20 
0.20 
0.20 
0.25 
0.25 
0.25 


i 
1 

o 

$0. 11 


Industrial crane fireman, ppn. . . 
Industrial crane watchman, ppn 
General foreman 


1 

1 

1 


0.08 
0.08 
0.32 


Foreman 


1 


39 


Laborers 


12 


2 34 


Incline runner . . : 


. . . 1 


0.24 


Mixer bin laborers 


3 


58 


Cement W. St. laborers 

Mixer laborers 


2 

. . . 3 


0.39 
59 


Mixer engineer 

Mixer fireman 


1 

. . . . 1 


0.24 
0.24 


Pump fireman 


1 


24 









$5. 84 

Comparative Cost of Excavating and Lining Tunnel With and Without 
Compressed Air. — The Detroit River Tunnel built for the Michigan Central 



Type " 

2''Plnnking^ 

aler-proofing/^ 

Class "C"^ ■ 




° Twisted Rods ' (I'^iTwisted Rods *-.i'-3y,^ 
IvJ Cti-s. 12"Ctrs. 

SEC. AT STA. 1 58+ 53 See Note "D'» SEC. AT ST A. 1 58 +20 
Fig. 11. — Typical section of westerly approach tunnel, Detroit River. 

R. R. is a twin tube structure comprising a subaqueous section 2,668 ft. long, 
a westerly approach tunnel 3,669 ft. long, including 1,510.5 ft. of open cut 
approach, and an easterly approach tunnel 6,449.2 ft. long, including 2,900 ft. 
of open cut. 

Fig. 1 1 gives, at a glance, the general type of construction. 

According to W. S. Kinnear, (Proc. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol., XXXVII) Engi- 
neering and Contracting, Sept. 27, 1911, the rate of progress of excavation at 
Windsor, with the shields and in the drifts, under favorable conditions, was 
about the same as at Detroit, being approximately 10 ft. per day of 24 hours 
with the shields and 12 ft. per day in the drifts. The maximum distance 
covered by one of the shields in a single day was 19 ft. 10 ins. 



LARGE TUNNEIS 1415 

The cost of excavating in drifts without compressed air averaged about 
$2.40 per cu. yd. under favorable conditions; with compressed air, the cost 
was about $3.50 per cu. yd., except for the work near old Shaft No. 1, where 
the cost ran as high as $16 per cu. yd. With the shields the fair average cost 
was $4.90 per cu. yd. These costs include timbering, compressed air, and 
incidentals. The cost of the compressor plant for supplying air to two side- 
shield headings and two center-wall headings was a trifle more than $80 per 
day. 

Concrete. — In the easterly approach tunnel the concrete was placed in the 
same manner as for the westerly approach, except that all concrete was de- 
livered in dump-cars in the tunnel. Arches were filled by shoveling the con- 
crete into the form from the end, as the form for a 12-ft. section was set up 
complete before concreting was started. Concrete for the center wall, back 
of the center shield, was delivered in cars up to a level just below the water- 
proofing course, and above that through chute holes put down from the sur- 
face at intervals of about 30 ft. All concrete for the portion of the center 
wall built under compressed air was delivered in the drifts in cars, as pre- 
viously stated. The average cost of the 1:2:4 concrete was about $8.25 per 
cu. yd. in the side-shield headings, and a little more than $6 per cu. yd. in the 
center wall, where it was deposited through chutes; in the drifts, under 
fompressed air, the cost was about $10.70 per cu. yd. 

Cost of Concrete and Brick Linings of the Land Sections of the Hudson 
River Tunnels of the Pennsylvania Railroad. — The following matter, pub- 
lished in Engineering and Contracting. May 4. 1910, is extracted from a paper 
by B. H. M. Hewett and W. L. Brown, Proceedings A. S. C. E., Vol. XXXVI. 

The land tunnels of the North River Tunnels of the Pennsylvania R. R. at 
New York city consist of 1,207 lin. ft. of double tunnel, 977 ft. on the New 
York side and 230 ft. on the New Jersey side. 

The general design of the cross-section consists of a semi-circular arch, 
vertical side-walls and a flat invert, as shown in diagram by Fig. 1. The tun- 
nel is adapted for two lines of track, each being contained in its compartment 
or tunnel. The span of the arch is wider than is absolutely necessary to take 
the rolling stock, and the extra space is utilized by the provision of a sidewalk 
or "bench" forming by its upper surface a gangway, out of the way of traffic, 
for persons walking in the tunnels, while embedded in its masss are a number 
of vitrified earthenware ducts, for high and low- tension electric cables. The 
provision of this bench enables its vertical wall to be brought much nearer to 
the side of the rolling stock than is usually possible, thus minimizing the effects 
of a derailment or other accident. Refuge niches for trackmen, and ladders 
to the top of the bench, are provided at frequent intervals. In cases where a 
narrow street limits the width of the structure, as on the New York side, the 
two tunnels are separated by a medial wall of masonry, thus involving excava- 
tion over the entire width of both tunnels, and in such case the tunnels are 
spoken of as " Twin Tunnels; " where the exigencies of width are not so severe, 
the twQ tunnels are entirely distinct, and are separated by a wall of rock. This 
type is found on the Weehawken side. The arches are of brick, the remainder 
of the tunnel lining being of concrete. 

The general sequence of building the masonry lining is shown in Fig. 12. 
The operations were as follows: 

1. Laying concrete for the whole height of the sand-walls, and for the 
floor and foundations for walls and benches up to the level of the base of the 
conduits. 



1416 



HANDBOOK. OF CONSTRUCTION COST 




,^^^^^r^/^M^$f~^'J0f^^ 




1ST STAGE. FLOOR AND SAND WALLS 




CondJt^ 2D STAGE. WATER -PROOFING 





3D STAGE. CONDUIT CONCRETE 




V^4rk-@iF -^>r^ and Tel. 
Conduit 





. Standard ^ct^on 6Tri STAGE- HAUNCH^WALLS ^sZn^^t 





7TH STAGE. ARCHES AND ARCH PACKING 




SINGLE BENCH 



6TH STAGE. ARCH KEYS 

DOUBLE BENCH 




^^^^^m;-^ 



ONE OF TWIN TUNNELS 

WEEHAWKEN TYPE 



MANHATTAN TYPES 

FiQ. 12. — Sections showing sequence of operations in placing concrete tunnel 

lining. 




LARGE TUNNELS 1417 

2. Water-proofing the side-walls, and, where there was a middle trench 
containing subgrade conduits, laying and water-proofing these conduits. 

3. Building concrete wall for conduits to be laid against, and where there 
was a middle trench, filling up with concrete between the conduits. 

4 Laying conduits. 

5. Laying concrete for benches and middle-wall. 

6. Building haunches from top of bench to springing of brick arch. 

7. Building brick arch and part of concrete back-filling, 

8. Finishing back-filling. 

The whole work will be generally described under the headings of Concrete, 
Brickwork, Water-proofing and Electric Conduits. 

Concrete. — The number of types and the obstructions caused by the heavy 
posting of the timbering made it inadvisable to use built-up traveling forms at 
the Manhattan side, though they were used in the Weehawken Rock Tunnels. 

The specifications required a facing mixture of mortar to be deposited 
against the forms simultaneously with the placing of the concrete. This 
facing mixture was dry, about 2 ins. thick, and was kept separate from the 
concrete during the placing by a steel diaphragm. The diaphragm was 
removed when the concrete reached the top of each successive layer, and the 
facing mixture and concrete were then tamped down together. This method 
was at first followed and gave good results, which was indeed a foregone con- 
clusion, as the Weehawken shaft had been built in this way. However, it was 
found that as good results, in the way of smooth finish, were to be obtained 
without the facing mixture by spading the concrete back from the forms, so 
that the stone was forced back and the finer portion of the mixture came 
against the forms; this method was followed for the rest of the work. All 
corners were rounded off on a 1-in. radius by moldings tacked to the forms. 
The forms were used about four times, and were carefully scraped, planed, 
filled at open joints and oiled with soap grease each time they were set up. 
When too rough for face work they were used for sand-wall and other rough 
work. 

The mixing was done by a No. 4 Ransome mixer, driven by 30-hp. electric 
motors. The mixer at Manhattan was set on an elevated platform at the 
north end of the intercepting arch; that at Weehawken was placed at the 
entrance to the tunnels. The sand and stone were stored in bins above the 
mixers, and were led to the hoppers of the mixers through chutes. The hoppers 
were divided into two sections, which gave the correct quantities of sand and 
stone, respectively, for one batch. The water was measured in a small tank 
alongside. A "four-bag" batch was the amount mixed at one time, that is, 
it consisted of 4 bags of cement, 8^ cu. ft. of sand, and 173^^ cu. ft. of broken 
stone, and was called a 1 : 2]4 ' 5 mixture. It measured when mixed about ^ 
cu. yd. 

The cement was furnished to the contractor by the railroad company, which 
undertook all the purchasing from the manufacturer, as well as the sampling, 
testing and storing until the contractor needed it. The railroad company 
charged the contractor $2 a barrel for this material. 

The sand was required by the specifications to be coarse, sharp, andsilicious, 
and to contain not more than 0.5 per cent of mica, loam, dirt or clay. All 
sand was carefully tested before being used. The stone was to be a sound trap 
or limestone, passing a l>^-in. mesh and being retained on 2^^-in. mesh. 
The contractor was allowed to use a coarser stone than this, namely, one that 
had passed a 2-in. and was retained on a IK-in. mesh. 



1418 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The concrete was to be machine-mixed, except in cases of local necessity. 
The quantity of water used in the mixture was to be such that the concrete 
would quake on being deposited, but the engineer was to use his discretion on 
this point . Concrete was to be deposited in such a manner that the aggregates 
would not separate. It was to be laid in layers, not exceeding 9 ins. in thick- 
ness and thoroughly rammed. When placing was suspended a joint was to be 
formed in a manner satisfactory to the engineer. Before depositing fresh 
concrete, the entire surface on which it was to be laid was to be cleaned, 
washed and brushed, and slushed over with neat cement grout. Concrete 
which had begun to set was not to be used, and retempering was not to be 
allowed The forms were to be substantial and hold their shape until the 
concrete had set. The face forms were to be of matched and dressed plank- 
ing, finished to true line and surfaces ; adequate measures were to be taken to 
prevent concrete from adhering to the forms. Warped or distorted forms were 
to be replaced. Plastering the face was not allowed. Rock surfaces were to 
be thoroughly washed and cleaned before the concrete was deposited. These 
specifications were followed quite closely. 

A typical working gang, as divided among the various operations, is shown 
below: 

Per month 
Superintendence: 

H superintendent at $250 

3'^ assistant engineer at 150 

1 assistant superintendent at 150 

Surface transport: Per day 

1 foreman at $2. 50 

1 engineer at . 3. 00 

1 signalman at . . 2. 00 

16 laborers at 1 . 75 

3 teams at 7. 50 

Laying: 

1 foreman at $4. 00 

8 laborers at 2. 00 

Forms : 

1 foreman at $4 . 50 

4 carpenters at 3.25 

5 helpers at 2. 25 

Tunnel transport: 

34 foreman at $3. 25 

>^ engineer at 3 . 00 

34 signalman at 2, 00 

4 laborers at 1 . 75 

Mixers : 

34 foreman at $3. 25 

2 laborers at 1 . 75 

The superintendent and assistant engineer looked after the brickwork and 
other work as well as the concrete. The surface transport gang handled all 
the materials on the surface, including the fetching of the cement from the 
cement warehouses. 

The tunnel transport gang handled all materials in the tunnel, but, when the 
haul became too long, the gang was reinforced with laborers from the laying 
gang. Of the laying gang, two generally did the spading, two the spreading 
and tamping, and the remaining force dumped the concrete. The general 
cost of this part of the work is shown in Table XV. 

The figures in Table XV include the various items built into the concrete and 
some that are certificate extras in connection with the concrete, such as drains, 
ironwork and iron materials, rods and bars, expanded metal, doors, frames and 
fittings, etc. 




LARGE TUNNELS 



1419 



Water-Proofing. — -According to the specifications, the water-proofing was 
to consist of seven layers of pitch and six layers of felt on the side-walls and a 
i^-in. layer of mastic, composed of coal-tar and Portland cement, to be plas- 
tered over the outside of the arches. 

By the time the work was in hand, some distrust had arisen as to the eflfi- 
ciency of this mastic coating, and a great deal of study was devoted to the 
problem of how to apply a felt and pitch water-proofing to the arches. The 
difficulty was that there was no room between the rock and the arch or between 
the timber and the arch (as the case might be) in which to work. Several 
ingenious schemes of putting the felt on in layers, or in small pieces like shin- 
gles, were proposed and discussed, and a full-sized model of the tunnel arch 
was even built on which to try experiments', but it was finally decided to over- 
come the difficulty by leaving out the arch water-proofing altogether and 
simply building in pipes for grouting through under pressure, in case it was 
found that the arch was wet. 

As to the arch built through the length excavated by cut-and-cover on the 
New York side, it was resolved to water-proof that with felt and pitch exactly 
as the side-walls were done, the spandrel filling between the arches being 
raised in a slight ridge along the concrete line between tunnels in order to 
throw the water over to the sides. The portions of arch not water-proofed 
were rather wet, and grouting with a 1 :1 mixture was done, but only with the 
effect of stopping large local leaks and distributing a general dampness over 
the whole surface of the arch. 

Table XV. — Cost of Concrete in Land Tunnels, in Dollars Per Cubic 

Yard 

Manhattan Weehawken Total yardage 

Cubic yards placed 14 , TOe^^ 3 , 723 18 , 429>^ 

Labor: 

Surface transport $ 0. 31 $ 1. 43 $ 0. 54 

Superintendence and general 

labor at point of work 0. 31 1. 31 0. 51 

Mixing 0. 52 0. 56 0. 53 

Laying 1.38 1.45 1.39 

Tunnel transport 1.30 1.47 1.34 

Cleaning 0.21 0.17 

Forms, erecting and removal ... . 1.58 1.51 1.56 

Total labor $ 5.61 $ 7. 73 $ 6. 04 

Material: 

Cement $ 2.30 $ 2.22 $ 2.28 

Sand 0.34 0.40 0.36 

Stone 0.91 0.61 0.85 

Lumber for forms 0. 47 0. 45 0. 47 

Sundry tunnel supplies 0. 16 0. 17 0. 16 

Total materials $ 4. 18 $ 3. 85 $ 4. 12 

Plant running $ 0. 44 $ 0. 44 $ 0. 44 

Surface labor, repairs and main- 
tenance 0.25 1.24 0.44 

Field office administration 0. 50 1. 72 0. 75 

Total field charges $ 10.98 $ 14.98 $ 11.79 

Plant depreciation $ 0. 62 $ 1. 57 $ 0. 81 

Chief office administration 0. 24 0.31 0. 25 

Total average cost per cubic 

yard $ 11.84 $ 16.86 $ 12.85 

Cost of miscellaneous items in concrete: 

Amount, in dollars $6,184.83 $1,756.79 $7,941.62 

Unit cost 0.42 0.47 0.43 



1420 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The 24-ft. 6-in. tunnel adjoining the Terminal Station-West was water- 
proofed by a surface-rendering method which, up to the present time, has been 
satisfactory. Generally speaking, the arches of the land tunnels, though not 
dripping with water, are the dampest parts of the whole structure from Tenth 
Ave. to Weehawken, and it would seem as if some form of water-proofing over 
these arches would have been a distinct advantage. 

There was no difficulty in applying the water-proofing on the side-walls, 
after a little experience had been gained as to the best methods. The speci- 
fications required the sand-wall to be covered with alternate layers of coal- 
tar pitch and felt, seven layers of the former and six layers of the latter, the 
felt to be of Hydrex brand or other equally satisfactory to the engineer. The 
pitch was to be straight-run, coal-tar pitch which would soften at 60°F., and 
melt at 100°F., being a grade in which distillate oils, distilled from it, should 
have a specified gravity of 1.105. The pitch was to be mopped on the surface 
to a uniform thickness of 1-16 in., and a covering of felt, previously mopped 
with pitch, was to be applied immediately. The sheets were to lap not less 
than 4 ins. on cross-joints and 12 ins. on longitudinal joints, and had to adhere 
firmly to the pitch-covered surface. This layer was then to be mopped, and 
another layer placed, and so on until all the layers were in place. This water- 
proofing was to extend from the bottom of the cable conduits to the spring- 
ing of the brick arch. Where sub-track conduits were used, these were to be 
surrounded with their own water-proofing. The work was carried out as 
specified; the sand-walls were not rendered, but were built smooth enough 
to apply the water-proofing directly to them. They were dried with gasoline 
torches before the application of the pitch, and in very wet sections grooves 
were cut to lead the water away. 

The first attempts were with' the felt laid in horizontal strips. This ended 
very disastrously, as the pitch could not sustain the weight of the felt, and the 
whole arrangement slipped down the wall. The felt was then laid vertically, 
being tacked to a piece of horizontal scantling at the top of the sand-wall and 
also held by a row of planks braced against it at about half its height. A layer 
of porous brick was laid as a drain along the base of the water-proofing, cov- 
ered by a single layer of felt to prevent it from becoming choked with concrete. 

The water-proofing of the sub-track conduits was troublesome, as the num- 
erous layers and the necessity for preserving the proper laps in both directions 
between adjacent layers made the whole thing a kind of Chinese puzzle. Vari- 
ous modifications to suit local conditions, were made from time to time. 
Conduits outside the general outline of the tunnel are difficult to excavate, to 
lay, and to water-proof, and should be avoided wherever possible. 

Table XVI. — Cost of Water-proofing, in Dollars Per Square Foot 

Manhattan Weehawken Total 

Square feet covered 47 ,042 13 , 964 60, 736 

Labbr $0. 07 $0. 07 $0.07 

Material 0. 12 0. 09 0.11 

Total field charges $0. 19 $0.16 $0.18 

Chief office and plant depreciation 0. 01 0. 03 0. 02 

Total average cost $0. 20 $0. 19 $0. 20 

The usual force in water-proofing consisted of a foreman, at $3.50 per day, 
and nine laborers at $1.75 per day. These men not only laid the water-proof- 
ing, but transported the materials, heated the pitch, and cut up the rolls of 



LARGE TUNNELS 1421 

felt. In general, two men transported material, one tended the heater, and 
the other six worked in pairs, two preparing the surface of the concrete sand- 
wall, two laying pitch, and two laying felt. 

The cost of the water-proofing operation was about as shown in Table XVI. 

Brickwork in Arches. — Owing to the heavy timbering, the brickwork at 
Manhattan was interfered with to a considerable extent, and the gang was 
always kept at work at two or more places. The work was carried up to a 
point where it was necessary to back-fill, or prop or cut away encroaching 
timbers, and then the men were moved to another place while this was being 
done. 

The centers were set up in sets of seven, spaced 4 ft. apart. Two 14-ft. 
lengths of 3 by 4-in. yellow pine lagging were used with each set of ribs, with 
24 X 8-in. block lagging in the crown. 

All centers were set 34 in. high, to allow for settlement, except in the 24-ft. 
6-in. span, in which they were set H in. high. This proved ample, the average 
settlement of the ribs being 0.01 ft. and of the masonry 0.003 ft. In the 
24-ft. 6-in. span the ribs were strengthened with 6 X 6-in. blocking and 12 X 
12-in. posts to subgrade. Great trouble was here encountered with encroach- 
ing timbering, due to the settlement of the wide flat span. Grout pipes were 
built in, as previously mentioned. 

Each mason laid an average of 0.535 cu. yd. of brickwork per hour, or 4.28 
cu. yds. per day. The number of bricks laid per mason per hour was 218, or 
1,744 per day. 

The bricks were of the best quality of vitrified paving brick, and were 
obtained from the Jamestown Brick Co., of Jamestown, N. Y. The average 
size was 8>i X 3 15-16 X 2 7-16 ins.; the average number per cubic yard of 
masonry was 408, the arches being from 19 ft. to 24 ft. 6 ins. in span and from 
22 to 27 ins. thick. The joints were 3-16 in. at the face and averaged 9-16 in. 
through the arch. 

The proportions for mortar were 1 of cement and 2)4 of sand. One cubic 
yard of masonry was composed of 73.5 per cent brick and 26.5 per cent mortar. 
The volume of the ingredients in a four-bag batch was 12.12 cu. ft. and the 
resulting mixture was 9.54 cu. ft. The number of barrels of cement was 
0.915 per cu. yd. of masonry, and about 17.7 per cent of the mortar made 
was wasted. The average force employed was: 

Per day 
Laying: 

1 foreman at $8. 00 

4 layers at 6. 00 

8 tenders at 2. 00 

2 mixers at 2. 00 

Forms: 

1 foreman at $4. 50 

4 carpenters at 3. 50 

5 helpers at 2. 25 

Transport: 

34 hoist engineer at $3. 00 

3'i signalman at 2. 00 

4 laborers at 2. 00 

For materials, the following prices prevailed: Cement, $2.00 per bbl.; 
Sand, $0.90 to $1.00 per cu. yd.; Brick $16 per thousand, delivered at yard; 
Centers, $26 each; Lagging, $45 per 1,000 ft. B. M. The cost of the brickwork 
l3 given in Table III. 



1422 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table XVII. — Cost op Brickwork 

Manhattan Weehawken Total 

Cubic yards placed 4, 137 790 4,927 

Labor: 

Surface transport $ 0. 35 $ 1. 19 $ 0. 48 

Superintendent and general labor at 

point of work 0.17 0.04 0.16 

Laying and mixing 2. 58 3. 20 2. 60 

Forms: erection and removal 2.62 0.32 2.25 

Tunnel transport 1. 19 1. 12 1. 18 

Total labor $6.91 $ 5. 87 $ 6. 75 

Material: 

Brick $ 6. 56 $ 6. 56 $ 6. 56 

Cement 1.76 1.75 1.76 

Sand 0.20 0.28 0.22 

Forms 0.92 0.98 0.93 

Overhead conductor pockets 0.15 0.09 0.11 

Total material $ 9. 59 $ 9. 66 $ 9. 60 

Plant running $ 0. 55 $ 0. 30 $ 0. 51 

Surface labor, repairs and main- 
tenance 0.36 1.30 0.51 

Field office administration 0. 55 0. 88 0. 60 

Total field charges $17. 96 $18. 01 $17. 97 

Chief office administration $ 0. 60 - $ 0. 66 $ 0. 61 

Plant depreciation 0. 35 0. 64 0. 39 

Total average cost per cubic yard . $18.91 $19.31 $18.97 

In Table XVIII the cost of grout is expressed in terms of barrels of cement 
used, because that was in the schedule of prices attached to the contract as 
the unit of payment for grout. 

Table XVIII. — Cost of Grout Over Arches in Land Tunnels, in Dollars 
Per Barrel op Cement Used 
Manhattan 
(Gy- East 

only) Weehawken Total 

Barrels used 3 , 0003^^ 2613^ 3 , 262 

Labor $0. 55 $0. 46 $0. 53 

Material 2. 30 2. 25 2. 28 

Field office administration 0. 08 0. 06 0. 08 

Plant and supphes 0. 10 0. 07 0. 09 

Total field charges $3. 03 $2. 84 $2. 98 

Chief office and plant depreciation. 0. 21 0. 22 0. 22 

Total average cost $3. 24 $3. 06 $3. 20 

Vitrified Earthenware Conduits for Electric Cables. — The general drawings 
will show how the ducts were arranged, and that manholes were provided at 
intervals. They were water-proofed, in the case of those embedded in the 
bench, by the general water-proofing of the tunnels, which was carried down to 
the level of the bottom of the banks of ducts; and in the case of those below 
subgrade, by a special water-proofing of felt and pitch wrapped around the 
ducts themselves. 

The portion of wall in front of the ducts was bonded to that behind by 
bonds, mostly of expanded metal, passing between the ducts. Examples of 
the bonding will be seen in the drawings. 

The joints between successive lengths of 4-way and 2 -way ducts were 
wrapped with two thicknesses of cotton duck, 6 in. wide, those of single-way 
ducts were not wrapped, but plastered with cement mortar. The ducts were 



^ LARGE TUNNELS 1423 

laid on bed of mortar, and were made to break joints at top and bottom, and 
side to side with the adjacent ducts. They were laid with a wooden mandrel ; 
a square leather washer at the near end acted as a cleanser when the mandrel 
was pulled through. 

The specifications required the ducts to be laid at the same time as the con- 
crete and be carried up with it, but this was found to be a very awkward opera- 
tion, as the tamping of the concrete and the walking of men disturbed the 
ducts, especially as the bonds lay across them. It was resolved, therefore, 
to build the portion of the wall behind the ducts first, with the bonds embedded 
in it at the proper heights and projecting from it, then to lay up the banks of 
ducts against this wall, bending the bonds down as they were reached, and 
finally, after all the ducts were in, to lay the concrete in front of and over the 
top of the ducts. Several detailed modifications of this general scheme were 
followed at one time or another when necessary or advisable. 

The laying of ducts below subgrade was not complicated by the presence 
of bonds; the water-proofing caused the trouble here, as before described. 

The specifications called for a final rodding after completion. Ordinary 
^-in. gas pipe was used for the rod, and a cutter with rectangular cross-section 
and rounded corners was run through ahead of the mandrel; following the 
cutter came a scraper consisting of several square-leather was ers, of the size 
of the ducts, spaced at intervals on a short rod. The mandrel itself was next 
put through, three or four men being used on the rods. All the ducts in a bank 
were thus rodded from manhole to manhole. When a duct was rodded it was 
plugged at each end with a wooden plug. A solid wooden paraffined plug 
was used at first, but afterward an expansion plu^ was used. 

Very little trouble was met in rodding the power conduits, except for a few 
misplaced ducts, or a small mound of mortar or a laying mandrel left in. At 
such points a cut was made in the concrete and the duct replaced. 

In the subgrade telephone and telegraph ducts east of the Manhattan Shaft, 
much trouble was caused by grout in the ducts. The mandrel and cutters 
were deflected and broke through the web of the ducts rather than remove 
this hard grout. Trenches had to be cut from the floor to the top of the 
water-proofing, the latter was then cut and folded back, and the ducts 
replaced. To do this, a number of ducts had to be taken out to replace the 
broken ones and get the proper laps. The water-proofing was then patched 
and the concrete replaced; This grout had not penetrated the water-proof- 
ing, but had got in through the ends of the ducts where they had not been 
properly plugged and protected. The duct gang, both for laying and rod- 
ding, generally consisted of 1 foreman, at $3.50 per day, and 9 laborers, at 
$1.75 per day. When laying: 4 men were laying, 2 men mixing and carrying 
mortar, and 3 were transporting material. When rodding: 4 men were rod- 
ding, 2 men at adjacent manholes were connecting and disconnecting cutters 
and mandrels, 1 was joining up rods, and 2 men assisting generally. 

The cost of this work is shown in Table V. 

Table XIX. — Cost op Conduit Work 

Manhattan Weehawken Total 

Duct feet 115,962 35,155 151,117 

Labor $0. 035 $0. 032 $0. 034 

Material 0. 043 0. 052 0. 045 

Total field charges • $0. 078 $0. 084 $0. 079 

Chief office and plant depreciation. 0. 005 0. 008 0. 006 

Total average cost $0. 083 $0. 092 $0. 085 



1424 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Economy Effected by the Rogers Pass Tunnel. — The following article, 
reprinted in Engineering and Contracting, Nov. 17, 1915, from the Cornell 
Civil Engineer for December, 1914 was written by J. G. Sullivan, Chief 
Engineer of the Western Lines of the Canadian Pacific Ry. 

The calculations showing the economy to be attained over the present 
alignment by constructing the Rogers Pass Tunnel of the Canadian Pacific 
Railway are here given. 

The data to be taken into account are as follows: Present location, total 
distance 23. 1 miles, revised location 18.68 miles. Grades consist on the present 
location, of 16.65 miles up hill for westbound trafiQc on maximum grade of 2.2 
per cent, 6.45 miles down grade same maximum with a total rise of 1,726 ft. 
and a drop of 692.1 ft. with 1,860° of curvature on the up-hill and 1,288° on the 
downhill portion of the line. The revised location consists of 16.77 miles up 
hill with about 5 miles of 2.2 per cent pusher grade, the balance 1 per cent and 
a down-hill run of 1.91 miles with a maximum of 2.2 per cent grade ; a total rise 
of 1,178.2 ft. and a drop of 144.3 ft., with 635° of curvature on the up-hill 
grade and 66° on the down-hill. The average traffic for the years 1912 and 
1913, which is made the basis of calculation, was 1,3423^ passenger trains in 
each direction; the average weight of the passenger trains, exclusive of loco- 
motives, was 443 tons; 980 of the passenger trains required pusher engines; 
the weight of the passenger and pusher engines for passenger trains was 175 
tons each; there were 1,7383^ freight trains in each direction per year; the 
average weight of the freight trains eastbound, exclusive of locomotives, was 
950 tons; the average weight of freight trains westbound was 898 tons; all 
freight trains had to be pushed in both directions; weight of freight locomo- 
tives and pushers, 181 tons each. The tonnage eastbound and westbound was 
as follows: 

Eastbound 

Tons 

1 , 342>^ trains @ 443 tons each 594 ,727. 5 

2 , 322 locomotives @ 175 tons each 406 , 350. 

1 , 7383^ freight trains @ 950 tons each 1 , 651 . 575. 

3 , 477 locomotives @ 181 tons each 629 , 237. 

Total 3,281,889. 5 

Westbound 

Tons 

1 , 342K trains @ 443 tons each 594 , 727. 5 

2 , 322 locomotives @ 175 tons each 406 , 350. 

1,7383'^ freight trains @ 898 .tons each 1,561,173.0 

3 , 477 locomotives @ 181 tons each 629 , 237. 

Total 3,191,487.5 

Comparison op Comparable Factors Affecting the Cost of Operating 
Over Rogers Pass, Via Present Line and Via Tunnel. Line, Now Under 
Construction, Average Traffic for the Years 1912 and 1913 

E. B. tonnage per year, including weight of engines, 3,281,890 tons 
Resistance to Overcome, on Present Line 

Ft. Ft. 

Actual rise, 692.1 ft 692. 1 

Curve resistance, 1,288° X .04 ft ,. . . 51. 5 

Friction resistance, 6.45 mis. X 15 ft 96. 7 

Total 840. 3 



LARGE TUNNELS- 1425 

Resistance to Overcome, Tunnel Line 

Ft. Ft. 

Actual rise, 144.3 ft 144. 3 

Curve resistance, 66° X .04 ft 2.6 

Friction resistance, 1.91 mis. X 15 ft 28. 6 

Total 175.5 

Difference 664. 8 

• 3,281,890 tons X 664.8 ft. equals 2,181,800,472 foot-tons. 

W. B. Tonnage Per Year, Including Weight of Engines, 3,191,488 Tons 

Resistance to Overcome, Present Line 

Ft. Ft. 

Actual rise, 1,726 ft 1 ,726. 

Curve resistance, 1,860° X .04 ft 74. 4 

Friction resistance, 16.65 mis. X 15 ft 249.7 

Total. 2,050.1 

Resistance to Overcome, Tunnel Line 

Ft. Ft. 

Actual rise, 1,178.2 ft 1,178.2 

Curve resistance, 635° X .04 ft 25. 4 

Friction resistance, 16.77 mis. X 15 ft. . . .• 251.5 

Total 1,455.1 

Difference 595. 

3,191,488 tons X 595 ft. equals 1,898,935,360 foot-tons. 

Foot-tons 

Total work done (extra) 2,181, 800 ,472 

1,898,935,360 
Total 4,080,735. 832 

One thousand foot-tons equals approximately 1 horsepower hour. Assum- 
ing that 5 lbs. of coal is consumed in doing 1 horsepower hour's work and that 
coal on locomotive costs $4.60 per ton, the saving in fuel will amount to 

4,080,736 X 5 lbs. X $4.60 

- 2,000 lbs. (one ton) = ^ ^6. 928.46 

Extra Wages Train and Engine Crews 
Present Line 

6, 162 trains for 23.1 miles 142, 342. 2 train miles 

5,437 push. engs. for 23.1 miles 125,594. 7 push. eng. miles 

Tunnel Line 

6, 162 trains for 18.68 miles 115, 106. 2 train miles 

5,437 push. engs. for 13 miles ■ 70,681. push. eng. miles 

K . A / 27,236.0 train miles 

Amount saved ( 54 , 913. 7 push. eng. miles 

27,236 train miles at 22 cts " $ 5,991.92 

54,913.7 pusher miles at 25 cts 13,728.40 

Note. — 25 cts. to cover engine crew wages, cost of repairs to pusher loco- 
motives and extra cost of maintenance account of running pushers. 
Extra cost maintenance of way, 4.42 miles at $200 plus 27,236 train 

miles at 20 cts $ 6,331.20 

Extra cost, maintenance of way, account of extra number of degrees 
of curvature, assuming that 400° of curvature per mile would 
increase rate at 20 cts. per train mile for maintenance by 
30 per cent — 

6,162 trains X 2,447° X ^^^o ct 3,769.60 

Special maintenance, account 43'^ miles snow sheds 85,000.00 

Extra cost, maintenance of equipment, 27,236 train miles at 

21 cts. 5,719. 56 

Extra cost, maintenance of equipment, account of extra number of 
degrees of curvature, assuming that 400° of curvature per 
mile would increase rate of 21 cts. per train mile by 40 per 
cent — 

6,162 trains X 2,447° X ^K.qqo ct 3,166.47 

Total annual saving in cost of operation $170, 635. 61 

90 



1426 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The rate at which traffic has been increasing would indicate that shortly 
after the work of constructing the tunnel was completed the traffic would have 
doubled. In this case, if no further economies were made in methods of 
operating this section of track, the annual saving on account of operating over 
tunnel line would be — 

$85,635.61 X 2 +$85,000.00 = $256,271.22 

In arriving at the above figure no accoimt is taken of whether line was single 
or double track and for comparative figures it was assumed that methods of 
operation would be the same. Now, as a matter of fact, the present single 
track line with double the present traffic would make the business too con- 
gested for economical single-track operation. Therefore, it was apparent 
that it was time to study the question of double track:ing the present line or 
seeking a new line for double track. It was decided to double track on the 5- 
mile tunnel location. Now to operate successfully a 5-mile tunnel we will 
require the installation of an electric? plant and the purchase of electric loco- 
motives. All the details of the proposed electrification have not as yet been 
worked out, but even if they were, the reader is not interested in the details of 
cost. He can see at once that the problem was to find out if the cost of oper- 
ating and maintaining the tunnel line, taking into account the extra costs of 
operating on account of having a short section of electric operation and. extra 
cost of maintaining tracks in the tunnel, plus the interest on the cost of build- 
ing the new double track line, including the cost of electrifying the tunnel, 
would be less than the cost of operating and maintaining a double track line 
on the present location plus the interest on the cost of building the second 
track. The figures would not have been very decisive one way or the other if 
not for the fact that there is now 4>^ miles of wooden snow sheds on the pres- 
ent location which will be all done away with on the new location. The 
maintenance and cost of renewals of these sheds cost between $85,000 and 
$100,000 per year. To maintain and renew a double-track wooden shed would 
probably cost at least 50 per cent more than the above, so that with a saving of 
about $125,000 per year in maintenance and renewals of snow sheds and a 
calculated saving in operation and maintenance of $171,271.22 on a traffic 
that surely will be reached in the near future, there was no doubt as to the 
proper course to pursue. 

As to the details of figuring economics of railway location, the writer is well 
aware that it is impossible to devise any method that will show absolutely the 
saving in cost of operating one line over another, but he believes that the 
method herein followed, namely, that of comparing cost of fuel on the basis 
of work done rather than on a train-mile or any other unit, is much more logical 
and will give more reliable results than other methods that have been followed. 
The train mile is possibly the best unit for comparison in cost of wages and for 
cost of maintenance of equipment. In figuring maintenance of way a fixed 
sum should be taken plus a rate per daily train rather than a fixed rate alone 
per train mile, for the reason that a certain amount of expense must be incurred 
regardless of whether trains are run or not. The fixed siun of $200 per mile 
taken in this problem is probably about one-half the actual sum that would be 
assumed if the entire cost of maintenance was to be included in this fixed sum 
per mile plus the rate per train mile for the reason that cost of maintenance 
of terminals and other items are not affected by the details of location 
between fixed terminals. 



LARGE TUNNELS 1427 

Frictional resistance, normal conditions, warm weather, modern freight 
equipment, speed between 7 and 35 miles an hour, 

R = 2.2T + 121.6 C. 

R = total resistance on level tangent. 

T = total weight cars and contents in tons. 

C = total number of cars in train. 

This amounts to 4 lbs. per ton to 8 lbs. per ton, depending on whether cars 
are fully loaded or empty. This is equivalent to a rise of from 10 ft. to 20 
ft. per mile. For mixed traffic a conservative estimate is train resistance 
equals rise of 15 ft. per mile. 

It may appear that the rate of 25 cts. per actual pusher mile covering the 
cost of repairs and engine crew wages and extra cost of maintenance is too 
high, but as a matter of fact it is very conservative for the repairs, mainte- 
nance and renewals of the locomotives alone will run somewhere between 7 cts. 
and 10 cts. per mile and we have had cases where the engine crew wages alone 
averaged 25 cts. per mile for the actual mileage run, on account of delays to the 
pusher. 

Reference to Subaqueous Shield Driven Tunnel Costs. — Many valuable 
data are given in the paper of B. H. M. Hewett and W. L. Brown on the Penn- 
sylvania R. R. Tunnels under the North River, New York. Proceedings of 
the A. S. C. E., Vol. XXXVI. Certain parts of this paper may be found in 
abstract form in Engineering and Contracting as follows. 

Methods and Cost of Placing Concrete Lining — issue of May 11, 1910. 

Labor Required and Average Progress in Constructing Shield Driven Tunnels — 
issue of May 18, 1910. 

First Cost and Cost of Operating Power Plants — issue of May 25, 1910. 

Methods and Cost of Calking and Grummeting Joints in Cast Iron Lining — 
issue of June 15, 1910. 




CHAPTER XXI 
BANK AND SHORE PROTECTION 

In this chapter are given the methods and costs of constructing certain 
structures for preventing erosion to river banks and also similar data in regard 
to the construction of breakwaters of various types. Further references, 
giving costs of bank and shore protection may be found in Gillette's Handbook 
of Cost Data. 

Costs of Brush Mattresses. — The following statements of methods and 
costs are compiled from various portions of the Report of the Chief of Engi- 
neers, U. S. A. for 1910-11 and are printed in Engineering and Contracting, 
Nov. 13, 1912. 

Hopefield Bend, Ark. — The work done during the year comprised 3,505 
squares of mattress and 11,332 sq. yds. of paving. The cost of the mattress 
work was as follows : 

Strand H in., 1,654 lbs $ 46. 80 

Strand Me in., 6,311 lbs 160. 30 

Strand >i in., 19,027 lbs 523. 24 

Wire No. 12, 8,896 lbs 195. 71 

Staples, 950 lbs 19. 95 

Clips K in., 156 3. 92 

Clips Ke in., 1,894 136. 37 

Brush, 5,632 cords 9 , 287. 82 

Stone, 4,009 cu. yds 5 , 482. 82 

Steamboat expense 1 , 836. 00 

Labor, subsistence and supervision 11 ,824. 66 

$29,517.59 

No. of squares 3 , 505. 

Cost per square $ 8. 42 

Cords of brush and poles per square 1 . 60 

Cu. yds. of stone per square 1. 14 

Cu. yds. of stone per cord of brush and poles 0. 712 

The cost of grading 2,265 lin. ft. of bank involving 33,200 cu. yds. was as 
follows : 

Coal, etc $ 281.00 

Labor, subsistence and supervision 1 , 736. 00 

Total $2,017. 00 

Cost per Hn. ft $ 0. 89 

Cost per cu. yd 0. 061 

The cost of paving 2,265 lin. ft. of bank or 11,332 sq. yds. of paving was as 
follows : 

Stone, 3,342 cu. yds $4, 162. 99 

Labor, subsistence and supervision 3, 170. 00 

$7,332.99 

Cost per lin. ft $ 3 . 83 

Cost per sq. yd 0. 647 

Cu. yd. stone per sq. yd. paving 0. 29 

1428 



BANK AND SHORE PROTECTION 1429 

A summary of the total cost of the work is as follows : 

Total field cost '. $38,867.42 

Office expense 1,419. 53 

Surveys 1 , 392. 07 

Care of plant 475. 18 

Repairs to plant 2 , 267. 93 

Depreciation to plant 2 , 135. 33 

Total cost $46,557.46 

Walnut Bend, Ark. — During the first part of the season no unusual diflS- 
culties were encountered. During the latter part of the season, however, 
rapid rises in the river gave considerable trouble on account of the flooding 
of the dead-men holes. The paving consists of the usual form of rip-rap 
except 500 lin. ft. which is concrete 4 in. thick. 

The cost of the mattress work follows: 

Channel Mattress No. 8 
(1,480 ft. long by 254 ft. wide, 3,759 squares) 

Strand H in., 17,192 lbs $ 453. 08 

Strand ^e in., 6,3-86 lbs 162. 20 

Strand 3-4 in., 22,797 lbs 624. 64 

Wire No. 12, 7,520 lbs 165. 44 

Wire, silicon bronze, 1,431 lbs 214. 51 

Staples, 700 lbs 14. 70 

Clips K in., 1,712. . 44. 51 

Clips He in., 2,064 148. 61 

Miscellaneous material 1 , 803. 01 

Brush and poles, 5,077 cords 8, 377. 05 

Stone 2,999 cu. yds 3 , 548. 42 

Steam boat expense 3 , 129. 82 

Labor, subsistence and supervision 12, 170. 74 

Total $30,856. 73 

Cost per lin. ft $ 20. 85 

Cost per square 8. 20 

Cords of brush and poles per lin. ft 3. 43 

Cords of brush and poles per square 1 . 35 

Cu. yds. of stone per lin. ft 2. 02 

Cu. yds. of stone per square 0.71 

Cu. yds. of stone per cord of brush and poles 0. 59 

Channel Mattresses, Nos. 9 and 10 
(596 ft. long by 250 ft. wide, 1,514 squares) 

Strand, H in., 6,843 lbs $ 172. 72 

Strand, Me in., 3,184 lbs 78. 64 

Strand, H in., 9,057 lbs 248. 16 

Wire, No. 12, 4,573 lbs 100. 61 

Wire, silicon bronze, 650 lbs 97. 43 

Staples, 400 lbs 8. 40 

Clips, H in., 559 14. 53 

Clips, He in., 988 12. 45 

Brush and poles, 1,881 cords 3, 103. 65 

Stone, 860 cu. yds 1 , 017. 55 

Steamboat expense 1 , 271 . 70 

Labor, subsistence and supervision 8,827. 92 

Total $14 , 953. 76 

Cost per lin. ft $ 25.09 

Cost per square 9. 21 

Cords of brush and poles per lin. ft 3.16 

Cords of brush and poles per square 1 . 24 

Cu. yds. of stone per lin. ft 1 . 44 

Cu. yds. of stone per square 0. 57 

Cu. yds. of stone per cord of brush and poles . 0. 46 



1430 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Connecting Mattresses, Nos. 17 to 26, Inclusive, 2,542 Squares 

Strand, H in., 1,817 lbs ' $ 47. 24 

Strand, He in., 7,287 lbs 179. 99 

Strand, H in., 14,560 lbs 398. 94 

Wire, No. 12, 7,862 lbs 172. 96 

Staples, 725 lbs 15. 23 

Clips, H in., 223 5. 80 

Clips, Me in., 2,126 101. 39 

Brush and poles, 3,790 cords 6,253. 50 

Stone, 3,241.45 cu. yds 3,835.28 

Steamboat expenses 2 , 135. 28 

Labor, subsistence and supervision 9, 666. 06 

Total , $22,811.67 

New work 2 , 291 squares 

Repair work 251 squares 

Cost per square $8. 96 

Cords of brush and poles per square 1 . 49 

Cu. yds. of stone per square 1. 28 

Cu. yds. of stone per cord of brush and poles 0. 81 

The bank grading amounted to 51,617 cu. yd. for new work and 6,268 cu. 
yds. for repair work, or a total of 57,885 cu. yds., and its cost was as 
follows : 

6,492 bus. coal $ 714. 00 

Labor, subsistence, and supervision 3,318. 00 

Total $ 4,032. 00 

Cost per lin. ft. (new work) $ 1. 50 

Cost per cu. yd 0. 0696 

The bank paving with stone amounted to 25,225 sq. yds., of which 3,772 
sq. yds. were repair work. The cost of this paving was as follows: 

Stone, 6,352 cu. yds $11,546.00 

Steamboat expense 1 , 500. 00 

Labor, subsistence, supervision, etc 7,517: 00 

Total $20, 563. 00 

Cost per sq. yd $ 0. 815 

Cost per lin. ft. (new work) 9. 22 

Cu. yds. of stone per sq. yd 0. 25 

The amount of concrete paving was 5,196 sq. yds., or a stretch of bank 500 
ft. long and 9S}i ft. wide; its cost was as follows: 

Gravel, 631 cu. yds $ 441. 70 

Cement, 1,702 sacks 765. 90 

Coal, 438 bushels 48 . 18 

Wire, Pittsburgh fence, 49,500 sq. ft 245. 03 

Lumber , 25. 00 

Labor, subsistence and supervision ' 926. 75 

Total $ 2,452.56 

Cost per sq. yd $ 0. 472 

Cost per lin. ft 4 . 905 

Cu. yds. of gravel per sq. yd '. 0.12 

Sacks of cement per sq. yd 0. 33 

A summary of the total cost follows: 

Total field cost $115,374.68 

Office expense 2 , 200. 36 

Surveys 478. 60 

Care of plant 3,088. 73 

Repairs to plant . . . ". 14 , 74 1 . 57 

Depreciation of plant 13,879. 66 

Total cost $149 , 763. 60 



BANK AND SHORE PROTECTION 1431 

The unit costs for the whole work summarize as follows: 

Channel mattress, per lin. ft $28. 45 

Connecting mattress, per lin. ft 8. 93 

Grading, per lin. ft 1 . 95 

Paving per Un. ft 10. 82 

Total cost per lin. ft. of bank protected $50. 15 

Field cost per lin. ft. of bank protected $38. 58 



'i<- - ^ 40-0 - ^ 

Fig. 1. — Cross section of mattress construction for shore and levee protection 

Old Town, Ark. — The work comprised an extension of 1,700 ft. to the pre- 
vious season's work. The following is the cost of the mattress work: 

Channel Mattress No. 9 
(798 ft. long by 250 ft. wide, 1,995 squares) 

Strand, }4 in., 13,432 lbs $ 380. 13 

Strand, He in., 4,072 lbs 103. 43 

Strand, 34 in., 11,243 lbs 309. 18 

Wire, No. 12, 4,770 lbs 104.94 

Wire, silicon bronze, 860 pounds 128. 91 

Staples, 400 lbs 8. 40 

Clips, H in., 976 24. 50 

Clips, He in., 1,406 101.25 

Brush and poles, 3,019.7 cords 4,227. 58 

Stone, 1,682 cu. yds 2,312.30 

Steamboat expense 1 , 236. 73 

Labor, subsistence and supervision 9,023. 53 

Total $17,960. 88 

Cost per lin. ft $ 22. 50 

Cost per square 9. 00 

Cords of brush and poles per lin. ft 3. 78 

Cords of brush and poles per square 1.51 

Cu. yds. of stone per lin. ft 2.11 

Cu. yds. of stone per square . 84 

Cu. yds. of stone per cord of brush and poles 0. 55 



1432 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Channel Mat No. 10 
(903 ft. long by 250 ft. wide, 2,257.5 squares) 

Strand, H in., 12,931 lbs $ 365. 95 

Strand, Me in., 5,556 lbs 141. 12 

Strand, H in., 14,616 lbs 401. 94 

Wire, No. 12, 6,350 lbs. . 139. 70 

Wire, silicon bronze, 704 lbs 142. 91 

Staples, 450 lbs 9. 45 

Clips, H in., 449 11. 27 

Clips, ^6 in., 544 18. 73 

Brush and poles, 3,589 cords 5, 184. 14 

Stone, 1,825 cu. yds 2,924. 72 

Steamboat expense 1 , 400. 00 

Labor, subsistence and supervision 9,000. 29 

Total $19,740.22 

Cost per lin. ft $ 21 . 86 

Cost per square 8. 74 

Cords of brush and poles per lin. ft 3. 97 

Cords of brush and poles per square 1 . 59 

Cu. yds. of stone per lin. ft 2. 021 

Cu. yds. of stone per square 0. 808 

Cu. yds. of stone per cord of brush and poles 0. 508 



Connecting Mats Nos. 28 to 25, Inclusive, 573 Squares 

Strand, H in., 70 lbs $ 1. 98 

Strand, ^{^ in., 3,395 lbs 60. 83 

Strand, H in., 6,054 lbs 160. 49 

Wire, No. 12, 1,700 lbs 37. 40 

Staples, 150 lbs 3.15 

Clips, H in., 36 1. 40 

Clips, He in., 650 8. 19 

Brush and poles, 8,677 cords 1 , 214. 78 

Stone, 520 cu. yds 977. 08 

Steamboat expense 380. 00 

Labor, subsistence and supervision 2 , 801 . 34 

Total $5,646. 64 

Cost per square $ 9. 85 

Cords of brush and poles per square 1.51 

Cu. yds. of stone per square 0.91 

Cu. yds. of stone per cord of brush and poles 0. 60 



Connecting Mat No. 27, 191 Squares 

(Repairs to old work) 

Strand, H in., 420 lbs $ 11. 88 

Strand, He in., 600 lbs 15. 24 

Strand, }4 in., 1,680 lbs 46. 20 

Wire, No. 12, 524 lbs 11. 53 

Staples, 50 lbs 1. 05 

Clips, H in., 10 .25 

Clips, He in., 132 1. 66 

Brush and poles, 280 cords 396. 00 

Stone, 180 cu. yds 338. 22 

Steamboat expense 100. 00 

Labor, subsistence and supervision 1 , 082. 00 

Total $2,004. 03 

Cost per square $ 11 . 07 

Cords of brush and poles per square 1 . 54 

Cu. yds. of stone per square 1. 00 

Cu. yds. of stone per cord of brush and poles 0. 65 



BANK AND SHORE PROTECTION 1433 

The cost of 2,149 lin. ft. or 11,975 sq. yds. of paving was as follows: 

Stone 3,711 cu. yds $6,054. 51 

Labor, subsistence and supervision 3, 632. 95 

Total : $9,687.46 

Cost per sq. yd $ 0. 808 

Cost per lin. ft 4. 50 

Cu. yds. stone per sq. yd. of paving 0. 31 

The cost of 51,758 cu. yds of grading was as follows: 

Coal $ 570. 

Labor, subsistence and supervision 3, 502. 

Total $4 , 072. 

Cost per lin. ft $ 1. 89 

Cost per cu. yd 0. 079 

A summary of the total and unit cost is as follows: 

Total field cost $64 , 956. 14 

Office expense 1 , 190. 29 

Surveys 440. 16 

Care of plant 1 , 069. 18 

Repairs to plant ., 5,102. 85 

Depreciation of plant 4 , 804. 49 

Total $77,563. 11 

Total unit costs — 

Channel mat, per lin. ft $26. 59 

Connecting mat, per lin. ft 3. 98 

Grading, per lin. ft 2. 27 

Paving, per lin. ft 5, 40 

Total cost per lin. ft. of bank protected $38. 24 

Field cost per lin. ft. of bank protected $31 . 87 

Panther Forest, Ark. — The work consisted in constructing 2,037 ft. of stand- 
ard revetment down stream from the lower end of previous work. Two 
mats were constructed, 1,131 X 253 and 946 X 253 ft., and four shore mats 
containing 264 squares, to connect the main mattress with the upper bank 
paving. The bank was cleared of heavy timber for a distance of 2,300 ft., 
the clearing extending about 1,000 ft. below the end of the revetment. Work 
was begun Aug. 23 and completed Nov. 12, 1910. The cost was as follows: 

Cost 

5,254 squares channel mat, at $6.477 $34 , 032. 86 

1,960 squares paving bank, at $7.307 14 , 322. 85 

Property 4 , 892. 59 

90 days' towing, at $48.338 4 , 350. 39 

264 squares pocket mattress, at $8.103 2, 139. 34 

Sundries 2 , 056. 87 

1,900 lin. ft. hydraulic grading, at $1.002 1 , 904. 86 

1,900 Hn. ft. grade dressed, at $0.461 876. 51 

Supervision 860. 82 

Outfitting ■ 735. 84 

2,300 lin. ft. bank cleared, at $0.31 711. 77 - 

Transportation of labor 424. 25 

250 lin. ft. hand grading, at $1.299 324. 89 

475 lin. ft. ditching, at $0.271 128. 94 

Repairs to old paving 75. 70 

10 squares revetment, at $5.464 54. 64 

Total ; $67,893712 

Leland Neck, Ark. — The work comprised the extension of existing revet-, 
ment 1,057 ft. down stream by a channel mat 250 ft. wide, and two shore ox 
connecting mats containing 652 squares. Its cost was as follows; 



1434 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cost 

2,642 squares channel mat, at $8.4257 $22 , 260. 63 

652 squares pocket mat, at $6.9897 , . . . 4 , 557. 26 

1,173 squares bank paved, at $6.8063 7,983. 77 

309 squares revetment, at $6.4986 2 , 008. 06 

63 days' towing, at $58.31 3, 673. 77 

1,287 lin. ft. hydraulic grad'g, at $1.9254 2, 478. 10 

1,287 lin. ft. hand grading, at $0.477 614. 05 

Supervision 393. 75 

Transportation of labor 706. 80 

Engineer office charges '. 727. 74 

Hire of barges, etc 5,332. 86 

Loading stone 944. 10 

Total $51 , 680. 89 

Albemarle Bend, Miss. — The work carried out here is designed to prevent 
further caving in this bend, where this action has progressed for a great many 
years, destroying many levees and involving large expenditures for new ones. 
During the past four years the bank has been eroded at the rate of about 500 
ft. per year. The approved project contemplated the construction of about 
10,000 ft. of revetment, and work was begun in August, 1910, and during 
the period Aug. 17, 1910, to Mar. 3, 1911, 11,650 ft. of revetment were con- 
structed, located so as to cover the zone where the caving had been most active 
for several years past. Since the completion of the work the main force of 
the current has been changed, so that it now strikes the bank along the lower 
third of the completed revetment. 

The work was done by forces from three engineer districts, but the report 
gives details for one district force only, and these follow. 

The grading was unusually heavy, due to the old levee near the edge of the 
bank, which had to be cut in several places for the mat cables to pass through. 
It was necessary to wash a large portion of this levee into the river and then 
•regrade the bank, fully one-half of the bank having to be graded a second time 
for this reason. Brush and poles for the revetment work were obtained under 
contract. Stone was procured from the reserve at Greenville; from contract 
delivery on the bank at Greenville, loaded on barges at Vicksburg, and 
delivered at the different revetments on contractors' barges. 

On account of lack of familiarity with this portion of the river and difficulty 
in obtaining a suitable willow bar, mattress construction was somewhat slow. 
A sudden rise of the river and the caving in of one set of ways tended to delay 
the work and to increase the cost, as did also the necessity of bringing some 
of the brush by barges from a considerable distance. The field cost was as 
follows : 

90,230 ft. B. M. 3 X 6 in. lumber $ 1,398.56 

140,000 ft. B. M. 2 X 4 in. lumber 2, 170. 00 

2 , 000 ft. B. M. miscellaneous lumber 31. 00 

6 , 000 lbs. 9-in. steel wire nails 138. 00 

16,600 lbs. 6-in. steel wire nails 348. 60 

5,000 lbs. 4-in. steel wire nails 105. 00 

3 , 500 lbs. No. 12 galvanized wire 82. 25 

4, 100 cords brush 5,398. 62 

10,000 9-in. treenails 28. 80 

40,000 6-in. treenails 107. 20 

Steamers and tugs 1 , 825. 00 

Miscellaneous 40. 60 

Provisions 1,318. 58 

Pay rolls, services 5.371.96 

Total $18,364. 17 

Sq. ft. of mattress built 394 , 620 

Cost per sq. ft. for construction $ 0. 04653 



. BANK AND SHORE PROTECTION 1435 

The item of 4,100 cords of brush given in the foregoing table is analyzed as 
follows : 

Cutting and pihng, building roads, etc $4,047.29 

Transportation to ways 1,184. 37 

Privilege of cutting brush 1*66 . 96 

Total $5,398 . 62 

Estimated cords of brush used. 4,100 

Cost per cord delivered at ways $ 1 . 316 

Of the 4,100 cords of brush used, 750 cords had to be transported from out- 
lying bars on barges . 

Three sets of ways had to be built, one on the mainland at Salem, one on 
the towhead, and one on Arcadia bar. Their cost is included in mattress 
construction, but is separated and analyzed as follows: 

Lumber and nails $161 . 60 

Labor and superintendence 425. 07 

Total $586. 67 

Average cost of each set $195. 56 

The expense of towing lumber and other materials, except rock, has been 
added to and is included in the cost of such materials delivered at the site of 
the work. As Salem bar is located only a short distance above Albemarle 
Bend, the cost of towing the mattresses from the place where built to the 
locality where sunk is too small to be given as a separate item, and is included 
in the cost of construction and sinking. 

The cost of sinking 394,620 sq. ft., or 3,946.2 squares of mattresses, was as 
follows: 

487 tons of rock, at $2.40 $ 1 , 168. 80 

2,473.61 tons of rock, at $2.25 5,565. 62 

Steamers and tugs 2 , 105. 00 

Lumber, wire nails, wire, etc 432. 56 

Miscellaneous 64. 74 

Provisions 990. 34 

Pay rolls, services 3,1 10. 69 

Total $13,437. 75 

Cost per sq.^ft. to sink $ 0. 03405 

Summarizing the field cost of construction and sinking we have: 

Construction of mattress per sq. ft $0. 04653 

Sinking of mattress per sq. ft 0. 03405 

Total field cost per sq. ft $0. 08058 

All grading was done with a hydraulic grader. Operations were commenced 
Nov. 3 and completed Nov. 13, during which time 1,586 lin. ft. of bank was 
graded. The grader was operated with a single crew. The total cost of 
grading 1,586 lin. ft. of bank was $2,045.55 being $1.29 per lin. ft. 



I 



1436 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

A total of 129,121 sq. ft., covering 1,635 lin. ft. of bank, was paved. The 
cost was as follows: 

Steamers and tugs $ 877. 00 

1,271. 19 tons of rock, at $2.40 3,050.86 

1,271.71 tons of rock, at $2.32 2,950.37 

437. 04 tons of rock, at $2.25 983. 34 

896 tons of rock, at $1.93 1,729. 28 

Miscellaneous 35. 00 

Provisions 44 1 . 62 

Pay rolls, services 1 , 606. 95 

Total $11,970.42 

Cost per sq. ft. for paving $ 0. 0919 

Clearing the bank of logs, etc., preparatory to grading cost $375.30. 

Rock for this work was obtained from various sources and at various prices. 
A total of 6,837 tons was used, of which 3,807 tons was obtained under con- 
tract delivered on barges at Vicksburg, Miss., 1,758 tons delivered on barges 
in Albemarle Bend, and 1,272 tons purchased in open market, delivered on 
railroad cars at Vicksburg, Miss. The lack of rock at times delayed the work 
and increased its cost. 

The same plant was used in Albemarle Bend as was operated at Reid- 
Bedford, and the actual expense of moving it upstream about 40 miles was 
not very great, but has been prorated with the Reid-Bedford work and 
assumed to be $1,500. 

The cost of such survey work as was necessary to the location and placing 
of the revetment was $129. 

The total length of completed revetment placed by the district force men- 
tioned above was 1,615 ft., and the summarized cost was as follows: 

Const, of mattress, incl. 3 sets ways $18, 364. 17 

Sinking of mattress 13 , 437. 75 

Grading bank 2 , 045. 55 

Paving bank 11,970.42 

Clearing 375. 30 

Installation, estimated 1 , 500. 00 

Surveys 129. 00 

Miscellaneous 62. 00 

New plant, manila rope, etc., estimated 2,000. 00 

Total field cost $49,884. 19 

Total field cost per lin. ft. completed revetment. . . $ 30. 89 

A summary of the unit and total costs of work done by the two other district 
forces which were engaged at Albemarle Bend is as follows : 

27, 172 squares channel mat, at $7.851 * $213,296. 35 

4 , 960 squares connecting mat, at $9.089 45 , 079. 50 

6,468 squares bank paved, at $9.897 54, 120. 09 

32 squares revetment, at $7.207 230. 64 

8 , 550 lin. ft. slope dressed, at $0.497 4 , 254 . 88 

12 acres bank cleared, at $135.47 1 , 625. 68 

3,000 lin. ft. ditching, at $0.068 202. 47 

11,000 lin. ft. hydr'lic grad'g, at $1.190 12,310.97 

200 days' towing, at $173.914 34,782.71 

Outfitting 671 . 42 

Inspection 3 , 181 . 70 

Supervision 4,737.62 

Property 10,426.01 

Transportation of labor 3 , 090. 81 

Rent of barges 7 , 134. 23 

Engineer office charges 1 , 500. 00 

Sundries 17.703.74 

Total $414,348. 82 



BANK AND SHORE PROTECTION 1437 

Reid Bedford Bend, La. — The conditions at this bend of the river were very 
unfavorable for either revetment or levee work. It has a sloughing bank, 
where large sections settle slowly and slide out. The adjacent land is low 
and swampy, and the current attains a high velocity in the deep water close 
to the bank. Each of the numerous sections of abandoned levees has its 
borrow pit, from which the impounded water seeps through the bank, assisting 
in its destruction. 

Work was begun in 1906, when about 2,000 ft. of revetment was placed, but 
on account of high stages of the river no upper-bank paving was possible. 
The work described consisted in adding 1,880 ft. of revetment and some 
repairs to old work. 

Mattress construction was commenced when the river was at about a half 
stage, and as the employes were unfamiliar with the low- water conditions 
in this part of the river, some errors were made in the location of the ways, with 
the result that the cost of mattress construction was more than it would have 
been under favorable conditions. The detailed field cost is as follows: 

103,986 ft. B. M. 3 X 6-in. lumber $ 1,611.78 

205,398 ft. B. M. 2 X 4-in. lumber 3,183.67 

2 , 000 ft. B. M. miscellaneous lumber ; . 31 . 00 

8 , 000 lbs. 9-iii. steel wire nails 184. 00 

19 , 600 lbs. 6-in. steel wire nails 411. 60 

4 , 100 lbs. 4-in. steel wire nails 86. 10 

2,400 lbs. No. 12 galvanized wire 56. 40 

6,000 cords brush 6,912. 65 

10, 000 9-in. treenails 28. 80 

40, 000 6-in. treenails 107. 20 

Steamers and tugs 2 , 389 . 50 

Miscellaneous 218. 10 

Provisions 2 , 387. 32 

Pay rolls, services 7 , 174. 63 

Total $24,782.75 

Total sq. ft. mattress built 573 , 100 

Cost per sq. ft. for construction $ 0. 04324 

The item of 6,000 cords of brush given in the foregoing table is analyzed as 
follows: 

Cutting and piling, building roads, etc $4 , 472. 00 

Transportation of ways 2 , 146. 27 

Privilege of cutting brush 294. 38 

Total $6,912. 65 

Estimated cords brush used 6 , 000 

Cost per cord delivered at ways $ 1 , 152 

Two sets of ways were built. Their cost is included in mattress construc- 
tion but is separated and analyzed as follows: 

Lumber and nails $182. 00 

Labor and superintendence 268. 60 

Total $450. 60 

Average cost of each set $225. 30 

The expense of towing lumber and other materials, except rock, has been 
added to and is included in the cost of such materials delivered at the site of 
the work. As Browns Point and Halpino bars, where the mattresses were 
built, are less than 30 miles above Reid-Bedford Bend, the cost of towing the 
mattresses from the place where built to the locality where sunk is too small 



1438 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

to be given as a separate item, and is therefore included in the cost of construc- 
tion and sinking. 

The work of sinking was somewhat difficult. On account of the swift 
current three tow boats were required to handle the plant and mattresses. 
At times the current attained a velocity of 8 ft. per second. No disasters 
occurred, but the cause stated made the work of placing mattresses slow and 
expensive. The total field cost was: 

4,289.93 tons rock $9,661.09 

Lumber, wire, nails, etc 588. 66 

Steamers and tugs 4 , 877. 00 

Miscellaneous 194. 47 

Provisions 2 , 022. 21 

Pay rolls, services 7,238. 81 

Total $24,582.24 

Total sq. ft. mattress sunk 573. 000 

Cost per sq. ft. to sink $ 0. 04289 

Summarizing the field cost of construction and sinking of mattresses in 
place we have: 

Construction of mattress per sq. ft $0. 04324 

Sinking of mattress per sq. ft . 04289 

Total field cost per sq. ft $0. 08613 

The grading consisted of 2,082 lin. ft. of new work and of 1,017 lin. ft. of 
regrading; it cost as follows: 

Grading $4 , 950. 14 

Re-grading 1 , 814. 07 

Total $6,764.21 

Cost per lin. ft. to grade $ 2. 33 

Cost per lin. ft. to re-grade 1 . 78 

A total of 119,066 sq. ft. covering 1,750 lin. ft. of bank was paved on the 
extension of revetment and 31,169 sq. ft., covering 565 lin. ft. on the repairs 
to work placed in previous years. The cost was as follows: 

Steamers and tugs $ 703. 16 

2,106.36 tons of rock, at $2.25 4 , 739. 31 

1,193.68 tons of rock, at $2.32. 2,769.34 

Miscellaneous 51 . 00 , 

Provisions 887. 58 

Pay rolls, services 2 , 388. 49 

Total ; $11,538.87 

Cost per sq. ft. to pave $ 0. 077 

Kempe Bend, La. — During the year the upper revetment was extended 
upstream 900 lin. ft. and the lower revetment downstream 2,373 lin. ft. The 
upper bank along the lower extension was graded and 1,439 lin. ft. was paved. 
The timber along the bank between the upper and lower revetments was cut 
to prevent its caving in and obstructing future work. Mat construction 
cost $28,919 for 882,300 sq. ft. or about 3.27 cts. per square foot. The mats 
had to be towed 50 miles and the cost was as follows: 

Tug "Tuniaca," 6 days, at $29 $ 174. 00 

Tug "Marengo," 30 days, at $26 780. 00 

Steamer "Tensas," 15 days, at $24 360. 00 

Total $1,314.00 

Total sq. ft. towed 882 , 300 

Cost per sq. ft $0. 001489 



BANK AND SHORE PROTECTION 1439 

It required 180,000 sq. ft. to extend the upper revetment upstream 900 lin. 
ft. and 702,300 sq. ft. to mattress the 2,373 ft. of bank at the lower end of the 
bend. The following is the detailed cost of this part of the work: 

Steamers and tugs $ 1 , 510. 57 

Lumber, wire, nails, etc 287. 45 

5,198 tons of rock, at $1.93 10,032.14 

761 tons of rock, at $2.377 $ 1,808.39 

Miscellaneous 66. 96 

Provisions 1 , 755. 57 

Pay rolls 6,408.41 

Total $21,870.00 

Total sq. ft. sunk 882 , 330 

Cost per sq. ft. to sink $ 0. 02479 

Total cost per sq. ft. in place $ 0. 05905 

The grading was done by a hydraulic grader, the bank being dressed also 
by hand where necessary. The material was mostly stiif clay on top, with 
layer of sand at bottom. At the lower end of the bend two thousand five 
hundred lin. ft. of bank were graded. The following is the detailed cost: 

Hydraulic grader No. 1 : 

Steamers and tugs $ 450. 00 

Coal 821. 10 

Miscellaneous 80. 65 

Provisions 772. 75 

Pay rolls 2,495. 98 

Hand grading (labor and provisions) 627. 53 

Total $5,248.01 

Lin. ft. of bank graded 2 , 500 

Cost per lin. ft. to grade $ 2. 099 

A total of 92,606 sq. fit. or 1,416 lin. ft. was paved with rock as an extension 
to the lower upper bank revetment; the following is the detailed cost of the 
work: 

Steamers and tugs $ 687. 00 

2,454 tons of rock, at $1.93 4,736.22 

405 tons of rock, at $2.377 962. 69 

Miscellaneous 40. 00 

Provisions 420. 00 

Pay rolls 1 , 871. 60 

Total $8,717.51 

Cost per sq. ft $ 0. 094 

New Orleans, La. — ^A total of 1,960,000 sq. ft. of mattress was built at the 
following cost: 

265,204 ft. B.M. 3 X 6-in. lumber $ 3,702. 40 

670,349 ft. B.M. 2 X 4-in. lumber 9,048. 09 

16,000 ft. B.M. miscellaneous lumber 382. 00 

22, 100 lbs. 9-in. steel wire nails 472. 42 

61 , 700 lbs. 6-in. steel wire nails 1 , 240. 36 

7,600 lbs. 4-in. steel wire nails 224. 16 

8, 700 lbs. No. 10 galvanized wire 220. 95 

30, 500 9-in. treenails .- 72. 89 

145,000 6-in. treenails 295. 80 

20,000 cords brush .- 20,676.07 

Steamers and tugs 4 , 259 . 50 

Miscellaneous 176. 83 

Provisions 5 , 443. 09 

Pay rolls, services 21 , 759. 25 

Total $67,973. 81 

Cost per sq. ft. for construction of mattress $ . 0347 



1440 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The item of 20,000 cords of brush given in the foregoing table is analyzed 
as follows : 

Cutting and piling, building roads, etc $11, 273. 69 

Transportation to ways 8, 467. 68 

Privilege of cutting brush 934. 70 

Total $20,676.07 

Cost per cord delivered at ways $ 1 . 0338 

Six sets of ways were built and their cost is included in mattress construc- 
tion. Of the six sets the cost of only four was kept in detail, as follows : 

Lumber and nails $610. 00 

Labor and superintendence 380. 75 

Total $990. 75 

Average cost of four sets, each $247. 69 

The expense of towing lumber and other materials for mattress construc- 
tion has been added and is included in the cost of such materials delivered at 
the site of the work. The cost of towing mattresses from the places where 
they were built to New Orleans is given below. A total of 1,960,000 sq. ft. of 
mattress was towed, of which 505,500 was from Halpino bar, 390 miles; 
315,000 from Warrenton bar, 360 miles; 300,000 from Kempe Island, 315 
miles, and 839,500 from Palmetto bar, 237 miles. The cost was as follows: 

Steamer "Ramos," single crew, 11 days, at $35.50.... $ 379.50 

Steamer "Ramos," double crew, 43 days, at $58 2,494. 00 

Steamer "Plaquemine," double crew, 68 days, at $65. . . 4,420. 00 

Tug "Morganza," single crew, 15 days, at $30.50 457. 50 

Total , $7,751. 00 

Average cost per sq. ft. for towing ;..... $ 0. 00395 

With the exception of some slight difficulties caused by the high stage of the 
river at which some of the mattresses were sunk, work proceeded in a routine 
manner. The detailed cost was as follows: 

13,644.02 tons rock. . $27,393. 67 

Lumber, wire, wire nails, etc 917. 66 

Steamers and tugs 3 , 473. 50 

Miscellaneous 153. 45 

Provisions 3 , 500. 43 

Pay rolls, services 9 , 153. 67 

Total $44,792. 28 

Cost per sq. ft. to sink $ 0. 02285 

Summarizing the field cost of construction, towing, and sinking of mattresses, 
we have: 

Construction of mattress, per sq. ft $0. 03470 

Towing of mattress, per sq. ft 00395 

Sinking of mattress, per sq. ft 02285 

Total field cost per sq. ft. in place $0. 06150 

Proposals for furnishing 13,000 tons of rock were opened Nov. 5, 1910, and 
contract awarded for delivery on railroad cars in New Orleans at $1.90 per ton. 
The cost of transferring from cars to barges was 25 cts. per ton. 

A summary of the New Orleans work is as follows: A total of 7,850 lin. ft. 
of revetment was constructed, of which 2,765 lin. ft. on the Gretna Front was 
300 ft. wide; 3,975 ft. in the Carrollton Bend was 200 ft. wide; and 675 and 435 
ft. in the third district reach, respectively, 300 and 200 ft. wide. This work 



BANK AND SHORE PROTECTION 1441 

involved the placing of 1,960,000 sq. ft. of mattress, and the detailed cost of it 
is as follows: 

Construction of mattress, including cost- of ways $ 67,973. 81 

Towing of mattresses 7 , 751 . 00 

Sinking of mattresses 44 , 792. 28 

Installation 2 , 141 . 00 

Surveys 275. 00 

Rock, lumber, etc., on hand for future construction 20,419. 89 

Repairs to plant 288. 17 

Care of plant 680. 78 

New plant 2,649.38 

Office and administrative expenses 5, 680. 17 

Total $152,651.48 

Deduct value of material on hand for future work 20,419. 89 

Gross cost of season's work $132,231. 59 

Deduct repairs and care of plant, new plant and office and ad- 
ministrative expenses 9 , 298. 50 

Net field cost of season's work $122,933. 09 

Gross cost per sq. ft. for mattress in revetment $ 0. 0675 

Gross cost per lin. ft. for revetment 200 ft. wide 13 . 55 

Gross cost per lin. ft. for revetment 300 ft. wide 21 . 09 

Net field cost per sq. ft. for mattress in place in revetment .0627 

Net field cost per lin. ft. for revetment 200 ft. wide 12. 58 

Net field cost per. lin. ft. for revetment 300 ft. wide 19 . 74, 

Cost of Plank Mattresses. — These are used whenever cull lumber can be 
procured cheaper than brush. They are woven of 1 in. boards, 4, 6 and 8 in. 
wide and 10 to 20 ft. long. A cheaper construction consists in merely joining 
the boards by nailing. Plank mats have been built and successfully sunk in 
sections 150 ft. wide and 10,000 ft. long. Charles W. Durham furnishes the 
following cost data in Engineering and Contracting, Aug. 13, 1913. 

For a 30-ft. wide mat, built in 1911, in which 62,590 ft. B. M. of lumber were 
used, the cost of 1,969 lin. ft. was as follows: 

62,590 ft. lumber at $10 per M $625. 90 

438 hrs. labor at 1.75 per day of 8 hrs 95. 81 

280 lbs. wire at 3 cts 8. 40 

800 lbs. 10-penny nails at $2.05 per 100 lbs 16. 40 

$746. 51 

or $0,379 per lin. ft. Had the mat been built of brush, the cost per lin. ft. 
would have been as follows : 

1.7 cu. yds. brush at 16^cts $0. 2847 

Labor i^^oo day, at $1.75 0933 

Wire . 0070 

$0. 3850 

This shows very little saving, but the plank mat has the advantage in the 
less nmnber of material barges needed. One barge will carry froni' 100 to 
120 M. ft. B. M. of lumber, an equivalent to which in brush would require 
10 barges. This indicates a considerable saving when we figure the value of 
the barges at $3.50 per day. 

In 1912, a better showing was made in work done in the vicinity of Hannibal, 
Mo. It was found that in a mat 20 ft. in width, 1 cu. yd. of brush is equiva- 
lent to 15.9 ft. B. M. of lumber, or in other words, 63 cu. yds. brush equal 
1,000 ft. lumber. As, however, some extra pieces are used in the 30 and 40- 
ft. lumber mats, 60 cu. yds. brush are used as the average equivalent of 1,000 
91 



1442 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



ft. of lumber. The width of boards should be 4, 6 and 8 ins. Boards of less 
width than 4 ins. are deficient in strength and those of greater width than 
8 ins. leave too large spaces and a consequent waste of small rock, if the stand- 
ard plan of making the space equal to the width of board is adhered to. The 
length of boards is an important factor in the cost, for, the longer the boards, 
the less cross pieces, less nailing, less handling and moving of ways, but this 



stringers /»6'-/(f-0; 




'I 



Section A B 

Fig. 2. — Standard lumber mat for shore protection, Upper Mississippi River 

improvement. 

advantage may be wholly or in part offset by the increased cost of the longer 
lumber. With brush at 21 cts. per yd., we can afford to pay $14.44 per M. ft. 
for lumber, for 

Cost per Hn. ft. nails in 20 ft. lumber mat $0. 0034 

. Labor cost per lin. ft. building 20-ft. lumber mat 0. 0412 

Labor cost per lin. ft., sinking 20-ft. lumber mat 0. 0352 

$0.0798 

Cost per lin. ft. of 20-ft. brush mat in place 0. 0352 

Cost per lin. ft. of 20-ft. brush mat in place $0. 2820 

Available for lumber $0. 2022 

At 14 ft. per lin. ft. this is equivalent to $14.44 per M. 

In a 20 ft. mat there are 14.0 ft. B. M. of lumber or 0.88 cu. yd. brush per 
lin. ft. It was also foimd that within practical limits an increase of 2 ft. in 
length warrants paying $1.25 more per M. for the lumber. The actual saving 
In 1912 of 4.3 cts. per lin. ft. of mat amounted to $551.26 for the 12,820 ft. of 
lumber mat built in the vicinity of Hannibal, Mo. There was also a saving 
on the barges as only two were required for the lumber service, while to have 



BANK AND SHORE PROTECTION 1443 

handled an equal amount of brush would have required at least five barges 
and the consequent extra towing. 

Comparative Cost of Board Mat and Brush Mattress for River Bank Pro- 
tection. — In 1915 records were kept by the U. S. Engineer Office at Rock 
Island, 111., of board mat and brush mattress construction which are quoted by- 
Engineering and Contracting, June 14, 1916, as follows: 

The average quantities required per square (100 sq. ft.) of apron mat were: 
66 ft. B. M. lumber, or 4.8 cu. yd. of brush. In other words, 13.75 ft. B. M. 
lumber was equivalent to 1 cu. yd. of brush. The cost of material (on barges) 
was: Lumber, $11.95 per M ft. B. M. and brush, $0.24 per cu. yd., making the 
initial cost per square, $0,789 for lumber and $1,152 for brush. During the 
same season, it was found that eight laborers could construct an average of 
120 squares (12,000 sq. ft.) of lumber apron mat per day, while with brush 
the average was 75 squares (7,500 sq. ft.) per day. The best day's work with 
twelve laborers was 180 squares of lumber mat. There was used in bank 
revetment work in this division during 1915, 136,206 ft. B. M. of green cull 
Imnber, made up of elm, willow, cottonwood, etc. This amount was carried 
on two standard barges (100 X 20 X 5 ft.), whereas the average barge load 
of brush is about 400 cu. yd. Using 13.75 ft. B. M. liunber to 1 cu. yd. of 
brush, the above 136,206 ft. B. M. of lumber would be equivalent to 9,905 
cu. yd. of brush, which would make approximately 25 barge loads. The cost 
of towing the above amount of lumber was $40, or about 30 ct. per thousand. 
The cost of towing the equivalent in brush fascines at 4.2 ct. per cubic yard 
was $416, which shows a large percentage in favor of lumber. Owing to the 
greater buoyancy of a brush mat, it requires more than twice as much rock 
to anchor it safely on the bottom. The average amount of rock used to sink 
a square (100 sq. ft.) of apron mat was: For lumber, 0.77 cu. yd.; for brush 
fascines, 1.70 cu. yd. The following tables give the comparative costs of 
lumber and brush fascine apron mats f-or season 1915: 

Cost of Brush Fascine Mat, 1,000 Ft. Long, 30 Ft. Wide (300 Squares) 

Brush. 1,440 cu. yd. at 24 cts $ 345. 60 

Rock, 510 cu. yd. at 85 cts. 433. 58 

Towing brush, 1,440 cu. yd. at 4.2 cts 60. 40 

Towing rock, 510 cu. yd. at 21 cts 107. 10 

Labor constructing mats, 8 laborers 4 days at $1.75 per day 56. 00 

Labor sinking mat, 510 cu. yd. rock at 4 cts 20. 40 

Wire, 80 lb. at 3 cts .♦ 2. 40 

Total $1 , 025. 48 

Cost of Lumber Mat, 1,000 Ft. Long, 30 Ft. Wide (300 Squares) 

Lumber, 19,800 ft. B. M. at $11.95 per M $ 236. 61 

Rock, 231 cu. yd. at 85 cts 196. 35 

Towing lumber, 19,800 ft. B. M. at 30 cts. per M 5. 94 

Towing rock, 231 cu. yd. at 21 cts 48. 51 

Labor constructing mat, 8 laborers 2}4 days at $1.75 per day 35. 00 

Labor sinking mat, 231 cu. yd. of rock at 4 cts 9. 24 

Nails, 4 kegs at $2.05 and 25 lb. wire at 3 cts 8. 95 

Total .... $ 540. 60 

The above shows a balance of $484.88 in favor of lumber mat (300 squares) 
of $1.62 per square. 

Cost of Concrete Paved Bank RevetmentV-^This is described in Engineer- 
ing and Contracting, March 20, 1918, being an abstract of a paper by G. C. 
Hay don in Professional Memoirs.' In this case a departure from the standard 



1444 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



form of brush mattress construction was made which consisted in paving the 
upper bank with a 4-in. layer of reinforced concrete slabs instead of broken 
stone, and the protection of subaqueous willow mattress for about 10 ft. width 
from the shore edge with reinforced concrete blocks connected to the solid 
upper pavement. 

The plant used on the work consisted of the following: One double-decked 
quarterboat with a capacity of housing from 60 to 70 laborers and necessary 
foremen, 1 hydraulic grader, 1 mattress barge, 1 barge for concrete mixer 
plant, 6 material barges, and 1 tow boat. The working plant was supple- 
mented by an 8-in. suction pump, installed on a material barge, for procuring 
gravel. The value of this plant is estimated at $60,000. 

The principal material used, which was procured locally and delivered by 
barge, consisted of willow brush at $1.60 per cord; stone at $0.68 per cubic 
yard, and sand and gravel at $0,08 per cubic yard; manufactured material 



%y<7/K strand _^\ 
eye - bans -v,^^ 

Go/k'.wjre fencing i 21 'm'de - 




Fig. 3. — Cross section of combination concrete and willow mattress. 



delivered by freight consisted of %-in. galvanized strand at $0.71 per linear 
foot; 50-in. galvanized woven fence wire, for the paving, at $0.06 per linear 
foot; 22-in. fence wire, for blocks, at $0.03 per linear foot; lumber, for forms, 
at $22 per M. B. M., and Portland cement at $0.75 per barrel (f. o. b. factory). 

The bank is graded by the hydraulic method to 1 on 3, which gives a length 
of slope from 42 to 54 ft. according to height above standard low water, which 
also determines the length of a slab. 

After the bank is graded the continuous mattress, 86 ft. wide, is woven of 
bar-growth willows, from K to 2 in. in diameter at the butt end and 10 to 25 
ft. long. The header, about 12 in. in diameter, is formed by lapped bundles 
of willows bound together to the desired width of mattress, by ^^-in. strand. 
The stitch is then started by inserting single willows into the bundle at an 
angle of about 45°, from one end of the header to the other; then the willows 
are inserted at the same angle to the reverse direction, the last willow inserted 
being on top. This makes the weaving of a continuous over process, the stitch 
having an over and under appearance. The willows are placed in such 
numbers and closeness of weave as to make a mattress 12 in. thick. As the 
weaving progresses a selvage is made along each side of the mattress by turn- 
ing in the tops of the outer willows, or an equally good selvage (known as the 
"sidewalk") is made by platting willows, longitudinally alon^ tji^ edges. 







BANK AND SHORE PROTECTION 1445 

The mattress is strengthened by a longitudinal and cross system of ^^-in. 
in diameter galvanized strand. The longitudinal system for an 86-ft. mattress 
consists of 6 pairs of strands, spaced as required, each pair consisting of 1 
strand underneath and 1 strand on top of the mattress. The cross systems 
are in pairs, one underneath and 1 on top, spaced 16% ft. apart. At each 
intersection of the 2 strands underneath and the 2 strands on top, all 4 are 
drawn together tightly with a Ke-in. U-shaped clip, after all the slack has 
been taken out of the strands by block and tackle. The head of the con- 
tinuous mattress, or any section of mattress, is anchored by 3 pairs of strands 
fastened to the respective longitudinal strands, 1 pair 4 ft., 1 pair 16 ft., and 
the remaining pair of 46 ft. back from the outer corner and run ashore at 45° • 
angle with the upper edge of the mattress and fastened to deadmen 50 ft. back 
from the edge of the bank. The continuous mattress is anchored to the bank 
by each pair of cross strands carried up the slope and fastened to a deadman 
placed 8 ft. back, and 4 ft. below the top of slope. 

The mattress was weighted down with one-man stone sufficiently to make it 
sink into close contact with the river bed, after which, the concrete paving 
was placed. 

The statement given below contains only field expenditures with the cost 
divided as follows: 

Per lin. ft. 

Grading bank ^ $0. 55 

Weaving mattress 1.98 

Concrete blocks in place 1.16 

Ballasting mattress 1.13 

Concrete paving 2. 76 

Total, per linear foot $7. 58 

As two other pieces of this type of revetment have since been completed 
under similar conditions, their costs are given here for general comparison, 
and, to a certain extent, permit the establishment of a proper basis for 
estimates. 

Marthasville Bend: 11,960 ft. at $8.05 per linear foot, completed Nov. 25, 
1914. The cost was as follows: 

Per lin. ft. 

Grading bank $0. 84 

Weaving mattress 1.85 

Concrete blocks in place 1.56 

Ballasting mattress .83 

Concrete paving 2. 97 

Total, per linear foot $8. 05 

Dewey Bend: 7,215 ft. at $8.13 per linear foot, completed Dec. 17, 1915. 
The cost of this was as follows: 

Per lin. ft. 

Grading bank $0. 67 

Weaving mattress 2.31 

Concrete blocks in place 1. 45 

Ballasting mattress 1 . 22 

Concrete paving 2. 48 

Total, per linear foot $8. 13 

Additional data on the cost of this work are given by Lt. Col. J. F. Mclndoe, 
Corps of Engineers, as an addendum to Mr. Haydon's article. These figures 
follow: 



1446 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Bates Island Bend: The cost, per square (100 sq. ft.) of the completed 
concrete paving of upper bank, was $6.59; and of subaqueous work, was $4.65, 
of which $2.31 was cost of mattress, $1.34 the cost of concrete blocks, and $1 
the cost of ballast. The quantities and unit costs of materials for each square 
were approximately as follows: 

Upper bank work — 

Grading, 33 cu. yd. at $0,025 per cubic yard. 

Concrete for paving, 1.24 cu. yd. at $4.52 per cubic yard. 
Subaqueous work — 

Brush for mattress, .6 cord, at $1.59 per cord on barge. 

Stone for ballast, .8 cu. yd., at $0.67 per cubic yard on barge. 
■ Concrete blocks, 24, at $0.28 each. 

Strand for mattress, 9.2 lb., at $0,085 per pound. 

Clips for mattress, 3 lb., at $0.06 per pound. 

Marthasville Bend : The cost, per square (100 sq. ft.) of the completed upper 
bank paving, was $7.17; and of subaqueous work, was $4.86, of which $2.12 
was cost of mattress, $1.70 the cost of concrete blocks, and $0.95 the cost of 
ballast. 

The quantities and unit costs of materials for each square were approxi- 
mately as follows: 

Upper bank work — 

(jrading, 33 cu. yd., at $0,046 per cubic yard. 

Concrete for paving, 1.24 cu. yd., ait $4.57 per cubic yard. 
Subaqueous work — 

Brush for mattress, .7 cord, at $1.58 per cord on barge. 

Stone for ballast, .7 cu. yd., at $0,693 per cubic yard on barge. 

Concrete blocks, 25, at $0,313 each. 

Strand for mattress, 9.2 lb., at $0,085 per pound. 

Clips, .3 lb., at $0.06 per pound. 

Dewey Bend: The cost, per square (100 sq. ft.) of completed upper bank 
paving, was $6.55; and of subaqueous work, was $5.80, of which $2.69 was 
cost of mattress, $1.69 the cost of concrete blocks, and $1.42 the cost of ballast. 

The quantities and unit costs of materials for each square were approxi- 
mately as follows: 

Upper bank work — 

Grading, 29 cu. yd., at $0,048 per cubic yard. 

Concrete for paving, 1.24 cu. yds. at $4.08 per cubic yard. 
Subaqueous work — 

Brush for mattress, .56 cord, at $1.96 per cord on barge. 

Stone for ballast, .86 cu. yd., at $0.86 per cubic yard on barge. 

Concrete blocks, 25, at $0.21 each. 

Strand for mattress, 9.2 lbs., at $0,085 per pound. 

Clips for mattress, .3 lb., at $0.06 per pound. 

Concrete Slab for Bank Protection. — Where the bottom consists of material 
not washable by the force of the current, concrete has been successfully used 
on the Southern Pacific Ry. for protection of their fills. 

Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 14, 1912, gives the following data on such 
a protection (Fig. 4; . The slab is 6 ins. thick and is reinforced at the center with 
wire netting. In one case where it was put on a new fill which settled badly, 
the concrete did not pull apart and did not allow the water to wash the fill. 

A slab containing 376 square yards was constructed as follows: The bank 
was sloped 1}4 to 1, and 12 X 18 in. trench was dug along the foot of the 
slope. This trench was filled with concrete embedding the ends of the strips 
of mesh reinforcement. A strip of reinforcement was then stretched up-bank 
and its edges were clamped by forms as shown by Fig. 4. Braces driven 



BANK AND SHORE PROTECTION 



1447 



between the edge forms made the mesh taut, and the forms held it 3 ins. clear 
of the slope surface. The space between forms was next concreted, the forms 
serving as templets for thickness of slab. When the concrete had hardened 
the forms were removed leaving a 4-in. selvage of mesh projecting beyond the 
slab edges. The next strip of mesh but one was then stretched and concreted 
and so on completing alternate sections of the slab. The intermediate sections 
were constructed by stretching the strip of mesh up-bank and wiring its edges 




I tS/ope t^" to /' 

^4-' ProJect/on iV/re Reinforcing 
<2-3'x4' Ho/ding IV/re Mesft 



2-oW//o/c//n^ M're /tfes/f ^ 



PIAU OF CONCRETE /?£\/£TMENT 
RE/NF0RC5D H^/TN WtR£ ME5M 



"ivoocfen ivedges 



/ Z''k4" 

vr — ' — 



J 2-3'x4'' Cfamped fogef/n 
v/re reinforcing be 



mg between 



^ 



FO^/^ FO/? ttOLD/N6 Wit^e /?£ 
iNFORC/N6 




T FORM CLAf^P 



Fig. 4. — Reinforced concrete slab for bank protection, Southern Pacific Ry. Co. 



to the selvage edges projecting from the completed slabs, and by concreting 
the open spaces. The cost of the 376 square yards of slab was as follows: 

Materials: Revetment, per sq. 

yd. 

2 rolls fence wire, 50 rods, at 45 cts. per rod $ 22. 50 $0. 0598 

82 cu. yds. gravel and sand at 30 cts 24. 60 0. 0654 

82H bbls. cement at $1.70 140. 25 0. 3731 

Total material $187. 35 $0. 4983^ 

Labor: 

Building mixing platform $ 11 . 50 $0. 0305 

Unloading gravel 25. 00 0. 0665 

Unloading cement 10. 50 0. 0279 

Putting up forms and wire 116. 50 0. 3099 

Placing concrete 119.00 0.3165 

Total labor $282. 50 $0. 7513 

Total materials and labor $469. 85 $1. 2496 



1448 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



The work was done by a gang of eleven men working 10 hours per day at 
the following daily wages: One foreman, $4.50; one concrete mason, $3.25; 
six laborers, each, $2.25, and three laborers at $2.50. 

Cost of Riprapping Embankment with Wire Bags. — The following is 
abstracted by Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 12, 1919, from an account 
by L. E. Foster in the Reclamation Record. 

On certain work the toe of an embankment had to be protected against 
water velocities of from 5 to 16 sec. ft. Wire bags were used, composed of two 
15 ft. sections, 5 ft. wide and two 5 ft. sections, 23^^ ft. wide, sewed together 
with No. 12 wire. Ties were at 6-in. intervals. Galvanized wire was used. 
The weight of wire per bag was 70 lb. The capacity of the bag was 4.63 
cu. yd. 




r^ 



av Si^/fr// s^AYVi-s. oat /^Cff su^^^cc. 

ST(f. O-e/.* ro 3. ,sccr/o^s o^ fi-/i^o//rc S/iow/k/c Af£T/^o0 or /'i./yav^ ' Mvrs ^/ffs. 



-*• 



C^. 



I 




/XV^T/T/C O^ M/P£-Sfi(i. 



-cmri. 7DOC /v^^£hm^ 



/>£'t^fiQi°irv:^r or h/yp^ 0^a 



Fig. 5. — Sections of dike showing method of placing wire bags, and details of 
wire bag and tool for its manufacture. 



The bag material was cut and sewed in the shop into the developed form 
shown in the right-hand corner of the drawing, then folded together flat, and 
hauled to the work. The bags were then sewed into rectangular form with 
the lid loose. The bags were set in a horizontal row in place and filled directly 
from the rock wagons. The labor of filling the bags proved to be less than to 
lay riprap of the same thickness. 

Care was taken to have all rock next to the wire mesh of greater dimensions 
then 6 by 6 in. Since this is a relatively small sized rock, much rock is avail- 
able for bag work and would be too small for riprap. 

After the bags were level full the top was closed down and sewed securely 
on the front and two sides. The bags were also tied to each other along these 
edges, thus forming a continuous mat. Quarrying and loading on this job 
was charged to another feature as excavation. 

Besides the 181 bags placed on spillway No. 1, 78 bags were placed as pro- 




BANK AND SHORE PROTECTION 1449 

tection at the toe of spillway No. 2. The costs given below are based on a 
total of 259 bags. 

Material required per bag. 
31 lin. ft. of 60-iii. wire mesh. 
11 lin. ft. of 30-in. wire mesh. 
5 pounds No. 12 tie wire. 

Cost: 

Cost per sq. ft., including tie wire $0. 0229 

Weight per sq. ft., including tie wire, lb 0. 38 

Weight per bag (182.5 sq. ft.), including tie wire, lb 75. 4 

Cost per bag (material only) $4. 20 

Detail costs: 

Material for bags $4. 20 

Manufacture of bags ready for placing 905 

Placing and filling bags 1. 125 

Closing bags and sewing 446 

Total unit cost per bag $6. 676 

Cost of rock hauling for bag work, per cu. yd $0. 17 

Cost of wire bag work, per cu. j'-d . . , $1. 681 

Cost of Rebuilding the Jetties at Humboldt Bay, California. — This is 
described by Morton L. Tower in Professional Memoirs for Sept .-Oct., 1913. 
The following information is taken from an abstract of Mr. Tower's article in 
Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 8, 1913. 

The jetties as originally built (1887-1899) were constructed by depositing 
stone ranging in size up to pieces of 10 tons from pile trestles; the method 
generally used on the North Pacific Coast. The effect of the severe surf on 
these jetties has been to cause subsiding of the outer ends of the work, prin- 
cipally by reduction of slopes and by displacing the top stone. The smaller 
pieces of stone have been washed away and some disintegration of the stone 
has occurred. The mass has also settled into the bottom to some extent. 
Attrition by the sand-laden water is a source of possible loss, considering the 
total amount of surface exposed. In order to keep the channel open it was 
imperative to rebuild the jetties. 

The desirability of using large-sized stone is a factor in jetty maintenance 
which has been well established by experience at all the North Pacific Coast 
harbors. In planning this work it was decided that the limiting size should be 
20 tons. It was also considered desirable that these stones be lowered to place 
to avoid breaking them or the stone they fell on, which often occurs when stone 
is deposited by dumping from cars on an elevated track. The use of an un- 
loading crane also permits the placing of stone in a selected position in the 
jetty, which cannot be done when it is dumped from a tramway. 

All the quarries adjacent to Humboldt Bay are at a considerable distance 
from the navigable channels, thus rendering rail transportation essential from 
the quarry to tide water. The quarry used is seven miles from the nearest 
landing. 

The largest single item of plant involved in the construction is the cars. 
It was deemed that it would be cheaper in the end if these were of standard 
design and hence salable when the work was completed. 

A tramway of sufficient strength to carry a 20-ton crane and standard 40-ton 
railroad equipment is necessarily much heavier and more expensive than the. 
jetty tramways used along the Oregon and Washington coasts, where narrow 
gage, special dump cars are used. 



1450 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The storms of many years had beaten the old enrockment into a compact 
mass, such that it would have been impossible to drive piles into it, and for a 
tramway it would have been necessary to place a portion of the piles of each 
bent in the sand to give it any lateral stability. 

The estimated cost of a suitable trestle is as follows: 

Six-pile bents 14 feet apart with two lines of 10 by 18-in. stringers under 
each rail and 6 by 8-in. ties. Rails to be 28 ft. above mean low water. 

Material. 

6 piles, each 50 ft. long, 300 lin. ft at 15 cts $ 45. 00 

3,500 ft. B. M. lumber, at $20 per M. ft 70. 00 

170 lbs. bolts, nuts and washers, at 3 cts. per lb 5. 10 

2 rail joints, at $3 each 6. 00 

1,120 lbs. rails, at 2^ cts. per lb 28. 00 

107 lbs. nails and spikes, at 5 cts. per lb 5. 35 

Material for 14 ft $159. 45 

Material for 1 ft $11. 39 

Labor, fuel and supplies, per day, $59. 

Rate of progress (estimated 2 bents, 28 ft.), cost per ft. . 2. 11 

Plant Required 

1 revolving driver, complete $20 , 000 

1 supply and material car 5 , 000 

3 flat cars, at $600 1 , 800 

Material yard platforms 5 , 000 

For 9,000 lin. ft. tramway $31 , 800 

Plant charge per foot $ 3. 53 



Cost per foot $17.03 

In addition to the cost of the tramway over the actual length of the jetty 
to be rebuilt, about 9,000 ft., it would have been necessary to raise the short 
tracks across the sand on a short trestle, amounting in all to about 7,000 lin. 
ft. at an estimated cost of $10 per foot. While the cost of the shore track at 
elevation 12 has been : 

For labor $1.13 

For rails, spikes and ties 2. 50 

Cost per foot $3. 63 

The low elevation for the shore tracks possible with the system used has 
therefore effected a total saving of $44,590 over the cost of the shore trestle 
necessary to reach a tramway 24 to 28 ft. above low water at the ocean beach 
line. 

The desirability of making full use of the existing enrockment with its 
established slopes and compact mass, as well as the advantage of having a 
thoroughly stable foundation for the stone unloading crane, and the high cost 
of the tramway of sufficient strength to permit the use of the large stone pro- 
posed, were the conditions which led to the adoption of the concrete cap. 

The main idea of the concrete is to hold the track when the jetty is swept 
by waves. The only portions of the structure that will float are the ties, and 
these are firmly imbedded in concrete and held in place, A further advantage 



BANK AND SHORE PROTECTION 1451 

of the concrete cap method is that the ties are the only portion of the structure 
which is not of a permanent nature and an addition to the value of the struc- 
ture as a jetty. The concrete top on the crest of the structure will greatly 
retard the unraveling action of the waves, and when finally broken up by the 
settlement and washing away of the rock slopes it will still be of value as jetty 
material. 

The cost of the concrete cap and tracks has been: 



For labor S 2, 86 

4:}i tons class 3 stone in voids of jetty enrockment . $6. 75 

2 tons of class 4 stone 3. 00 

.95 bbls. cement 2. 00 

Total concrete material $11. 75 

50 ft. B. M. lumber, at $14 per M $0. 70 

Fuel, oil, repairs, etc 66 

1.36 

$15.97 

Rails and joints (recoverable) 2. 13 



Total cost per linear foot $18. 10 



Some loss of freshly laid concrete has occurred when it has been exposed to 
severe wave action within four or five hours after placing. This loss has not 
been sufficiently great to add materially to the cost. One severe storm carried 
away 25 ft. of the outer end of the track, but to all appearance the damage was 
caused by unraveling the enrockment which allowed the concrete to break 
down. 

The above costs include the cost of portions of track lost by wave wash 
before the concrete had time to set, amounting to 1 per cent. 

The plant cost for the concrete method had been: 



One concrete mixer, complete, with boiler and engine $1 , 500 

One flat car 600 

Tanks and small tools 250 

Labor assembling plant 200 

Total $2, 550 

Cost per ft., for one jetty, 53 cts. 



Construction Methods'. — The method of construction is as follows: The 
enrockment is first brought to an elevation averaging 2 ft. below the finished 
grade with Class 2 stone; pieces weighing from 1,000 lbs. to 10 tons. None 
of the pieces of Class 2 stone are allowed to project above 6 ins. below grade — 
the bottom of the ties. Voids in the mass are then filled with Class 3 stone, 
pieces weighing from 3 lbs. to 500 lbs., and the top is leveled off at from 18 to 
10 ins. below grade. Holes are chocked by hand-placed stone. A rough 
form is made by tying wale pieces, 6 X 8 in. X 20 ft. ties, 'together with wires 
6 ft. apart, and nailing to them short vertical boards with bottoms in contact 
with the rock. A rock dam is built at the front end of the form. Concrete 
is mixed rather dry, deposited with a 1 cu. yd. self-dumping and self-righting 
bucket, handled by the stone-unloading crane. The concrete is brought to 



1452 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

within an inch or so of the bottom of the ties. The end tie is brought to 
grade, the crane rails laid, and the ties placed and spiked. Concrete is then 
continued to the top of the ties. 

The concrete mixer is mounted on the end of a standard flat car, the dis- 
charge shoot delivering over the end. Mixing water is supplied by gravity 
from a tank on the opposite end of the car. Oil fuel is supplied by gravity 
from a tank near the water tank. The oil and water tank also supply the 
stone unloading crane. Oil is pumped and water flows by gravity to the 
crane supply tanks. Cement for a day's operation is carried on the concrete 
mixer car. The concrete is machine mixed in a Foote Batch Mixer of 21 cu. 
ft. capacity, end-discharge type, steam driven. 

At the outer end of the jetty there are two working tracks. All material 
and equipment are regulation master-car builders' pattern and dimensions. 
The tracks are 14 ft. 7H ins. center to center. When in operation the concrete 
mixer car occupie*s the left-hand track, and the car containing the aggregate 
the right-hand track. A working movable platform fills the space between the 
cars, leaving about 1 in. clearance over the stake pockets. The elevation of 
the platform is the same as that of the car decks. The aggregate is shoveled 
directly from the cars into the charging skip and a large barrow. The 
charging skip is marked by a row of rivets at the height containing the 
charge required. In order to work a sufficient number of shovelers to keep the 
depositing bucket in motion it was found necessary to provide a greater length 
than was possible by shoveling into the skip alone. A two-wheel barrow, 
running on rails and holding about 15 cu. ft., was mounted on the mixer car. 
This allows the charging shovelers to be distributed over the whole length 
of a standard flat car. 

The most economical crew for depositing concrete is eight laborers charging 
aggregate, one laborer charging cement and one engineman operating mixer. 
The concrete is placed, spread, and tamped by the regular stone unloading 
crew, consisting of engineman, four laborers and the foreman. This crew 
will generally build a section of track 18 to 20 ft. in length in 2 hours and 15 
minutes, including the construction of forms and placing ties and rails. 

Under the specifications for the material the contractors are allowed to 
supply either broken stone, crusher run, or unscreened river gravel for aggre- 
gate. The material supplied is tested for proportioning in the following 
manner: The aggregate as delivered is screened and the portion passing a 
plate containing K-in. diameter holes is considered sand, and the balance 
stone. If necessary, sand is added to form a mixture corresponding to a 1 : 2 J'^ : 
5^. The gravel supplied contains rather larger proportion of sand than is 
required. When broken stone is delivered it is necessary to add about 16 
lbs. of sand per 100 lbs. of aggregate as received. 

Stone for the work is supplied under contract by the Hammon Construction 
Company at the following prices: 

Per ton 

Class 1 $1. 74 

Class 2 1. 56 

Class 3 1. 50 

Class 4 1. 50 

The following is taken from the specifications under which the stone is 
being supplied ; 



BANK AND SHORE PROTECTION 1453 

Descriptions of Material. — Class 1 Stone. To be of large pieces only, 
weighing from 10 tons to 20 tons each piece. These stones will be used for 
slopes on the outer end of the work, and none will be received until the jetty- 
repairs have been extended 2,300 ft. from the high water shore lines. Delivery 
of this stone will be required up to 500 tons per day when work is in progress 
on the outer ends of both jetties. Stone of Class 1 will be loaded directly on 
the flat car without the use of skips. 

Class 2 Stone. To be in pieces of 1,000 lbs. each to pieces of 10 tons each, 
in the following proportions: 

One-fourth of each day's supply may be in pieces of 1,000 lbs. to pieces of 
3 tons; one-half of each day's supply must be in pieces of from 3 tons to 6 
tons each; and one-fourth of each day's supply must be in pieces from 6 to 10 
tons each. 

This class of stone will form the major portions of the repairs to the jetties. 
It is expected that the delivery required will not be less than 1,000 tons per 
day after the work has been well commenced on both jetties, and about 500 
tons per day for the first season's work. 

Stones of Class 2, when in pieces under 6 tons each, must be loaded on suit- 
able skips holding up to 10 tons of stone each. Skips will be strong and 
designed for lifting at the four corners. Four corner hooks will be provided 
on each skip for the convenient attachment of the unloading crane spider 
chain. Skips will be kept in good working order by the contractor. 

Class 3 Stone. Will be used only for bringing the top of the rough mound to 
a nearly smooth, tight surface and for concrete displacers. It will be in pieces 
not less than 3 lbs. nor more than 500 lbs. each, delivered on skips similar to 
those above described. Stone of Class 1 or Class 2 must not be loaded on 
cars carrying stone of Class 3. Stone of Class 3 will be used in decreasing 
amount as the jetties are extended. From 120 tons per day at the commence- 
ment of the work to about 10 tons per day when the outer end of the work is 
reached. 

Class 4 Stone. Will be used for making concrete. It may be clean crusher 
run of the same rock as used for the other classes, or a good selected or washed 
river gravel may be used. It must vary in size from pieces with greatest 
dimension not more than 3 ins. to the finest product of the crushers. If river 
gravel be used, it must be thoroughly washed, all organic matter of any nature 
removed, and screened, if necessary, to exclude pieces greater than 3 ins. 
largest dimension. Either gravel or stone must be of hard, durable rock which 
will not disintegrate in the finished work. 

Broken stone or gravel will be loaded on flat cars, provided with 
suitable sides. The amount required will vary from about 70 tons per day 
during the first part of the work to 8 tons per day for the outer ends of the 
jetties. 

The larger portion of the stone supplied is a close-grained igneous rock, 
weighing about 198 lbs. per cu. ft. It is very difficult to quarry, breaking into 
very uneven fragments. However, by proper manipulation, a minimum of 
waste is secured and, as there is no covering soil to be contended with, the 
quarry is very satisfactory. 

A second stone supply from the same vicinity is a close-grained metamorphic 
sedimentary rock with irregular planes of division of argillaceous material. 
This stone weighs 167 lbs. per cu. ft. and is easily worked. On account of the 
seams and a considerable covering of soil, which cause a large ampunt of 



1454 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

waste, it has not been found advantageous to furnish any considerable quan- 
tity of this stone so far. 

The stone is loaded by the contractors on standard flat cars and hauled 7 
miles to a loading point on a navigable channel, where it is placed on barges 
carrying eight cars each. When delivered at the jetty receiving plant, it is 
unloaded and the empty cars are returned to the barges. From the loading 
point to the jetty landing is 9 miles. 

The above arrangement permitted the contract to be made for the material 
only and the contractors have nothing to do with the actual jetty construction. 
The United States is not required to pass on the rock until it is offered for use 
at the jetty wharf. 

The contractor's crew has numbered generally about 100 men, employed 
for 7 10-hour days per week. The following plant has been installed by the 
contractors: 

Four 20-ton stiff-leg derricks, 100-ft. booms, with steam-driven hoisting and 
swinging engines; one steam crane, with shovel attachment, used for 
grading pits and tracks and for loading cars; one two-stage, 16 X 10 X 
14-in. IngersoU-Rand cross compound air compressor, electrically driven; 
one small jaw rock-crushing plant, electrically driven. In addition, there is 
the usual equipment of air drills, small tools, shop and mess equipment and 
appliances. 

Hollow drill bits are used, and since the installment of an air-driven Leyner 
sharpener no difficulty has been experienced in successfully quarrying the 
stone. The contractor's transportation plant consists of fifty flat cars, 60,000 
lbs. capacity, 36 ft. long, two car ferry barges and two tow boats. From the 
quarry to the landing the cars are handled over a logging railroad by the 
logging companies' motive power. The contractors are now providing 15 
additional cars and a third barge. 

The receiving and depositing plant at the jetty, belonging to the United 
States, consists of a 100-ft. span, three track apron for transfer from barge 
to shore tracks, adjusted to tidal elevation at barge end by counterweights, 
and fixed at 10-ft. elevation at shore end; two locomotives; three flat cars for 
miscellaneous materials; a 20 cu. ft. concrete mixer mounted on a flat car; a 
10-ton revolving and traveling unloading crane, gage of gantry 14 ft. ; water 
supply and distributing system; fuel oil storage and distributing system; a 
repair plant with power-driven tools for ordinary blacksmith, carpenter, and 
light machine work; an electric light plant; store house, mess house; crew 
quarters and necessary minor equipment for the work in progress. A new 
stone unloading crane of 20 tons capacity is now in course of construc- 
tion. The jetty crew varies from 40 to 50 men working 6 8-hour shifts per 
week. 

Cost of Repointing Sea-Wall with Cement Gun. — A cement gun was used 
for repointing about 22,000 lin. ft. of joints in the west side of the Government 
sea wall at Governors Island, N. Y. The work is described by Henry W. 
Babcock, in the July-Aug., 1917, Professional Memoirs. The following notes 
have been taken from an abstract of Mr. Babcock's article published in 
Engineering and Contracting, Aug. 15, 1917. 

The sea-wall is built of heavy stones laid in courses; none of the courses 
were required to be of uniform height throughout except the coping, which was 
1 ft. high and 3 ft. wide. The joints were ordinarily 1 to Vyi in. thick, some- 
times reaching 2 in. On the northwest, or Hudson River, side of the wall 
the mortar had come out of the joints, almost generally, indicating that the 



BANK AND SHORE PROTECTION 1455 

joints had not oeen made full, but voids had been left in whieh ice formed. 
Frequently the joints were found open to a depth of 2 ft. or more. 

The Cement Gun Co. furnished the cement gun at $250 a month; the air 
compressor at $5 a day ; an operator for the gun at $6 a day, and an engineman 
to run the compressor at $4 a day. The United States furnished 5 to 7 
laborers, a horse and cart and an overseer. The lease with the Cement Gun 
Co. also provided for payment to them of transportation charges on the 
plant and for 4 days' time allowed for transportation. The transportation 
charges were $216, being about trebled for the requirement of delivery on the 
island. 

Work was begun at the north end of the extension sea-wall near Castle 
WiUiam on June 1, 1916, and was stopped June 29, 1916, at a point of 4,170 
ft. from the beginning. The linear feet of joints pointed was about 22,320, 
averaging 900 ft. to the working day. At the beginning, although the location 
was near the sand pile and the cement storage, the rate was inuch slower on 
account of inexperience and bad weather. The rate also varied on account of 
tides, more work being accomplished when low tides occurred near the middle 
of the day. 

In filling the joint, the operator turned on water only until the joint was 
washed clean, then the mixture of cement and sand with the water, sweeping 
over any convenient length of 4 to 8 ft. at a time. The mortar filled the joint 
gradually in from 2 to 5 minutes, depending largely on the voids as well as on 
the length covered. When the joint was nearly full, the visible completion 
appeared sudden. 

The operator stood on the riprap foundation of the wall during work until 
the tide rose too high for rubber boots, when a plank swing was hung over the 
wall for a platform ; this was for about 33 per cent of the time. 

Some difficulty was met with in the lower joints, which are under water at 
high tide. They could be filled only at low tide, and the swash of waves or 
swells from passing steamers would often wash out the mortar for a depth of 
3 to 6 in., a result which would happen from any pointing. Covering these 
joints with a weighted canvas screen was tried, but it was not effectual. 
Towards the close of the work, a few linear feet of joint were covered with 
plaster of Paris, which set at once and stayed on for a day, when the cement 
had hardened. It was rather slow and expensive for general use. 

This kind of work unavoidably makes a joint without finish and spatters 
mortar on the face of the wall. One of the laborers was assigned to smoothing 
off the joint and cleaning away the surplus mortar before it had set. 

It was at first intended to mix the cement and sand at 1 to 2. The Cement 
Gun men said that their experience led them to believe that the force with 
which the mortar was driven caused some of the sand to rebound, and that 
1 to 3 was a better proportion. This was adopted. In these closed joints, 
however, the loss of sand from this cause was small. It is estimated that 
between 10 and 15 per cent of the mortar was wasted from spattering and over- 
filling the joints, and that this contained practically the same proportion of 
sand as the original mixture. 

To drive the cement and sand through the hose with compressed air, it is 
essential that the mixture be quite dry. In the early part of June there was 
much damp, foggy weather and the sand got damp and, although the cement 
was kept quite dry, the mixture clogged in the hose. It is very probable that 
the compressed air was also fully saturated. The trouble was overcome by 
heating the sand on an iron plate over a fire of drift wood. 



1456 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The cost of the work follows: 

Expenditures: 

Rental of cement gun $250. 00 

Rental of compressor 125. 00 

Services of operator 150. 00 

Services of compressor engineman 100. 00 

Transportation, including 4 days' rental time 216. 00 

$ 841.00 

Rental, 3 tarpaulins to cover cement 41. 85 

Services : 

Manisees and Ingalls and crew, freighting supplies 

and general assistance $171. 58 

U. S. inspector and overseer, with 5 to 7 men 641, 09 

2 horses, carts, and drivers, 34 days 136. 00 

1 double team and driver, 1 day 8. 00 

956.67 

Materials: 

800 bags cement $324. 00 

125 ^Hoo cu. yd. sand 91.71 

635 gallons gasoline 152. 40 

Force pump, fittings, and hose for water * 81. 66 

Lumber, runways and mortar beds 59. 76 

Tools: Wheelbarrows, shovels, sand screen, etc 34. 60 

Rope, for moving machines 24. 09 

Miscellaneous: Canvas, rubber boots, etc 39. 48 

807.70 

Office expenses and travel $258. 93 

Photographs . 7. 45 

■ 266. 38 

Total $2,913.60 

This cost will be reduced by a rebate of about $60.00 on cement bags re- 
turned in good condition. 

The value of materials and tools not used up on the work is estimated at 
$262.70. This will not far exceed the cost of removing them and storing them 
until needed, and must be regarded as part of the cost of work in a locality 
such as Governors Island. 

The length of joints repointed, 22,320 ft., was measured, and is essentially 
correct. The open widths varied from 2}4 in. to nothing, and the depths 
repointed from 36 in. to 3 in. These cannot be averaged with any accuracy, 
being almost wholly out of sight. It is roughly estimated that the average 
thickness of joint is slightly less than 1 in., and the average depth perhaps 12 to 
15 in. 

The cost of this work with the cement gun was not far from the cost for the 
same lengths of joint repointed by hand. Hand work would give a better 
finish, but would hardly extend more than 4 in. into the wall. 

The cost at Governors Island is 10 to 15 per cent more than it would be at an 
accessible point in the city. 

In operating the cement gun, a large supply of compressed air is needed. 
It is used to turn the cement and sand free as well as to carry the dry mixture. 
This mixture will choke in the hose unless diluted with a large amount of air. . 
From such observations as could be made, it appeared that the volume of 
sand and cement carried was from 1 to 2 per cent the volume of the air used as 
a vehicle. 

The amount of water required was given by the Cement Gun Co. as 5 gal. 
per minute, at a pressure of about 45 lb. This quantity was seldom used, and 
the stated pressure is not needed. The suction from the air blast would draw 
in the water if delivered at the nozzle under a much lower head. 



m At Governors Island, fresh water could not be had along the line of the sea- 
wall; and salt water from the bay was used, pumped up through a fine brass 
mesh. 

An examination was made Oct. 9, 1916, and another May 17, 1917. In 
neither case was there found any deterioration since the repointing was done. 
For about half the length of wall repointed, the lower joints, at and below half 
tide, are from 2 to 3 in. slack; and for a length of 125 ft., near the hghthouse, 
the lower joint is from 10 to 15 in. slack. This 125 ft. was repointed June 22, 
1916, when the sea from a strong northwest wind washed the mortar out 
while it was fresh. 

On May 17, test drills were driven 6 in. into the joints at these places; the 
mortar was everywhere firm and very hard. With hand pointing, the joints 
would not be filled to a depth of 6 in. 

Percentage of Voids and of Settlement in Rubble Mount Breakwater. — 
In Jan.-Feb., 1918, Professional Memoirs, abstracted in Engineering and, Con- 
tracting, Feb. 20, 1918, Clarence Coleman describes the methods of construct- 
ing the breakwater extension at Marquette, Mich. In this paper Mr. Cole- 
man shows that the percentage of voids in the rubble foundation (deposited 
by being dropped or dumped into the water) was 37.43 per cent, and the voids 
in the remainder of the breakwater including the covering stone (10-15 ton 
size) were 40.57 per cent. In estimating for the work an allowance of 8 per 
cent additional tonnage was made to cover loss from settlement. The final 
results checked this figure very closely. 

Cost of Unloading Stone for Rubble Mound Breakwater. — Table I, from 
the records of H. F. Alexander, gives the cost of unloading small or hand stone 
from deck scows, and is taken from Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 24, 
1912. 

Table I. — Cost of Uni*oading Stone from Scows by Hand 

Total number Av. No. of 

of hours tons per man Cost per 

Scow Tons required per hour Cost ton 

1st 828 326 2.54 $84.17 $. 1015-f- 

2nd 849 334 2.542 86.17 .1014 

3rd 702 344 2.04 88.67 .1263 

4th 485 160 3.03 41.67 .0859 + 

5th 914 274 3.335 72.00 .0787 + 

6th 444 174 2.55 45.17 .1017 

7th.. 840 327 2.57 84.08 .1000 

8th 641 250 2.564 64.83 .1011 + 

9th 592 243 2.436+ 63.08 .1065 

average average 

Totals 6,295 2,432 2.623 629.84 $.1000 

The high cost per ton on the third scow was due to unfavorable weather . 
conditions. Owing to a severe storm the work of discharging this load had 
to be done on two different days, and considerable time was lost during a 
heavy rain. It will be seen that the average tons per man per hour on both 
the fourth and fifth scows, was much higher than on any of the other scows. 
When the fourth scow was unloaded, a number of ore shovelers and experi- 
enced men were employed ; on the fifth scow, nearly all the men were of this 
class. 

Although these men were paid more per hour than the men employed on the 
other scows, the results show them to have been the cheaper in the end. The 
men who unloaded the other scows were unskilled, being simply picked up on 
92 



1458 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

the streets, and while paid less per hour, they finally cost the contractor con- 
siderably more than the experienced and higher-priced men. 

Method of Making Rapid Cost Estimates for Crib Pier and Breakwater 
Construction.— G. A. M. Liljencrantz has developed a method, which he 
describes in "Professional Memoirs," for making rapid cost estimates of pier 
and breakwater construction. Engineering and Contracting, June 5, 1912 
publishes the following abstract of Mr. Liljencrantz' s article. 

Types of Structures.— There are six different types of structures considered. 
These are illustrated by Figs. 1 to 6. Each consists of a crib construction 100 
ft. long. The first four types are 16, 20, 24, and 30 ft. wide and rest on piles. 
The last two are 30 ft. wide each and rest on stone foundations, 4 ft. and 6 ft. 
deep, respectively. 



' — /S'-O'- 




2-4-0". >. 




Type I, Crib Breakwater. 



Type III, Crib Breakwater. 



-s^-o"- 





Type II, Crib Breakwater. T/Pe IV, Crib Breakwater. 

PiQ 6 — Types I-IV, crib breakwaters. 

An examination of the various plans will show that in each of the above types 
the amount of materials contained in the ten lower courses (counting from the 
lake bottom) is a constant quantity for that type; and that in every two suc- 
cessive courses above the tenth course the quantities are the same for each 
type, respectively. x • v,* 

This fact suggested the practicability of using the formula for a straight 
line for the computation of the total cost of a crib of any desired height, after 
the materials of the ten lower courses, and in the two upper courses, respec- 
tively, have been ascertained. Thus we have the formula Y = aX + 6. m 
which Y represents the cost of a crib structure 100 ft. long, according to either 
of the types; a represents the cost of all materials in one of the upper courses 



BANK AND SHORE PROTECTION 



1459 



(the constant given in the table below being the average of the two upper 
courses), X equals number of courses desired above the tenth course; and b 
equals the cost of all materials used in the lower ten courses. The height of 
the timberwork above the lake bottom (2 ft. in types 1 to 4, inclusive) is 
counted as two courses. The stone foundations in the other types shown 
are counted as four and six courses, respectively. The bottom course of the 
crib work is 1.5 ft. high, all other courses being 1 ft. each. 

There is one discrepancy in the formula which would affect the accuracy of 
the results if not remedied. This is accounted for later on. 

Use of Formula. — As stated, the constants a and b represent the cost of all 
materials in the different parts of the crib as noted. These materials consist 



-30-0"- 



:v.^ v-\A/t^ v-i Y^'X'"^. 




Type V, Crib Breakwater. 

^ 20'-0- >, 




Tvoe Vli Crib Breakwajter. 

Fig. 7. — Types V and VI, crib breakwaters. 



of lumber, drift bolts and stone and (in types 1 to 4) , of piles and screw bolts. 
The unit prices of each of these materials will also be factors. The formula 
containing all these items will be as follows: 

Y = WT + a^D + a^S>) X + biT.+ b^D + b^S + pP + cC 

In this a^ and 6', a<^ and b^, a« and 6*, p and c represent, respectively, the 
quantities of timber drift bolts, stone piles and screw bolts (as shown in Table 
II), for each type, and T, D, S, P and C the unit prices of materials, viz., 
per thousand board feet of timber, per hundred weight for bolts per cord of 128 
ft. for stone, and for each pile. All prices are for materials "secured in the 
work." It must be particularly remembered that X represents the number 
of courses above the tenth course. 

As has already been stated, the constant a' represents the amount of timber 
required in one of the courses above the tenth course, and the constant 6< 



1460 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

the total amount in the ten lower courses. From this it follows clearly that 
the total amount of timber required in 100 lin. ft. of a crib of any of the types, 
respectively, will be found by means of the simple formula: 

F< = a' X + b', 

using the respective values for the constants in Table II. In the same manner 
the amount of drift bolts, stone, etc., may be obtained. 

The discrepancies referred to above have been remedied and the constants 
have been corrected accordingly and are to be used as given in the table. 

Table II. — Constants for Types with Ties and Longitudinals of 10 X 12- 









Inch Timbers 












Types 




















Width 


a' 






6' 












of crib Foun- 


M. ft. 


ad 


a» 


M. ft. 


hd 


b' 


P 


c 


No. 


ft. dation 


B. M. 


Cwts. 


Cords 


B. M. 


Cwts. 


Cords 


No. 


Cwt 


1 


16 Pile 


4.680 


4.3 


9.605 


56,648 


37.0 


92.947 


27 


5.1 


2 


20 Pile 


4.996 


4.4 


12. 525 


64.894 


37.5 


100.450 


40 


6.7 


3 


24 Pile 


5.312 


4.4 


15.444 


67. 734 


37.8 


129. 336 


40 


6.7 


4 


30 Pile 


5.786 


4.6 


19.823 


79.518 


38.3 


150. 641 


53 


8.4 


5 


30 Stone 


5.786 


4.6 


19.823 


40. 492 


25.9 


259.943 








6 


30 Stone 


5.786 


4.6 


19.823 


28.920 


17.3 


301.547 









Chief Elements in the Structures. — It may be found desirable to verify the 
various amounts entering into the calculation, and for that purpose the general 
dimensions of timbers, etc., are here given; it being believed that, for the sake 
of comparison between the different types, it is desirable to maintain uniform- 
ity with regard to the dimensions of all the principal parts of the structures. 

Thus, the following dimensions have been used for each of the six types: 
bottom side timbers, 12 X 18 ins. ; all other side timbers, end timbers and bear- 
ing timbers, 12 X 12 ins.; ties and longitudinals, 10 X 12 ins. (2-ft.longsearves 
having been provided for the latter) ; stone bottom (in types 1 to 4) in middle 
pockets, 6 X 12 ins. ; the grillage bottom in types 5 and 6 are made of 12 X 
12-in. timbers. 

The lowest set of longitudinals (in types 1 to 4) are extended to the full 
length of the crib, 100 ft., and blocks are placed at each end of the crib, 
between these longitudinals and the bearing timbers, which are also 100 ft. 
in length. An extra bearing timber, 12 X 12 ins., is provided — in type 4, 
above the stone bottom. All cross ties are dove-tailed into the side timbers 
and the longitudinals into the end walls. Stone has been provided for in the 
walls between the cribs, the calculation thus covering the filling of the crib 
for its entire length. 

In estimating the amount of stone required, calculation has been made on 
the assumption that the whole volume of the crib, less the space occupied by 
timber, is filled with stone. While this is not strictly correct, it has been 
done to compensate for such stone that will usually settle down into the 
sand bottom and work out on the sides; also, to some extent, for irregularity in 
the lake bottom. 

Drift bolts, 32 X 20 ins. in length, are provided for in regular columns in 
the side and end walls; also through bearing timbers and protruding ties, and 
in the crossings of ties and longitudinals, alternately in each crossing. 

Discrepancy in the Formula and Its Remedy. — It was stated above that the 
quantities in each set of two courses above the tenth course are constant 
amounts for each type. There is an exception to this rule. The top course 



BANK AND SHORE PROTECTION 1461 

of every structure has less timber and stone than each of the other courses, 
because there are no longitudinals in this course and no stone in the upper half 
of it. There are, however, more bolts in the top course, as a 20-in. bolt is 
placed in each of the top, side and end walls, in each column of 32-in. bolts, 
where these reach only to the upper face of the third course from the top. 

To remedy this, the respective amounts are deducted — ^for timber and stone 
— and added for drift bolts, to the corresponding materials in the constants h. 
for each respective type. These amounts are given in Table III. The 
figures given in Table II are the corrected amounts, as already mentioned. 

Table III. — Contents Used to Compensate for Discrepancy in the Top 

Courses 

With 10 X 12-in. timbers With 12 X 12-in. timbers 

Timber, Bolts, Stone, Timber, Bolts, Stone, 

Types M. bd. ft. ^ cwt. cords M. bd. ft. cwt. cords 



1 


-0.960 


+2.3 


-4.747 


-1.152 


+ 2.3 


-4.625 


2 


-0.960 


+ 2.4 


-6.279 


1.152 


+ 2.4 


-6.157 


3 


-0.960 


+ 2.4 


-8.591 


-1.152 


+ 2.4 


-7.687 


4 


-0.960 


+ 2.5 


-10.107 


-1.152 


+ 2.5 


-9.984 


5 


-0.960 


+ 2.5 


-10.107 


-1.152 


+ 2.5 


-9.984 


6 


-0.960 


+ 2.5 


-10.107 


-1.152 


+ 2.5 


-9.984 



Suggested Simplification. — If a large number of cribs of different types and 
heights are to be estimated for, and prices suitable to the locality and period 
have been determined, the formula may be materially simplified by inserting 
these prices in the formula and developing the calculations for the values of a 
and 6, respectively, thus giving the formula the initial form: y = ax + 6, 
after which the computation will be reduced to the simplest kind, according 
to the variations in the values of x. 

Different Quality of Timber in Suh and Superstructure. — The above formulas 
contemplate only one kind of timber for the whole structure. Should it be 
required to provide for different quality of timber for sub and superstructure 
(where the prices differ materially) then proceed as follows: 

For the substructure use the general formula with constants as given in Table 
II; adapting the prices for timber to be used, and with x fixed according to the 
number of courses in this part of the work. 

For the superstructure use the same formula with the constant a as above; 
but for the constant b substitute the values for this constant (with + or — 
signs as indicated) as given in Table IV and make x = the number of courses 
desired in the superstructure, and use the price for the proposed kind of timber 
accordingly. 

Rebuilding Superstructure. — Should it be required to prepare an estimate 
for the cost of rebuilding the superstructure over old crib work the same 
method should be followed, adding, however, only the cost of removing the 
old work. 

Modification in Types. — If it is preferred to use 12 X 12 in. timbers for 
ties and longitudinals, this would increase the constants for timber and 
decrease the constants for stone. The constants for bolts would not be 
affected. Table V gives the constants calculated to fit such cases, all other 
elements remaining unaltered. 

Decking. — The crib work is generally covered by some kind of decking to 
protect the stone filling, especially if the work is exposed to severe storms. 
The form of decking generally used in this district consists of 6 X 10 in. 



1462 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

planking laid flat, 2 ins. apart, and spiked to the cross ties with H X 14 in. 
spikes, washers being used under the heads of the spikes, which has proved 
very advantageous in giving much better hold. One hundred linear feet of 
a deck plank contains 500 ft., B. M., and the spikes required for tkat length 
of deck plank, including washers, will weigh approximately 50 lbs. 

The total cost of the decking, of the kind described, for any of the types of 

cribs may be obtained by the simple formula: z = in which z 

represents the cost of the decking over 100 lin. ft, of the crib; e = the cost 
per M. ft. B. M. of the deck timbers; k = the cost per cwt. of the spikes and 
washers, and x = the width (inside of the side timbers) of the crib to be 
covered. 

Intermediate Decking Supports. — When a pier or breakwater is greatly 
exposed to severe gales, it is very desirable to place intermediate supports 
under the decking, half-way between the cross ties. ' These supports may be 
made of 3 X 12 in. planks placed on edge and resting on the two top longitudi- 
nals and, at each end, on asS X 12 in. X 2-ft. piece of plank spiked to the side 
walls, with their tops level with the tops of the longitudinals. The length 
of each plank will be equal to the inside width of the crib. If, however, they 
are estimated equal to the outer width of the crib + 2 ft., in length, the two 
pieces to be spiked to the side walls will be provided for. The decking should, 
as a matter of course, be spiked to this planking. As there are twelve spaces 
between the ties in each crib, the cost of the decking supports will be obtained 
by the formula: y = 0.036 f. (w + 2) -|- 0.3 k (w — 2) in which y represents 
the total cost of the decking supports for a crib 100 ft. long; f equals the cost 
per M. ft. B. M. of the planks; k equals the cost per cwt. of spikes and washers 
and w equals the outside width of the crib. 

Table IV. — Constants for Types with Ties and Longitudinals of 12 X 
12-iN. Timbers 





at 
M. ft. 


ad 


a« 


M. ft. 


bd 


b^ 


P 


c 
Screw 


Types 


B. M. 


Cwt. 


Cords 


B. M. 


Cwt. 


Cords 


Piles 


bolts 


lA 


5.064 


4.3 


9.383 


59.622 


37.0 


91.374 


27 


5.1 


2A 


5.424 


4.4 


12.273 


68. 220 


37.5 


98. 648 


40 


6.7 


3A 


5.784 


4.4 


15. 164 


71.052 


37.8 


128.068 


40 


6.7 


4A 


6.316 


4.6 


19,500 


83.706 


38.3 


148. 267 


53 


8.4 


5A 


6.316 


4.6 


19.500 


43.320 


25.9 


258 . 238 








6A 


6.316 


4.6 


19.500 


30.672 


17.3 


300.493 









Types of Breakwater Construction and Their Costs. — This is given in the 
report of J. F. Hasskarl before the 12th International Congress of Navigation. 
The following notes are taken from an abstract of Mr. Hasskarl's paper in 
Engineering and Contracting, June 26, 1912. 

Delaware Breakwater. — The Delaware Breakwater was commenced in 1828 
and completed in 1869. Its principal dimensions and cost are: Length 
2,558 ft.; length of Gap and Ice Breaker, which are connected with the same, 
2,709 ft. — making the total length of this Structure 5,267 ft. Area of average 
cross section above sea bottom, 4,067 sq. ft. Area of average cross section 
above mean low water, 547 sq. ft. Area of average cross section below mean 
low water, 3,520 sq. ft. Tons per average lin. ft., 277.69. Cost per average 
lin. ft., $608.95. Note: The great excess of material placed in the structure 
over the enrockment at present remaining above the bottom is explained as 




BANK AND SHORE PROTECTION 



1463 



follows: The bottom is very soft, there are no mattresses, and much of the 
material has sunk into the soft mud. The weight of a cubic yard of solid stone 
is approximately 2.24 tons, and a cubic yard of enrockment weighs about 1.68 
tons. 



..«* 









Cost Fer Lineal Ft 



■ ^7713 For 16 on Pile Foundation 

67 75 For 20 on Pile Foundatior 



95 J7 For 24 on Pile Foundation 

• $ni.i7 For 30 on Pile Found 



S2.24 For 30 on 4 Stone Foundation 



69.1 1 For 30 on 6 5tone Foundation 



60.57 For 16 on Pitd Foundation 

91.65 For 20 on Pile Foundation 



99. 72 For 24 Pile Foundation 

I ^ 116.01 For 30 on 

Pile Foundation 



36.45 For 30 on 4 Stone Foundation 



9Z82 For: 30 on 6 Stone Foundation 

I I 



Fig. 8. — Relative costs of crib breakwaters of different types. 

San Pedro, California. — This breakwater was commenced November 12, 
1898, and is still (1912) under construction. Its dimensions and cost are: 
Total length when completed, about 11,100 ft. Total area of average cross 
section above sea bottom, 6,466 sq. ft. Area of average cross section above 
mean low water, 412 sq. ft. Area of average cross section below mean low 



Eievf/d3 

lonO.71 .^gcP^^t^onm _.t50,.JonJ^ 

''Mean L ow Water -J^'O ' 



Seaside 




Soft mud ond^ond - Ion 1 6' 

Fig. 9. — Section of Delaware breakwater. 



water, 6,054 sq. ft. Tons per average lin. ft., 344.31. Cost per average lin. 
ft., $285. 

Colon, Panama, West Breakwater. — This breakwater was commenced in 
1910 and is still under construction. Its dimensions and cost are: Total 
length when completed, 1 1 ,322.5 ft. Total area of average cross section above 
sea bottom, approximately 6,777 sq. ft. Area of average cross section above 



1464 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



mean sea level, approximately 335 sq. ft. Area of average cross section below 
mean sea level, approximately 6,442 sq. ft. Tons per average lin. ft., 340. 
Estimated cost per average lin. ft., $481. 

Ton^ or Over 

Mean Low Woler 




7acinq5tone 5^ 
Tons or Ove r 



Random 5tQne-IOO*up 
dfone Oronife i^/fh a sandstone Core not closer than 10 ft 
to 5ea Fact, 3 Ft to Horbor Face or? Ft to top of substructure 
Cl^y, dtiff t^ud, Grovel, Fine5ond 

Fig. 10. — Section of breakwater at San Pedro, Cal. 

Point Judith, Rhode Island. — This breakwater was commenced February 
13,, 1891, and completed December 18, 1898. Its dimensions and cost are: 
Total length of main breakwater, 6,970 ft. Total length of easterly shore 




Fig. 11. — Section of Colon breakwater, Panama. 



arm, 2,240 ft. Total area of average cross section above sea bottom, 2,948 
. sq. ft. Area of average cross section above mean low water, 370 sq. ft. Area 
of average cross section below mean low water, 2,578 sq. ft. Tons per average 
lin. ft., 161.72. Cost per average lin. ft., $206.70. 



Facingdtones 3 tons 
ondover 



••^0'- 



■ElevtlO 3ea5}de 

t^ean Low Water 




Sore atones of org size exceeding ^OOLBs. 
Reef of Glacial Bowlders witti Sana and l\4ucf. 

Fig. 12. — Section of Point Judith breakwater, Rhode Island. 

National Harbor of Refuge, Delaware Bay. — This breakwater was commenced 
in 1897 and completed in 1901. Total length, 8,040 ft. Total area of average 
cross section above sea bottom, 3,474 sq. ft. Area of average cross section 



BANK AND SHORE PROTECTION 



1465 



above mean low water, 550 sq. ft. Area of average cross section below mean 
low water, 2,924 sq. ft. Tons per average lin. ft., 183.82. Cost per lin. ft., 
$217.60. 

GREAT LAKE BREAKWATERS 

Buffalo, New York. — This breakwater was commenced May 19, 1897, and 
completed December 15, 1902. Total length, 7,250 ft. Total area of average 






Seaside 




dondandMud 

Fig. 13. — Section of breakwater, National Harbor of Refuge, Delaware Bay. 



cross section above lake bottom, 3,236.5 sq. ft. Area of average cross section 
above mean lake level, 312.5 sq. ft Area of average cross section below mean 
lake level, 2,924 sq. ft. Tons per average lin. ft., 181.60. Cost per average 
lin. ft., $125.26. 

Buffalo, New ForA;.— -Original breakwater built October 7, 1898 — October 
27, 1900. New superstructure work commenced June 18, 1901, completed 
May 18, 1902. Total length, 1,800 ft. Total area of average cross section 



i^'O Copping 5tone5 di-Tond eoch 
Rubbfe5tonerrom50llj^(i^Pr>^ \ LaheSide 
to 4 Tons each 




Fig. 14. — Sorted rubble mound breakwater at Buffalo, N. -Y. 



above lake bottom, 2,417.68 sq. ft. Area of average cross section above mean 
lake level, 302.68 sq. ft. Area of average cross section below mean lake level, 
2,115 sq. ft. Tons per average linear foot above lake bottom, 105.34. Cost 
per average linear foot above lake bottom, $242.53. Total tons per average 
linear foot, including gravel fill in trench, 268.84. Cost per average linear foot 
including trench and gravel fill, $278.89. 



1466 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Dunkirk, New York, — This breakwater was commenced August, 1897, and 
completed August, 1898. Total length, 310 ft. Total area of average cross 
section above lake bottom, 535.2 sq. ft. Area of average cross section above 
mean lake level, 175.2 sq. ft. Area of average cross section below mean lake 
level, 360 sq. ft. Tons per average lin. ft., 28.557. Cost per average lin. ft., 
$65.12. 

Cleveland, Ohio (Eastern Extension)^ — This breakwater was commenced 
May 4, 1903, and is still under construction. Total length when completed, 
15,600 ft. Total area of average cross section above lake bottom, 3,246.5 
sq. ft. Area of average cross section above mean lake level, 169.6 sq. ft. 




\Toundaflon ofone5 ^J/h. To /50lt)3 each 

■,^^^>^,\^^^y^^ s->'; --^ ^ rr- - - ^ ~^ - - p^ - -^:<3L -Jrr-.^5-= - - r^b -^_-.^-.:r-7;p zT:^ - - -- ^-~'^'^{y////^'^.'////'//'^y/,',\ 




Fig. 15. — South Harbor, Buffalo, N. Y. Timber crib breakwater. 



Area of average cross section below mean lake level, 3,076.9 sq. ft. Tons 
per average linear foot, approximately 164. Cost per average linear foot, 
approximately $175. 

Milwaukee, Wisconsin. — This breakwater was commenced June 14, 1909, 
and completed about September, 1910. Total length of caisson construction, 
577 ft. Total area of average cross section above lake bottom* 531 sq. ft. 
Area of average cross section above mean lake level, 43 sq. ft. Area of average 
cross section below mean lake level, 488 sq. ft. No data for weight per linear 
foot obtainable. Cost per average linear foot, $117.94. Note: Stone for 
riprapping caissons, except about 800 tons of large stone placed on lake side, 
was obtained from the razing of an old pier and is not included in above 
estimate of cost. 

Cost of Sea Wall for Land Reclamation at New Orleans. — Engineering 
News, June 25, 1914, gives the following data from the report of a commission 
of the Sanitary District of Chicago. 

The city of New Orleans in making about 27 acres of new land at the " West 



BANK AND SHORE PROTECTION 



1467 



End " for municipal purposes, constructed a pile and concrete sea wall on Lake 
Pontchartrain, about 2,650 ft. long, and dredged and deposited a fill averaging 
8 to 12 ft. deep behind this wall. This dredging, amounting to about 400,000 

-JO'O'- ^ 



ni/ing toi50LB-\i:\-ii-6'- f l6'-6''- 

owe '^'^^^/m^m^^^' \ Loke5ide 
Concrete Block §x*^ " • -Jf'^^^'^;^^^ ^ Mean Lake Level 




Foundation 5fgi 
15 to I 50 m 



[" Concrete Block 
Joncf 



Rock 

Fig. 16. — Section of detached breakwater, Dunkirk, N. Y. 

cu. yd., was done in the lake by means of a hydraulic dredge and cost 11.37 
cts. per cu. yd., placed in fill. 

Before placing the fill, the sea wall was built around the entire inclosure. 



■d5'-6- ■>; 

Loke3ide 
Mean Lake Level 




141-0" 



Centra/ Core of Quorru Run Stone Not more 
til an 50% to weigh >jj ttian I Ton 

Fig. 17. — Extension of East breakwater, Cleveland, Ohio. 

The wall is of concrete, placed on a double row of 50-ft. oak piles spaced 5 ft. 
c. to c. each way. In front of this piling a triple row of sheet piling was driven 
as a coffer-dam and to prevent the fill shding back in the lake. About 3 ft. 






Lakeside 
^ '^^I'lr f^ean Lake Level 







V Datum 
Fig. 18. — Reinforced concrete caisson, South Pier, Milwaukee, Wis. 

of material was excavated for the base of the concrete cap, so that the piles 
are entirely protected from the action of the teredo. The wall is provided 
with two rows of weep holes, and has expansion joints 50 ft. apart. 



1468 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Including the piles, excavation and concrete, the wall has cost about $26 
per lin. ft., or $13 per cu. yd. of concrete. The labor costs were $1.75 to $2 
for common labor and $3 per day for skilled labor. 



Gravel was used for the 



t<?v 



=■■?■■ ?-..v- i«5^//79gg of Flit 







Fig. 19. — Section through Sea Wall at New Orleans, La. 

concrete aggregate. The cost of construction was increased on account of the 
necessity of placing the mixer at one end of the work and hauling the concrete 
and other material over a long trestle to the point of deposit. 



CHAPTER XXII 
DOCKS AND WHARVES 

This chapter contains costs of complete pier structures of various types and 
also costs of items of work entering into this type construction. For further 
data on the cost of docks and wharves the reader is referred to Gillette's 
"Handbook of Cost Data." 

Costs of Various Types of Freight Handling Wharves. — Data concerning 
the latest and best practice in the construction of freight-handling wharves 
has been collected by a committee of the American Railway Engineering 
Association. The information was obtained from members of the association 
and is summarized in the July (1917) Bulletin of the association by W. H. 
Hoyt as a portion of an article on the design of docks and wharves. The fol- 
lowing abstract of Mr. Hoyt's article is given in Engineering and Contracting, 
Sept. 26, 1917. 

Docks at San Francisco, Ferry Point and Oakland, Santa Fe System. — The 
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. Coast Lines has about 4,000 ft. of frontage of 
wharf at San Francisco, practically all of which is over a rock seawall and is 
supported on creosoted piles, spaced 10 ft. each way. The intermediates are 
4 in. by 12 and tracks are carried with two pieces of 12-in. by 12-in. under each 
rail over the 10-ft. spans. At Ferry Point the railway has a wharf 70 ft. wide 
by 700 ft. long. In 1913 this wharf was extended and a new freight apron 
built on the end. The extension was designed primarily for the acconunoda- 
tion of barges handling cars. The wharf on either side of this dock was con- 
structed as a support for the spring line of the slip. This also is true of a new 
slip at Oakland. The latter wharf was driven with a 10-ft. spacing of piles. 
In all of the wharf work piles treated with 16 lb. of creosote are used for salt 
water driving. All the above mentioned jobs were constructed by contract 
covering the labor only, the railway company furnishing all the material. 
Each contract was made up on the basis of unit prices covering each kind of 
lumber and the different kinds of piles. 

At Ferry Point the unit prices were as follows: 

Pulling piles $15. 00 each 

Taking out old lumber 6. 00 per M 

Cutting piles off on present wharf to new grade 1. 25 each 

Drive and fasten standard piles 9. 35 each 

Drive and fasten brace piles 15. 50 each 

Drive and fasten fender and mooring piles. 7. 15 each 

Drive and fasten spring piles 1 1 . 00 each 

Drive and fasten cluster piles : 16. 00 each 

Drive and fasten dolphin piles 18. 50 each 

Placing caps 21 . 00 per M 

Stringers and compounds 16. 00 per M 

Planking. . 11. 35 per M 

Guard rail 9. 60 per M 

Chocks 32. 00 per M 

Ribbing 31. 70 per M 

Spring line chocks 45. 00 per M 

Sheathing 18. 50 per M 

Intermediate stringers 12. 75 per M 

Total labor (approximately) $15,000 

1469 



1470 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

At Oakland the unit prices were as follows: 

Drive and fasten standard piles $ 9. 00 each 

Drive and fasten brace piles 15. 00 each 

Drive and fasten dolphin piles 18. 00 each 

Drive and fasten cluster piles 12. 00 each 

Drive and fasten spring piles 12. 00 each 

Placing caps and sub-caps 21. 00 per M 

Placing stringers and compounds 16. 00 per M 

Placing intermediate stringers 12. 75 per M 

Placing planking 11 , 00 per M 

Placing guard rail 9. 00 per M 

Placing ribbing 34. 00 per M 

Placing chocks 40. 00 per M 

Placing sheathing 18. 00 per M 

Taking up old timber 6. 00 per M 

Total labor (approximately) $19,000 

At San Francisco the unit prices were as follows: 

Drive and fasten fender piles $ 8. 00 each 

Drive and fasten standard piles 8. 00 each 

Drive and fasten mooring piles 8. 00 each 

Placing caps 20. 00 per M 

Compound stringers 16. 00 per M 

Track stringers . 16. 00 per M 

Intermediate stringers 15. 00 per M 

Fillers 10. 00 per M 

Guard rail 10. 00 per M 

Planking 10. 00 per M 

Removing old lumber 6. 00 per M 

Placing chocks 32. 00 per M 

Breaking off old piles 3. 00 each 

Pulling piles 12. 00 each 

Placing sub-caps . ; 25. 00 per M 

Total labor (approximately) $17 , 500 



Pier No. 5, Weehawken, N. J., New York Central & Hudson River R. R. — 
Designed for handling outward business (boats to cars) only. Built on pile 
foundations. Has adequate floor space and numerous gangways to make 
short trucking possible. It is securely sway braced with 4-in. X 8-in. plank 
bolted to each pile, also girt timbers running across piling underneath wharf. 
Has double layer deck, consisting of a lower 4-in. plank deck covered with 2-in. 
X 4-in. beech flooring. The total contract cost of the substructure and super- 
structure, including heating, dry fire protection line, electric wiring and fire 
alarm system, was about $3 per square foot. 

Pier and Bulkhead Platforms, James Slip and Olive St., New York City. — Has 
a 9-in. reinforced concrete deck on timber stringers and pile foundation. On 
top of the 9-in. concrete is a 2K-in. asphalt wearing surface. The front of the 
wharf is fendered with oak piling and timber securely bolted to the main 
frame work. The unit costs are stated to be as follows: Timber decks, includ- 
ing rangers, about 52 cts. per square foot; reinforced concrete deck, 46 cts, per 
square foot, and with 2K asphalt wearing surface 55 cts. per square foot. 
The, figures for concrete do not include the cost of timber construction at 
deck level on the sides of the dock. 

Dock at Sandusky, O., for Pennsylvania R. R. — This is a new dock for coal 
machine. It is a good example of filled timber crib on rock foundation with 
monolithic concrete superstructure. The average height of crib is 18 ft. 
The unit cost per lineal foot of dock was as follows: 



I 



DOCKS AND WHARVES 1471 



Per lin. ft. 
of dock 

Hemlock lumber ^ S 35. 00 

Framing, placing and sinking * 25. 00 

Iron (tie bolts, drift bolts, etc.) 14. 00 

Stone (for sinking cribs) 12. 00 

Leveling foundations 2. 00 

Concrete top 19. 50 

Cast iron mooring posts 1 . 50 

Total $109. 00 

Dock at Port Bolivar, Tex., Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe Ry. — This dock is a 
timber platform supported on pile foundations. Back of the dock proper 
sheet piling has been driven and tied back by K-in. iron rods to anchor piles, 
and the dock filled. The geological formation at the site consists of alternate 
layers of water, sand and sea inlet to an indefinite depth. It is estimated that 
the cost of a pile foundation for concrete walls with the cost of the necessary 
caisson work would more than equal the entire cost of the present bulkheads 
and aprons. The unit costs were as follows: 

Total cost of bulkhead per Un. ft $33. 27 

Total cost of apron 30 ft. wide per sq. ft 0. 7343 

Cost per linear foot marine treated piles 0. 385 

Cost per linear foot untreated piles 0. 085 

Cost per M. feet B. M. marine treated timbers 47. 80 

Cost per M. feet B. M. full-cell treated timbers 31. 00 

Cost per M. feet B. M. untreated timbers 21. 80 

Cost per linear foot driving marine treated piles 0. 17 

Cost per linear foot driving untreated piles 0.15 

Cost per M. feet B. M. placing marine treated timbers. 16.00 

Cost per M. feet B. M. placing other timbers 15. 00 

Average cost of freight on^iles about $0.05 per lin. ft., and on timbers about 
$5 per M. B. M. 

Pier No. 9, Hoboken Terminal, Delaware, Lackawanna & Western R. R. — 
This pier has been in use for about 8 years. It is a 2-story steel and rein- 
forced concrete structure supported on pile foundations stiffened with rip- 
rap and rubble filling. The cost was $4.25 per square foot. 

Lumber- Handling Dock, Lake Superior, Duluth, Winnipeg & Pacific Ry. — 
This dock was designed exclusively for handling lumber from railroad cars to 
boats. 

Its cost was as follows: 

Engineering charges $ 1, 409 

Freight charges on piling, ties and planking 5 , 089 

Piling, 103,185 lin. ft 17,539 

Timber, 818,230 ft. B. M 22 , 702 

Machine bolts, drift bolts, etc 1 , 480 

Iron cleats, 25, at $8.75 219 

Contract price driving piles, 92,791 lin. ft. left in work at 5% cts 5, 335 

Contract price framing deck and bracing, 781,699 ft. B. M. left in work, 

at $6.90 per M. 53,94 

Excavation for mud sills on bank 119 

Crib at end of dock: 

Iron rods for tieing crib 19 

Labor applying rods 44 

Stone for fiUing crib, 64 cords at $7 448 

Dredging, 177,427 cu. yd. at 11 cts 19 , 517 

Track, 60-lb. rail, and fastenings, second-hand 1 , 689 

Track, labor 320 

Saunders car stoppers, 2 at $45 90 

Freight on car stoppers 7 

Total $81,422 



1472 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Dock, Toledo, O., Hocking Valley Ry. — This structure is typical of the ore 
and coal-handUng docks on the Great Lakes. It is an excellent sample of 
crib-filled structures and of concrete pier supported directly on piling. On 
account of the heavy distributed loads to be carried and the heavy machinery 
foundations it requires a very solid substructure. It is also thoroughly tied 
back with anchor rods. The unit costs were; 



12-in. X 12-in. timber grillage placed $43. 00 per M. B. M. 

2-in. plank, hardwood 38. 00 per M. B. M. 

2-in. plank, hemlock 35. 00 per M. B. M. 

Timber piling driven .28 per lin. ft. 

Steel piling driven .02 per lb. 

Concrete placed ; 6. 80 per cu. yd. 

Steel "I " beams placed .02 per lb. 

Steel reinforced rods placed . 023^ per lb. 

Wrought iron rods placed .05 per lb. 

Dredging and waste .23 per cu. yd. 

Dredging and backfill .27 per cu. yd. 

The above do not include company freight or supervision. 



Dock on Chicago River, Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry. — This is a very 
simple structure composed of a front row of piling with sheet piling anchored 
back to anchor timbers and piles with 13^ -in, rods. The dock is then filled. 
These docks in Chicago and Milwaukee cost from $18 to $25 per lineal foot, 
depending upon local conditions. 

Costs of the Terminal Piers of the Norfolk & Western Ry. at Norfolk, Va. — 
In Engineering News-Record, May 16, 1918, F. P. Turner gives the following 
matter. 

The general layout and dimensions of the piers are shown in Figs. 1 and 
2. 

The outbound or northbound freight is cared for on the southerly of the 
two piers, which is 800 ft. long and 222 ft. wide and carries a warehouse 208 X 
750 ft. Incoming freight is handled by the northerly pier, which is 222 X 
1,200 ft. in plan with a 208 X 1,150 ft. warehouse. A water depth of 28 to 30 
ft. is provided in the slips around the piers. 

The type of construction, determined after a thorough investigation of the 
first cost, annual repairs and life of various kinds of floors and roofs, was such 
that the average life of the component parts would be the same. 

The pier-shed, being of steel, will under normal conditions have double the 
life of substructure supporting the floor. The pedestals around the edge of the 
pier are creosoted piles protected by a steel cylinder, extending two to three 
feet below maximum depth of water and filled with earth. Experience on 
similar structures has led to the belief that steel cylinders will last 20 
to 25 years and that creosoted piles, after exposure, will last equally as much 
longer. 

The roof, floor and pile substructure may be renewed in sections after 20 
to 25 years' service without taking down the steel trusses or interfering with 
the remainder of the pier. Since the renewal of the substructure would require 
the destruction of the floor and roof it was not considered advisable to select 
the more expensive concrete fireproof construction for these two elements, but 
to use materials having a normal service the same as the substructure. 



DOCKS AND WHARVES 



1473 



Creosoted pile substructure was adopted for the entire pier area outside of 
the bulkhead line established by the War Department. Inside the bulkhead 
line it proved more economical to drive an uncreosoted bulkhead at the loca- 
tion shown upon the plan and fill it with dredged material for supporting the 
pier-shed floor and tracks. Creosoted posts, caps, bracing and floor stringers 
were used above the low-water line. A 3-in. white-oak floor, dressed on one 
side and two edges, was adopted for wearing surface, this type of floor having 



: 1 ? 3 4 5 eoo^ 
I ' ' I I I I I 



.BULKHEA " ^Type 'C)_ 

Lambert 




Fig. 1. — General plan of piers of the N. & W. R. R. at Norfolk, Va. 



a record of long service in similar warehouses of this company. The roof 
selected was a 5-ply felt, pitch and gravel, laid on 1>^ in. tongue-and-groove 
yellow pine sheathing resting on steel purlins. 

Dimensions and spacing of timbers and steelwork entering into the con- 
struction of these piers are indicated on the accompanying drawings. The 
loads assumed in the design are as follows: 



Floor — 500 lb. per sq. ft. 
Roof — Purlins, 40 lb. per sq. ft. 
Trusses, 50 lb, per sq. ft. 
Piles — 17 tPJis each, 



93 



1474 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 




DOCKS AND WHARVES 1475 

The quantities and cost of the development, which was built during 1916 
and 1917, follow: 

Dredging— 1,373,226 yd , $ 108 , 922 $0. 0794 per cu. yd. 

Bulkhead A— 775 ft. long 37 , 565 $48. 50 per ft. 

Bulkhead C— 8,300 ft. long 138 , 291 16. 70 per ft. 

Main pier substructure: 

Bulkhead B, 3,320 ft. long $ 65 , 355 19 . 70 per ft. 

Pile and timber work 577 , 675 

Steel cylinders, 700,800 lb 23,000 

Floor 34,825 

Total substructure $700,855 $ 700,855 1.60 per sq. ft. 

pier area 
Steel frame, curtain, siding, etc., 

5,258,425 1b 202,481 51. 2 cts. per sq. ft. 

Sheathing, painting, roofing, steel 

sash doors 167,250 

Total building $369 ,731 $ 369 , 731 93. 5 cts. per sq. ft. 

Sprinkler system, pump house and pipe 

laying 74 , 000 

Freight-handling equipment 126, 600 

Electric equipment and lights 20 , 000 

Engineering 30 , 000 

Creosoted trestle 12 , 000 

Tracks 90, 000 

Office building 47 , 500 

Stevedore house 3 , 000 

Paving, etc 5, 000 

Right of way and damages 10 , 000 

Incidentals 26 , 536 

$1,800,000 



A brief description of the more important of the above items follows: 

Dredging. — Dredging of slips and main river channel was done by a large 
suction dredge, capable of cutting 16 ft. deep and 150 ft. wide as it advanced 
and having a rated capacity of 10,000 cu. yd. per day of 24 hrs. Dredging 
began June 1, 1916 and was completed Nov. 23, 1916 the total amount of 
material dredged being 1,373,226 cu. yd., an average of 8,000 yd. per day. 
The dredged material was conveyed through a 22 in. pipe, at times more than 
4,000 ft. long, and was discharged along the line of the bulkhead. Thus, the 
heavy material was deposited immediately adjacent thereto and the light 
silty material was forced to the interior. Most of the material dredged was 
white sand and clay and it immediately gave good resistance after depositing. 

The results of this method reduced the pressure against the bulkhead and 
no failures resulted. Spillways were provided in the bulkhead, at the extreme 
end of the area to be reclaimed, for water to return to the channel. 

Bulkheads. — Figs. 2 and 3 show the type of construction of Bulkheads A, B 
and C. 

Pile and Timberwork. — Creosoted piles were generally 14-in. diam. 2 ft. 
below butt with 7-in. points, in lengths varying from 50 to 80 ft.; untreated 
piles driven inside the bulkhead B were 12-in. diam. 2 ft. below butts and 
6-in. points. All bulkhead piles were. creosoted and of the larger size. 

Sound square edge short-leaf pine lumber, creosoted with 12-lbs. of dead 
oil of coaltar per cu. ft. was used for all exposed bracing and floor supports. 

Steel Cylinders. — The pedestals supporting the center columns, outside 



1476 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



bulkhead B, were constructed in cylinders 7-ft. diarn. Six creosoted bearing 
piles were driven in each cylinder. 

Floor. — Interior floors consisted of 3-in. white oak dressed one side and two 
edges, outside the building long leaf yellow pine similarly dressed being used. 

At about 300-ft. intervals the two buildings have concrete floor slabs 9-ft. 
wide resting on pile bents and extending from side to side. Precast reinforced 
concrete fire walls 4-in. thick, 10 to 13 ft. long are hung from this concrete 
panel and extend 1.5 ft. below low water. 

Steel Frame. — The steelwork of the two buildings, 5,167,000 lbs. was erected 
in 62 working days. A locomotive crane was used in setting the columns and 




/'So/A 



777777 
Piles40'folO'lonq 
Detail of Bulkhead ^ 

r'Boit ^"^yp^ "^"^ 

innn 



'Bolt 

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Part Elevation 
Detail of Bulkhead (Type "A") 

Fig. 3. — Details of bulkhead types A and C. 



trusses which were shop riveted complete with the exception of the center 
longitudinal and transverse trusses ; the latter were shipped in two pieces and 
riveted at the splice before erecting. 

Sides. — The sides of the piers were practically solid vertical rolling lift doors, 
the width and spacing being such that the doors of practically all vessels using 
the piers would be accommodated. Three lines of windows fitted with steel 
sash, wireglass, ventilators and operating device are provided on either side 
for admitting light and ventilation. No. 22 ga. galvanized corrugated steel 
siding covers the ends and sides, with the exception of window and door space. 

Sprinkler System. — The warehouses are equipped with an automatic dry- 
pipe sprinkler system to meet the underwriters* requirements. In each of the 
14 fire areas two dry valves are located, one on either side of the building. 
From these dry valves the sprinkler pipes radiate, the total number of sprinkler 
heads being 5,158. Hose valves are provided on each dry valve, and each one 



DOCKS AND WHARVES 1477 

is equipped with 75 ft. of IK in. linen hose, nozzle and rack. Alarm gongs 
are also placed outside the buildings, one to each dry valve. 

Water-supply is furnished from a 100,000-gal. steel tank, the bottom of 
which is 90 ft. above the ground. Emergency water-supply will be furnished 
from an intake in the edge of the river and will be forced into the mains by 
two 750-gal. per min. underwriters' centrifugal pumps, each driven by a 100- 
hp. motor. The piping system is so arranged that the water may be pumped 
into the tank or direct to the mains. 

The unit cost of the sprinkler system complete was $14.33 per sprinkler 
head. Each sprinkler head covers an average area of 77 sq, ft., the unit cost 
per sq. ft. being 18.7 cents. 

Freight-handling Equipment. — To reach the decks of vessels at various stages 
of the water and loading, hinged ramp bridges, constructed of steel with wood 
floors, are provided. These bridges are 27 ft. long and 13 ft. wide, set on a 
hinge 20 ft. inside the building and having a movement up or down of 20° 
(9 ft.) from the level position. The bridges are supported by heavy chains, 
being hung from an overhead gallows frame set 18 ft. from the hinge end. 
Counterweights are used to assist in lifting the bridges and the movement is 
controlled by chain and worm gearing. The bridge has a capacity of 10,000 
lb. either concentrated on a small 4-wheel truck or distributed. 

An endless sprocket chain sliding on the surface of the bridge in a steel 
trough, with teeth 6-in. above the floor level, is electrically driven through 
transmission shaft and sprocket wheel set at the hinge end, and pulls trucks 
from a low level into the warehouse, from warehouse up into a boat, or holds 
back a load going in the opposite direction. This chain is driven by a 20-hp. 
reversible motor operating at 220 volts d.c. and has a variable speed to accom- 
modate any class of material being loaded or imloaded. The teeth on the 
chain engage the axle of a truck, and a load of 4,000 lb. may be handled at a 
speed of 125 ft. per min. At 250 ft. per min. four individual loads of 1,000 lb., 
and at 400 ft. per min. eight individual loads of 500 lb. may be handled, the 
total load at all speeds amounting to 4,000 lb. The chain is located 4H ft. 
from the edge of the ramp bridge, and will permit an empty truck to pass in 
one direction while the load is moving in the opposite direction. 

Forty-six bridges are provided on the two warehouses, 34 being equipped 
with elevators, and the spacing has been made to fit the doors in any vessels 
operated by the different steamship companies discharging at the space 
assigned. 

Costs of Steamship Piers, Philadelphia, Penn. — In 1913 and 1914, the 
department of Docks, Wharves & Ferries of the city of Philadelphia, received 
bids for two steamship piers to be located in the Delaware River, in the new 
Southwark improvement. On account of radical local differences of opinion 
as to the relative economy of various types of design, the department made 
five different designs, three for one pier and two for the other, all of the designs 
being for the same dimensions and loadings. Bids were received on all five 
designs and in addition one bidder submitted a sixth design. The following 
details of the designs, the bid figures, the department's comments upon the 
designs and bids are given in Engineering News, May 28, 1914. 

Comments by Department of Wharves, Docks and Ferries. — The accompanying 
prices are for the construction of the substructures only, and do not include any 
portion of the sheds. All of the pier types mentioned are similar in general 
dimensions, in height of deck (12 ft. above mean low water), and in the super- 
posed loads for which they are designed. The main deck slab is designed for 



1478 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 





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Type B— Pile Bents 5 Feet, Column Bents 20 Feet on Centers 




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Fig. 4. — Transverse half sections, with superstructure omitted. General dimen- 
sions on Type A apply to all; depth of dock, 35 ft. 



DOCKS AND WHARVES 1479 

a superposed load of 600 lb. per sq. ft., and the column bases for a second floor 
superposed load of 300 lb. per sq. ft. and a roof total load of 70 lb. per sq. ft. 
In comparing the prices obtained under schedules "A," "B" and "C," in 
November, 1913, with those under schedules "D" and "E," in March, 1914, 
the following differences in conditions should be taken into consideration: In 
the "A," "B" and "C" bids the deck paving was included. The price on 
this in the low bid was about $18,000, or $0.18 per sq. ft. of gross area of the 
pier. This should be added to the square-foot price of bids "D" and "E" 
to make a proper comparison. Also, owing to a change in the specification 
requirements for piles between the first and second biddings, changing from 
15 in. diameter 4 ft. from the butt in the first, to 14 in. diameter 2 ft. from the 
butt in the latter, an estimated allowance of $10,000, or $0.10 per sq. ft. of pier 
area, should be added to the square-foot prices of bids " D " and " E " to make 
a proper comparison. 

The quotation for the " C " type includes $25,000 for riprap. This was to 
be deposited at the toe of the sheet piling and was included because it is an 
essential portion of the design. The prices for the other different types do 
not include cobble or gravel fill. It is estimated that there will probably be 
$10,000 expended for this material to give lateral support to the piles. This 
costs per square foot of pier area for all types but " C," approximately $0.10. 
The prices under Alternate Bids are the quotations of the Raymond Con- 
crete Pile Co. and were used in determining the minimum and maximum costs. 
Following is a brief description of each type : 

Type "A" consists of: A double row of piles in transverse bays, on 20-ft. 
centers longitudinally, cut off in a plane approximately 1.5 ft. above low water. 
The piles are clamped and capped, and this framing covered with a light timber 
deck, tipon which are set concrete walls approximately 11 ft. high. These 
support a system of reinforced-concrete floor-beams and slabs. On the slabs 
the deck paving is laid. 

Type "5" consists of: Timber piling driven on 5-ft. centers longitudinally 
and transversely, cut off approximately 1.5 ft. above mean low water, then 
clamped and capped, and upon the caps a heavy decking placed, which forms 
a timber platform covering the whole pier area at an elevation of approxi- 
mately 3 ft. above mean low water. On thB outer edges of this decking, along 
the sides and ends of the pier, concrete walls are constructed approximately 
11 ft. in height. A dry fill is deposited on the platform, retained by these 
concrete walls, and brought to the subgrade of the paving. Upon this fill, a 
6-in. concrete base is placed, on which the paving is laid. 

Type " C" consists of: A solid earth fill retained by bulkhead walls on the 
sides and outshore end of the pier. For these bulkheads, piles are driven 
approximately 5 ft. on centers in both directions, clamped and capped, upon 
which a heavy timber platform, approximately 25 ft. wide, is laid. Its surface 
is 3 ft. above mean low water. Timber sheet-piling is driven along the inner 
edge of this platform and a concrete wall approximately 11 ft. high constructed 
on the outer end of it. This construction is essentially a bulkhead type and 
practically consists merely of the standard bulkhead section as used at the 
ends of the docks, extended around the three sides of the pier. Transverse 
reinforced-concrete ties connect the longitudinal bulkhead wall together. A 
wet or dry fill is deposited behind the sheet-piling and on the platform and 
brought to the underside of the 6-in. concrete slab which supports the paving. 
Alternate Bid (Raymond Concrete Pile Co.) consists of: A solid earth fill 
retained by reinforced-concrete sheet-piling 20 in. thick. This sheet-piling 



1480 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



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DOCKS AND WHARVES 1481 

is driven 13 ft. back from the sides of the pier. The design of the column 
footings inside of the rows of sheet-piling is similar to those of Type "D" — 
that is, concrete pedestals supported on timber piling. The center rows of 
column bases outside of the sheeting are supported on concrete pedestals, 
each one carried by five reinforced piles 18 in. square. Transverse reinforced- 
concrete beams 12 X 18 in., running from side to side of the pier, on 20-ft. 
centers, tie the construction together. The wall and sheeting across the 
outshore end of the pier are held in place by reinforced-concrete ties running 
to concrete blocks, supported and braced by vertical and inclined timber piles. 

Type " D" consists of: Timber piling in transverse bays, spaced 10 ft. c. to 
c, cut off and clamped at about 12 ft. above mean low water. Upon these 
clamps a 10-in. reinforced-concrete floor slab is constructed. On this slab 
the deck paving is laid. In addition to the above clamps a lower set is also 
provided at about 2 ft. above mean low water and the piles are thoroughly 
braced together both longitudinally and transversely. 

Type '' E" consists of: Piles driven in clusters about 20 ft. apart c. to c, in 
transverse bays, spaced on 20-ft. centers. These piles are clamped and decked 
over at about 2.5 ft. above mean low water to support concrete pedestals. 
These pedestals are approximately 1 1 ft. high and from them spring the girders 
of a reinforced-concrete floor system of beams and slabs. On the surface 
of the slabs the deck paving is laid. 

The ruling considerations in these designs were : First, practical permanency 
of construction and second, as great a degree of economy as was consistent 
with permanency and stability. No marine borers of any type are prevalent 
in the waters of the Delaware River as far up as Philadelphia and consequently 
no necessity existed for providing in these designs against their attacks. 

All of these designs are considered to be of permanent character, except 
Type " D." In this the timber piles extend up to the bottom of the main 
deck slab, at elevation approximately 12 ft. above mean low water, and their 
upper ends would be subject to complete renewal in from ten to fifteen years. 
The portion of the structure subject to decay is readily renewable in this type, 
and it was thought originally that a material saving in first cost might be 
accomplished by this design sufficient to offset its partially temporary char- 
acter. The difference in bid prices obtained, however, was not sufficient to 
justify the adoption of this type in the contract award. 

Of the four permanent types, the "E" design, or the so-called concrete- 
beam type, is the most economical for the particular width of pier under con- 
sideration, and presumably for narrower ones. A comparison of the unit 
prices named, indicates that this type will continue to be the most economical 
for piers up to 200 ft. in width. For widths above this, the " C " design, or the 
solid earth-fill type, would be cheaper under local conditions in Philadelphia, 
its economy over the other designs increasing steadily with the width of the 
pier. 

The Department of Wharves, Docks and Ferries has adopted a policy of 
wide-pier construction for city wharves, it being believed that structures of 
upwards of 300 ft. in width are necessary to properly accommodate the hand- 
ling and storage of inbound and outbound cargo of large, modern ocean 
freight carriers, so that the sohd earth-fill type will probably be generally 
used for future municipal steamship piers. 

Life, Maintenance and Cost of Pile Piers with Timber and Concrete Decks. 
Charles W. Stamford, Proc. A. S. C. E., Vol. XXXIX, gives the following 
(see Engineering and Contracting, June 18, 1913). 



1482 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The United States Government requires that all piers constructed beyond the 
bulkhead line, along the entire water front of New York harbor, must be of 
such construction that the free flow of the tidal water shall remain uninter- 
rupted by supporting columns. 

The pier which meets these requirements, and was adopted by the city in 
its early history as the type of structure for berthing vessels (and also adopted 
by all private and corporate interests), is a wooden structure throughout, 
consisting of a deck resting on piles driven into the mud or hard bottom. 
The physical features of the harbor, the geological formation of the bottom, 
and the condition of the water, fortunately permit the adoption of this type 
of construction, which, in many other parts of the world, is not adaptable 
because the life of the timber itself in the water would not be permanent or 
fairly long. Wood-boring animals, the teredo, limnoria, etc., are verj'' little 
in evidence, and, therefore, wooden piles are practically permanent below 
the water-line in almost all parts of New York harbor. - * 

The prominent objectionable feature to wooden pier construction *is the 
expense necessitated by the constant repairs of the deck sheathing and the 
contmuous wear and tear of the fender system extending along the sides and 
outer ends of the piers. As to the remainder of the structure, piles, floor 
system, etc., its maintenance and repair is very economical and consists 
generally in the replacement, from time to time, here and there, of decayed 
portions of the timber above mean low water only, at inconsiderable expense. 

Until seven or eight years ago, the piers were generally built with decks of 
yellow pine, 4 ins. thick, laid on a system of yellow pine floor structure of 
rangers and stringers. This deck plank in turn was covered with a second 
layer of either 3 or 4-in. plank sheathing, laid diagonally or at right angles to 
the deck proper, to form a wearing surface for the traffic. 

Constant repairs and renewal of this deck sheathing, caused by the wear 
and tear of team traffic, is augmented in great measure by the moisture, 
horse urine, etc., which saturates the wood and eventually finds its way to the 
underlying deck and rangers. This forms the greatest item incident to the 
expense of pier maintenance, the average life of the sheathing for most busy 
piers being about six years, or requiring a 17 per cent renewal annually. As 
the cost of the deck sheathing is generally about 12 per cent of the total cost 
of a pier, it will be seen that these sheathing repairs would aggregate 2 per 
cent per annum of the cost of the entire structure. 

The unit cost of construction of a pier depends in a large measure on the size 
of a pier. As the outer portions, the sides, and outer end of a large pier are 
more rigid and heavier than those of a smaller pier, and therefore, cost more in 
both labor and material, the relative cost per square foot of a short pier is 
considerably larger than that of a long one. The average cost of the old 
wooden deck pier of large dimensions is from $1.00 to $1.15 per square foot. 

Notwithstanding the necessity for constant repairs to the deck sheathing of 
the wooden pier, the parts of the remainder of the structure — rangers, caps, 
stringers, piles, and bracing — give excellent service. Maintenance is econom- 
ical, the average life of the structure above mean low water line being from 
20 to 25 years, the repairs aggregating an entire renewal above low water in 
that period of time. As the life of the piles supporting the structure is prac- 
tically permanent when submerged below the water, the entire structure can 
be rebuilt after this period and made practically new by "bench capping" 
such piles as may be decayed above the water line and renewing the stringers, 
caps, deck, and sheathing; in other words, the pier structure proper, after a 



DOCKS AND WHARVES 




1483 



1484 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

life of 25 years, is readily susceptible of renewal above the water line, 
the supporting piles below that line being to all intents and purposes 
■ permanent. 

It was with the object of eliminating this large repair expense incidental 
to the maintenance of the sheathing, and reducing maintenance cost generally, 
that the Engineering Bureau of the Department of Docks and Ferries, under 
the direction of J. A. Bensel, then Commissioner of Docks, about seven years 
ago, began a serious investigation and study of the problem of producing a 
permanent deck surface supported by timber piles, assumed as permanent 
below the water line. 

This study has resulted in the entire elimination of the old style of wooden 
deck in new structures, and the production of a new type consisting of rein- 
forced concrete laid directly on the transverse cap system of the wooden pier 
substructure. This concrete is laid in slabs, spanning the pile bents practi- 
cally as simple beams. ^ 

This new type of deck eliminates not only the 4-in. deck sheathing, but also 
the 4-in. deck proper and the underlying 12 X 12-in. yellow pine ranger system 
longitudinally of the pier on top of the transverse cap system, further increas- 
ing the life of the substructure. 

A structure was thus evolved which had a permanent deck practically 
impervious to the penetration of moisture to the substructure, readily renew- 
able from low water to the under side of the concrete deck, and permanent 
below the water line, with a first cost about equal to that of the old wooden 
deck pier. 

Definite illustrations of this final type of pier construction are found in the 
two new piers recently completed by the Department of Docks and Ferries 
at the Gowanus section. South Brooklyn, one at the foot of 31st St., 1,475 ft. 
long, and the second at the foot of 33d St., 1,616 ft. long, each pier being 150 
ft. wide. These piers are among the finest in the harbor, and are probably 
the largest of their type in the world. The unit cost is practically the same as 
that of the old wooden deck type. The decks have a crown of about 8 ins. 
in order to shed the water. The inshore end of the concrete deck rests on the 
bulkhead wall, but is not attached thereto, a horizontal plant joint allowing 
the deck to slide on the wall as it expands or contracts on account of changes 
of temperature. 

All these piers have been built where the condition of the river bottom 
underlying them was such that no settlement could occur, and they have 
behaved admirably. No repairs have been necessary, except to the fender 
system, and none are anticipated for many years to come, excepting the 
renewal here and there of an imperfect pile, where rot may appear above the 
water line. Such renewals can be made at a minimum of cost — a few dollars 
per pile — ^by bench-capping, without any interference whatever with the 
integrity of the reinforced deck itself. 

Economy being a prime factor in its construction, it was decided to try 
out ttie concrete deck surface for wear and tear of heavy team traffic, and the 
earlier decks, therefore, were finished with a smooth mortar surface to receive 
this traffic. Two years of experimenting on these lines determined the fact 
that though the concrete surface was admirably adapted to light traffic, cargo 
handling by hand or motor trucks, etc., it could not stand the concentration 
of heavy team traffic confined within narrow lanes located generally in the 
center of the pier. The grinding and turning of heavily laden trucks inside 
these narrow lanes or zones gradually caused surface rupture of the top coat 






DOCKS AND WHARVES 1485 



of mortar. It was decided, therefore, to place an asphalt wearing surface 
on the deck, and this has proven very effective. 

The piers at the foot of 31st and 33d streets, South Brooklyn, have been in 
service for about three years. No signs of cracking or other imperfections 
have appeared, and the piers, as a whole, are a complete success. 

The cost of construction, maintenance and repair of wooden deck piers is 
given in Table II. 

Table II. — Cost of Construction, Maintenance and Repairs 

(Average cost of construction of wooden deck piers, $1 to $1.15 per square foot.) 
Repair costs of wooden deck pier 

Percentage 
of total 
Description original cost Renewal required 

Sheathing 12. Every Q years 

Backing log 1.8 Every 8 years 

Fender chocks, including vertical sheathing 4. Every 10 years 

Fender piles 4.7 Every 12 years 

Decking 11.3 Every 15 years 

Bracing 7.1 50 % in every 20 yrs. 

Rangers and caps 24. 4 50 % in every 20 yrs. 

Piles 34. 7 333.^ % every 20 yrs. 

Concrete deck pier: 

Cost of construction, 31st street pier, South Brooklyn, no asphalt sur- 
face, per sq. ft $0. 87 

Cost of construction, 33d street pier. South Brooklyn, with asphalt 

surface, sq. ft 0. 97 

For the modern type of concrete deck pier, the cost of maintaining the 
fender system is about the same as that for the wooden pier; deck sheathing 
repairs are practically eliminated, except such minor asphalt patching as may 
be required, and can be considered negligible in a good asphalt deck under 
cover; the deck plank is eliminated; the life of the ranger and cap system is 
prolonged by the protection from moisture given by the impervious concrete 
deck, and the cost of maintenance and repairs, therefore is reduced to a 
minimum. 

Reinforced Concrete Wharf, Oakland Harbor, Cal. — The general plan and 
some details of the construction of this Wharf are given in Fig. 6. 

Wm. Clyde Willard and Fred W. Johnson give the cost of this wharf in 
Engineering and Contracting, July 16, 1913, as follows: 

The work on the wharf was started June, 1911, and completed April, 1912 
the contract price being $119,440.57, with extras of $506.76, totaling $119,- 
947,33 or $3.40 sq. ft. A somewhat elaborate analysis of costs was made by 
the city on this work, and according to the data thus obtained Table Hi has 
been compiled and gives the itemized cost of all material used in constructing 
the wharf. 

The wharf is of reinforced concrete construction throughout, and is one 
of the most modern types to be found on the Pacific Coast. The wharf is 
124 ft. X 295 ft., resting on 422 octagonal reinforced concrete piles varying 
in length from 30 to 50 ft. 

The piles were molded about 800 ft. from the wharf site and were hauled 
to the site on a car drawn by one horse. Four laborers at $2.50 per day were 
employed to move the piles from the yard to a receiving platform, near the 
wharf. The car carried but one pile, which was rolled to it and loaded 
thereon by use of skids and block and tackle, two horses being used to haul 



1486 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



the tackle. A donkey engine was at first tried for this work but proved to be 
too expensive. From the receiving platform the piles were loaded by the 
floating driver onto a barge, the barge holding about eight piles, and hauled 
to the desired location at the wharf. 

Molding Piles. — The bottom for the pile forms was made of two 2 X 10-in. 
pieces cleated together, 3,000 lin. ft. of this being used. The sides were of 
2-in. plank with triangular strips, having approximately a 7-in. face nailed 
on at top and bottom so that when the two sides were placed on the bottom a 




Fig. 6. — Plan and details of Livfngston St. Wharf, Oakland Harbor, 



cross section of the enclosed space was approximately an octagon whose 
diameter between faces was 16 ins. A total of 2,360 lin. ft. of sides were used. 
Fig. 7 shows the details of the reinforcement and jet pipe. 

To make the form, a bottom of the desired length was placed on the ground, 
shimmed to a firm and even bearing, and the steel cage of reinforcement placed 
on the bottom by laborers. (The cages were built by union labor at $6 per 
day for foremen and $5 per day for iron workers.) The sides were put in 
place by carpenters at $3 to $4 per day, toe-nailed to the bottom and tied 
together at the top with 1 X 2-in. cleats. The steel and jet pipe were sus- 



DOCKS AND WHARVES 



1487. 



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1488 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

pended by wire from these cleats. Headers were then placed at each end, the 
form thoroughly wetted and the concrete poured. The day following the 
pouring of the concrete these sides were removed, cleaned and used again. 
Four days after pouring, the pile was rolled off the bottom, which was then 
cleaned and re-used. A total of 424 piles, only two in addition to the number 
actually used in the wharf, were molded, and at the end of the work the forms 
were still in good condition. The form work was not economically handled 
and the cost of this item was relatively high, being nearly $1 per ft. of pile. 
Of the 1,047.5 bbls. of cement used in the piles, 986 bbls. were delivered 
f . o. b. the job at $2.05 and the balance by team at $2.20. The rock, sand and 
screenings were delivered by team, the haul being about one-half mile. The 
concrete was mixed by an old type Ransome mixer in poor condition, run by a 
gasoline engine which caused considerable trouble. From time to time the 
mixer was moved along the work so that the round trip from the mixer to 
forms was about 75 ft. An extra wet mixture was used and was hauled in 
wheelbarrows holding 3 cu. ft. The labor consisted of a crew of from 11 to 
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Fig. 7. — Details of reinforced concrete pile, Oakland Harbor. 

The concrete mixtures specified were: For 40-ft. piles, 1:2:4; for 30 and 
34-ft. piles, 1 of cement to 2 of sand to 2 of screenings to 2 of rock; for the 48 
and 50 piles, 1 : 1^ :»1K ' IM- On account of the character of the materials 
these mixtures were changed slightly by making an excess of grout and reduc- 
ing the quantity of stone. 

Driving Piles. — The piles were driven by jetting and churning, a drop of 
from 6 ins. to 2 ft. appearing to give the best results. The time of driving 
averaged from one to two hours. In using a longer drop, it was found that 
the material caved under the end of the pile, and also that in penetrating a 
layer of cemented gravel which underlaid part of the work the square edges 
at the end of the pile became rounded. An attempt was made to do the 
driving with a steam hammer by using a special iron follower so cast as not to 
interfere with the reinforcing rods, which projected 2 ft. beyond the top of 
the piles, and inserting a wooden cushion block between the pile and follower. 
However, the outer edge of the head of the pile chipped off during driving and 
the method was abandoned. 

The jet was supplied by two pumps developing a pressure of about 80 lbs. 
per square inch. A floating driver working two shifts drove 348 piles; and 74 
piles inshore were driven with a top driver on false work, the two drivers 
being similarly equipped. The crew consisted of a foreman at $6, engineer at 
$5 and four journeymen at $4 per day. 

In driving the 48 and 50-ft. piles inshore, some difficulty was encountered in 
penetrating the layer of cemented gravel 4 to 10 ft. thick and lying at a depth 
of 35 to 40 ft. below mean tide. This layer inclined towards the water and 
only seriously interfered with the driving of the piles nearest shore. In 
order to get the piles through this stratum it was necessary to use a mud pump, 
the time of pumping averaging from two to three hours. 

In order to prevent the concrete in the pile from cracking under its own 



DOCKS AND WHARVES 1489 

weight while being hoisted into the gins, all 48 and 50~ft. piles were braced 
with 12 X 12-in. stiffening timber 30 ft. long, firmly clamped to the pile. 
The average time of placing stiffening timber and adjusting hoisting collar 
was about 40 minutes. 

Occasionally the jet pile would become plugged by the edges of the pipe 
jamming together at the lower end. When this occurred the pile was hoisted 
into the gins and the hole drilled out. In a few cases the nipple at the upper 
end of the jet pipe was found plugged with concrete, in which case a hole was 
drilled into the jet pipe lower down the pile and a new nipple inserted and 
calked with lead. With the exception of the layer of cemented gravel all 
other material encountered in driving was compact blue clay and mud. After 
being driven, each pile was sprung into place and held so by 3 X 4-in. timber 
ribbons bolted around the pile with ^-in. bolts. The friction of these ribbons 
on the piles was sufficient to carry the weight of the deck forms. 

Brace Walls. — The concrete brace walls, each enclosing five of the concrete 
piles, were constructed as part of the substructure of the wharf, as shown by 
Fig. 6. A cofferdam of 2-in. T & G sheet piling, about 10 X 50 ft., was driven 
.for each brace wall and left in place after the work was finished. 

The construction of brace walls was poorly handled, the machinery almost 
worn out, and on brace walls Nos. 1 and 2 there was considerable overtime 
work at time and a half, all of which unnecessarily increased the costs, which 
were, for brace walls Nos. 1, 2 and 3, $1,293, $878 and $626, respectively. 

Deck Forms. — All form lumber was 2-in. plank with the exception of the 
side pieces on the pile caps, which were 4 X 12 ins. The lumber was ordered 
for half of the wharf only and was re-used for the second half. 

Concrete. — The rock, sand and cement for the deck structure were delivered 
on barges, from which they were fed directly to the mixer, a one-half yard 
Smith in fair condition, run by a vertical steam engine supplied by steam from 
a separate donkey boiler. This machinery was mounted on a 30 X 50-ft. 
barge. From the mixer the concrete was hoisted vertically to a hopper about 
30 ft. above and poured by a 10-in. O. D. casing some 50 ft. long, a length 
sufficient to reach the center of the wharf. This tube was suspended from a 
boom, and by mooring the barge the concrete could be poured at any point on 
half of the wharf during any stage of the tide. 

Two hinged chutes about 40 ft. long, hoisted by a gypsy, were attached to 
the rear of the mixer barge and extended out over the material barge. The 
rock and sand were shoveled into these chutes, the outer ends of which were 
then hoisted by the gypsy so that the contents dumped into iron dump cars, 
which, in turn, were run up an incUne and dumped into the mixer. These 
chutes were 8 X 18 ins. and as each running foot of chute contained 1 cu. ft., 
it made a very convenient method of measuring quantities. The capacity of 
the dump cars was insufficient to supply the full capacity of the mixer, so that 
on the outer half of the wharf only >^ cu. yd. of mix was obtained. For the 
work on the other half, side boards were placed on the cars and the mixer 
charged to its full capacity of }4 cu. yd. 

From 30 to 33 men distributed as follows were required to handle the equip- 
ment on the wharf: One foreman at $6 to direct the placing of concrete and 
handling of barge; one man at $4 to swing tube; three men at $4 shoveling 
and tamping. On the barge: One finisher at $6; one engineer at $5 hoisting 
' skip and dump cars; one engineer at $5 on mixer engine; one man at $4 on 
gypsy hoist; three men at $4 to handle mooring hues; two men at $2.50 firing 
boilers; two men at $2.50 handling cement; one man at $4 cleaning hopper; 
94 , 






1490 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

1 1 to 14 men at $4 running mixer, shoveling, etc. ; 2 to 6 men at $2.50 shoveling. 
The mixer averaged about 25 batches per hour, as the dump cars did not 
deliver the material fast enough to keep it supplied. 

Considerable time was lost in moving the barge to change the location of the 
tube, which, in reality, was too cumbersome for the work it was required to do. 
Had the mixer been of 1-yd. capacity the cost could have been greatly reduced, 
as doubling its capacity would have required only about four men in addition 
to the actual crew. 

Fenders, Etc. — The fender piles which were treated with a 12-lb. treatment 
of creosote, were driven by a top driver on the wharf. The average time of 
trimming the head of a pile and getting it into the gins was 15 minutes. The 
time of driving was from 5 to 7 minutes. The waling was formed in sections 
and hoisted into place. 

The railroad tracks on the wharf were of 141-lb. grooved rails without 
spacers, embedded in concrete. 

Cost of Cellular Concrete Superstructures for Timber Piers. — ^J. A. B. 
Tompkins in Professional Memoirs, describes the methods and costs of repair- 
ing timber piers and jetties. The following matter is taken from an abstract , 
of Mr. Tompkins' paper published in Engineering and Contracting, Aug. 22, 
1917. 

Concrete superstructures are cellular in type, consisting of two parallel 
walls connected at intervals of about 8 ft. by cross walls from 12 to 18 in. thick, 
thereby forming open pockets or "cells" which are filled with rubble stone. 
The superstructure is built in monolithic sections, 24 or 25 ft. in length, and is 
provided with a continuous walk of reinforced concrete slabs, supported by the 
cross walls. 

In all cases where an old pier is to be provided with concrete superstructure 
of this type, the work has been done by hired labor and use of Government 
plant. 

The work of building cellular superstructures on old piers does not require 
a large or special plant. The plant now being used in the Milwaukee District 
for such work consists of a floating derrick of 3 to 5 tons' capacity, two flat 
scows, and a small gasoline tug. A steam-driven concrete mixer, having a 
capacity of about two-thirds of a yard of finished concrete, is placed on one 
scow; the other scow is used for carrying materials. With this plant and a 
crew of about 15 to 20 men, from 200 to 300 lin. ft. of superstructure are built 
per month, including the cutting down of the old pier. 

The total cost of the concrete superstructures described, including the cost 
of cutting down and preparing the old pier for reception of the superstructure, 
has been from about $12 to $15 per linear foot of pier, depending upon the 
width of pier, which usually varies from 14 ft. to 18 ft. center to center of 
parallel rows of round piles. 

An adaptation of the form of superstructure described has been used for 
original pier construction. In this case the sides of the pier are alike, consist- 
ing of round piles spaced 4 ft. centers, with 9-in. triple-lap sheeting; 12 by 12 in. 
spreaders are used between round and sheet piles. The general method of 
construction is the same as that previously described. All work constructed 
according to this design has been done by contract. The timber, cement, and 
reinforcing steel were furnished to the contractor by the United States; all 
other materials were furnished by the contractor. Table IV shows the 
approximate cost of building 100 lin. ft. of this style of pier in this district by 
contract, including the cost of materials furnished by the United States. 



DOCKS AND WHARVES 



1491 



Cost of a Timber Pleasure Pier on Pile 
Bents. — In Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 
28, 1910, Benjamin Brooks gives the following. 
The site of the pier was a prospective beach 
resort upon the coast of California. 

It was 10 miles from the nearest port, about 
3 miles from the nearest broad-gage railway 
(which, however, did not connect with the 
port) had absolutely no roads leading to it, and 
was girt on one side by heavy surf and on the 
other by barren sand dunes. 

After a preliminary trip, the writer decided to 
run the risk of beaching the materials on the 
spot and to ship the pile driver outfit through 
the port to the nearest narrow gage station — 
about 7 miles away — and team it from there 
to the beach. 

An experienced freighting company was hired 
by the day to transport the pile driver outfit. 
The firakt four miles of road were perfectly level 
and good ; the last three were simply trails over 
the deep, dry sand leading on to the hard 
beach, where, however, a small stream was to 
be crossed. A team of four horses and driver 
cost $6.50 per 9-hour day. For the first part 
of the journey the teams worked separately, but 
on the last three miles they doubled and trebled, 
the engine sinking its wagon down in the sand 
till it dragged. The trip required twelve team 
days, or $78 — over $11 per mile. 

Setting up the driver took three days and 
was done in a piecemeal manner according as 
the outfit arrived by team. A foreman at $5 
and a crew of three men at $3 brings this setting 
up expense to $42. 

Beaching the lumber and piles proved to be 
a somewhat uncertain but satisfactory method 
of getting them there, and much cheaper than 
any other way. The material comprised the 
deck load of a small coasting steamer. After 
having coaxed a few farmers in the neighbor- 
hood to appear on the beach with their teams on 
a certain morning to be named later, the writer 
left things in charge of the pile driver foreman 
and set out to meet the steamer at the nearest 
port. She was only three days late, but arrived 
at night so that orders could be phoned to have 
the farmer-teamsters on hand next morning. 

On the following day the weather was so 
thick that the steamer sailed past the wharf site 
twice before it could be identified from the sea ; 



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1492 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

so that it was 1 p. m. before the first stick was thrown overboard. The 
teamsters meanwhile continued leisurely to draw their pay on the beach, as 
did also two expert surf boatmen in a dory hired to take lines ashore if 
necessary or to rescue stray timber. These latter proved unnecessary, but 
were a good safeguard in case of change of wind. 

The first pile thrown over showed that the vessel was not anchored exactly 
in the right place, and she was accordingly moved. Her final position was 
about a mile off shore. The surf was rather heavy, the wind light and the 
timber took about an hour to drift in. It arrived a good deal faster than seven 
teams could pick it up, but the surf and wind kept it on the beach. It did 
not, however, all come to one place, but scattered out about 1,000 ft. wide. 
No attempt was made to pile it, but each piece was pulled up the beach, 
where it struck and left above high water mark. The last piece left the ves- 
sel about 5 p. m., and the last snaking out occupied the teams until 10 p. m. 
They had the advantage of a moon and free hot coffee. 

The following costs are worked out without regard to the six hours lost in 
waiting for the vessel, for this delay is always likely to happen; and both 
teams and boats are counted as having worked from 7 a. m. until about 10 
p. m. On this basis the landing and snaking to safety required: 



0. 090 boat hours per M at $2.00 . $0. 180 

0. 785 team hours per M at $0.40 314 

0. 64 man hours per M at $0.20 .128 

Total $0. 622 



The following day at daylight a few teams were engaged to sort out and 
gather up the lumber from the beach and pile it at the wharf site. Owing to 
bruised legs and other discomforts incident to working in the surf, the price 
of teams had increased over night, so that the cost of stacking the material 
was: 



1. 40 man hours per M at $0.25 $0. 35 

1 . 36 team hours per M at $0.50 68 

Total $1.03 



which brought the total cost of bringing the lumber to the pier sitfe $1.65 per 
M ft. B. M. 

The pier was of simple construction, with bents 20 ft. apart, four piles to 
the bent (the two outside ones battered) under a 12 X 12 in. cap 16 ft. long, 
which was drifted and strapped to each pile. The deck was 2 X 12 in. on 
3 X 12 in. joists. There was a light railing on each side. 

The piled iver had 35 ft. swinging leads and 64 ft. gunwales, a 3,500-lb. 
hammer and an oil burning engine big enough to keep up steam under hard 
driving. The sand was so compact that piles sometimes collapsed under the 
hammer before they had reached the required 10 ft. penetration. After the 
driving was well under way the time of each operation was as follows : 



DOCKS AND WHARVES 1493 

Bent No. 9 

Minutes 

Rigging staging for cross-cut saw men 13>^ 

Placing battons 8 

Sawing off four piles 15 

Hoisting cap in position 2}^ 

Boring and drifting cap (straps put on later) 12 

Removing staging and tieing bent to previous one 53^ 

Pulling driver ahead 3 

Placing first pile 63^ 

Driving first pile (81 blows) 7^ 

Plumbing leads 1)4, 

Placing second pile 5 

Driving second pile (83 blows) 9 

Placing third pile 9 

Driving third pile 6 

Placing fourth pile and swing leads 5J^ 

Driving fourth pile 6 

Total for driving and capping bent 115H 

Bent No. 10 

Minutes 

Pulling driver in position 5H 

Hoisting and placing first pile 3 

Driving first pile (67 blows) 63^ 

Plumbing gins and placing second pile 5 

Driving second pile (62 blows) 5 

Placing third pile 2}ri 

Driving third pile (58 blows) 5 

Placing fourth pile 5 

Driving fourth pile (63 blows) 3 

Rigging staging for cut-off 10 

Placing battons 8)^ 

Sawing off four piles 12 

Placing and drifting cap 13H 

Tieing bent to previous one 5 

Total for driving and capping bent 893^ 

Occasional delays brought this down to four bents per 9-hour day. The 

crew comprised an excellent foreman, a well drilled set of seven men and a 
team. The daily expenses of running the driver were : 

Crew (foreman, $5.00; men, $3.00) $26. 00 

Team 4. 50 

Extra man on beach 2. 25 

Fuel oil (including teaming of same) 4. 00 

Interest and depreciation on outfit 3. 00 

Engine oil (assumed) .25 

Total $40. 00 

This gives a cost of $10 per bent. To sum up, we have a piledriver expense 
of $78 teaming and $42 setting up, and assuming an equal cost of removal 
brings this to $240. Since the pier was 800 ft. long, the piledriver charges 
would be 2 ^^0 of $240 or $6 per bent. 

Pile driver expenses $ 6. 00 

Beaching and stacking 3^ M lumber at $1.65 6. 19 

Driving and capping 10. 00 

Placing joists and deck, l}4 M at $4.76 7. 14 

Placing railing, 0.13 M at $10 1. 30 

Placing cap straps (estimated) 2. 00 

Total $32. 63 

which is equal to $1.63 per foot. 



1494 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

This is, with the exception of oil for the pile driver and interest on it, a 
strictly labor cost. The time of the writer for surveys, soundings and steamer 
piloting is not taken into account, nor are the railway freights, fares for the 
crew, rent of quarters in the "pavilion," reconnaissance, and so on. 

This method of landing lumber requires a wide beach and a steady wind 
blowing directly or almost directly on it. If the wind blows at an angle with 
the beach, the lumber will drift a long way before beaching, and scatter very 
much. A change of wind is fatal, so that not too much lumber should be 
afloat at a time. Anything smaller than 2 X 10 ins. should be fastened in 
square bundles to avoid breakage in the surf. Too much care cannot be taken 
to avoid broken legs. 

Cost of Driving Sheet and Bearing Piles and Placing Concrete for the 
Concrete and Steel Ore Dock of the Duluth and Iron Range R. R. — Leland 
Clapper in Engineering and Contracting, July 17, 1912, gives the following. 

The concrete steel dock, erected on the site of a former one of timber, is 
made up of a timber approach 220 ft. long, a steel approach 329 ft. long, the 
dock proper 1,344 ft. long, and an end tower of 32-ft. span. The timber 
approach has three-pile bents and twelve-trestle bents of 15-ft. centers, with 
a 10-ft. span joining onto the steel approach. The steel approach has four 
32-ft. towers with three spans of 63-ft. deck plate girders joining them and a 
12-ft. span joining the last tower to the dock proper. In the dock proper, 
there are 112 spans 12 ft. long, each span supporting an ore pocket on each 
side of the dock. The dock proper and end span are level, the steel approach 
is on a 0.304 per cent grade, the timber approach on a 0.20 per cent grade and 
the ore yard on a 0.51 per cent grade, all being down grade away from the 
dock. 

Foundations. — The entire area to be covered by the foundation of the dock 
proper was enclosed by sheet piling. The two side walls of sheet piling were 
55 ft. inside to inside, while the end walls were about 1,404 ft., making the 
total area enclosed about 1.8 acres. The sheet piles, of which 2,350 were 
required, were made of 12 X 12-in. fir 32 and 34 ft. long, by spiking to these, 
with ^ X 8-in. boat spikes, 3 X 4-in. strips flatwise, to form tongues and 
grooves. The points were made by sawing them on a long bevel of about 2 
to 1 sloping up from the groove side to the tongue. Any side beveling, neces- 
sary to hold the pile to line, was done at the drivers. 

The sheet piles were handled from the framing yard to the drivers by a 
derrick scow. Two roller drivers were used, one on each side of the dock, 
. each having a 2,800-lb. hammer and 35-ft. leads. 

The lake bed, at this point, is red clay, so that jetting was impossible. How- 
ever, little difficulty was experienced in driving. An occasional wedge was 
used to keep the piles plumb. These were made by ripping the 12 X 12-in. 
timber diagonally and then nailing on the tongue and groove. A sliding block, 
made with a groove to fit over the tongue of the pile being driven, and with a 
line passed around it to the engine, held the pile firmly to place during the 
driving. A hand winch was used to hold the tops of the piles tight after they 
were driven. A temporary inside waling or guide timber was bolted to the 
ends of the pile caps of the old foundation and to this about every fifth sheet 
pile was bolted to hold it in place and to maintain a true line until the tempo- 
rary outside waling timbers could be placed. These temporary outside waling 
timbers were 14 X 14 in. second-hand fir and were placed 11 ins. below the 
sheet pile cut-off, which was 6 ins. below mean water level. The two walls 
were then tied together through these timbers with 1-in. X 59-ft. rods, spaced 



DOCKS AND WHARVES 1495 

6 ft. centers, and using a center turnbuckle. The final anchoring of the sheet 
piHng was by placing a 1-in. bolt 4 ft. 8 ins. long through each pile at a point 
8 ins. below the cut-off. 

Following the sheet pile driving, a swing driver having a 4,200-lb. hammer 
and 65-ft. leads, drove the bearing piles, varying from 30-ft. to 60 ft. in length 
in the main foundation. These piles were unloaded from cars at a point 
where they could be easily pointed, sorted, and rolled into the water for rafting. 
The piles were cut off by hand at a point 1 ft. 3 ins. below mean lake level. 
The rows of new bearing piles are spaced 6-ft. centers with a row of the old 
timber dock bearing piles half way between. In each row on each half of the 
dock, there are seven piles spaced 2y2 ft. centers, the first being 1}-^ ft. from 
inner edge of the sheet piling. The pile driving specifications called for a 
penetration of not over 6 ins. in six blows under a 40-ft. drop of a 3,000-lb. 
hammer, or its equivalent. 

In Table V for sheet piling, the item "preparing and handling" includes 
spiking on the tongues and grooves, using about 50 H X 8-in. spikes per pile, 
also sharpening, loading by derrick from skidway to scow, and unloading at 
the drives. The item "waling and tying" covers the placing of the tempo- 
rary inside guide timbers, the temporary outside waling timbers and all tem- 
porary and permanent bolts and anchors. 



Table V. — Time Cost of Sheet Piling (2,350 Piles) 

Hours 
per 100 
Hours sheet piles 
Preparing and handling: 

Foreman 370 15. 58 

Carpenters 520 21. 89 

Skilled labor 1 , 630 70. 73 

Common labor 4,950 208,40 

Engineer 340 14. 31 

Tug and crew 40 1 . 68 

Derrick scow 250 10. 53 

Driving: 

Foreman 590 24. 84 

Skilled labor. 1,890 79. 57 

Common labor 2 , 160 90. 94 

Engineer 830 34. 94 

Drivers 570 24. 00 

Cutting off: 

Common labor 1 , 700 71 . 57 

Waling and tieing: 

Foreman 760 32. 00 

Carpenters 2 , 380 100. 20 

Skilled labor 6,330 266.49 

Common labor 13,370 562. 88 

Engineer 1,960 82. 52 

Tug and crew 40 1 . 68 . 

Derrick scow 1,040 43. 78 

Drivers 570 24. 00 

Table VI for round piles includes only those piles in the dock proper. The 
item "pointing and handling" includes sorting, pointing, rafting and deliver- 
ing to drivers. The cutting includes the removing of the old pile heads. 



1496 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Table VI. — Time Cost op Round Pile Woek (163,500 Piles) 

Hours per 
Hours 100 lin. ft. 
Pointing and handling: 

Foreman 20 . 0122 

Engineer 350 .2135 

Skilled labor 2,330 1. 4213 

Common labor 2,390 1.4579 

Derrick scow 130 . 0793 

Team 350 .2135 

Driving: 

Foreman 670 . 4087 

Engineer 670 . 4087 

Skilled labor 2,670 1.6287 

Common labor ; 2,690 1.6409 

Pile driver 660 . 4026 

Cutting off piles: 

Foreman 130 . 0793 

Skilled labor 600 . 3660 

Common labor 3 , 180 1. 9398 

The forms for all concrete work were made of 2-in. matched lumber and 
were set, removed and carried ahead by a small derrick scow. The outside 
forms, of which 19 sections 24 ft. long were used on each side of the dock, 
rested on the temporary waling timber 4 ins. outside the sheet piling. An 
expansion joint above mean water level was used every 72 ft. A key 6 ins. X 
3 ft. was made in the end form at each joint so that there could be no transverse 
movement of sections. As soon as the outside and center core forms had been 
set, the reinforcing rods were bent and placed. In each 72-ft. section about 
12,100 lin. ft. of 1-in. smooth circular rods and 900 lin. ft. of 13^-in. rods were 
used. The main slabs are 19 ft. 4 ins. wide, with an opening of 19 ft. between 
them and are 5}4 ft. thick, extending from 23^ ft. below mean water to 3 ft. 
above the same. These slabs are tied together every 24 ft. by 3 X 4-ft. con- 
crete tie walls reinforced with four l^-in. X 36-ft. rods. Raising from the 
main slab by three 8-in. steps and extending from its outside edge to its center, 
is a parapet slab 2 ft. thick. On the main parapet and at its outer edge is a 
parapet walk 9 ins. thick and 2}4 ft. wide. The tops of the parapets and slabs 
were given a slope of }4 in- to the foot toward the center of the dock to insure 
drainage. The center line of the piers, which are 4 ft. 9 ins. square on top 
with batters of 1 in. to 4 ins., is 183^ ft. from the center line of the dock. 
These piers are tied to the main slab by four 13^-in. X 9-ft. reinforcing rods. 

Two scow mixers were used on this work, one on each side of the dock. The 
one was a ^-cu. yd. Smith mixer with chain conveyors carrying materials 
from hoppers on main deck to a measuring hopper which fed into the mixer 
about 15 ft. above the main deck. A derrick scow supplied sand and gravel to 
the hoppers. The ^^-cu. yd. mixer mixed two-thirds of the total yardage: 
Its scow was about 80 ft. long and 25 ft. wide. A three-story tower about 
16 ft. square was erected in the center of the scow. On the lower floor of the 
tower were the boiler, pumps and conveyor engines. On the second floor were 
the mixer, mixer engine and the gate controlling the measuring hopper. And 
on the third floor were the measuring hopper and the levers controlling the 
conveyors. On the deck of the scow and 6 ft. from the edge of the tower 
toward the one end was the sand hopper, and toward the other end was a 
gravel hopper. Behind the sand hopper on the end of the scow was a small 
cement shed holding about 200 bbls. 

Conveyors handled the cement in sacks from the deck to the third story and 



DOCKS AND WHARVES 1497 

gravel and sand from the hoppers on the main deck (holding material for about 
30 cu. yds.) to the measuring hopper. 

The mixer required for running, an engineer, a fireman, two laborers hand- 
ling cement to the conveyor, one man at the mixer, and three men on the top 
floor dumping cement and operating the conveyors. The maximum day's 
run for this mixer was 280 cu. yds. 

The second scow had two 3^-cu. yd. Smith mixers mounted about 20 ft. 
above water level. Here the material was shoveled into a bucket on the deck 
of the scow, hoisted and dumped into a hopper which discharged into the 
mixer. With either scow, the mixers would dump to any part of the section 
by the use of spouts. Cement was supplied to each mixer by a small cement 
scow. The maximum day's run for both mixers was 438 cu. yds., while the 
average day's run was 245 cu. yds. 

The materials used for concrete were lake gravel and sand in proportions so 
that when mixed with five sacks of Universal Portland cement per yard it 
would give the densest concrete. 

In placing the concrete, every other 72-ft. section, for five sections, was 
filled to the top of the main slab, including the tie walls. Forms were then 
set and filled for the parapets in these sections. As soon as these parapets 
had set, the end forms were removed ancj the sections between filled. These 
end walls were painted with tar before filling the section between, the tar 
destroying the bond of the concrete and making a good expansion joint. 

The forms for the piers were set and filled about half full of concrete, which 
was allowed to set before anchor bolts were placed. The anchor bolts were 
then set in templets and wired plumb, after which the piers were filled to 
within 1 in. of elevation. Triangular strips, so beveled that the tops were hori- 
zontal when placed, were nailed to exact elevation. The tops of the piers 
were leveled from these strips with a steel-faced straight edge by using 1 to 3 
mortar. Castings were set without grout. 

A fender of two timbers was used. The top timber, which was a 14 X 16-in. 
recessed 4 ins., was placed with its edge 1 in. below the parapet walk and bolted 
through pipe through this walk. The lower timber was a 12 X 12 in. recessed 
2 ins. and fastened by 1-in. upset bolts threaded at both ends and placed in 
pipe in the main slab before concreting. 

In Table VII the item for handling and placing new concrete includes 
unloading cars; loading on and unloading from scows, and fastening the 
reinforcing in place with wire. The item "forms" includes the making, 
placing, bracing and removing of all forms. The item " anchor bolts ' ' includes 
making and placing templets and setting bolts. The item "mixing and 
placing " covers the handling to the mixers of the sand and gravel from a stock 
pile on the old foundation, or a portion of the finished new foundation; 
of handling cement from cars and all mixing, placing and finishing of the 
concrete. 

The time sho\^n in the above tables does not include the time required to 
get outfits to the work and in shape to run. 

A top traveler with two 70-ft. steel booms was used for erection. This 
traveler erected all of the heavier members and sufiicient bracing to allow it to 
proceed. A portion of the lighter bracing and the platforms were placed by 
a derrick car. The riveting was all done by compressed air, furnished by the 
railroad company from its permanent compressors. Riveting followed erec- 
tion as closely as convenient, usually with about six hammers working and 
driving 2,500 rivets daily. 



1498 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Table VII. — Time Cost of Handling and Placing Concrete 
(15,040 cu. yds. concrete, 746,000 lbs. reinforcing) 



Bending reinforcing: 

Foreman 

Skilled labor 

Handling and placing reinforcement: 

Foreman 

Skilled labor 

Common labor 

Flat scows 

Forms: 

Foreman 

Carpenters 

Engineers 

Skilled labor 

Common labor 

Derrick scows 

Anchor bolts: 

Carpenters 

Common labor 

Mixing and placing: 

Foreman 

Engineer 

Skilled labor 

Common labor 

Derrick scows 

Flat scows 

Scow mixers 





Hours per 


Hours 


cu. yd. 


200 ' 


.0132 


680 


.0449 


560 


.0370 


3,260 


.2152 


4,750 


.3135 


520 


.0343 


1,510 


.0997 


9,340 


.6164 


315 


.0176 


5,770 


.3808 


6,300 


.4158 


320 


.0211 


1,135 


.0749 


950 


.0627 


1,680 


.1109 


2,250 


.1485 


6,770 


.4668 


9,990 


.6593 


620 


.0409 


640 


.0422 


1,120 


.0739 



Cost of Driving Piles with a Gasoline Hoist. 
18, 1914, gives the following. 



-Engineering Record, July 




29 \ . _ _. 

..,+, _-....^4o^ch 4^ April *■ 

Fig. 8. — Diagram of speed and cost of driving piles with gasoline hoist. 

A reversible gasoline hoist with a 63^-hp. engine and operating a 1,650-lb. 
drop hammer has been used for driving 1,300 piles to support a stage for 7,000 
singers during the St. Louis pageant. These piles were driven from a scow 
about 6 ft. deep in the bottom of the Mississippi River at Forest Park. 

In the accompanying diagram (Fig. 8) are shown the total number of piles 



DOCKS AND WHARVES 1499 

to be driven on schedule and the actual number of piles driven, the estimated 
cost of driving 1,300 piles and the actual cost of labor on piles driven. The 
largest number of piles driven in one day was seventy-five. In the estimate 
were included 17,105 lin. ft. of piling at a cost of 17 cents, giving a total cost of 
$2,907.85. The average length per pile was estimated to be 13.15 ft. 

Actually 1,326 piles, aggregating 19,104 lin. ft. and averaging 14.4 ft., were 
driven. Of this number 25 piles were driven out of line, so that the useful 
number was 1,301 piles, aggregating 18,735 lin. ft. Allowing 100 per cent 
depreciation on engine and scow, the cost of driving 18,735 lin. ft. was $2,148.38 
or 11.5 cents per foot. This depreciation, of course, is excessive, and if 20 
per cent is allowed on engine and scow and 15 per cent for over head charges 
the total cost of driving was $2,000.92 or 10.7 cents per linear foot. The cost 
of the i)iles delivered was $1,432.80 or 7.5 cents per linear foot, so that with a 
cost of driving of 10.7 cents the cost per linear foot of pile in place. was 18.2 
cents. The crew consisted of four men. 

The itemized costs were as follows: Cost of piles delivered, $1,432.80; total 
payroll, $1,653.93; engine and hoisting outfit, $340; scow, $154.45. 

On this work, union men were employed, at the following rates: 

Hoisting engineer, 80 cts. per hr.; piledriver foreman, 75 cts. per hr., 
piledriver laborers, 40 cts, per hr. 

. Tne driver leads were 20 ft. high, built with 6 X 6-in. timbers, braced 
back to the rear portion of the scow. The hoisting equipment, built by the 
Whitman Agricultural Co., St. Louis, consisted of a 63'^-hp. "Sultan" reversible 
gasoline-driven engine, geared into two drums with necessary controls, etc. 
A winch head, on the hoist, was used to pull in the piles. The weight of the 
drop hammer was 1,650 lb. The scow was 14 X 16 ft. and 3 ft. deep. 

Cost of Driving Sheet, Foundation and Marine Piles. — In a paper presented 
by Victor Windett before the Western Society of Engineers and abstracted 
in Engineering and Contracting, June 21, 1911, the following is given. 

Trench Sheeting. — A sand trench 4,017 ft. long and 10 ft. deep was sheeted 
with 2 X 10 in. X 14 ft. hemlock and yellow pine sheeting, to carry a steam 
shovel over the trench. Triple lap sheeting was made by nailing 1X6 in. 
X 12 ft. hemlock sides to give a 2 in. groove. The cost of making the sheeting 
ready for driving was 8.8 hours of labor at $2.63 per 1,000 ft. B. M. with labor 
at $0.31 per hour. The work was nailing on the side pieces, pointing the 
driving end, and cutting the hammer end to 8 in. in width to permit the use of 
a steel driving cap. The total labor cost, including the making of the sheeting 
in place, with labor at $0.30 per hour, was: 



Hours of labor. 
Cost of labor . . . 



Per M. 
ft. B. M. 


Per hn. 
ft. of 
trench 


Per sq. ft. of 
penetration 
trench side 
of sheeting 


21.9 
$ 6.56 


1.4 
$0,422 


0.12 
$0. 035 



A pile driver having two sets of leads complete was built for this work at a 
cost of about $600 for labor and material, excluding the double-drum hoisting 
engine. The leads and sheaves for the hammer line were fastened on the 
deck timbers so that when the width of the trench was reduced at a change in 
the size of the sewer, the leads were moved in towards the center line of the 
machine. This change took l^ hours to make. 

The sheet piling was pulled by a machine consisting merely of a platform 
to carry a hoisting engine and an A-frame carrying two sheaves. Over these 



1500 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

sheaves two lines ran from the engine, on the free end of which was a few feet 
of ^^-in. chain and a hook with which to pull the sheeting. 

This machine would be manned by a pickup crew of engineman, fireman, and 
four laborers, who would pull, in IK hours to 2 hours' work, all of the sheeting 
corresponding to a day's progress of the work, which would be from 130 to 
160 ft. The average rate of wages per hour was $0.30. The average of work 
was: 

Per M. Per lin. ft. 
ft. B. M. of trench 

Hours of labor 3. 72 0. 24 

Cost of labor $1.11 $0.07 

One disadvantage of such sheeting was that the 1-in. side pieces had a short 
lif^, requiring renewing after about four times of use. The loss of the center 
pieces from hard driving and even though used nine times was very little. The 
pulling chain was rather severe upon the sheeting, as it was liable to cut into 
the wood. At the close of the work the sides were stripped off and half of the 
2 X 10-in. pieces were sawed up for catch-basin bottom, which otherwise 
would have required the purchase of new lumber. The total waste of sheeting 
was about one-fourth and the remainder was shipped to another job. 

Hand driven sheeting of 2-ins. X 10-12 ft. long is best driven in sand by a 
combination of hand mauling and the use of the water jet. Employing labor 
at $0,314 per man per hour, the expense of this work for 1,102 ft. of trench was: 

Per lin. 

Per M. ft. of Per sq. ft. 

ft. B. M. trench penetration 

Hours of labor 11.9 0.973 0.042 

Cost of labor. $3.70 $0,305 $0.01.3 

Table VIII. — Foundation Piles. Chicago Drop Forge & Fdy. Co. 

Cost per 
, Hours Cost lin. ft. 

Erection and dismanthng driver 386. 5 $160. 53 $0. 088 

Unloading and sawing piles in two 39. 15. 96 0. 016 

Driving piles 236.0 99.32 0.011 

Sawing pile tops to grade 53. 19. 88 0. 054 

Total 714. 5 $295. 69 $0. 169 

Freight, supplies and piles, cost 279. 02 0. 152 

Total cost $574. 71 $0. 321 

Soil, hard clay; hammer used, 3,000-lb. drop hammer. 
Material — 96 piles, 20 ft. long. Crew 10 men. 

Foundation Pile Driving. — Table IX is the record of a large piece of work 
carried on by the contractor with great vigor. At times as many as 9 pile 
drivers were at work simultaneously. 

In foundation pile driving, where piles are driven in clusters, the general 
level of the ground will be higher after driving than it was before. This swell 
or rise of the level will cause an extra amount of excavation for the placing 
of the footing concrete around the pile tops. 

Careful levels were taken over an area in which 1,570 piles were driven 2}4 
ft. centers. The piles were 35 ft. long, having 12-in. tops and 7-in. points. 
The swell of the ground amounted to 1.5 ft. in height, or 8.3 cu. ft. net meas- 
urement of the earth per pile, or 0.28 cu. ft. of pile penetration. Inasmuch 
as the volume of the piles below the original surface averaged 14.1 cu. ft., 
the consolidation of the earth amounted to 5.8 cu. ft. per pile. The soil con- 
sisted for about 10 ft. of a mixture of loose sand, gravel and clay. Below this 
was a moderately soft blue clay. 



DOCKS AND WHARVES 



1501 



At the job for the hammer shop, a drop hammer, weighing 3,000 lbs., was 
used. In fact, the same driver and crew foreman did this work as the drop- 
hammer driving, for which costs are given in Table IX. But in the case of 
Table VIII the soil was clay, whereas the first 10 to 12 ft. was sand, in the 
other case. 

Table IX. — Foundation Piles 



No. 1 Vulcan 
steam hammer 

Total number of piles 10,417 

Total length of piles 373, 715 feet 

Total length of pile penetration 358 , 090 feet 



Average length per pile . 

Average length of piles undriven . . 

Average day's work for 1 driver. 

Aveiage piles driven per day 

Average piles driven per day 

Average piles penetration per day . 

Crew per driver 

Auxiliary men per driver per day . 
Total crew per driver per day .... 

Crew time 8 hr. day 

Auxiliary time 8 hr. day 

Total time 8 hr. day 

Daily pay roll crew 

Auxiliaries 

Total 



36.0 feet 
1.5 feet 
277 days 
37 7 piles 
1,349.2 lin. ft. 
1,296.2 lin. ft. 
10 



8 

18 

2,770 

1,634 

4,786 

$34.00 

19.75 

53.75 



men 
men 
men 
days 
days 
days 



3,000-lb. drop 
hammer 
519 
71,855 feet 
16,817 feet 
34.4 feet 
2.0 feet 
30 days 
17.3 piles 
595. 2 lin. ft. 
560. 6 Hn. ft. 
9 men 
6 men 
15 «ien 
270 days 
180 days 
450 days 
$30. 60 
15.25 
45.85 



Unit cost 



Lin. ft. 



Lin. ft. 



Lin. ft. 



Lin. ft. 



of pile penetration of pile penetration 



Labor • $0.04 $0,042 $0,077 $0,082 

Saving pile butts 0. 003 0. 003 0. 003 0. 003 

Total labor 0.043 0.045 0.08 0.085 

Supplies and repairs, est 0.01 0.01 0.015 0.015 

Piles 0.125 0.125 0.12 0.12 

Total "field expense" $0. 178 $0. 180 $0. 295 $0. 220 

From points of view of speed, economy, and excellence of driving, the com- 
parison between drop and steam hammers is strongly in favor of steam 
hammers. 

In addition, a proportional share of local general office and yard expense 
and the general oflBce expense, should be added. 

In sawing off pile-butts two saw filers kept the saws sharp for the gang of 
sawyers. A pair of sawyers would cut 40 to 60 mixed wood piles per day 
at a cost per pile of $0.10 to $0.12. 

Other men were employed in making runways and unloading piles from 
cars which were delivered at the edge of the work — a team and 2 men hauling 
piles to the more inaccessible drivers. 

The ordinary pile driver crew was composed of men as follows: 

Foreman, $0.58^ per hr $ 4. 80 

1 engine runner, $0.55 per hr 4. 40 

1 fireman, $0.37^^ per hr ^ 3.00 

1 winchman, $0.45 per hr '. 3. 60 

1 leadsman, $0.45 per hr 3. 60 

3 groundmen or deckhands, $0.40 per hr 9. 60 

1 coal passer, $0. 25 per hr 2. 00 

1 pile hooker and trimmer, $0.37H per hr 3. 00 

Total labor crew $34. 00 

Auxiliaries, 6 men 15. 00 

Proportion of pumping station labor, supplying water for 

jetting .' 2. 00 

Field superintendence 2. 75 

Total labor $53. 75 



1502 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Marine Pile Driving. — The marine pile driving, as given in Table X was all 
within a protected harbor shielded from the heavy waves of the open lake, so 
but Uttle time was lost by rough seas. In the delivering of piles from cars to 
scows, a large part of the labor was done by steam devices, but it is considered 
as being equal to the expense of six men all of the time the marine driving was 
going on. The soil was sandy for a few feet and below that it consisted of a 
moderately soft clay. The piles stood out of the water on an average of 12 
ft. per pile, undriven. A tug was occupied about one-third of a day per driver 
in towing out and back to the yard. A drop hammer of 3,500 lbs. weight was 
generally used, being attached continuously to the hoisting rope. Each 
driver had two scows for piles, one on the work and one at the yard being 
loaded with piles. 

Table X. — Marine Pile Driving by Great Lakes Dredge & Dock Co. 

Number of piles driven 9 , 896 

Length of piles driven 326,295 lin. ft. 

Jjength of pile penetration 207,816 lin. ft. 

Average of piles 33 lin. ft. 

Average of piles driven 21 lin. ft. 

Total days' work and driver 137 

Piles per day work and driver 72. 2 

Piles per day work and driver 2 , 380 lin. ft. 

Penetration per day work and driver 1,516 lin. ft. 

Crew of driver 10 men 

Auxiliaries driver 6 men 

Total men per driver 16 men 

Total crew time 1 , 370 days 

Total auxiliaries time 822 days 

Total 2 , 192 days 

Pay roll per day: 

Tug service $15. 00 

Crew 34. 00 

Auxiliaries 19. 75 

Total $68. 75 

Lin. ft. of Lin. ft. of 
Costs piling penetration 

Labor $0. 029 $0. 0453 

Supplies and repairs *0. 015 *0. 0235 

Piles *0. 125 *0. 1962 

Total "field" expense $0. 169 $0. 265 

* Estimate. 

Foundation Pits. — Triple lap sheeting was driven for three foimdation pits. 
The upper 15 ft. of ground is sound, below which is a soft clay. Through the 
sand, driving was assisted by using a water jet. The expense of this work is 
given in Table XI. 

Table XI. — Foundation Sheet Pile Driving 

Piling driven, pieces 405 

Piling driven, lin. ft 9 , 291 

PiUng driven, ft. B. M 83 , 622 

Moving out and off job, 5 days $227. 50 

Driving, 19 days 679. 00 

Total, 24 days $906. 50 

Unit cost of labor — 
$ 2.24 per pile 
0. 098 per Un. ft. 
10. 84 per M. ft. B. M. 



DOCKS AND WHARVES 1503 

Two No. 1 Vulcan steam hammer drivers were used. Hence the item of 
moving on and off the work was somewhat high. The average rate of pay per 
man per 8-hour day was $3.50; including men nailing the sheeting planks 
together, the average size of crew per machine was from ten to twelve men. 
Including supplies and repairs, the expense per machine per day was approxi- 
mately $50.00, whereas the labor as above given amounted to $37.77 per day. 

At the same place 717 pieces of 9-in. by 12 in. 28 ft. triple-lap sheeting were 
driven. This formed a subaqueous front of a concrete-topped wharf. Table 
XII gives the cost of this work. 

Table XII. — Wharf Sheet Piling — Time Occupied in the Work, 29H Days 

Piling driven — 
405 pieces 
14,340 ft. driven in ground 
180,784 ft. B. M. of lumber 

Towing, H of cost of 30 days at $10.00 $ 300. 00 

Making sheeting, 75 days at $3.00 225. 00 

Driving, 285 days at $3.50 997. 50 

Pulling, 10 days at $3.50 35. 00 

Total, 370 days $1 , 557. 50 

Labor cost per piece $2. 17 

Labor cost per lin. ft. driven 0. 109 

Labor cost per 1,000 ft. B. M 8. 62 

Durability of Untreated Piling Above Mean Low Water. — Engineering and 
Contracting, April 24, 1918 publishes the following information prepared by 
Mabel E. Thorne, Statistical Clerk, and C. H. Teesdale, in charge Section of 
Wood Preservation, Forest Products Laboratory, Forest Service. 

It has long been recognized that wood constantly immersed in water is not 
subject to decay. Instances are on record of wood being preserved in this 
way for centuries. Timber structures in fresh water or in water free from the 
various forms of marine woodborers remain sound indefinitely, unless affected 
by some destructive agent other than decay. 

In tidal water, where marine borers are not active, portions of piles that are 
completely immersed at each high tide may be exposed at other times without 
danger of decay, for though completely immersed only part of the time, they 
may be practically saturated all the time. The extent of this saturation, and 
therefore permanent preservation against decay, is an item of considerable 
interest and importance in designing pile construction. The difficulties of 
cutting off piUng at low water, as well as the extra cost and weight of the 
superstructure, when joints are made at low tide level, may well be avoided 
wherever immunity from decay exists for any distance above this level. 

Because there is so little available data as to the extent of this immunity 
zone, the Forest Products Laboratory has recently been conducting a study of 
the subject by the questionnaire method. They show careful thought, and 
several of them contain records of actual investigations made after the ques- 
tionnaire was received. 

Replies received from 25 different sources were divided into two classes, 
those which state that for permanent foundation work piles can be safely cut 
off at mean tide level or above and those which state that the zone of safety 
does not extend to mean tide level. It is noticeable that the grouping of these 
replies according to their character is. a geographical grouping as well. The 
climate of the northern states is more favorable to the long life of piling than 
that of the southern states. From the data at hand, it would seem that the 
line of demarcation between the harbors in which it is safe to cut off piling 



1504 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

at mean tide level or above and the harbors in which it is not safe lies some- 
where between New York and Baltimore. 

The rate at which a pile dries is largely dependent on temperature and rela- 
tive humidity. The relative humidity varies only slightly from Maine to 
Florida, while the temperature variation is considerable. This means that, 
a few hours after high tide, piles in southern waters will have a much lower 
percentage of moisture than those in northern waters, which, combined with 
the encouragement to the growth of fungi furnished by the higher tempera- 
tures, probably accounts for the variation in the extent of the zone of safety. 

Life of Creosoted Piles. — From time to time as structures are demolished 
to make way for extensive improvements there is afforded an opportunity for 
observing on a large scale the behavior of treated piles. An instance of this 
kind is noted in Engineering and Contracting, July 23, 1919, from which the 
following is taken: 

A wharf of the Southern Pacific Railroad on San Francisco Bay was removed 
to make room for port improvements. The wharf was the oldest creosoted 
pile structure which thus far had been dismantled on the Pacific coast and 
contained about 14,000 creosoted piles which had been in service for periods 
ranging from 18 to 29 years. Of these piles, interest centers particularly in 
600 which were of Douglas fir, well seasoned before being treated with creosote 
by the Bethel process in the fall of 1889, and were driven in 1890. Records 
show that under a pressure of 200 lb. per square inch and a temperature of 
260° F., the piles absorbed 14.17 lb. of creosote per cubic foot. 

Of these 600 piles, 33 were selected at random for test purposes when the 
wharf was dismantled. Out of this number 22 (67 per cent) were entirely 
sound; 2 (9 per cent) had been slightly attacked by borers; 6 (18 per cent) had 
been severely attacked arid 2 (6 per cent) were so damaged as to be unfit for 
further use. These percentages were typical of the entire lot, it is reported, 
and about 70 per cent of the 600 are to be redriven just as they are. In fact, 
this percentage of piles suitable for redriving, it is reported, applies approxi- 
mately to the entire 14,000 piles. Those not as suitable showed damage only 
between mud line and high- water mark, and other portions of these piles were 
in good condition. 

The results of this study are believed to confirm the theory that a creosoted 
pile is absolutely immune from attack of marine borers such as exist in Pacific 
Coast waters, so long as the shell or portion of the pile impregnated with 
creosote remains intact. 

Cost of Driving Piles for the Panama -Pacific Exposition. — L. F. Lewrey 
in Engineering News, July 30, 1914, gives the following: 

The site on which the Main Exhibit Palaces of the Exposition are located 
was originally a tidal flat of San Francisco Bay, with occasional deeper bights 
that had been dredged out for wharves and anchorage for vessels. About 
twenty years ago, private interests received a grant of these tidal lands and 
built a rock sea wall. A large sand hill that overlay the site of the Concessions 
District was graded and the excavated material deposited over a large portion 
of the submerged area but the work was not carried to completion, and an 
area of water about 80 acres in extent remained to be filled by the Exposition. 

Hydraulic Fill; Subsidence, — The exposition company pumped 1,300,000 
cu. yd. of fill into the submerged area. This brought the surface to Elev. — 
2.75 approximately. The fill material averages from 60% to 70% of sand, 
the remainder being mud and silt. Due to the superior weight and density 
of this material, it crushed its way 2 to 5 ft. into the soft ooze of the old bottom. 



DOCKS AND WHARVES 



1505 



to such extent that where the original soundings showed Elev. — 15, the actual 
bottom of the dredger fill is nearer Elev. — 20. 

Due to the varied lines of flow of the dredger fill and its varying character, 
numerous '* kidneys " or watery pockets were found in the fill. These kidneys 
often had skins of tight sand overlying them, but on driving in a long pile 
their presence would be indicated by a geyser of water coming up around the 
pile and by the corklike action of the pile in floating up when relieved of the 
weight of the hammer. 

Test borings were made and test piles driven covering the site of each build- 
ing. The results obtained were not only valuable in giving the engineers 
assurance in the use of short piling, but also reduced contractors' prices by fur- 
nishing them with accurate information, thus eliminating unnecessyar waste. 

Table XIII gives data on the foundation piles as driven for the exposition 
buildings and Table XIV gives unit costs of the tests. 



Table XIII. — Quantities and Costs of 
International 



Buildings 
Machinery ...... 

Education 

Manufactures . . . 

Agriculture 

Food Products . . 

Liberal Arts 

Transportation. . 

Fine Arts 

Varied Industries 
Mines 



No. of Lin. ft. Lin. ft. 

piles piling piling 

driven driven cut-off 



Foundation Piles, Panama-Pacific 
Exposition 

Average Approx. 

length cost per 

Piling Percent- of pile lin. ft. of 

below age of below pile below 

cut-off waste cut-off cut-off 



1,577 

634 
1,591 
1,374 

665 

751 
4,541 298 
1,051 31 
1,444 52 
2,026 98 



,573 
,595 
,292 
,710 
,015 
,989 



2,487 
1,608 
5,429 
2,253 
2,388 
1,241 
674 11,849 
111 4,173 
367 2,756 
463 4,609 



45,086 5.2 



9,987 

56,863 

57,457 

9,627 

9,747 

286,915 

26,938 

49,611 

93,461 



13.9 
8.7 
3.8 

19.9 

11.4 
4.0 

13.4 
5.2 
4.6 



28. 6 27 cts. 



15.7 
35.7 
41.8 
14.5 
13.0 
63.2 
25.6 
34.3 
46.1 



40 

25 

233^ 

40 

40 

23 

25 

22 

22 



Total 15,654 645,692 41. 2 24^^ cts. 

Note. — All piles were driven with No. 1 Vulcan Steam Hammers. 

Weight of moving element approximately, lb 5,000 

Fall of hammer element approximately, ft 33^ 

Average cost of Douglas fir piles delivered at site, per lin. ft . . . 14 cts. 
Approximate cost of erecting and dismantling pile driver $500 

Table XIV. — Unit-costs of Tests 
(Total cost, including material, labor and engineering) 

Loading piles by means of 30-ton sandboxes, per test $70 

Loading platforms with sand load, per test 15 

Hand borings with auger and 3-in. casing, holes 15 to 65 ft. 
deep in sand and clay, per lin. ft 0. 26 

High Records of Pile Driving. — Engineering and Contracting, July 17, 1918, 
gives the following: 

What is probably a world's record for pile driving was made on June 12 at 
the Hog Island Ship Yard, when a crew of 11 negroes in charge of Edward 
Burwell, working for the Arthur McMuUen Co., put down 220 65-ft. piles in 
9 hours and 5 minutes. The best previous record at the yard was 165 62-ft. 
piles driven in 9 hours and 15 minutes by the Raymond Concrete Pile Co. 
In the construction of the foundation for the extension of the Northern Pacific 
Ry. ore dock at Superior, Wis., the contractors, Siems, Helmers & Schaffner, 
drove 168 60-ft. piles in 9 hours with a turntable device. In the ore dock work 
the piles were driven through holes thawed through 4 ft. of ice and in 28 ft. of 
water. 

The equipment used in driving the 220 piles at Hog Island consisted of a 
95 



1506 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Vulcan No. 1 hammer and a skidding rolling machine, with a 3-drum 9 X 10 
hoisting engine. Hammer and hoist were driven by compressed air. The log 
for the day follows: 

7:00 a. m.— 8:00 a. m 27 piles 

8:00 a. m. — 9:00 a. m 23 piles 

(Delay 4H minutes due to broken steam line; raining very hard from 8:15 a. m. 
to 10:00 a. m.) 

9:00 a. m. — 10:00 a. m 28 piles 

10:00 a. m. — 11:00 a. m. . .. 22 piles 

(Delay 8 minutes due to pile fall breaking.) 

11:00 a. m.— 12:00 a. m 27 piles 

12:00 noon — 12:30 p. m lunch 

12:30 p. m.— 1 :30 p. m 25 piles 

(Heavy rain with electric showers from 1:25 p. m. to 2:50 p. m. 1:25 p. m. to 
1 :40 p. m. air pressure dropped considerably, which held up hammer. ) 

1:30 p. m. — 2:30 p. m 23 piles 

2:30 p. m. — 3:30 p. m 23 piles 

3:30 p. m. — 4:35 p. m 22 piles 

9 hours and 5 minutes 220 piles 

Total linear feet piles, 14,260. Stopped driving at 4:35 p. m. as shipway 
No. 46 was completed and there are no remaining piles to be driven on the 
shipways or piers on Group No. 5. The only piles yet to be driven are fender 
piles, dolphins, spur piles and a few special piles for derrick footings. 

The Burwell crew since it began work at Hog Island in January last has 
driven 4,131 piles with a total of 241,573 lin. ft. The record of this gang for 6 
months follows: 

Average 

No. piles Av. lin. ft. 
Month No. days Piles Lin. ft. per day per day 

January 10 190 8,531 19.0 853.1 

February.. 11 361 20,560 32.8 1,869.1 

March 23 711 42,730 30.9 1,857.8 

April 23 780 47,333 33.9 2,057.9 

May 27 1,470 86,173 54.4 3,191.6 

June _7 619 36,246 88.4 5,178.0 

101 4,131 241,573 

Average number of piles per day (6 mos.) 42. 68 

Average linear feet per day (6 mos.) 2,391. 82 

Average length of piles 58. 5 

Cost of Cutting off Submerged Piles. — Arthur C. Freeman in Engineering 
and Contracting, Sept. 7, 1910, gives the following: 

The physical conditions encountered during the building of the foundations 
for supporting the rails of the Old Dominion Marine Railway at Norfolk, Va., 
required cutting off 306 piles under water at a depth of from zero to 26 ft. 

There were not enough piles to be cut to justify bringing to the job a steam 
outfit and diver, so it was decided to make a device for cutting by hand without 
the use of a diver. This was done and proved a complete success. It con- 
sists of a rectangular frame 4 ft. 3 ins. wide and with varying length, made up of 
2 X 2 X ^^ -in. angles, stiffened by curved braces at the lower end and by knee 
braces at the upper end so bolted to the top of frame that the length from 
saw to the point of support is adjustable for any distance. An ordinary 4-ft. 
cross-cut saw was attached to the bottom by means of split bolts and tightened 
by nuts to the frame. The top of the frame has a small lug which fits into 
a saddle for support at the center of the top of the frame and free to allow a 
rocking motion while restrained from rising during the sawing. Two ropes 
were attached to the side of frame at the bottom near the saw, one pair being 
to supply power to produce the see-saw motion for cutting, the other to apply 
pressure to the saw in the line of cutting. The saddle supporting the frame 



DOCKS AND WHARVES 1507 

rests on a " ribbon" or grade line made up of 4 X 4s placed some uniform dis- 
tance above line of cut-off and to the same grade. Clamps hold the saddle 
to the "ribbon" and are easily detached to move the frame to the next pile 
for cutting. The foreman stands at the frame to steady it and give directions, 
two to three men were placed at each of the power lines, while one man held 
both of the pressure lines. The cuttings were made in three lifts, 12, 18, and 
26 ft. from the point of support. The grade of cut-off was |^-in. to the foot 
descending to the water, making the cut of the last piles 26 ft. under water. 
After cutting the elevations were tested and showed in no case a variance 
over 3^ in., which was as close as could be done by hand work above surface. 
The maximum number of piles cut in one day was 47. 

The following table shows the costs taken from the time book: Wages: 
Foreman $4.00, helper $2.00, labor $1.50. 

75 piles at 12 ft. cutting av. cost 333^ cts. each 

67 piles at 18 ft. cutting av. cost 32 cts. each 

164 piles at 26 ft. cutting av. cost 42 cts. each 

Cost of Making and Sinking Premoulded Concreted Piles. — Geo. K. 
Leonard, in Engineering and Contracting, July 26, 1916, gives the following: 

The plans for the construction of the Lexington, Neb., State Aid Bridge, 
across the Platte River, called for the placing of three concrete piles 12 in. 
square and 45 ft. long under each of 26 piers. The bed of the Platte River, 
throughout its entire length, is composed of successive layers of sand and 
gravel, varying in size from quicksand to 5-in. stones. At this particular 
point, clay was struck at a depth of 40 ft. below low water, and the piles were 
to penetrate this 3 ft., the remaining 2 ft. projecting into the pier. The piles 
were reinforced, as shown in Fig. 9. 

Two moulding floors 24 by 48 ft. were made and the piles cast in lots of 
16, by moving the side forms from one floor to the other. Following is the 
material bill for the forms: 

Ft. B. M. 

Sleepers, 26-4" X 4''-24' 832 

Two floors, 48-2'' X 12"-48' ' 4,608 

Sides, 32-2" X 12"-48' 3,072 

Top braces, 14-4" X 4"-24' 448 

Miscellaneous for wedges, etc 260 

Total 9,220 

56-^" X 2'-6" bolts. 

Cost op Material and Labor for 78 Piles 

Cement, 751 sacks @ $0.432 $ 326. 51 

Rods, 52,645 lb. @ $0.0275 1 , 084. 23 

Mesh, 12,166 sq. ft. @ $0.0314 382. 01 

Gravel, 118K cu. yd. @ $0.75 88. 88 

Lumber, 9,220 ft. B. M. @ $26 per M 239 . 72 

Bolts, 56 @ $0. 15 8.40 

Total $2,129.75 

Material, cost per pile 27. 31 

Material, cost per tin. ft . 607 

Labor: 

Making, placing and removing forms $ 148. 60 

Placing reinforcing 353. 50 

Mixing and placing concrete 97. 96 

Total $ 600.06 

Labor, cost per pile 7. 69 

Labor,, cost per lin. ft . 170 



1508 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



r-. 



rSfop 
i'hole2'cfrs^'i^'^- 




Ordinarily a concrete pile will sink in the Platte River of its own weight, if 
properly jetted. This was tried by the contractor, but at a depth of 40 ft. 
a coarse layer of gravel was encountered, which carried off the water as fast as 
it could be pumped, and the piles would sink no further. 

Not deeming it advisable to hammer on the piles, 3 ft. was cut off of each 
one, and the following method used in sinking them so that they would rest on 
the clay: 

By means of a specially designed sand bucket, which will be described later, 
a 22-ft. length of >i-in. steel casing, 24 in. in diameter, was sunk until the top 
was about 2 ft. above the water. Into this was set a 40-ft. length of casing 

20 in. in diameter, which was sunk until it 
rested on clay. The pile was then set into 
the open well, and the two sections of 
casing pulled. The sand running in around 
the pile held it as firmly as if it had been 
driven. A steam hoist and derrick handled 
the casings and piles. 

The bucket, which was used in excavat- 
ing and sinking the casings, is shown in 
Fig. 9, and is described as follows: A piece 
of heavy steel pipe 8 in. in diameter and 6 
ft. long was fitted with a hinged bottom, 
containing an ordinary valve opening 
inward. The bottom was held shut by 
means of a dog, which could be tripped 
with a hammer when the bucket was full 
of sand. Riveted to the top of the bucket 
was a steel head through the center of 
which the piston rod slipped. The piston 
was an ordinary pump piston, with leather 
attached. In operation, the bucket, with 
the bottom closed, is dropped to the 
bottom of the casing by means of a gaso- 
line hoist, the hoisting fine being fastened 
to a ring in the upper end of the piston 
rod. As the piston is pulled to the top, 
the sand is sucked in at the bottom and the bucket settles. When the piston 
is at the upper end of the bucket it strikes the top and bucket and all is hoisted 
to the top of the casing and dumped. As the sand is taken from the casing 
it settles, due to its own weight, and to a number of sand bags on a platform, 
hanging from the top of the casing. In this way, with a gang of two men at 
30 cts., and one man at 20 cts, per hour, working ten hours per day, one pile 
could be placed per day. 

The cost of sinking the piling for the job, excluding superintendence, cost of 
equipment, repairs, etc., is: 

Labor $634. 55 

Coal, 5 tons 31. 50 

Gas, 210 gal. 23.10 

Total $689. 15 

Sinking cost per pile 8. 84 

Sinking cost per fin. ft , .221 

Total cost per pile in place 43. 84 

Total cost per lin. ft. m place . 998 




Fig. 9.- 



' a' Leaf her 
•'z' Piston Ring 

^'Rivets 



; U-i'x/'Sfrap 



■Hinge 
'"Valve 

-Section of pile (1) and 
sand bucket (2). 



^K^^jjT 



DOCKS AND WHARVES 1509 



Cost of Cutting ofif Concrete Piles. — Some precast concrete piles in one of 
the navy yards were driven to refusal while their tops were still above proper 
grade. The method of cutting them off is described by Civil Engineer Kirby 
Smith, of the United States Navy, in Bulletin 28 of the Public Works of the 
Navy, abstracted in Engineering News-Record, Jan. 17, 1918. The piles 
were 18 in. square at cutoff, reinforced with eight ^-in. square rods tied 
together with ^^-in. wire hoops 2 in. c. to c. for a distance of .3 ft. from each 
end and 8 in. c. to c. between these limits. They were driven 3 to 20 ft. 
above the required elevation, the difference being due to a varying stratum of 
rock. Outside the reinforcing rods there was a protective concrete covering 
of 2 to 2K in. This was chipped off at the required level with a cold chisel and 
a sledge, leaving the rods exposed. An air drill was tried, but the chisel-and- 
sledge method was found to be easier. Then the rods were cut with an acety- 
lene torch. This left the concrete core, which had a low tensile strength. 
Where the projecting pile was of sufficient length to give good leverage, a IM- 
in. manila rope was slung around the top and four men pulling on the rope 
snapped the pile off at the cut. Where the projecting portion was short, the 
same result was accomplished by a direct pull from a stationary engine and a 
%-m. steel cable attached to the top of the pile. Two men were employed 
in cutting out the concrete, and four men to snap off the piles. The average 
time for each pile was one hour, and the total cost per pile averaged 60 cents. 



CHAPTER XXIII 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 

References. — For further data on cost of building the reader is referred to 
Gillette's !' Handbook of Cost Data,", Section X, which contains 108 pages 
and to Gillette and Dana's "Handbook of Mechanical and Electrical Cost 
Data," Chaper III which contains 70 pages. 

Rapid Methods of Estimating Costs of Buildings. — In Engineering and 
Contracting, Nov. 28, 1917, I gave the following suggestions: 

The square foot of floor area and the cubic foot of total volume are the two 
units in which the costs of buildings are commonly expressed by those who 
apply rough and ready methods of estimating. But obviously such unit costs 
are subject to wide variations, even in buildings of the same type. Much 
more satisfactory than the square foot of floor area for approximate cost 
estimating purposes is the square foot of wall, floor and roof, with the base- 
ment and foundation estimated separately. Then each type and class of wall, 
floor and roof can be estimated by itself. 

To prepare unit costs for estimating a given type of wall, for example, the 
estimator first prepares a bill of materials for, say, 100 sq. ft. of wall, and 
applies unit prices, including labor, to all the materials, totals the items and 
divides by 100. The same is done for windows and doors, so that, knowing 
the total area of "openings" the cost is readily estimated. 

Preferably the cost of columns is estimated by the linear foot, but, if desired, 
the cost of columns may be included as a part of the cost of the floors. Base- 
ments may be estimated by the cubic foot, to which may be added the cost of 
any special foundation work, such as piling, and the cost of the floor. The 
" equipment " — ^plumbing, heating, lighting, sprinkler system, elevators, etc, — 
should be estimated separately; but this, at least in part, may often be esti- 
mated by the square foot of floor area. Thus the cost of a factory heating 
system may be taken at 25 cts. per square foot, and the cost of a fire sprinkler 
system at 20 cts. per square foot of floor. 

Between the very crude method of expressing the entire cost in terms of the 
square foot of floor area and the very refined method of detailing all quanti- 
tives in a building, there stands the method above suggested, in which com- 
posite units of different types and classes are used. 

How to Estimate by the Square. — I. P. Hicks gives the following in the 
National Builder, Oct., 1920. 

It has long been the desire of carpenters and contractors to find some prac- 
tical short way of estimating that would do away with the laborious job of 
making out bills of material in detail. We will now show how to make com- 
binations in a safe and practical way which can be used to save a large 
amount of the ordinary figuring. We have arranged the items so that car- 

1510 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1511 

penters and contractors can fill in the prices and make the combinations to 
suit the job which they have on hand. 

The combinations are to be made to fit the job. For example the outside 
walls of the house may be sided, shingled or stuccoed. Each would have to 
be figured at a different rate per square; consequently the different items must 
be combined to fit the job. The same is true with the floors; some kinds of 
flooring may cost much more than others both in regard to material and 
labor. So in every case it is necessary to consider the kind of material and 
labor that goes into every part of the job. What will do for one job may not 
answer at all for another and it always will be necessary for the contractor to 
use discriminating judgment in making estimates no matter how it is done or 
by what system. A good record of estimates showing the actual cost of work 
from time to time soon gives the contractor a knowledge of costs which he can 
rely upon. Keep a record of your work, follow the system given, watch it 
closely and you will soon be able to establish a rate per square, per lineal foot 
and per piece that you can depend upon. By this system you can shorten 
the work of estimating to a large extent without the usual dangerous results 
from short cuts in estimating. It is no guess work ; you simply combine such 
parts of the work as you can consistently and figure them together in a lump 
sum. Things that can not be figured in combination, you can figure sepa- 
rately and add them to your estimate just the same. The combinations as 
given will enable one to figure the cost of the bulk of the material and labor 
above the foundation without making out itemized lists of material and labor. 

Such items as excavating, masonry, plastering, painting, electric wiring, 
tin work, heating and plumbing should be figured separately and added to 
make the complete estimate. It is the lumber, millwork and carpenter labor 
mostly that the carpenter contractor seeks for a reliable and easy way out in 
the matter of estimating. The following is our form and system of estimating 
the cost of building: 

Floor Cost Per Square 



Floor joists, size. . . .set. . . .centers $. 

Rough floor 

Finish floor 

Carpenter labor framing 

Carpenter labor laying rough floor 

Carpenter labor laying finish floor 

Carpenter labor scraping finish floor 

Nails for framing 

Nails for rough floor 

Nails for finish floor 

Floor deadening 

Total per square $ . 



The above form shows how you can arrive at a correct price per square in a 
lump sum. In making your total you can figure according to your job. For 
example all floors may not have the same size joists, they may be spaced differ- 
ent, the finish floor and the rough floor may be different on different jobs. 
Some floors may not have to be deadened or scraped. In getting the total 
omit such parts as are not required and fill in the items such as are called for on 
the job you are to figure. The quantities of dimension for different size joists 
and the quantities of rough and finish floors for the different kinds of flooring 
we have given in former articles. 



1512 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Outside Wall Cost Per Square 

Outside studding, size .... set ... . inch centers $ A* 

Outside sheathing " 

Siding 

Shingles 

Stucco material , 

Building paper 

Labor framing 

Labor sheathing 

Labor siding 

Labor shingling outside walls 

Labor applying stucco 

Nails for framing 

Nails for sheathing 

Nails for siding 

Nails for shingling 

Nails for applying stucco board or lath 

Total per square $ 

Not all of the above items will be likely to be required on any one job; in 
reaching a total combine such items as will be required on the job you 
are estimating. 

Partition Cost Per Square 



Studding, size set inch centers . 

Labor, framing 

Nails 



Total per square $. 

Ceiling Cost Per Square 

Joists, size set inch centers. $. 

Labor, framing 

Nails 



Total per square $ . 

Roof Cost Per Square 

Rafters, size set inch centers $ . 

Sheathing 

Shingles 

Asbestos shingles 

Slate roof 

Tile roof . 

Tar and gravel roof 

Textile shingles 

Rubberoid roof 

Canvas roofing 

Tin roof 

Labor framing 

Labor sheathing 

Labor shingling 

Labor asbestos shingles 

Labor slate roof 

Labor tile roof 

Labor tar and gravel roof 

Labor textile roof 

Labor rubberoid roof 

Labor canvas roof 

Labor tin roof 

Nails, framing 

Nails sheathing 

Nails shingling 

Nails for other roofings 



Total per square 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1513 

Make the combinations and total according to kind of roofing used and to 
fit the job. 

Porch Floor Cost Per Square 

Joists size set inch centers $ 

Flooring 

Labor framing 

Labor flooring 

Nails framing 

Nails flooring 



Total cost per square . 



Porch Ceiling Cost Per Square 

Ceiling joists, size set inch centers $ . 

Ceiling 

Labor, framing 

Putting on ceiling 

Nails ceiling 



Total cost per square 

Cornice Cost Per Lineal Foot 



Material, frieze 

Plancer 

Fascia 

Verge boards . . . 
Crown mould . . . 

Bed mould 

Labor, Frieze 

Plancer 

Fascia 

Verge boards . . . 

Crown mould . 

Bed mould . . . 

Nails 



Total cost per lineal foot $ . * 

In making totals figure only such items as apply to the job you are estimating. 

Add for gable brackets $ 

Labor for setting the same _. 



Total for brackets . 



Window Cost Complete in House 

Frame, cost, material and labor, size 

Sash, glazed 

Inside trim for finish 

Labor cost, setting frame 

Fitting sash * 

Inside finishing of, casing, etc 

Nails, hardware, weights, etc 

Total cost per frame 

Add for outside or inside blinds 

Labor for same : 

For storm sash 

Labor fitting and hanging same 

Screens for windows 

Labor fitting and hanging 

Hardware 



Totals 

Make totals according to requirements. 



1514 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cost Outside Doors Complete in House, Cased One Side 

Frame material and labor, etc S 

Cost of door 

Casings for finishing 

Storm door 

Screen door 

Labor setting door frame 

Fitting and hanging door 

Casing and finishing 

Fitting and hanging storm door 

Fitting and hanging screen door 

Nails and hardware 



Totals $ . 



Cost Interior Doors Complete in House, Cased Two Sides 

Cost of jambs, material and labor, size $ 

Cost casings, cased two sides, steps included 

Labor, cost setting jambs 

Fitting and hanging door 

Casing and finishing 

Nails and hardware 



Total cost per door . 



Cost of Sliding Doors Complete 

Single Double 

Cost of jambs, size $ $ 

Cost of doors 

Cost of casings, two sides and steps 

Labor, setting jambs 

Fitting and hanging doors 

Casing and finishing 

Nails and hardware 



Totals . 



] 



Cost of Folding Doors Complete in House 

Cost of jambs, size $ j 1 

Cost of casings, two sides including stops 

Doors 

Nails and hardware 

Labor, setting jambs 

Hanging doors . . . 

Casing and finishing 



Total cost $ . 

Inside base lineal foot $ . 

Floor mould 

Nails 

Labor 



Total cost. 



Cost of Picture Moulding Per Foot 

Picture mould $ • 

Nails 

Labor 



Total cost. 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1515 

Cost of Room Cornice Per Lineal Foot 

Material per foot % 

Nails 

Labor 



Total cost $. 



Beam Ceiling Cost Per Lineal Foot 

Material per foot $ . 

Nails 

Labor 



Total cost $ . 



Plate Rail Cost Per Lineal Foot 



Material per foot . 

Nails 

Labor 



Total cost $ . 



Estimating Data. — U. M. Dustman gives the following in The National 
Builder, May, 1918. 

First Floor Joist. — The joist can be butted together, or they can run past 
each other in the center and be spiked together, which is preferable. The first 
floor joist plan, will show the number of joist required for the building; but 
when there is no floor joist plan, divide the length or space that the joist are 
to occupy by 4 and multiply the quotient by 3 and add one; then add one for 
each partition, to double the joist. It is safer to add another extra one, as 
sometimes the joist cannot be spaced equally, especially for the second floor, 
when it is sometimes necessary to have a joist on each side of a partition. The 
first floor joist are generally taken from the basement plan and the second 
floor joist from the first floor plan, to see where the bearing partitions are. 
The second floor plan must also be taken into consideration when the floor 
joist are being taken off, as for double joist under partitions, and extra projec- 
tions are sometimes given as in a plan where the second floor extends partly 
over the front porch. 

Partitions. — In taking off the number of studs required for inside partitions, 
each partition should be taken by itself. A partition 12 feet long will require 
12 divided by 4 and multiplied by 3 equals 9, add 1 equals 10. No allowance 
should be made for openings, as the doubling of the studs on each side of an 
opening will take the ones left out for the opening. 

Plates. — Figure a single plate at the bottom and a double plate at the top for 
all bearing partitions ; partitions that are not bearing will only require a single 
plate at each end. Outside walls should be double plates at the top. 

Outside Wall Studs. — Studs for outside wall should be taken on 16 inch 
centers, not taking out any openings unless they are 4 feet or more. Corners 
must be doubled. 

Rafters. — If 16 inch centers, take the same figures as for the studs. If 
24 inch centers, then divide the space by 2 and add 1. To get the length of 
rafters when figuring out a bill of material for a one-half pitch roof, add 5 



1516 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

inches to each foot of run. Take a building 24 feet wide with a projection of 
2 feet on each side; then the starting place for the roof will be 24 feet plus 4 
feet or 28 feet wide. One-half of 28 equals 14 feet run; 5 times 14 equals 70. 
or 70 inches to be added to 14 feet, or 19 feet 10 inches; it will then require 
a timber 20 feet long for the rafter. For the one-third pitch roof add 2}4 
inches to each foot of run. 

Shiplap, Flooring and Siding. — For 8-inch and 10-inch shiplap add 15 per 
cent or one-seventh of the number of square feet. If there are 1,400 square 
feet requiring shiplap it will take one-seventh of 1,400 or 200 square feet extra 
to cover the same or 1,600 feet. For 6-inch flooring add one-fifth; for 4-inch 
flooring add one-fourth, and for 2-inch flooring add two-fifths. For 6-inch 
lap siding add three-tenth, for 5-inch siding add one-third, and for 4-inch sid- 
ing add two-fifths. 

Roof Sheathing. — Take the number of square feet in the roof. 

Shingles. — If laid 43^ inches to the weather it will require about 900 shingles 
to the square of 100 square feet, but as there is always a waste it is safer to 
figure 1,000 shingles to the square. 

Plastering. — Multiply the length of a. partition by the height and divide it 
by 9 ; for the ceiling the same. It is safer to take each room by itself when the 
actual number of yards must be had. If the height of a ceiUng is 9 feet then 
every foot of run will be 1 yard. No allowance is made for openings unless 
they contain more than 40 square feet. The rules are different in most 
cities. If the openings are taken out the contractor must figure more per 
yard. 

Lathing. — It takes about 14 lath 4 feet long to make one square yard. The 
price for lathing varies in different cities, and one figuring work must figure the 
price figured in the city where the work is to be done. Metal lathing is also 
done mostly by the square yard, though sometimes by the day. 

Painting. — Painting is mostly figured by the square yard. When lap siding 
is used, allowance must be made for the under edge of the siding. Measure 
the projection of the cornice. No allowance is made for windows as they take 
more work than if it were all solid. Inside doors generally are figured the same 
way, by the number of square yards they contain. A 2 feet 6 inches by 7 feet 
door with the jambs and casing will contain about 3 square yards on each 
side. Floors are very easily figured by the square yard. 

Cement Work. — Some contractors figure cement work by the cubic yard and 
some by the cubic foot for foundation work, footings, etc. Cement floors 
and sidewalks are figured by the square foot of surface. Cement blocks are 
figured at so much a block; prices vary in different localities according to 
wages paid and the price of material. A cubic yard of sand and gravel con- 
tains 27 cubic feet. One sack of cement contains 1 cubic foot of cement. 
When water and cement are added to pit gravel it settles more solid than the 
loose gravel and when in place it will only measure about 25 cubic feet; so 
when figuring cement work obtain the actual number of cubic feet and divide 
it by 25, which will give the number of yards of pit gravel required. A wall 
containing 600 cubic feet will require 600 divided by 25 or 24 yards of sand 
and gravel. A mixture of 1 part of cement to 6 of gravel will require 100 sacks 
of cement, 4 sacks to a barrel or 25 barrels. For top dressing it will take more 
cement, as the mixture is sometimes in equal parts and sometimes 1 of cement 
to 2 of sand. For cellar floors or sidewalk work, determine the number of 
cubic feet of concrete by multiplying the length by the width in feet, then if 
4 inches thick divide by 3. A floor 10 X 30 feet will then have 10 X 30 or 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1517 

300 square feet ; divide 300 by 3 and we find that there are 100 cubic feet of 
concrete. For the top dressing, which is generally 1 inch thick, there will be 
for the same floor 10 X 30 feet equals 300 square feet of dressing 1 inch thick, 
then by dividing 300 by 12 we have the number of cubic feet of top dressing 
or 25 cubic feet. One cubic yard of sand will be sufficient sand, and if mixed 
1 part of cement to 2 of sand then it would require 123^ sacks of cement; if in 
equal parts it will take 25 sacks, 4 sacks to a barrel. When washed gravel or 
broken stone are used, mixed with sand, it will require more material than for 
pit gravel, as the sand will fill the voids in the gravel or broken stone. If it 
requires 600 cubic feet of solid concrete, add 15 per cent to this which will 
make 600 cubic feet of material. A mixture of 4 parts of gravel, 2 of sand and 
1 of cement would then take 690 divided by 3 or 230 cubic feet of sand or 83^ 
cubic yards; 460 cubic feet gravel or 17 cubic yards; 100 sacks of cement, to do 
the work for 600 cubic feet of solid concrete. 

Brick Work. — When figuring brick work the walls are figured solid and the 
corners two times. Brick are generally figured by the thousand, laid in the 
wall. For a 4-inch wall figure 7H brick for each square foot of wall surface, 
15 brick for an 8-in wall, 223^ for a 12-inch wall, and so on, adding 7K brick 
for every 4 inch in thickness. When figuring the actual number of brick 
required to do a certain job, take the number of surface feet and deduct for 
all openings and multiply by 6^^, which will give plenty of brick and allow' 
for broken ones. For mortar to lay 1,000 brick it will take 2}^i bushels or 
200 pounds of lime and about % yard of sand. For lime and cement mortar 
take 2 bushels lime, 1 barrel cement to ^ yard of sand for 1,000 brick. The 
amount of mortar required depends largely on the thickness of the mortar 
joint. Mortar coloring requires about 50 pounds of color to the thousand 
brick, depending on the shade of mortar color required. 

Stone Work. — Stone walls for foundation work are generally figured by the 
. perch. While 24^4 cu. ft. contain one perch, in some localities 163'^ cu. 
ft. are figured as one perch and the price made accordingly. Foundation 
walls for a residence are generally figured 18 in. thick, corners counted to 
times; that is, the outside measurement of the wall is taken. To find the 
number of perch in a wall if 18 in. thick, multiply the length by the height 
of the wall, then by ^i and divide by the number of cubic feet in a perch. A 
wall 40 ft. long, 8 in. high, 18 in. thick, will contain 40 X 8 X IH or 
480 cu. ft. of wall. 

Interior Trim. — The interior trim is generally taken from the plans by the 
mill man and figured, but the contractor should be able to take off a mill bill 
and send it out for figures to different mill men. Give the number of doors, 
size and thickness, and the kind of wood; give the number and size of all 
windows, also the number of window frames, size of casing, kind of head 
casing, and whether for a wood, plastered or brick building. Give length of 
inside casing and number, number of feet of base,' quarter round, picture 
mould, head mould, etc.; number and size of cupboard doors, drawers and 
shelving; window and door stops; stairways, size of tread and rise and length, 
number of feet of railing, number of balusters, cove, newels, hand rail; number 
of feet of chair rail, and closet strips, porch columns, balusters and railing, 
mantle shelf, seats, colonnade, etc. 

Hardware. — Make out a list of hardware wanted and get figures on same, or 
let the hardware dealer give you an estimate of what he will furnish for so 
much money. When making out list of hardware mention the number of 
locks, hinges and size of same; valley tin, ridge roll, gutters, down spouts, tin 



1518 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

roof and flashing; drawer pulls, sash lifts and locks, weights, sash cord. Fig- 
ure the nails as follows: 5 lbs. of shingle nails to each 1,000 shingles, 18 
lbs. siding nails to 1,000 feet siding, 20 lbs. 8d. for sheathing and 25 lbs. for 
4-in. and 6-in. flooring per. 1,000 ft. Dimension, 20 lbs.- per 1,000 ft. 

Estimating carpenter labor with labor at 50 cts. per hour. No exact 
method can be established to do carpenter work. Some men do more 
work than others in a day, which makes a difference in estimating. A very 
close average can be had by keeping track of work done on other buildings. 
The following is a very close way of estimating; it is better to make your 
estimate too high than too low and lose money on work. Add together the 
number of feet of lumber required for the framing, sheathing for outside 
wall, roof, and for sub floors, siding and partition studs and figure the same 
at $15 per thousand feet. Suppose there are 15,000 feet of lumber required 
for a residence; at $15 per thousand, the labor would cost $225 to put all of the 
lumber in place. For a one-story porch with floor, ceiling and wood shingle 
roof, the labor will cost about 25 cts. per square foot of floor surface. A 
porch 10 ft. wide by 16 ft. long contains 160 sq. ft.; thus at 25 cts. 
per square foot will amount to $40 for labor to build the porch. For a two- 
story porch 40 cts. per square foot if screened. 

Hard Wood Floors. — To lay and scrape a hard wood floor is worth 5 cts. 
per square foot of floor laid. A room 12 X 20 ft. contains 240 sq. ft. 
of floor space, and at 5 cts. per square foot will amount to $12. For yellow 
pine floor figure at 3 cts. per square foot. 

Exterior Trim. — Find the number of feet required for exterior trim and 
multiply by $20 per thousand feet. 

Window Frames. — To set the frame, hang the sash and do the casing for 
ordinary windows it is worth $1.50 each for yellow pine and $1.75 for oak. 

Door Frames. — To set case on outside frames, hang the door and put on 
lock and stops complete, $2 each. Inside Doors. — To set jamb, case, hang 
and put on lock and stops for yellow pine, $1.75 each; oak, $2.25. Cupboard' 
from $8 to $10. Base 3 cts. per running foot; picture mould, 75 cts. a room. 

Stairs. — Main stairs from $8 to $10, cellar stair $2, and rear stairs $4. 
Porch steps — ^front, $4; rear, $2. Screens, 40 cts. each; colonnade from $6 to 
$8; seat, $4 to $6. Cased openings, $2. 

Component Costs of Building Construction. — At the national conference 
of the construction industries held in Feb., 1921 at Philadelphia, Barclay 
White, a contractor, of that city, gave some information on this subject that 
should be of interest. The following abstract of his statement is given in 
Engineering and Contracting, June 22, 1921. 

The relative values of the various parts of the building have not been very 
carefully studied heretofore but we have made an attempt to fix an approxi- 
mate proportion covering the whole building field in this territory. We have 
gone about this by taking a composite of building, which includes a reinforced 
concrete factory building; slow burning or heavy construction warehouse 
building with brick walls; the typical style of two-story dwelling; detached 
brick and frame residence; stone schoolhouse with wood floor construction; 
fire-proof institutional building; the apartment house; and the steel 
frame office building. 

How the Costs Were Arrived At. — From our own records of cost we have 
taken typical instance in each of these eight types of building and have divided 
it up according to the actual cost figures, into labor and materials, and have 
then tried to proportion the various types of building as nearly as possible. 




BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1519 

"in their correct relation to the total volume of business which is done in this 
territory. Of course, right there you will realize that there is bound to be a 
great deal of leeway which should be brought out, for in the course of the 
last few years house building has fallen off very largely in proportion to the 
heavier tj^es of construction. These figures will have to be taken as the 
best approximation that the circumstances permit. 

After arriving at a makeup of the different types, and proportioning the 
various types into their proper ratios, we have summarized, for instance, the 
main item as skilled labor on the building. It is a little difficult to say where 
skilled labor stops and unskilled labor begins, but we have based the calcula- 
tion on the mechanics on one side as against the apprentices, helpers, hod 
carriers and common laborers on the other side. The result of our calculation 
is given in Table I. 

■ Overhead, Expenses and Profit. — There is really a duplication of overhead 
expenses and profit because possibly 65 per cent of the work is sublet, and on 
that work sublet to the plumber, the plasterer, the painter, etc., there is really 
a double overhead, because the general contractor, as superintendent of the 
work, makes arrangements with the sub-contractor and divides the work, so 
that we find office rent, general expenses and overhead — but not including 
office wages — to be 5.8 per cent. The net compensation of the sub-contrac- 
tors, assuming they do 65 per cent of the work, 3.90 per cent, and the net 
compensation of the general contractor, assuming he does 35 per cent of the 
work, directs and supervises the balance, 3.42 per cent, bringing the total up 
to 100 per cent. 



Table I, — Percentages op Elements in Composite Building 

The division of costs of an imaginary composite building has been arrived 
at by taking the actual cost figures on different types of buildings, includ- 
ing an ordinary two-story brick dwelling (row type), a detached residence, 
a reinforced concrete factory building, a slow burning construction ware- 
house building, a steel frame office building, a fireproof and wood floor school 
building, with stone walls, and a brick apartment house. 

The relative importance of these different types of building in determining 
the figures for the composite whole, were determined by reference to the pub- 
lished lists of building permits and similar statistics as furnished by F. W. 
Dodge Co., so that the result as given represents as nearly as possible the 
exact relative importance of the various items in the make-up of the total 
volume of building business transacted in this territory 

Analysis in percentages of cost of a composite building, showing average 
values of various items for each $100 worth of building work normally done in 
Philadelphia district : 



Labor: Per cent 
All skilled labor and supervision on the building including also 
stone cutting, and shop work on sheet metal and millwork 

only 27 . 55 

Unskilled labor as above 9 . 44 

Office, estimating, general supervision and engineering salaries. . 5. 60 

Liability insurance 1.41 

Total labor (no manufacturing except as stated) 44.00 



1520 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Per cent 

Materials: 

Lumber for millwork, concrete forms and structure delivered at 

site $ 8 . 86 

Bricks — delivered at site 6.10 

Steel — structural, miscellaneous and reinforcement, delivered 

at site 5.93 

Boilers, heaters, piping, etc., for heating 3. 05 

Plumbing fixtures, piping, etc 2. 76 

Cement f. o. b. cars 2. 60 

Hardware, nails and similar misc. materials 1. 78 

Sand, delivered to site . 1. 69 

Electric fixtures, conduit wire, etc 1. 60 

Stone, slag and pebbles for concrete 1. 49 

Sprinklers and fire protection apparatus and minor unclassified 

items 1 . 04 

Building stone .90 

Paint 76 

Roofing and sheet metal materials .70 

Plastering materials (no sand) ! .65 

Lathing materials .65 

Steel sash, etc., delivered to site .50 

Lime (no plaster) .45 

Glass 40 

Cut stone (materials) and terra cotta .38 

Elevators (delivered to site) .28 

Mechanical equipment, cranes, etc .21 

Tile and marble (materials only) .10 

Overhead expense and Profit: 

Office rent, taxes, interest, depreciation of equipment, general 

expense and overhead (not wages) 5. 80 

Net compensation of all sub-contractors (assumed as doing 

65 % of the work direct) 3. 90 

Net compensation of general contractor (assumed as doing 

35% of the work direct and supervising the balance) 3.42 



42.88 



100.00 



Cost of College Buildings from 1851 to 1916. — Interesting information 

on building costs at the University of Wisconsin from the period from 1851 
to 1916 is given by Arthur Peabody, State Architect of Wisconsin, in an article 
in the Wisconsin Engineer, from which the matter following is abstracted in 
Engineering and Contracting, June 26, 1918. 

The original buildings at the University consisted of three halls and a 
residence. These buildings were completed by 1857, after which for 14 years 
no others were added. They were constructed of local stone, the walls being 
of rubble masonry with a facing of ashler. The floors, roof and partitions 
were of timber. The costs of these four structures were as follows: 

Cubic Cost per 

Year feet, cu. ft., 

built gross cts. 

1851 North Hall 331,655 6.0 

1855 South Hall 331 , 650 6.4 

1855 Residence of director of observatory 110,000 4. 5 

1857 University Hall. . . .. 682,500 9. 3 

Average for 4 buildings 7.5 

The buildings erected between 1871 and 1887 followed the general practice 
of construction employed in the other buildings. The cost per cubic foot of 
these buildings ranged from 5.1 cts. for a structure erected in 1879 to 17.7 cts. 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 



1521 



for one erected in 1878. The cost of the Chadbourne Hall built in 1871 was 
15.2 cts. per cubic foot. 

The new Science Hall built in 1888 was a departure from previous buildings. 
The use of fireproof construction and steel and hollow tile in this building 
was one of the first, if not the first, example of the use of these materials in 
modern public buildings. The gross contents of building of the building was 
1,751,310 cu. ft. and it cost 16.3 cts. per cubic foot. The only other fireproof 
building erected at Wisconsin up to 1906 was the State historical library. 
This building was of structural steel and hollow tile with a facing of Bedford 
stone. It was erected in 1900, had 1,410,000 cu. ft. gross contents and cost 
53.1 cts. per cubic foot. 

Some comparisons of cost as between fireproof and non-fireproof buildings 
are interesting, as they tend to show a decrease in actual cost, if the greatly 
enhanced value of the buildings erected is taken into consideration. 

The following buildings are of ordinary construction, having masonry walls, 
and wooden floors and partitions: 

Cubic Cost per 

feet, cu. ft.. 

Year built Walls gross cts. 

Chadbourne Hall 1871-1896 Stone 775. 250 17. 4 

Dairy building 1892 Brick 300 , 000 13. 3 

Soils physics building 1894 Brick 123 , 750 15. 

South wing University Hall 1895 Stone 518, 320 12. 5 

Engineering building 1901 Brick 746 , 144 13. 4 

Agricultural Hall 1902 Brick 1 , 041 , 000 14. 8 . 

Main Chemistry building 1905 Brick* 1 , 420 , 000 8.2' 

North wing University HaU 1906 Stone 518 , 320 14. 3 

Average for 8 buildings 13. 6 

* Built of sand lime brick walls, except on small part of front; very plain. 



The following buildings have masonry walls, concrete floors and tile 
partitions: 

Cubic Cost per 

feet, cu. ft.. 

Year built Walls gross cts. 

Agronomy building . . .^ 1906 Brick 193 , 500 14. 3 

Agricultural Engineering 1906 Brick 345,000 14. 8 

Central heating station 1908 Brick 1 , Oil , 500 10. 38 

Forest Products laboratory 1909 Brick 573,600 8. 5 

Lathrop Hall 1909 Stone 1 ,476 , 000 13. 

Dairy laboratory 1909 Brick 144 , 377 11.0 

Biology building 1910 Stone 1 , 198 , 450 16. 7 

Wing on Engineering building 1910 Brick 277 ,000 13.6 

Horticuhural building 1910 Brick 325 , 600 15. 4 

Wing on Chemistry building 1912 Brick 545 , 200 13. 2 

Home Economics building 1912 Stone 746, 200 15. 9 

Barnard Hall 1912 Stone 647,700 19.07 

Wisconsin High school 1913 Brick 900,000 13.15 

Agricultural Chemistry building 1913 Brick 658 ,250 12. 66 

Phvsics building 1915 Brick 1 , 323 , 000 13. 3 

Soils building 1915 Brick 333 ,800 15.9 

Average for 16 buildings 13 . 75 

Cost of Seven School Buildings at Pittsburgh, Pa. (Engineering and Con- 
tracting, Aug. 22, 1917). — During the past five years the Board of Public 
Education of Pittsburgh, Pa., has completed seven new elementary schools 
and two new high schools at a cost of $3,168,721. The average cost of the 
general work has been 14.6 cts. per cubic foot. The cost of the heating and 
ventilating has been 2.9 cts. per cubic foot. The cost of the plumbing has 



1522 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



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fl fl fl fl 2 ^ Si 

O O O O MO 0'5 
<MCOC^(M eOPO ^ 



00 00O5 
000 

05 05 05 



been 1.2 cts. per .cubic foot and the 
cost of the electrical work has been 0.8 
cts. per cubic foot. The total cost of 
all buildings has been 19.5 cts. per cubic 
foot. Bids taken Dec, 1916 indibated 
an increase in the cost of construction 
amounting to 56 per cent above contracts 
let a year previous to that date. 

Unit Costs of Forty-Seven School 
Buildings (Engineering Record, Oct. 
4, 1913). — Total costs of forty-seven 
school buildings in Boston are given in 
the (1912) annual report of the School- 
house Department, and from these 
figures the cubical contents and the 
number of pupils accommodated, costs 
per cubic foot and per pupil are derived. 
The total costs range from $23,000 to 
$329,000, the number of pupils per 
school varying from 160 to 1832. 
The costs per cubic foot are very uni- 
form, averaging between 22 and 23 cents, 
two running as low as 17 cents and 
one as high as 28 cents. The costs 
per pupil fluctuate more widely, rang- 
ing from $117 to $208, exclusive of 
several high school and normal school 
buildings, in which the cost per pupil is 
as high as $940. The figures are further 
divided into the building proper, heat- 
ing, plumbing and electrical equipment. 
The buildings proper cost from 76 to 86 
per cent of the whole, the heating from 6 
to 15 (most of them being from 8 to 11 
per cent), the plumbing 4 or 5 per cent, 
except in a few cases as low as 3 or as 
high as 9, and the electrical equipment 
slightly less. 

Cost of Nine School Buildings in 
Cincinnati. — W. P. Anderson, in Engi- 
neering Record, Aug. 7, 1909 gives the 
following: 

Costs of Warehouses at Navy Yards. 

— Civil Engineer Kirby Smith, U. S. 

Navy in "Public Works of the Navy," 

and in Engineering and Contracting, 

. Aug. 28, 1918, gives the following. 

The general features of design in all 
the structures are the reinforced con- 
crete columns with a flat-slab floor sys- 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 



1523 



tern, and brick curtain walls with adequate glazed areas. Buildings are 
equipped with extensive toilet and locker facilities, sprinkler systems, fire 
walls, and a sufficient number of elevators, the larger structures having both 
freight and passenger service. The buildings are generously provided with 
loading platforms and large doors for handling incoming and outgoing stores. 
Contracts for all these buildings were let between April and Nov., 1917. 



Table III. — Details of Goveknment Storehouses 



•c ^ ^ a 

o S o '53 

Location Size ^ ^ p^ f^ 

New York 180X360 11 ... 28 2,150 

Philadelphia! 7 ... 20 842 

Boston2 6 4 . . 800 

Mare Island.. 64X404 5 6 .. 418 

Charleston 61X321 5 ... 20- 384 

Puget Sound 120X240 10 4 .. 1,275 

New London 64X224 4 4 .. 171 

Hampton Roads 118X494 6 ... 35 696 

Pearl Harbor 61X150 4 3H .. 120 

Newport... 61X241 4 IH .. 172 

Washington 100 X 2503 5 ... 20 590 

Brooklyn 103X103 7 3^ • • 250 

Mare Island 60X186 4 5K • • 106. 

* Allow bearing on foundations, t Steel tonnage, estimated. 

iL-shaped, 1043.^ ft. and 224K ft. on ends; 3043^ ft. and 200 
2 U-shaped, 184^ ft. X 264K ft. with court 33K ft. wide. 3 And . 
annex. 



m 


O 


50 


63 , 000 


20 


27,300 


20 


27 , 300 


15 


12,600 


12 


10 , 000 


20 


21,000 


11 


4,000 


16 


26,000 


8 


2,600 


5 


4,000 


12 


12,200 


8 


6,450 


5 


3,306 


ft. 


on sides. 


50-ft. 1-story 



Table IV. — Cost of Government Storehouses 



Total floor 

Cubic con- area, out to Floor area, 

tents, cu. outofbldg., inside of 

Location ft. sq. ft. walls, sq. ft. 

New York 8,737,000 712,800 696,300 

Philadelphia 3 , 604 , 300 307 , 900 300 , 300 

Boston 2,996,100 251,700 243,200 

Mare Island 1,338,400 128,700 125,600 

Charleston 995,000 96,600 93,100 

Puget Sound 2 , 976 , 700 287 , 800 280 , 600 

New London 665,000 57,000 54,900 

Hampton Roads 3,994,123 352,423 345,073 

Pearl Harbor 416 , 000 37 , 000 35 , 300 

Newport 731,474 59,409 56,985 

Washington 1,981,250 137,500 133,900 

Brooklyn 795,675 74,263 71,379 

Mare Island 473 . 507 39 , 757 38 , 264 



Actual 
cost, per 

cu. ft. 
$0,133 
.141 
.173 
.148 
.218 
.170 
.180 
.179 
.232 
.202 
.190 
.250 



Actual 
cost, per 

sq. ft. 

$1.63 
1.65 
2.04 
1.54 
2.24 
1.76 
2.10 
2.03 
2.61 
2.49 
2.74 
2.69 



Costs of Twenty-Two Hospital Buildings. — Costs of hospital buildings are 
given by O. H. Bartine in a paper read before the American Hospital 
Association. The following data, published in Engineering and Contracting, 
July 26, 1916, are summarized from detailed tabulations. 



1524 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

For twenty-two buildings the building and equipment costs per cu. ft. were 
as follows : 

Per cu. ft., 

Item cts. 

Total building 38 . 2 

Heating and ventilating [[ 3*3 

Electric system 0.9 

Electric fixtures 0^3 

Plumbing 2.9 

Refrigeration 1*2 

Vacuum cleaner system 0.2 

Elevators 0.7 

Kitchen equipment 0.4 

Power plant 4.7 

Total * JiTs 

The segregated building costs per cu. ft. for thirteen hospitals were as 
follows : 

Per cu. ft-, 

Item cts. 

Excavation 2.6 

Masonry 12.4 

Structural steel 4.5 

Carpentry 2.8 

Roofing 1.0 

Glass and glazing 3,6 

Skylights and sheet metal 1,1 

Painting 0.6 

Lathing and plastering 1 . 23 

Composition flooring 0.8 

Tiles, mosaics and marbles 2.11 

Hardware 0.5 

Cast iron 2.2 

Total 43. 2 

In determining cubical contents the author states: " Measurements should 
be taken from the basement or subbasement (lowest) floor level to the mean 
of the outside of the roof, and from outside to outside of walls. In other 
words, the cubic feet of air displaced by the exterior dimensions of the build- 
ing should be considered, eliminating approaches, balustrades and other 
projections not enclosing space." 

Cost of Fireproof Loft Building, Chicago. — Harold Doerr, in Engineering 
and Contracting, March 18, 1914, gives the following: 

The building, completed in the fall of 1913, is seven stories high with pro- 
vision for the addition of three stories in the future and covers an inside lot 
50 X 170 ft. The foundations are of reinforced concrete having a maximum 
thickness of 3 ft. 1 in. and cover practically the whole building area. 

The foundation and columns are stronger than are actually required to meet 
the present conditions. The present roof beams, which are to form the frame- 
work for a future eighth floor, have been set level. The pitch of H in. in 1 ft. 
required for the roof is obtained by means of a graded cinder fill, over which is 
built a 1-in. layer of cement mortar, mixed in the proportions of 1 part cement 
to 2 parts sand, on top of which was laid a tar-and-gravel roof. There are 
three pent houses on the roof for the tanks and two elevators in addition to 
a stair hatch. The building contains a large six-ton high-speed freight ele- 
vator, large enough to allow a truck to drive onto it from the alley, and a 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1525 

ten-passenger elevator located in the front part of the building. A sprinkler 
system of the wet type is installed complete, with pumps for water and air, 
and a 5,000-gal. pressure tank and a 25,000-gal. gravity tank being provided. 
The floors throughout the building are of maple, the best quality being used 
on the first three floors and first-grade factory maple on the upper floors. 
The 10-in. tile floor arches are covered with a 3-in. cinder concrete fill. All 
columns are fireproofed with a 1:2:4 mixt-ure of stone concrete, the minimum 
protection afforded being 2^4 ins. 

Contract Price and Unit Cost, — The contract prices of the principal items 
are: 

Cents 
Total per cu. ft. Per cent 

Steelwork, 703 tons at $60.00 $ 42, 180.00 4. 15 28. 60 

Foundation and sidewalk 11,300.00 1.11 7.65 

Fireproofing 16,000.00 1.58 10.82 

Masonry 14,000.00 1.38 9.49 

Carpenter work 8,500.00 0.84 5.40 

Sprinkler system 7,500.00 0.74 5. 10 

Elevators 7,000.00 0.69 4.75 

Heating 6,575.00 0.65 4.46 

Ornamental iron 4,800.00 0.47 3.25 

Plastering 4 , 500 . 00 . 44 3 . 05 

Architectural terra cotta 3,979.70 0.39 2.69 

Cinder concrete 3,900.00 0.38 2.64 

Excavation (15 ft.) 2,637.50 0.76 1.78 

Total for above items $132 , 872 .20 13 . 08 89 . 68 

Other contracts increase the total cost of the building to about $147,808. 
The cubic contents of the building, including foundations and pent houses, are 
1,016,965 cu. ft., making the cost approximately 14.5 cts. per cubic foot. 

Cost of Railway Buildings of Concrete and Brick. — The following examples 
of structures with their cost are abstracted from the report of the American 
Railway, Bridge and Building Ass'n. by Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 
23, 1912. 

On the Lehigh Valley Railroad the passenger station at Cortland, N. Y., 
was built with hollow tile walls with a cement-stucco finish. The foundations 
are of concrete. The partitions are of hollow tile. This building is a one- 
story structure 25 X 109 ft., with a second story over the ticket office 28 X 
31 ft. The cost of the building was $19,000, exclusive of platforms, or about 
$6.50 per square foot. The cost per cubic foot was 24 cts. 

A combined passenger and freight station on this road at Milan, Pa., was 
built with concrete foundations and hollow tile partitions. The floors were 
of concrete and the roof of timber, covered with roofing paper. The size of 
the building is 19.5 X 52 ft., and its cubic contents are 18,200 cu. ft. The 
•freight house portion of the building has a raised platform of reinforced 
concrete, and the platforms for the passenger station are also of concrete. The 
cost of the building was $3,600, or $3.50 per square foot. The cost per cubic 
foot was 20 cts. 

A freight house built by the Lehigh Valley Company at Bethlehem, Pa., cost 
$35,000. The office portion of the building had concrete foundations, hollow 
tile with stucco finish, wood floors, roof trusses and partitions. It is finished 
with wood trim inside and is plastered. The building is two stories high and 
45 X 54 ft. in area. In the freight portion of the building the foundations, 
outside walls, fire walls and floors are of concrete and the roof is of timber. 



1526 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The area is 59 X 254 sq. ft. and the height is one story. A raised platform is 
built of reinforced concrete. There are three fire walls. The building has a 
basement. The cost of the entire building per cubic foot was 6.7 cts. The 
cost of the office portion of the building was 12 cts. ; of the freight house por- 
tion 5.7 cts. and of the platform was 80 cts. per square foot. ^ 

A roundhouse of 16 stalls was built by the Lehigh Valley R. R. at Coxton, . 
Pa., at a cost of $50,000. The foundations were of 1 : 3 : 5 concrete and the 
columns, roof beams and roof of 1 : 2 : 4 concrete. The side curtain walls were 
of plastered hollow tile. The floor was also of concrete. The windows were 
of wood. The cost per stall was $3,125, or 8 cts. per cubic foot, or $1.87 per 
square foot. The cubic content of the roundhouse was 626,040 cu. ft. 

Costs per Square Foot of Buildings, Panama-Pacific Exposition. — A. H. 
Markwart, in Engineering Record, June 6, 1914, gives the following: 

Table V. — Dimensions and Cost of Buildings, Panama-Pacific Exposition 

— Floor area — 

'ao J* i? -*^ 

^ ^^ ^.^ -g ^ 

§^ Is ht I • I 

Palace m'^ >-^ <1 <= =^ H Sq.ft. o 

Agriculture 579 X 639 20,634,000' 62 6 $425,610 328,633 $1.30 

Education 394X526 14,053,000 68 6 304,263 205,100 1.48 

Festival Hall 270 , 000 57 , 400 4 . 70 

Fine Arts 580,000 204,325 2.84 

Food Products. 424 X 579 15 , 609 , 000 66 342 , 551 236 ,690 1 . 45 

Horticulture 341 , 000 201 , 000 1 . 70 

Liberal Arts 475X585 16,038,000 64.0 344,180 251,300 1.37 

Machinery 367 X 967 38 , 000 ,000 103 659 , 665 369 ,600 1 . 78 

Manufactures 475 X 552 15,650,000 67 341,069 234,000 1.46 

Mines and Metallurgy 451 X 579 16,199,000 64 359,445 252,000 1.43 

Transportation 579 X 614 20,413,000 65-0 481,677 314,000 1.53 

Varied Industries 414 X 541 14 , 648 , 000 67 312 , 691 219 , 000 1 . 43 

Cost of a Cotton Storage Shed. — E. S. Pennebaker, Jr. (Engineering News, 
Jan. 2, 1913) describes a large cotton-storage shed at Mobile, Ala., to provide 
for the protection of cargoes of export cotton from damage by bad weather. 
It is a timber structure 135 by 410 ft., covering a smooth concrete floor, and 
fronting the Mobile River. 

The building was erected and thoroughly equipped by labor contract, the 
railway company furnishing all materials. The work was done under the 
supervision of the construction department and completed in approximately 
60 working days at a cost of 22.2 cts. per sq. ft. of floor area, exclusive of fire line 
and lighting, or at a total cost of 27.5 cts. per sq. ft. of floor area. This struc-* 
ture covers a floor area of nearly IH acres, and has a capacity of 7000 bales of 
compress cotton piled single tier. It is provided with ample fire protection, 
is lighted with tungsten lamps, and is served with track facilities which reduce 
to a minimum the cost of shipside deUvery. 

1921 Cost of Building Materials. — The Architect and Engineer, gives the 
following, based on reliable information furnished by San Francisco material 
houses* Date of quotations, June 20, 1921. 

All prices f. o. b. cars San Francisco or Oakland. For country work add 
freight and cartage to prices given. 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1527 

American Institute of Architects' Fees. — New work — 6 per cent minimum basis. 
Alterations — 7 to 10 per cent as a minimum basis. High class residence work — 
10 per cent as a minimum. 
Bond — 13^^ % amount of contract. 

Common, $40.00 per 1000 laid. 
Face, $90.00 per 1000 laid. 
Common, f. o. b. cars, $16.50 plus cartage. 
Face, f. o. b. cars, $55.00 per 1000, carload lots 
Hollow Tile Fireproofing 

12 X 12 X 3 in., 103^ cts. per square foot. 
12 X 12 X 4 in., 11^ cts. per square foot. 
12 X 12 X 6 in., 163^ cts. per square foot. 

Hod carriers, $7.40 per day. 

Bricklayers, $9.25 per day. 

Lime — $3.25 per bbl. ; carload, $2.75 per bbl. 
Composition Floors — 30 cts. per sq. ft. 
Concrete Work (material at San Francisco bunkers) — 

No. 3 rock $2.25 per yd. 

No. 4 rock , 2 . 25 per yd. 

Niles pea gravel 3.25 per yd. 

Niles gravel 2 . 50 per yd. 

Niles top gravel. 3 . 00 per yd. 

City gravel 2.25 per yd. 

River g^nd 1 . 50 per yd. 

Bank sand 1 . 00 per yd. 

Sand 

Del Monte, $1.25 to $1.50 per ton. 
Fan Shell Beach, $2.50 to $3.00 per ton. 
Car lots, f. o. b. Lake Majella. 

Cement (f . o. b. cars) $ 3 . 69 per bbl. 

Rebate for sacks, 15 cts. each. 

Atlas " White " $12 . 60 per bbl. 

Medusa cement $12. 60 per bbl. 

Forms $25.00 per M 

Wage — 

Concrete workers $ 7 . 50 per day 

Cement finishers 8.35 per day 

Laborers 6.95 per day 

Dampproofing — 

Two-coat work, 25 cts. per yard. 

Membrane waterproofing — 4 layers of P. B. saturated felt, $6.00 per square. 

Hot coating work, $2.00 per square. 

Wage — Roofers, $8.35 per day. 
Electric Wiring — $8.00 to $12.00 per outlet for conduit work (including switches) 

Knob and tube average $4.50 to $6.00 per outlet. 

Wage — Electricians, $9,25 per day. 
Excavation — 

$1.75 per yard. 

Teams, $10.00 per day. 

Trucks, $28.50 to $38.50 per day. 

Above figures are an average without water. 

Steam shovel work in large quantities, less; hard material, such as rock, will 

run considerably more. 
Fire Escapes — Ten-foot balcony, with stairs, $100.00 per balcony. 
Glass — (Consult with manufacturers.) 

21 ounce, 20 cts. per square foot. 

Plate, $1.40 per square foot. 

Art, $1.00 up per square foot. 

Wire (for skylights), 44 cts. per square foot. 

Obscure glass, 28 cts. per square foot. 

Note. — Add extra for setting. 

Wage — Glaziers, $7.85 per day. 
Heating — Average, $2.00 per sq. ft. of radiation, according to conditions. 

Wage — Steamfitters, $9.25 per day. 



1528 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Iron — Cost of ornamental iron, cast iron, etc., depends on design. 

Wage — Iron workers, bridge and structural, $9.25 per day. 
Lumber — (Prices delivered to bldg. site) 

Common, $34 per M (average). 

Common O. P. (select), $45 per M (average) 

Flooring — 

1 X 3 No. 1 $77.00 per 1000 

1 X 3 No. 2 72 . 00 per 1000 

1 X 4 No. 1 73 . 00 per 1000 

1 X 4 No. 2 70.00 per 1000 

1 X 4 No. 3 47 . 00 per 1000 

1 X 6 No. 2 and better 73 . 00 per 1000 

13^ X 4 and 6 No. 2 75.00 per 1000 

Slash grain, 1 X 4 No. 2 48.00 per 1000 

Slash grain, 1 X 4 No. 3. 39.00 per 1000 

No. 1 common run to T. & G 35.00 per 1000 

Lath 6. 50 per 1000 

Shingles — (Add cartage to prices quoted) 

Redwood, No. 1 $1 . 00 per bdle. 

No. 2 90 per bdle. 

Red Cedar , 1 . 10 per bdle. 

Hardwood Floors — 

Maple floor (laid and finished), 30cts. per foot. 
Factory grade floors (laid and finished), 20cts. per foot. 
Oak (quartered, finished), 40cts. per foot. 
^6 Oak (clear), 30cts. per foot (plain). 
^6 Oak (select), 28cts. per foot (plain). 
^6 Oak, quartered, sawed, clear, 35cts. 
Wage — Floor layers, $9.35 per day. 

Per M ft. 
Hardwood Floors (not laid) — 

Ke X 2" sq. edge Clear quartered oak $173. 50 

Select quartered oak 121 . 50 

Clear plain oak 119 . 00 

Select plain oak 95 . 00 

^Ke X 2K" face Clear quartered oak 210.00 

Select quartered oak 144 . 00 

Clear plain oak 157 . 50 

Select plain oak 114.00 

Clear maple 134 . 50 

Clear maple — white 178 . 00 

^Ke X SH" face Clear maple 134.50 

IH X 234" face Clear maple 134. 50 

% X 2" face Clear quartered oak 158 . 00 

Select quartered oak 112 . 50 

Clear plain oak 112. 50 

Select plain oak 78 . 00 

Clear maple 89. 50 

Millwork — 

O. P., $100 and up per 1000. R. W., $120 and up per 1000. 

Double hung box frame windows (average) with trim, $7.50 and up each. 

Doors, including trim (single panel), $10 and up each. 

Doors, including trim (five panel) $9 . 00 each 

Screen doors, $3.50 each. 
Window screens, $1.50 each. 

Cases for kitchen pantries seven feet high, per lineal foot, $9 each. 
Dining room cases, if not too elaborate, $10 each. 
Labor — Rough carpentry, warehouse heavy framing, $13.00 per 1000. 
For smaller work, average, $25.00 to $35.00 per 1000. 
Wage — Carpenters, $8.35 per day. 
Laborers — Common, $6.00 per day. 
Marble — (Not set) add 60cts. up per ft. for setting 

Columbia $2.05 sq. ft. 

Alaska 2.05 sq. ft. 

San Saba 3.65 sq. ft. 

Tennessee 2 .50 sq. ft. 

Verde Antique 4 . 55 sq. ft. 

Wage — Marble polishers and finishers, $6.00 per day. 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1529 

Painting — 

Two-coat work, 35 cts. per yard. 

Three-coat work, 50 cts. per yard. 

Whitewashing, 5 cts. per yard. 

Cold water painting, 9 cts. per yard. 

Turpentine, SI. 05 per gal. in cases and 90cts. per gal. in tanks. 

Raw linseed oil, 94 cts. per gal. in barrels. 

Boiled linseed oil, 96 cts. per gal. in bbls. 

Pioneer white and red lead, 11^ cts. lb. in one ton purchases; 123^ cts. lb. for 

less than 500 lbs. 
Wage — Painters, S8.35 per day. 
Note — Accessibility and conditions cause wide variance of costs. 

Patent Chimneys — 

6-inch $1 . 50 lineal foot 

8-inch 1,75 lineal foot 

10-inch 2 . 25 lineal foot 

12-inch 3. 00 lineal foot 

Pipe Casings — $8.00 each. 
Plastering — 

Interior, on wood lath, 70 cts. per yard. 

Interior, on metal lath, $1.30 per yard. 

Exterior, on brick or concrete, $1.30 per yard. 

Portland White, $1.75. 

Interior on brick or terra cotta, 60 cts. to 70 cts. per yard. 

Exterior, on metal lath, $1.85 to $2.25 per yard- 

Wood lath, $6.50 at yard per 1000. 

Metal studding, $1.25 to $1.50 per yard. 

Suspended ceiling and walls (metal furring, lathing and plastering), $2.25 per 
yard. 

Galv. metal lath, 33 cts. and up per yard, according to gauge and weight. 

Lime, f. o. b. warehouse, $3.25 per bbl. 

Hardwall plaster, $22.00 per ton, f. o. b. warehouse. (Rebate on sacks, 
15 cts). 

Wage — Plasterers, $10.20 per day. 

Lathers, $9.25 per day. 

Hod carriers, $8.35 per day. 
Plumbing — 

From $70.00 per fixture up, according to grade, quantity and runs. 

Wage — Plumbers, $9.25 per day. 
Reinforcing Steel — Base price for less than car load lots $3.50 per 100 lbs. 

Carload lots, $3.25 per 100 lbs., f. o. b. San Francisco. (Mill delivery.) 
Roofing — Five-ply tar and gravel, $6.50 per square for 30 squares or over. 

Less than 30 squares, $7.00 per square. 

Tile, $35.00 to $50.00 per square. 

Redwood shingle, $10.00 per sq. in place. 

Cedar shingle, $10.00 per square in place. 

Reinforced Pabco roofing, $8.25 per square. Wage — Roofers, $8.35 per 
day. 
Rough Hardware — 

Nails, per keg, $5.50 base. 

Deafening felt, $110.00 per ton. 

Building paper, P. & B., 

1 ply, $3.50 per 1000 ft. roll. 

2 ply, $5.50 per 1000 ft. roll. 

3 ply, $8.00 per 1000 ft. roll. 
Sash cord, 

(Sampson spot), $2.25 per hank 100 ft. 
Common, $1.00 per hank 100 feet. 

Sash weights, cast iron, $80.00 per ton. 
Sheet Metal — 

Windows — Metal, $2.00 a square foot. 
Skylights — 

Copper, $1.25 a square foot (not glazed). 

Galvanized iron, 40 cts. a square foot (not glazed). 

Wage — Sheet metal workers, $9.25 per day. 
Stone-granite — 

Wage — Stone cutters, $8.35 per day. 

Stone setters, $8.35 and $8.80 per day 



1530 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Store Fronts — 

Kawneer copper bars for store fronts. 

Corner, center and around sides, will average $1.35 per lin. foot. 

Zouri bar, $1.25 per lin. foot. 

Zouri Underwriters' Specification sash $1.60 per lin. foot. 
Structural Steel — $130.00 per ton (erected). 

This quotation is an average for comparatively small quantities. 

Light truss work higher; plain beam and column work in large quantities, less. 
Steel Sash — 

Fenestra, from S. F. stock, 28 cts. to 34 cts. per sq. ft. 

Fenestra, plant shipment, 28 cts. to 34 cts. per sq. ft. (Includes muUions 
and hardware.) 

Trus-con, from San Francisco stock 27 cts. to 33 cts. per sq. ft. 

Trus-con, plant shipment, 27 cts. to 33 cts per sq. ft. 

U. S. Metal Products Co., 30 cts. per sq. ft. in San Francisco. 
Tile — White glazed, 80 cts. per foot. 

White floor, 80 cts. per foot. 

Colored floor tile, $1.00 per foot. 

Promenade tile, $1.00 per sq. ft. laid. 

Wage — Tilesetters, $8.35 per day. 

Comparative Costs of Small Houses for 1914, 1920, and 1921 (Engineering 
and Contracting, May 25, 1921.) At the national conference on the construc- 
tion industries held at Philadelphia Feb. 15-18 under the auspices of the Indus- 
trial Relations Committee of the Philadelphia Chamber of Commerce and 
the National Federation of Construction Industries, Daniel Crawford, Jr., an 
operative builder of Philadelphia, gave an interesting analysis of the cost of 
the general construction of a typical dwelling. According to his figures a 
2-story house of 6 rooms and bath, built in Philadelphia, cost $2,969 in 1914, 
$8,346 in 1920 and could be built for $6,676 in 1921. These figures are based 
on an operation of 100 houses. Mr. Crawfords' figures follow: 

1914 1920 1921 

Ground $500. 00 $600. 00 $600. 00 

Street Improvements 

1. Sewer 22.50 60.00 60.00 

2. Water pipe 15.00 30.00 30.00 

3. Curb (plain) 6.00 16.50 16.50 

4. Cartway paving 25.00 90.57 90.57 

$ 68.50 $197.07 $197.07 
General Conditions 

1914 1920 1921 

1. Plans $ 1.00 $ 2.00 $ 2.00 

2. Survey 3.50 5.00 5.00 

3. Building permits and affidavits 5 . 00 7 . 50 7 . 50 

4. Water permit (brick and stone) 1 . 80 1 . 80 1 . 80 

5. Electric service 

6. Gas service 4.00 4.00 

7. Fire insurance on building material .10 .10 .10 

8. Fire insurance on buildings 1 . 60 3 . 87 2 . 58 

9. Plant and tools 5.00 15.00 12.00 

10. Sales expense 64 00 176.00 144.00 

11. Advertising 32.00 8&.00 72.00 

12. Office expense. 29.40 78.60 65.50 

13. Compensation insurance 7.93. 6.80 

14. Taxes 11.25 25.00 77.45 

15. Interest 101.25 263.00 219.40 

16. Title company's charges 69.75 150.25 123.75 

17. Deed — Acknowledging revenue and re- 

cording 4.00 8.50 5.00 

18. Expense— Placing first mortgage 20 . 00 220 . 00 108 . 00 

19. Expense— Placing second mortgage 23 . 00 278 . 00 125 . 00 

20. Supervision 18.00 36.00 36.00 

21. Supplies 5.00 15.00 12 00 

$395.65 $1,445.55 $1,036.18 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 



1531 



CONSTEUCTION 

1. Excavation $ 40.95 

2. Stone masonry 145 . 54 

3. Brick masonry 226 . 25 

4. Rough carpentry 255 . 42 

5. Finish carpentry 266 . 00 

6. Plastering 104 . 61 

7. Cement work 83 . 00 

8. Cut stone 7 . 70 

9. Structural steel 11.80 

10. Roofing and spouting 50. 00 

11. Plumbing and gas fitting 167 . 00 

12. Heating 166.00 

13. Electric wiring 30 . 00 

14. Stairwork 37 . 50 

15. Labor — -general 25 . 00 

16. Tile work 5.50 

17. Iron fence and clothes poles 17.00 

18. Sheet metal work 35.00 

19. Cabinet work 22 . 70 

20. Hardware — finish 11 00 

21. Hardware — rough 11 .00 

22. Painting and glazing 100 . 00 

23. Art glass 8 . 75 

24. Range and connection. . ., 21 .50 

25. Gas water heater and connection 12 . 00 

26. Parquetry floor 48 . 60 

27. Flue lining and crocks 2. 10 

28. Grading — general 3. 15 

29. Paperhanging and decorating 42. 75 

30. Lighting fixtures 44 . 25 

31. Sodding and seeding 2.43 

32. Numbering houses -65 

$2,005.15 

Summary 

Ground , $ 500 . 00 

Street improvements 68 . 50 

General conditions 395. 65 

Construction 2,003. 15 

$2,969.30 

Sale price . 3 , 200 . 00 

First mortgage value 2 , 000 . 00 

Second mortgage value 700. 00 

Rates for Labor Used in Compiling 
Per hour 
1914 

Common labor $0 . 17K 

Carpenters .40 

Carpenters' helpers .20 

Plasterers .50 

Plasterers' helpers .35 

Bricklayers .50 

Bricklayers' helpers .35 

Stone masons .45 

Painters .40 

Roofers .40 

Roofers' helpers .25 

Cement finishers .50 

Cement laborers .20 

Tile setters .65 

Tile setters' helpers. . . . : .40 

Plumbers .44 

Plumbers' helpers ■. .20 

Steamfitters v • ^^ 

Steamfitters' helpers .24 



$ 99.45 


$ 93.60 


408 . 70 


354.42 


703.67 


659.71 


955.41 


555.67 


850.00 


610.00 


385.04 


269 . 42 


258 . 54 


198.76 


16.00 


16.00 


48.47 


33.63 


120.00 


110.00 


545.00 


442 . 00 


440 . 00 


368.00 


81.25 


65.00 


166.00 


125 . 00 


50.00 


50.00 


12.00 


9.90 


30.00 


25.00 


105.00 


85.00 


56.00 


40.00 


35.00 


32.00 


33.00 


24.00 


225.00 


215.00 


15.00 


15.00 


65.00 


65.00 


35.00 


26.00 


143.75 


129.60 


8.85 


8.85 


6.65 


6.30 


110.00 


106.88 


90.00 


85.00 


4.85 


4.05 


1.00 


1.00 


$6,103.64 


$4,842.79 


$ 600.00 


$ 600.00 


197.07 


197 . 07 


1,445.55 


1,036.18 


6.103.64 


4,842.79 


$8,346.26 


$6,676.04 


8,800.00 


7,200.00 


4 , 000 . 00 


3,600.00 


2,500.00 


2,000.00 


Per hour 


Per hour 


1920 


1921 


$0.50 


$0.40 


1.12M 


1.00 


.60 


.50 


1.25 


1.25 


1.10 


1.10 


1.30 


1.30 


1.10 


1.10 


1.30 


1.30 


1.00 


1.00 


1.10 


1.10 


.70 


.85 


1.00 


1.00 


.60 


.60 


1.00 


1.00 


.80 


.68^ 


1.15 


1.15 


.75 


.75 


1.10 


1.10 


.75 


.75 



1532 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cost of Material 

, . 1914 1920 1921 

Foundation stone, per perch $ 1 . 40 $ 4 . 00 $ 3 . 00 

Bricks, per M 7.00 20.00 18.00 

Cement, per bbl 1.55 5.25 2 63 

Rough lumber, per M ft 20.00 70.00 46.00 

Flooring, No. 1 spruce, per M f t 30 . 00 80 . 00 60 . 00 

Lath, 4 in., per M ft 3.00 20.00 9.50 

Builders' lime, per bu .25 .70 .64 

Calcine plaster, per bbl 2 . 00 6.25 6.25 

Sand, per ton 1.30 2.96 2.30 

Fibre, per bu .25 .35 .35 

Structural steel, per cwt 1 .40 5. 75 4 00 

Tin, per box 8.20 22.00 22 50 

Felt, per ton 30.00 110.00 85.00 

Pitch, per cwt .70 2.00 2.10 

Nails, per keg : 3 . 00 7 . 50 4.75 

Sash cord, per hank .55 1.25 .85 

Tile floors, per. sq. ft .30 1 . 00 . 823^ 

Sub-contracts Shown i^^y Percentage of Increase (above 1914) 

1914 1920 1921 

Hardware (finish) Unity 218 190 

Plumbing Unity 226 168 

Heating Unity 165 122 

Painting Unity 125 115 

Paperhanging Unity 157 150 

Parquet floors Unity 195 167 

Roofing Unity 140 120 

Sheet metal work Unity 200 150 

Electric wiring Unity 170 117 

Millwork Unity 215 121 

Plastering Unity 268 158 

Gas ranges . Unity 200 200 

Excavations Unity 143 128 

Rough stone foundation walls Unity 208 170 

Face stone work Unity 126 , 90 

Mr. Crawford comments on the above costs as follows: 

In 1914 it was possible to buy small lots for dwelling house construction on 
40-ft. streets for about $500. The price of the same lot today on a 50-ft. 
street is a little bit more. I say a 50-ft. street because there has been a gen- 
eral tendency in this community to develop on wider avenues, and the land 
has been laid out by the surveyors or engineers with a view of getting not less 
than a 50-ft. street, if possible, so that it is difficult today to find a piece of 
land that is divided up into 40-ft. streets. So that we have taken the same 
basic value, and merely added the land that is added, and made it $600 for 
1920 and $600 for 1921. . 

The next item that enters into the cost of construction is utilities — the 
drainage, the water pipe, the curb, the paving — ^that the builder must pay for. 
In 1914 they cost him $68.50, and last year they cost him $197.07. This year 
the rates are the same. Some folks have said that we are going back to pre- 
war levels. The first important item that we find is the sales expense of 2 
per cent, advertising 1 per cent, and office expense about 1 per cent. Gener- 
ally, that is the total overhead charge of an operative builder. Four per cent 
represents his selling expense, his advertising and his office expense. The 
next item is taxes that amounted in 1914 to $11.25, $85 last year and $77.45 
this year. 

The next item is interest. You will notice that when a man starts in to 
build a hundred houses, it takes a lot of money. He must go to a trust com- 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1533 

pany and negotiate a loan, and, of course, he must pay interest on that loan 
until he repays it to the trust company. We have predicated that charge 
on 9 months' interest on three-quarters of the cost of the house, the average 
operation taking anywhere from 15 to 18 months from the time it is started to 
the time it is disposed of. The title company charges cover title insurance 
and guaranteeing against mechanics' liens, and searches, recording, and all 
that sort of thing, which, of course, are perfectly legitimate charges. The 
next large item is the expense of placing first mortgages. In 1914 we had no 
difficulty whatever in placing a mortgage of $2,000 on a $3,200 house at an 
expense of 1 per cent. People were glad to take those mortgages because they 
were a very good investment. In 1920 the conditions had reversed themselves 
very much. It was necessary to pay 5 per cent in most cases to place that 
mortgage, so that the cost of that item jumped from $20 to $220. That con- 
dition has been changed this year, and we can place mortgages now at 3 per 
cent, so that there is run into the expense of building that house a charge of 
,$108. The next item is the expense for placing second mortgages. In 1914 
most of the building and loan associations which took the mortgages were in 
funds, and there was no difficulty in placing that second mortgage by paying 
the charges of the attorney who represented that association, their solicitor, 
for drawing the papers, and looking after the settlement, a charge that gener- 
ally amounted to $23. But the conditions of 1920 changed materially. It 
was necessary to pay 10 per cent in 1920 for placing second mortgage loans 
and that amounted to $278. That has changed, and we can place them today 
at 5 per cent so it is $128. Supervision and so on, is estimated at $18, $36 
and $36. The general conditions in the construction of the average small 
dwelling house rose from $395 to $1,445, and now stands at $1,036. 

Relative Output and Cost of Labor in Building Trades in 1914 and 1919. — 
John B. Miles in a letter published in Engineering and Contracting. July 
28, 1920, gives the following data which were obtained from reputable 
contractors. 

Efficiency of Labor in Building Trades, Norfolk, Va. 

1914 1919 

Production 
per 8-hr. day 
Trade 9 doors 5 doors 

Carpenters 11 openings 6 openings 

Brick masons 1900 800 

Plasterers 150 sq. yds. 75 sq. yds. 

Painters. 1800 sq. ft. 900 sq. ft. 

Cost Estimating for Reinforced Concrete Buildings. — Engineering and 
Contracting, March 27, 1918, gives the following abstract of a paper presented 
at the 14th convention of the American Concrete Institute by Clayton W. 
Myers. 

The process of estimating various designs for comparative cost purposes is 
not nearly as difficult as may be supposed. After the quantities have been 
calculated for the various designs, unit prices are fixed and the total cost of 
the member estimated. It is not necessary to fix absolutely accurate unit 
costs to these quantities in order to obtain reasonably accurate cost compari- 
sons. As long as the same unit costs are used for similar types of work in the 
various designs, the comparative costs will be surprisingly accurate. In fact, 
some of the unit costs may be in error 25 per cent or 30 per cent, and yet the 
resulting costs will show unquestionably which type of construction should 
be used. However, the alert engineer will soon become as interested in having 



1534 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

his unit costs in accordance with current prices of material and labor as he is 
in having his design correct. 

Concrete. — A list of approximate unit prices has been tabulated here which 
may be used to calculate the comparative costs of the principal members in 
a concrete building. Judicious use of these unit costs will enable the designer 
to incorporate in his design the most economical methods and at the same time 
develop a keener eye for economical construction. The following tabulation 
is a detailed estimate of the cost of concrete mixed in the proportion of 1:2:4. 

Concrete (1:2:4 mix), per cu. yd.: 

Cement, IH bbl. at $2 per bbl. at the job $3.33 

Sand, ^^ cu. yd. at $1.50 per cu. yd. at the job .75 

Crushed stone, IMo ton at $2 per ton at the job. . . - 2.60 

Plant, cost per cu. yd.: 

Freight charges $0 . 05 

Rental of mixer, etc 35 

Small purchases, fuel and supplies 45 

Labor 40* 

1.25 

Labor of mixing and placing 1 . 25 

Total cost per cu. yd ..*......... $9 . 18 

Total cost per cu. f t .34 

Concrete mixed in the proportion of 1:1H :3 will require about H bbl. more 
cement per cubic yard. This will add about 67 cts. to the cost of 1 yd. of 
concrete in place, making the unit price about $9.85 per cubic yard, or 36H 
cts. per cubic foot. If a 1:1:2 mix of concrete is used, the cement will be 
increased about 1 Ho bbl. over and above that used in a 1:2:4 mix. At $2 per 
barrel this would make the cost of 1 :1 :2 mix concrete about $11.58 per cu. yd. 
or 43 cts. per cubic foot. In large plain concrete footings it is sometimes 
advisable to use a concrete mixed in the proportion of 1 : 23^ :5. Concrete 
mixed in this proportion requires about Ko bbl. less cement than 1:2:4 mix. 
Figuring cement at $2 per bbl., concrete mixed in the proportion of 1: 23^ : 5 
works out at approximately 32 cts. per cubic foot in place. 

In calculating the amount of materials necessary to make 1 cu. yd. of con- 
crete, it has been assumed that a cubic yard of 1:1:2 concrete will require the 
same quantity of sand and crushed stone as a cubic yard of 1:2:4 concrete. 
Theoretically this is not true, but in general practice there is some waste of 
material and it has been found that the small differences of aggregate used in 
the various mixes of concrete in a building are negligible. A very large part 
of the concrete in a building is a 1 :2:4 concrete, therefore, the aggregate quan- 
tities of 1 :2 :4 mix are generally used for all concrete work and the cement 
alone is changed for various mixes. It will also be noted that the quantity 
of cement, sand and stone used here is somewhat in excess of the amount 
usually given in the tables published in various text-books. It must be borne 
in mind that the waste of materials on the job must be absorbed and the 
quantities in tables compiled by laboratory tests must be somewhat increased. 
It is actually necessary to estimate on about IH bbl. of cement to make 1 cu. 
yd. of 1:2:4 concrete on a job where the usual construction methods are 
employed and in other mixes of concrete the cement should be proportion- 
ately increased. 

The prices of concrete work as tabulated here are about 30 per cent in 
excess of pre-war prices and 50 per cent more than the prices of 1913. These 
costs based on the present high cost of material and labor should be adjusted 
from time to time as necessary. 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1535 

Plant Cost. — In making estimates for the cost of concrete in place, the most 
uncertain element entering into this cost is the item of "plant." At the pres- 
ent high cost of all building materials and labor, "plant" costs cannot be 
safely assumed to be less than $1 per cubic yard and will very seldom run as 
high as $2 per cubic yard of concrete. Owing to this wide variation in the 
cost of "plant," it is necessary in estimating concrete to strike an average cost 
which, while not accurate, will cover the usual "plant" work, and give a unit 
cost for concrete in which all times of material and labor have been considered. 
It is with this in view that a " plant " cost of $1.25 per cubic yard has been used 
in making up the unit cost of concrete in place as given in the foregoing 
tabulation. 

The cost of steel reinforcement is extremely erratic in its fluctuation, but at 
present it may be assumed at $90 per ton exclusive of the labor of bending and 
placing. It will cost from $6 to $15 per ton to cut, bend and place this rein- 
forcement, $100 per ton, or 5 cts. per pound, being a unit price which may 
be used to give reasonably close cost ratios. Reinforcement requiring much 
bending and made up of small bars should be figured about 3^ ct. per pound 
higher than steel requiring only a small amount of bending. Spiral reinforce- 
ment for columns should be figured at an extra cost of about ^ ct. per pound 
over and above plain bars. In estimating the weight of spiral reinforcement 
it should be remembered that about 7 per cent should be added to the weight 
of the spirals for welding laps. Also, it will be necessary to add about 3 lb. 
per lin. ft. of column for spacers used to hold the spirals in proper pitch. 

Forms for round columns are usually made from sheet metal and in flat slab 
construction it usually works out cheaper to use round interior columns 
formed with this material. However, the cost of forming an interior column 
26 in. in diameter for flat slab construction is about the same as forming a 
column 20 in. in diameter designed for the same purpose. This being the 
case, it is not necessary to consider the difference in the cost of forms due to 
different diameters of round interior columns. It may be well to remember 
that it costs somewhat less to build an interior column having a head by using 
a steel form than it does to form the column of wood, as the cost of forming the 
head in wood is no small part of the column cost. The list of unit prices given 
here covers the cost of labor and material for form work for the principal opera- 
tions in a concrete building, and are tabulated for use in making compara- 
tive estimates for weeding out the more expensive designs but not for making 
actual estimates of buildings without regard to conditions and what not. 
While these costs might be more or less useful in arriving at the total cost of 
a concrete building it should be remembered that they are only approximate 
units to be used for the purpose outlined. 

Square 
feet cost 
(Surface 
measure- 
Type of construction ment) 

Forms for flat slabs, including drop panels $ 0. 09 

Slab, beam and girder construction, slabs to span not less than 9 ft. . .12 

Slab, beam and girder construction, slabs to span not less than 7 ft. . .13 

SlaS, beam and girder construction, slabs to span not less than 5 ft. . .14 

Column forms .15 

Floor beams and girders, not including slabs .16 

Wall beams .14 

Partitions and wall forms .15 

Footing and foundation forms. .15 

Round steel column forms, including heads, each 15.00 



1536 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



For making complete estimates, typical dimensioned sketch cross-sections 
of the building from the roof slab to the footings should be made and the work 
of estimating done from these sketches. In this way the extra column lengths 
required to obtain the same clear story heights will enter into the estimate. 
This is quite a factor in comparing flat slab with beam and girder designs. 
Estimates made from these cross-sections for a length of building equal to one 
bay only, is the usual practice. In this way the cost per lineal foot of building 
as well as the cost per square foot of floor space may be calculated. Compari- 
sons of costs made in this manner are genuine proofs to the designer that he is 
giving the design proper study for economy, Jand will result in a conservation of 
building materials, save good dollars for the owner, and establish for the 
engineer the reputation of being a designer of economical concrete buildings. 
Interior Columns. — A typical interior concrete column as used in certain 
types of flat slab construction is illustrated in Fig. 1. Several comparative 
designs have been made for this column using in each case standardized formu- 
lae and fibre stresses. The cost of the various schemes is worked out in detail 

in Table VI the unit prices fixed to the 
quantities of material and labor being taken, 
principally, from figures previously given. 

From the estimated comparative costs in 
Table VI perhaps the most noticeable fact is 
that the columns using the 1:2:4 mix of 
concrete are among the most expensive. 
Using this lean mix necessarily produces a 
column larger in diameter which means, 
also, a loss of valuable floor space. It will 
also be noticed that the smallest column 
designed is not the most economical. The 
column which shows the most economy in 
this case is one having a 1:1:2 mix and 
about 1 per cent of vertical reinforcement 
together with 1 per cent of spiral rein- 
forcement. Hence, a rich mix of concrete 
and comparatively small percentages of 
steel reinforcement seem to show the most 
economicalre suits for a column carrying a 
fairly heavy load. 
For comparative purposes, the difference in the amount of concrete in the 
column heads may be neglected as the top diameter of the head usually 
remains the same throughout the building. The cost of forming the column 
and its head has been estimated here at $15 each. This is done for conve- 
nience in arriving at a total cost of the column shaft Ordinarily this cost is 
neglected in making comparative estimates of interior columns, as it costs 
about the same to form a round column of small diameter as it does a column 
of larger diameter. Many other schemes may be designed for this particular 
column and the comparative costs estimated. However, the several exam- 
ples, some of which are obviously too expensive to consider, will suffice to 
give the reader a working knowledge of the methods of calculation employed 
to determine the costs of the various types of interior columns. It is readily 
appreciated that even though a larger column were somewhat cheaper to build, 
.the additional floor space occupied by this larger column might be worth 
more to the owner of the building than he would save in the construction of 




Fig. 1. — Typical interior column. 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 



1537 



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HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



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BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 



1539 



the column. Hence, it becomes necessary to consider the value of this addi- 
tional floor space as a part of the cost of this larger column. It is difficult to 
say just what this floor space is really worth. However, a satisfactory way to 
deal with the situation is to consider the smallest column designed as a basis 
to which the other columns are to be compared. In the illustration this col- 
umn is 24 in. in diameter. Consider the area of floor space occupied by a col- 
umn equal to the square of the diameter of the column. The additional area 
occupied by any one of these larger columns is equal to the difference between 
the square of the diameter of the column in question and the square of the 
diameter of the smallest column designed. This additional or lost floor area 
is priced at a unit cost equal to the approximate unit cost per square foot of 
floor space of the completed building, including heating, lighting, sprinklers, 
etc. The unit cost per sq. ft. of building is calculated by dividing the approxi- 
mate total cost of the building by the number of sq. ft. of floor space in the 
building, measurements to be taken "out to out" of the floor plan. For 



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Fig. 2. — Typical wall column. 



example, a building 200 ft. X 60 ft. and five stories high may cost $165,000 
complete. This works out at $2.75 per square foot and for general purposes 
this will give fairly accurate results for the purpose described above. 

In the comparative estimates of the interior column given, if we strike out 
of each estimate the cost of lost floor space, the relative cost of each column 
will remain unchanged. This is not always the case, and even in our exam- 
ples it will be noticed that the columns having the leaner mixes show up much 
more favorably when this item of cost is excluded from the total cost of the 
column. Frequently, the omission of this item will result in a transposition 
of the economic order of the various designs. In many buildings the loss of a 
few feet of floor space is immaterial, but in other cases it is of great importance, 
as in shorehouses or in buildings where the machinery layout would be inter- 
fered with by a larger column. Where loft buildings or offices are rented by 
the square foot of net area the cost of this floor space should be figured at a 
considerably higher figure than the one given in our tables. 



1540 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Wall Columns. — In determining the economical wall column, the method 
is very similar to that used for interior columns except that the item of the 
cost of wood forms enters into the estimate. It will be necessary also in 
designing exterior columns to consider the width carefully, as every inch 
added or deducted will change the corresponding dimension of wall sash a like 
amount. 

Fig. 2 shows a typical exterior wall column for a concrete building having 
these columns spaced 20 ft. apart. Three designs of this column have been 
compared, and the respective estimates are shown worked out in detail in 
Table VII in an effort to determine which one of the three designs would be the 
most economical to use. Three different mixes of concrete have been used 
and again, as in the case of the interior column, the column designed to use a 
1:1:2 mix concrete appears to be the least expensive to build. Generally 
speaking, with the present high price of reinforcement, cement is the cheapest 
reinforcement for a concrete column. Nevertheless, it must not be concluded 
that a rich mix should always be used in column construction. The proper 
mix can be determined only by making comparative estimates of several 
designs. For lack of space, only three designs have been considered here, but 
the principles are clearly illustrated and further designs should be treated in a 
like manner. 

The cost of each wall column design includes the cost of sash and glass 
together with the curtain wall necessary to fill in one bay. For convenience 
in making these estimates, it is assumed the glass is factory ribbed glass cost- 
ing 20 cts. per square foot, including glazing. Steel sash is estimated here at 
25 cts. per square foot, erected and pointed, making a total of 45 cts. per square 
foot for the sash and glass in place. The curtain wall below the sash is figured 
here at 75 cts. per square foot. In making the sketches of the exterior wall 
bay for estimate purposes, no care has been exercised to select stock sizes of 
steel wall sash. In actual practice, however, this is usually of prime impor- 
tance. The cost of the extra floor space occupied by the larger wall column 
has not been considered here as its influence on these particular columns 
would be negligible. 

Concrete Footings. — In the design of concrete footings it often happens that 
it is difficult to decide offhand whether a plain or reinforced concrete footing 
should be used. A design of each type of footing should be made and the 
comparative costs calculated. The engineer knowing the kind of soil these 
footings will rest upon should price the excavation required at a proper figure. 
This is a very important part of the footing cost, in fact, many times the most 
vital part of the estimate for foundation work. In the absence of any more 
reliable information the unit costs of excavation per cubic yard (not over 5 ft. 
deep), may be assumed as follows: 

Loam or other easy excavation $0.75 cu. yd. 

Gravelly earth containing small stones $1 . 00-$l . 50 cu. yd. 

Frozen earth 2 . 25- 2 . 50 cu. yd. 

Rock or ledge excavation 3.50— 4.00 cu. yd. 

Backfill .30- . 50 cu. yd. 

Sheeting around excavated holes for footings. .10 sq. ft. 

For excavation work over 5 ft. deep and down to 10 ft. deep, the unit cost 
on the yardage below the 5-ft. depth should be increased approximately 50 
per cent. The unit price of excavating to a depth exceeding 10 ft. is based on 
the number of times the excavated material must be rehandled before it is 
finally deposited where it may be teamed away or disposed of in some other 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 



1541 



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1542 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



manner. An example is given in Table VIII here with comparative costs for 
the two types of footings, reinforced and plain, shown in Fig. 3, schemes a and 
b respectively. The excavation is assumed as costing $1 per cubic yard to 
remove, and the excavated holes are sheeted close in order to do away with 
form work around the large footing block. 




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Fig. 



(Scheme b). 

-Typical concrete footings. 



Table VIII. — Comparative Estimates for Footings 
Scheme (a), reinforced type (mix 1:2:4): 

Concrete 1 :2:4 460 cu. ft. at 34 cts 

Forms (none) 

Reinforcement 420 lb. at 5 cts. ... 

Excavation 193^ cu. yd. at $1 

Backfill and level 19^ cu. yd. at 30 cts 

3-in. (close) sheeting 182 sq. ft. at 10 cts 



. $156.40 

.. 21.00 
19.25 

5.78 
18.20 

Total $220. 63 

Scheme (b), plain type (mix 1:23^:5): 

Concrete 1 :2H :5 507 cu. ft. at 32 cts $162 . 24 

' - — - . _ ^2 60 

24.00 

8.25 

8.85 

27 . 00 



Forms (top block) 84 sq. ft. at 15 cts. 

Excavation 24 cu. yd. at $1 

Excavation below 5-ft. mark 5H cu. yd. at $1.50. . . 

Backfill and level 293^ cu. yd. at 30 cts. 

3-in. (close) sheeting 270 sq. ft. at 10 cts. . . 



Total $242.94 

The estimates in Table III indicate that the reinforced footing is the most 
economical to use in this case. However, provided stones or "plums" were 
obtainable at a small expense, the cost of the plain footing could be consider- 
ably reduced. It will be noted in the estimates for these two footings that 
the excavation for the plain footing is the determining factor in its cost. The 
materials used in the plain footing cost somewhat less than those used in the 
reinforced type, but the extra depth of the excavation makes the plain type 
the more expensive one to use. This extra cost becomes still greater when the 
footings are placed in w^t or frozen ground, for which excavation costs are 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 



1543 



considerably more. In case the reinforced type of footing is built with a 
sloping top, and a wood form is used for this top, the cost would be about the 
same as though the concrete were placed up to a level with the top of the foot- 
ing, and the form work omitted, as above estimated. In some operations the 
top part of a footing is sloped and the concrete placed "dry." This necessi- 



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(Scheme 2) 
Fig. 4. — Typical beam and girder floors. 

taites a change in the batch, slows up operations and many times does not 
work out economically. For estimating comparative costs of footings it is 
not a safe procedure to assume that the top part of the footing will be placed 
"dry" in order to do away with forms on the slope. Either estimate a form 
for this sloping surface or figure on the concrete as being placed up to a level 
with the top of the footing. 

Concrete Floor. — In the design of the beam and girder type floor, the omission 
or addition of one intermediate beam per bay may influence the cost materi- 
ally. Although this problem is usually handled economically by engineers 
designing concrete buildings which have usual floor loadings and column 



1544 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

spacings, it sometimes happens that when unusual floor loadings and column 
spacings are required, it is necessary for the engineer to determine a layout 
which will show the most economy. In a proposition of this kind it is first 
necessary to make the design which looks most likely to be the economical 
one. Then, two more designs should be made, one having one more interme- 
diate beam and the other having one less intermediate beam. Sometimes the 
girders should be run in other ways and designs made on layouts entirely 
dissimilar. Cost comparisons made of these designs will show conclusively 
which system should be adopted. 

For the purpose of illustrating the methods of estimating beam and girder 
floors with a view to economy, the two schemes shown in Fig. 4 designed for 
the same column spacings and live loads, are estimated in Table IX in a 
comparative way. Only these two layouts are compared here, but other 
layouts should be estimated in a similar manner, bearing in mind that the 
more beams and girders in the floor the more expensive the form work becomes. 

In scaling the quantities for the comparative estimates of these two designs, 
it will be necessary to include all the concrete forms and steel reinforcement 
in one 18-ft. bay for the full width of the building, which is about 67 ft. 8 in. 
In scheme 1 the quantities will include the slab over one complete bay, 7 
intermediate beams, 2 wall beams, and 4 girders. In scheme 2, the corre- 
sponding quantities will include the slab over one complete bay, 11 inter- 
mediate beams, 2 walls beams and 4 girders. In Table IX will be found the 
respective quantities to which unit prices have been fixed and the total com- 
parative cost of one bay for each scheme estimated. 

Table IX. — Comparative Estimates for Beam and Girder Floors 
Estimate, Fig. 5: 

Concrete, 825 cu. ft. at 34 cts $280. 50 

Forms, 1,860 sq. ft. at 13 cts ". 241.80 

Reinforcement, 7,300 lb. at 5 cts 365. 00 

Total $887.30 

(Unit cost, 73 cts. sq. ft. of floor.) 
Estimate, Fig. 6: 

Concrete, 700 cu. ft. at 34 cts $238 . 00 

Forms, 2,000 sq. ft. at 14 cts 280.00 

Reinforcement, 6,300 lb. at 5 cts. . . 315. 00 

Total .• $833. 00 

(Unit cost, 68>^ cts. sq. ft. of floor.) 

In " scaling off" the quantities for comparative estimates of beam and girder 
type floors, care must be taken to carefully consider the laps in the reinforce- 
ment. All steel reinforcement actually occurring in the slab and beams should 
be estimated. In taking off the quantities, also, it will be found most con- 
venient to first get the quantity of concrete, then the square feet of forms and 
lastly the pounds of reinforcement. The order of scaling for the form work 
and reinforcement should be the same as that followed in getting the quantity 
of concrete; that is, if beams follow slabs in the concrete scaling, beam steel 
should follow slab steel in the reinforcement scaling. This method will 
eliminate to a large extent the liability of error, and also lessen the work of 
scaling dimensions since the form areas may be taken directly from the scaled 
dimensions of the concrete work. 

The slight changes in column and footing design which migjit actually occur 
in two buildings designed with floors like those above estimated, have not 
been fconsidered here. However, in buildings several stories in height this 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1545 

phase of the design should be carefully considered in conjunction with the 
cost of floor designs when the cost comparisons are made. Even though the 
spacing of columns remains the same for all schemes considered, the different 
dead loads may influence the cost of the columns and footings considerably 
and the different girder depths may make it possible to vary the overall height 
of the columns in order to get the same clear head room. 

Flat slab floor construction is fast replacing the beam and girder type of floor, 
and generally speaking, has advantages in appearance and economy. How- 
ever, there will be places where the beam and girder system will show a lower 
cost. Where panels between columns are square or nearly so the flat slab 
usually works to advantage. Where columns are spaced unequally or irregu- 
larly it is often more economical to resort to the beam and girder type of 
floor. If the column spacings may be laid out with economy in view, the 
square bay £lnd the flat slab will generally be selected. However, this selec- 
tion should not always be made without a proper check by comparative cost 
estimates. Assume, for instance, that a concrete storage building is required 
the width of which may be anjrwhere from 55 to 65 ft. and sufficient in length 
to give a certain specified area of floor space. The design is to be a flat slab 
system and the building is to be built as economically as possible. The engi- 
neer will usually make a design for a flat slab system with the columns spaced 
at distances he believes will -show economical results. Two more flat slab 
designs should now be made with the column spacings 1 ft. more and 1 ft. 
less, respectively. Comparative costs made on these three designs will show 
the economical standing of the various spacings for the specified live load, and 
if it does not show definitely which spacing to use it will give the hint as to 
which extreme of column spacings the engineer must still continue to design. 
It will be necessary to make typical cross-section designs showing the column 
spacings considered and then calculate the comparative costs of each design 
for a length of building equal to one bay. It is a simple matter to calculate the 
required length of the building for each type of cross section considered in 
order that the proper amount of fioor space be obtained. The total length 
of the various buildings should be calculated to the nearest multiple of the 
length of their respective bays. This being done and the cost of one bay of 
each type of building being already calculated, the total approximate cost of 
each type of building is easily found. Adding to these respective estimates 
the cost of closing in the two extreme ends of the building, the engineer has a 
very good idea of the comparative costs of the designs he has made. 

Unit costs of labor and materials for all classes of building construction are 
constantly changing, and it is hardly to be expected that one whose business is 
not entirely estimating be kept well informed of the many fluctuations. How- 
ever, the designer does not have to use absolute accurate unit costs in order 
to determine by comparative estimates, the relative economic standing of his 
designs. A review of the market conditions from time to time in a general 
way will give him enough information to revise his unit costs in order that his 
comparisons may show more accurately the true status of his work. The 
prices tabulated and used throughout this paper, as before mentioned, are 
much higher than the prices of two or three years ago. It is quite possible 
that two years hence they may undergo another change equally great, and 
the engineer must look out for this and act accordingly. Five years ago the 
ratio of cost of concrete, forms and steel in a building was roughly 2:2:1. 
Today it is about 2:1:1 — that is to say, five years ago the total cost of the 
concrete about equaled the cost of the forms, and the reinforcement equaled 



1546 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



about one-half of the cost of either. Today, the cost of the concrete in a 
building is slightly less than twice the cost of the forms, and the cost of the 
reinforcement is about equal to the form cost. It is quite probable that five 
years from now the ratio may be again changed. 

Items Making up Cost of Concrete Building. — C. E. Patch gives the follow- 
ing data in Engineering and Contracting, July 28, 1920. 



Concrete 

Reinforcing 

Forms 

Engineering 

Cold weather 

Doors and windows 

Plant 

Miscellaneous and extras. . . . 

Excavation 

Carpentry 

Masonry 

Fire main and roof drains . . . 
Miscellaneous iron and steel. 

Overhead 

Superintendence, travel, etc. 

Roofing and flashing 

Liability insurance 

Watchman 

Clean up job. 

Heating and sprinklers 

Plumbing 

Elevators 

Electrical work. 



Percentage 


referred to 




Total cost 


Structural 


including 


cost of 


sub- 


building 


contracts 


24.0 


19.2 


16.0 


12.76 


14.6 


11.8 


5.5 


4.50 


5.2 


4.25 


5.2 


4.15 


4.6 


3.85 


4.5 


3.6 


3.7 


3.05 


3.7 


3.05 


2.5 


2.08 


2.3 


1.95 


2.2 


1.85 


1.56 


1.28 


1.50 


1.23 


1.36 


1.12 


0.62 


0.51 


0.54 


0.45 


0.42 


0.35 


59.7* 


11.20 


15.3* 


2.93 


14.6* 


2.86 


10.4* 


1.98 



* Of total cost of equipment sub-contracts. 

Cost of Reinforced Concrete Power House. — John W. Ash in Engineering 
Record, Jan. 25, 1913, gives the following cost of constructing a powerhouse 
in connection with the waterworks plant at Dalton, Ga. The floor area of the 
power-house, including the filter, covers about 4,650 sq. ft. ; the walls average 
a little over 20 ft. in height, 6 and 8 in. thick, with columns averaging about 11 
ft. on centers. A beam 12 in. square runs around on top of all walls. The 
concrete mixture was 1 : 2>^ : 5. 

Table X. — Power-House Costs 

Excavation, 437 cu. yd. . . ; 

Forms 

Concrete, 315 cu. yd 

Steel, 15,500 1b 

Roof trusses 

Lumber, floors and roof, 19,020 ft. B.M. . 

Wood doors and windows 

Fire-doors, 302 sq. ft 

Coriiposition roof, 5,000 sq. ft 

Pipe connections 

Concrete floor, 2,340 sq. ft 

Reinforced concrete floor, 80 sq. ft 

Handling and placing outfit 

Coal, oil, waste, etc 

Depreciation, repairs .' 

Ventilators and granite slab 

Grand total $5, 184.25 



Labor 


Material 


Total 


$253.80 




$ 253 . 80 


677.80 


$ 182.50 


860.30 


417.20 


1,176.60 


1,593.80 


93.90 


316.90 


410.80 


21.30 


292.50 


313.80 


104 . 60 


387 . 00 


491.60 


87.20 


178.85 


266.05 


29.50 


201.00 


230.50 


30.00 


150.00 


180.00 


25.00 




25.00 


65.10 


145.50 


210.60 


6.50 


14.50 


21.00 


88 90 




88.90 




42.50 


42.50 
78.50 


7.50 


109.60 


117.10 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 



1547 



Cement cost $1.35 per barrel; sand $1.05 per ton; stone $1.43 per ton. 
Labor was $1.35 and $1.50 per day; carpenters $2.25 to $3.50 per day. The 
labor item in the above table includes foremen and superintendence. 

Cost of Constructing a Reinforced Concrete Storehouse. — Civil Engineer, 
E. R. Gayles, U. S. N., in Public Works of the Navy, June, 1916, and in Engi- 
neering and Contracting, Aug. 23, 1916, gives the following: 

The structure was built by contract and consists of a six-story main build- 
ing 100 X 250 ft. and of a one-story crane runway annex 50 X 250 ft. The 
construction is reinforced concrete except the exterior brick curtain walls of 
the main building and the roof of the annex which is steel frame with ferroin- 
clave roofing. 




Fig. 5. — Concreting plant for storehouse. 



Structural Features. — The building has pile foundations designed for a 
loading of 20 tons per pile, penetrating through partly consolidated fiUing 
and alluvial deposits to a fairly flat layer of gravel and sand at a depth of 
about 43 ft. below cut-off. The piles were driven by drop hammers weighing 
2,500 lb. and the slow rate of progress, averaging only 11.4 piles per driver 
per day, gave a striking illustration of the inefficiency of this antiquated 
method of driving. 

The concrete piers were 1:3:6 gravel concrete, chuted into place, the pile 
heads being embedded 6 in. in the concrete. 

The columns were designed for the total dead load plus 75 per cent of the 
live load. The columns are square, 3 X'3 ft. with eight 1^^-in. diameter 
round rods in the first story, diminishing uniformly at each story to 12 X 12 
in. with four ^-in. diameter round rods in the sixth story. At the first story 



1548 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

the longitudinal reinforcement is 1.5 per cent of the effective area, and at the 
sixth story 2.2 per cent. One-fourth inch diameter round hoops were used 
spaced 12 in. apart; the percentage of hooping is as a result very small, and 
the columns were therefore designed as with longitudinal reinforcement only. 

The floors with the exception of the first, which rests on ground, consist of 
slabs and T beams and were designed for loads varying from 400 lbs. per sq. 
ft. on the second floor to 150 lbs. per sq. ft. on the sixth floor. 

Forms. — The forms were made of tongued-and-grooved pine; new lumber 
was provided for forms for three stories, and the same forms were altered and 
repaired for the upper two stories and roof. 

Handling Concrete. — The concrete was hoisted by tower and chuted into 
place. Fig. 5 shows the arrangement of tower and chutes. The consistency 
was such that no spading next to forms was required; in fact, none was possible 
on account of the presence of reinforcing metal. 

External Finish. — A handsome external finish was obtained by applying a 
1 :2 grout with brushes, and rubbing it on with cork floats. In this connection, 
it may be remarked than an exceptionally fine finish has been given the con- 
crete work of the power plant at Indianhead by rubbing the surfaces with 
carborundum bricks and then brushing on grout. This finish would be suit- 
able for large surfaces of concrete walls and entirely avoids the uneven 
splotched appearance of ordinary concrete work, and costs less than }4 ct. per 
square foot. 

Construction Costs. — The wages paid labor was as follows: 

Per hour 

Bricklayers $0 . 67 

Carpenters .55 

Steel erectors .62 

Cement finishers .50 

Plasterers .62 

Common laborers .20 

Concrete. — The total cost of the reinforced concrete, not including finish, 
was as follows : 

Labor... $ 0.76 

Materials. 3 . 08 

Reinforcement 3.89 

Forms 3.07 

Plant 43 

Total... $11.23 

The cost of 1:3:6 foundation concrete was as follows: 

Labor $0.78 

Materials 2. 65 

Reinforcement 60 

Forms 20 

Plant 43' 

Total $4.66 

Materials were received in bottom dump wagons. Labor cost includes 
dumping materials into receiving hopper, handling by bucket conveyor to 
bins, mixing, hoisting into tower, cftiuting, distributing and working into place, 
setting anchor bolts and column dowels. 

The concrete of the first floor was handled by industrial track and tip cars ; 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1549 

including placing track, etc., 2,670 sq. yd. cost $0.81 per square yard for labor 
and material for 6-in. floor without cement finish. 

Reinforcing steel for 5,264 cu. yd. reinforced concrete weighed 1,170,000 
lb., corresponding to an average throughout the building of 8.2 lb. reinforce- 
ment per cubic foot of concrete, or 1.7 per cent, and cost $3.89 per cubic yard 
of concrete, at the rate of $0,475 per pound in place. 

Forms were generally used twice. Forms per 5,264 cu. yd. reinforced con- 
crete cost $17,200, or $3.07 per cu. yd. There were 247,500 sq. ft. of forms 
used in the entire building, costing $0,024 per square foot for labor and $0,045 
per square foot for materials, total $0,069 per square foot of forms in contact 
with concrete. Cement cost $1.10 per barrel net ; sand $0.98, and gravel $1.20, 
per cubic yard. 

Concrete Plant. — This plant placed 7,184 cu. yd. concrete, and cost $8,061.92 
its estimated salvage value is $5,000, making the net cost for plant $3,061.92 
or $0.43 per cubic yard. If the entire cost of the plant is charged into the 
concrete the cost is $1.13 per cubic yard. 

Slab Roof. — The concrete roof of the main building cost, per square foot: 

Concrete 4 inches thick $0 . 047 

Steel reinforcement 026 

Forms 069 

Slag roofing 053 

Total $0. 195 

First Floor. — Total cost of first floor, per square yard : 

Concrete base, 6 inches thick $0.81 

Wood blocks 1 . 17 

Pitch and sand .07 

Total $2.05 

Cost of Concrete in Two Car Houses and a Substation for the Chicago City 
Railways Co, — Engineering and Contracting, Nov. 2, 1910, gives the following: 

The buildings described were built during 1908-9 in Chicago, 111. The 
work was done according to the plans of and under the direction of the Board 
of Supervising Engineers Chicago Traction, Bion J. Arnold, Chairman, and 
George Weston representing the city. Mr. Harvey B. Fleming represented 
on the Board the Chicago City Railways Co. 

The general plans of the Board of Supervising Engineers call for double 
ended car houses divided into longitudinal bays by fireproof partitions. The 
exterior walls are of brick. The columns and walls have concrete footings and 
the floors are of concrete. The pits are open and have concrete walls and 
floors. Between pits the floors are reinforced concrete and the roof is rein- 
forced concrete slab and girder construction with skylights along the center of 
each bay nearly the whole length. 

Sixty-Ninth St. and Ashland Avenue House. — This car house was built dur- 
ing 1908. It is 485 X 26534 ft., divided into six car storage bays and one 
repair bay by six longitudinal partitions. Each bay has three tracks with a 
pit under each track. In the storage bays the pits are all 288 ft. long and in 
the repair bay they are 176 ft. long. The roof construction is shown in detail 
by Fig. 6. The concrete work comprised foundation footings and walls, 
floors, pits, wells and floor and roof slabs and girders. The cost of the con- 
crete work was as follows: 



1550 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 





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BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1551 

For 1,776 ft. of 1:3:6 plain concrete in footings and foundation walls the 
cost including forms was $11,181 or $6.30 per cu. yd. The cost of 380 cu. yds. 
of 1:3:6 concrete in pit walls, including form work, was $3,026, or $7.96 per 
cu. yd. The pit floors, containing 1,287 cu. yds,, cost $9,515 or $7.40 per 
cu. yd. The cost of pit floors per square foot was 13.6 cts. There were also 
12,200 sq. ft. of cement walk and 1,186 ft. of curb. The walks were 43^^ ins. 
thick, of 1:2>^ :5 concrete, with a ^-in. top coat of cement and granite screen- 
ings ; the cost was as follows : 

Item Per sq. ft. 

Materials $0. 056 

Labor 0. 123 

Total $0. 179 

The curbing was 2 ft. deep by 6 in. thick and the cost of 1,186 lin. ft. or 43.9 
cu. yds. was: 

Item Per lin. ft. Per cu. ft. 

Material $0. 127 $ 3 . 44 

Labor 0.390 10.54 

Total $0,517 $13.98 

The cost of 89,935 sq. ft. of roof, including 168 girders, of the construction 
shown by Fig. 6 can be given in more detail. There were in this roof 2,365 
cu. yds. of 1:23^:5 concrete. The cost of concrete materials and labor con- 
creting was as follows: 

Item Per cu. yd. 

5,075 bbls. cement at $1.21 $1 . 57 

1,675 cu. yds. sand at $1.60 1 . 14 

1,635 cu. yds. stone at $1.40 0.96 

Labor concreting 3 . 06 

Total $6.73 

The cost of reinforcing rods and labor placing was as follows: 

Item Per cu. yd. 

329,900 ft. K-in. bar at 1.62 cts • $2. 22 

14,629 ft. H-in. stirrup at 1.84 cts 0. 12 

153,605 ft. K-in. stirrup at 1.75 cts 1 . 14 

Labor on reinforcements 1.18 

Total $4. 66 

The cost of incidentals and labor for forms was as follows : 

Item Per cu. yd. 

91 M. ft. B. M. hemlock at $18 $0.69 

149 M. ft. B. M. pine at $20 1 . 26 

Spikes, bolts and wire 0.21 

Labor on forms 5 . 34 

Total $7 . 50 

Summarizing the above figures and extending them to include cost per 
square foot we have the following: 

Item Per cu. yd. Per sq. ft. 

Concrete $6.73 $0,177 

Reinforcement 4. 66 0. 123 

Forms 7.50 0.197 

Total '. . . . $18.89 $0,497 



1552 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Archer Ave, and Rockwell St. House. — The dimensions of this house are 
309 X 490 ft. and it is divided into seven bays by longitudinal fireproof walls. 
The concrete construction comprises foundation walls, pits and roof of the 
design shown by Fig. 6. 

The foundation walls of 1:3:7 concrete cost for 1,953 cu. yds. as follows; 

Concrete . Per cu. yd. 

1,894.41 bbls. cement at $1.22 $1. 183 

839.79 cu. yds. sand at $1.43 0.614 

1,972.53 cu. yds. stone at $1.54 1.555 

Labor, mixing and placing 1 . 471 

Total concrete $4 . 823 

Forms 

Lumber $0,321 

2 rolls No. 10 wire at $2.23 ■ 

2,000 18-in. form clamps at 4^ cts 

500 26-in. form clamps at 5^ cts 

125 25-in. form clamps at 5>^ cts 0. 134 

500 keys for form clamps at 3 cts 

48 kegs of nails at $2.36 

Labor building and removing 1 . 321 

Total forms. $1,776 

Supplies 

7.65 tons coal at $4.15 

5 gals. cyl. oil at 48 cts 

10 gals. eng. oil at 23 cts 

10 lbs. lubricant at 12 cts 

Total supplies $0,019 

Grand total $6. 618 

The pit tracks are supported by cast iron columns on each side and these 
columns have concrete footings. The cost of these footings which are of the 
usual stepped pedestal type was as follows: 

Item Per cu. yd. 

270 bbls. cement at $1.22 $1,355 

118 cu. yds. sand at $1.40 0.'694 

241 cu. yds. stone at $1.54 1 . 525 

Labor mixing and placing 1 . 867 

Coal and oil . 007 

Total $5,448 

The following was the cost of 211 cu. yds. of concrete in the side and end 
walls of the pits : 

Concrete Per cu. yd. 

235 bbls. cement at $1.22 $1 . 35 

105 cu. yds. sand at $1.43 0.72 

209 cu. yds. stone at $1.54 1 . 52 

Labor mixing and placing 1 . 02 

Total $4.61 

Forms 

16 kegs nails at $2.40 .v; . ;•.-.■ $0. 18 

}i roll wire 0. 05 

Lumber 0.51 

Labor erecting 3 . 06 

Labor removing '. . 57 

Total $4 . 37 

Grand total $8 . 98 




BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1553 

The floor work of the building comprised the floors between tracks for the 
end sections of each bay not occupied by the pits; the floors for store room, 
shops and other service rooms; the pit floors and the reinforced concrete floors 
between pits. All these floors except the reinforced concrete floors between 
pits are the usual concrete basement floor construction: 

End floors (63,630 sq. ft.) Per sq. ft. 

1,684 bbls. cement at $1.22 $0.03 

744 cu. yds. sand at $1.43 0.01 

1,190 cu. yds. stone at $1.54 0.02 

Labor 0.06 

8.45 tons coal at $4.15 0.0005 

32 tons coke at $5.25 0.02 

38 loads manure at $2 0.001 

Oil 0.00006 

Total $0. 14156 

Service floors (11,921 sq. ft.) Per sq. ft. 

239 bbls. cement at $1.22 $0,025 

105 cu. yds. sand at $1.43 0.015 

155 cu. yds. stone at $1.54 . 0.015 

Labor 0.095 

1,380 cu. yds. cinders at 30 cts . 032 

1 ton coal at $4.15 and oil . 0003 

Total $0.1823 

Excluding the cost of cinders we have a cost of 11.33 cts. per sq. ft. 

Ofiice floors (8,793 sq. ft.) Per sq. ft. 

120 bbls. cement at $1.22 $0,016 

53 cu. yds. sand at $1.43 0. 008 

107 cu. yds. stone at $1.54 0.018 

Labor 0.095 

1,010 cu. yds. cinders at 30 cts 0.035 

Coal and oil . 0004 

Total $0 . 1724 

Excluding the charge for cinders we have a cost of 10.58 cts. per sq. ft. 

Pit floors (58,559 sq. ft) Per sq. ft. 

1,377 bbls. cement at $1.22 $0,028 

609 cu. yds. sand at $1.43 . 014 

940 cu. yds. stone at $1.54. > 0.024 

Labor 0.069 

6.675 tons coal at $4.15 

28 tons coke at $5.25 : 0.002 

43 loads manure at $2 . 001 

56 gals, gasoline at 123^ cts . 

Oil 

Total $0. 1422 

Reinforced concrete floors (37,048 sq. ft.) Per sq. ft. 

1,126 bbls cement at $1.22 $0,037 

497 cu. yds. sand at $1.43. . 0.019 

822 cu. yds. stone at $1.54 0.034 

37,048 sq. ft. wire netting at 17 cts 0.017 

Labor on concrete . 061 

Form lumber 0.007 

Labor erecting forms . 061 

Labor removing forms . 010 

7.05 tons coal at $4.15 0.001 

18.05 tons coke at $5.25 0. 002 

23 loads manure at $2 . 001 

Oil 0.0001 

Total $0. 2501 



1554 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The roof construction, as previously stated, was substantially that shown 
by Fig. 1. The cost of 121, 881 sq. ft. or 2,869 sq. yds. was as follows: 



Item Per cu. yd. 

Concrete materials $ 4.11 

Labor on concrete 3 . 58 

Small concrete blocks . 02 

Total concrete $ 7.71 

Form lumber ($9,531.04-$3.321.25 salvage) $ 2. 16 

Butts, washers and nails 0.15 

Labor erecting forms 6 . 69 

Labor removing forms 1 . 64 

Labor moving forms to storage . 21 

Total forms $10.85 

Reinforcement $ 2 . 74 

Wire $ 0.01 

4 kegs round rods . 004 

Labor on reinforcement 1 . 37 

Total reinforcement $ 4 . 13 

Coal $ 0.02 

Cylinder oil . 001 

Engine oil. . 0.001 

Imperial lubricant • • • •. . 001 

Tar paper 0.01 

Manure 0. 008 

Total supplies $ 0. 05 

Grand total $22.74 



This gives a cost per square foot of roof of 53.7 cts. Neglecting the salvage 
in lumber the cost is 56.42 cts. per sq. ft. 

Substation.— The substation was built during the fall and winter of 1908-9. 
The building is of dark pressed brick so designed as to be an ornament to the 
neighborhood in which it is located. The construction is fireproof throughout, 
with tile roof carried on structural steel trusses. 

The building is 60 ft. wide by 120 ft. 7 ins. long over all, and the operating 
room has a clear height of 32 ft. to the under side of the steel roof trusses. 

The concrete work comprises footings for walls and piers, building walls, 
rotary converter walls, basement floor and drives, station floors, partition 
walls and battery shelves. The costs of these various items of work were as 
follows : 



Wall and Pier Footings Per cu. yd. 

234 bbls. cement at $1.21 $ 1 . 32 

110 cu. yds. sand at $1.60 . 82 

197 cu. yds. stone at $1.55 1 . 42 

Labor placing concrete 3.01 

Total concrete $ 6 . 57 

Form lumber $ . 28 

Labor on forms 0.25 

Total forms $ 0, 53 

Grand total $ 7. 10 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1555 

Building Walls Per cu. yd. 

272 bbls. cement at $1.21 $ 1 . 45 

116 cu. yds sand at $1.60 0.83 

187 cu. yds. crushed stone at $1.55 1 . 28 

Labor on concrete 2 . 08 

Total concrete $ 5 . 64 

Lumber for forms $ 1 . 48 

Nails, etc 0. 18 

Carpenter work on forms 2 . 04 

Removing forms . 63 

Total forms $ 4 . 33 

Miscellaneous labor $ . 24 

Grand total $10.21 

Basement Floor and Drive Per sq. ft. 

353 bbls. cement at $1.21 $ 0.08 

146 cu. yds. sand at $1.60 0.04 

91 cu. yds. stone at $1.55 0.03 

Labor placing concrete 0.21 

Labor finishing floor . 05 

Total concrete $ 0. 04 

170 cu. yds. cinders at 25 cts $ 0. 008 

Manure 0.0019 

Miscellaneous materials . 012 

Carpenter labor . 029 

Labor placing cinders, etc 0.11 

Total $ 0. 165 

Grand total $ 0. 576 

Station Floor Per sq. ft. 

286 bbls. cement at $1.21 $ 0.079 

1213^ cu. yds. sand at $1.60 0.045 

108 cu. yds. stone at $1.55 0.038 

Labor placing concrete 0. 160 

Patching floor . 008 

Total concrete ■. . . $ 0. 33 

Lumber for forms $ . 045 

Beam clips . 007 

Bolts 0.010 

Miscellaneous . 010 

Labor building forms ., 0. 460 

Labor erecting forms . 063 

Labor cleaning forms . 026 

Labor removing forms . 065 

Total forms $ 0. 686 

Grand total $ 1 . 016 

The cost of water-proofing 1,040 sq. yds. of foundation walls, footings and 
floors was as follows : 

Item Total 

177 rolls felt at $1 . 30 $ 230 . 10 

39 bbls. tar at $^.80 128.70 

Mops, etc 16.87 

Labor 359 . 90 



'er sq. yd. 


$ 


221 





123 





016 





346 



Total $735.57 $0,706 

None of the above costs include engineering, superintendence or overhead 
charges. 



1556 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Labor rates were the union wage for 1908, which ran about ^s follows per 
hour: Enginemen, 70 cts. ; carpenters, 60 cts. ; finishers, 563^ cts., and common 
labor, 37>^ cts. 

Perhaps the most interesting of the various costs given are those of roof 
work. The character of this work is indicated clearly by the drawings of 
Fig. 6. In one case the unit cost was $18.89 per cu. yd. and in the other case 
$22.74 per cu. yd., and of the total cost about 70 per cent and 50 per cent, 
respectively, and chargeable to form work. 

Labor Cost of Placing Concrete with Tower and Chutes. — W. D. Jones in 
Engineering and Contracting, Dec. 27, 1916, gives the following: 

The work consisted in building a six story and basement warehouse for the 
Harbor Commission of Los Angeles. The structure was 152 ft. wide and 484 
ft. long. The basement was 7 ft. 9 in. high, first story, 14 ft. 6 in. high and 
upper stories 10 ft. high. All materials were furnished by the city f. o. b. 
cars at building site, and contractor was required to unload, sort and shelter 
these in a building provided by the city and be responsible for their incorpora- 
tion in the structure in good condition. 

In the call for bids the approximate quantities were given as follows. 
Opposite each of these approximate quantities is set the unit price bid for the 
performance of this work. 

27 , 000 cu. yds. of concrete in place $ 3 . 25 cu. yd. 

1 ,290 tons of reinforcing steel in place 12. 05 tn. 

75 tons of structural steel in place 11 . 20 tn. 

475,000 sq. ft. floor finish O.OIJ-^ sq. ft. 

Excavating, grading and cleaning up 4 , 098 . 00 lump sum 

Concrete. — The materials used for concrete Portland cement, sand and 
gravel, the latter from 3^ in. to 1 in. in size, in order to work readily through 
the reinforcement, etc. The most of the concrete was a 1 :2:4 mixture, though 
some columns in the lower floors were of a richer mixture in order to reduce 
the size. 

For the con(5rete pouring two Insley steel towers 160 ft. high were placed on 
one side of the building and were provided with hoisting buckets of 24 cu. ft. 
capacity water measure. These were hoisted by 50 h. p. Crocker- Wheeler 
motor driven hoists with a line speed of 150 ft. per minute when pouring the 
lower floors, but when upper floors were reached it was found expedient to 
increase the speed of the hoisting buckets in order that the mixer not be forced 
to wait on the hoist. This was accomplished by rigging hoisting lines in such 
a manner as to connect directly to hoisting bucket with a single line instead 
of passing the line through a pulley on a bucket and fastening the end in the 
top of the tower. This worked a hardship on the hoist, especially the friction 
blocks, but these were watched closely and renewed often and no serious 
consequences were encountered. 

Each tower was equipped with a Bremer mixer having a capacity of 32 cu. 
ft. of loose material, a hoisting bucket of 22 cu. ft. capacity and a 50-ft. boom 
supporting 100 ft. of gravity spout. One extra piece of spout 50 ft. long and 
one about 20 ft. long were also provided and used at each plant when that 
plant was working. 

On either side of the mixer was placed a rock bin and a sand bin each holding 
about 4 carloads of material and dumping directly by gravity into measuring 
bins which in turn dumped by gravity into mixer charging hopper. Directly 
over the charging hopper and between the sand and gravel bins was placed 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1557 

a cement bin. Into this the cement was dumped from sacks and passed by- 
gravity through measuring bins as in case of sand and gravel, to the mixer. 
This method of handling the cement was not found to be as cheap as the old 
method of loading the mixer by cheap labor and was consequently later aban- 
doned. There is no reason, however, that it should not have been successful 
had it been properly operated. 

The sand and gravel bins, as well as the cement bin, when it was used, were 
loaded with an industrial traveling crane equipped with a 13^-cu. yd. bucket. 

The floor finish consisted of equal parts of cement, sand and fine crushed 
rock taken from the ledge and was put on the base before this was thoroughly 
set. This necessitated several changes of system at the mixer during the 
day but by a systematic arrangement of the necessary materials the changes 
were made with hardly a perceptible interruption and the system of pouring 
top and base practically as one monolithic mass worked out as cheaply, if 
not cheaper, than the system of pouring for a day or for a day and a half and 
then topping this out. 

A fair day's work with the above concrete plant on slabs was about 300 cu. 
yd. and on walls and columns was about 200 yd. This varied of course a gr^at 
deal with conditions. In pouring walls and columns it was found expedient 
to run concrete with gravity plant to a hopper centrally located with reference 
to the day's work and distribute from this with carts. On slab pouring, how- 
ever, the gravity chute was used to pour the concrete directly into place and 
very good results obtained. The gravity system was also used to spout the 
floor finish to place. 

Costs. — The actual pouring costs observed on seveial different occasions 
including labor only and taking materials from bins by gravity, measuring, 
mixing and placing were as follows : 

On slab 30 cts. per cu. yd. 

On walls 39 cts. per cu. yd. 

Scale of wages was as follows: 

Foremen, $6; sub foreman, $4; steel men, S2.25; steel men, $3; carpenters, 
$3; laborers, $2.25; laborers, $2. 

Cost of Placing Concrete and Installing Equipment. — In planning for the 
construction of the Austin Nichols Building, Brooklyn, N. Y., according to a 
paper by T. Arthur Smith before the American Concrete Institute, the method 
for placing concrete was carefully considered by the Turner Construction Co. 
who executed the general contract. The following is taken from an abstract 
of Mr. Smith's paper published in Engineering and Contracting, March 31, 
1915. 

The building is 439 ft. 113^ ins. by 178 ft. 8 ins., and is 6 stories high with 
basement, and required about 19,620 cu. yds. of concrete. 

Records of the cost of wheeling concrete on similar buildings showed that 
its cost did not exceed 9 cts. per cubic yard, cost being based on labor at 37 ^ 
cts. per hour. Assuming that, of the total 19,620 cu. yds. of concrete to be 
placed, 16,000 cu. yds. could be placed by spouting, the cost of wheeling would 
be $0.09 X 16,000 = $1,440. Hence $1,440 would have to cover both the 
cost of installing two spouting outfits and the following additional installa- 
tions incidental to placing concrete in this manner: raising tower additional 
height; guying tower; and moving spouts. 

This analysis showed conclusively that, for this building, the cost of the 



1558 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



spouting equipments plus the additional installation cost, would materially 
exceed the cost of wheeling concrete. 

Unloading and Concreting Equipment.— The layout of the unloading derrick, 
storage bins, concrete mixers and hoists is shown in Fig. 7. Sand and gravel 
were delivered alongside the bulkhead, adjacent to the storage bins, on scows 
— about 400 cu. yds. capacity. A derrick equipped with a clam-shell bucket 
of 1^8 cu. yds. capacity unloaded the contents of these scows into storage 
bins holding 100 cu. yds. of sand and 200 cu. yds. of gravel. 

The derrick was operated by a Meade-Morrison three-drum standard 
hoisting engine having 9 X 10-in. cylinders and a rated capacity of 35 h. p. 
For swinging the derrick a separate engine was installed. Power was supplied 
by a 50-h. p. horizontal boiler. 



5' Drum Hoist. (^^ \ 




■-^59'-lli- 



Fig. 7.-^Plan showing unloading, mixing and hoisting equipment — Austin 
Nichols Building. 



The sand and gravel were discharged from the bins through "Ransome** 
gates, into " V " bottom, two-way dump cars for delivery t* the mixers. Each 
car was loaded with 12 cu. ft. of sand and 24 cu. ft. of gravel, a steel partition 
separating these materials. 

One car was used to convey the materials to mixer No. 1, and was pushed 
by hand from the storage bin to the mixer. For charging mixer No. 2 a 2-ft. 
6-in. gage double track was laid from the bin to the mixer, on which two cars 
were operated, one on each track. These tracks were laid on the first floor, 
which, in order to follow the grade of North Third St., sloped down 8 ft. from 
Kent Ave. to the river. A double-drum, motor-driven "Lidgerwood" hoist 
pulled the cars from the bin to the mixer. These cars were connected by a 
tail line operating around a sheave at the bin, so that the loaded car going 
toward the mixer would pull back the empty car to the bin. 

Owing to the limited bulkhead space at the building it was necessary to 
dock the cement lighters one block away and to truck the cement to the 




BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1559 

building. The cement was stored adjacent to each mixer, six bags being used 
in each batch. 

Two 1-cu. yd. "Ransome" mixers were installed in the locations shown in 
Fig. 7. Each mixer discharged into a 1-cu. yd. " Ransome " bucket, which was 
hoisted by a single-drum "Lidgerwood" hoist. Power for the operation of 
each concrete plant was furnished by a 75-h. p. motor. The concrete was 
dumped from the bucket into a 2-cu. yd. box on each floor, from which it was 
wheeled in carts. 

The derrick used was capable of unloading 700 cu. yds. of material per day 
of eight hours. The average capacity of each concrete plant was 45 cu. yds. 
of concrete per hour. The largest quantity of concrete placed in one day of 
SH hours was 1640 cu. yds. In 62 working days, 17,510 cu. yds. were placed 
an average daily output of 282 cu. yds. 

The efficiency of the equipment for conveying materials from the bins to the 
mixer was demonstrated when, due to a slight breakdown, the derrick was 
idle for one day. In order to keep one mixing plant in operation, the sand 
and gravel were wheeled from emergency storage piles on North Third St. 
Charging one mixer in this manner required 22 additional men, and reduced 
the output of the plant to about 30 cu. yds. per hour. 

In order not to delay the progress of the work it was necessary that the rein- 
forcing steel be placed immediately after the completion of the forms. This 
required that work in the steel yard be so systematized that the bending and 
fabrication of steel would be sufficiently in advance of requirements to prevent 
any delay in the work. 

Beam and girder bars were bent in the " Wilson" bender at an average rate 
of 125 per hour, while the capacity of the "Wilson" stirrup bender was 4,000 
stirrups per day. 

The total labor cost for installing all equipment used in the erection of the 
building was 20 cts. per cubic yard of concrete. It must be borne in mind, 
however, that this cost does not cover any charge either for materials or for 
the use of plant, depreciation or interest on equipment investment. 

Cost of Mixing and Placing Concrete by Hand. — Concrete mixed and placed 
by hand in a 6-in. wall, with experienced labor, in Riverside, Cal., during 1909 
cost $1.19 per cu. yd. An itemized account of the cost of the work is given 
by C. W. Gaylord in "Cement and Engineering News." The crew was as 
follows: 

1 foreman at $ 3 per day $ 3 . 00 

2 men at $2.25 per day 4.50 

8 men at $2 per day : 16 . 00 

Total $23.50 

This crew averaged 12 batches per 9-hour day, each batch containing 1.7 
cu. yds., or 20.4 cu. yds. per day. This amount included 84 sacks of cement, 
9.8 cu. yds. of sand and 19.6 cu. yds. of 13^-in. stone. This is over 2 cu. yds. 
per man per day and is above the average. The work was divided as follows : 

Per cu. yd. 
Loading on wheelbarrows: 

Sand, 0.46 cu. yds. at 10 cts $0.05 

Stone, 0.92 cu. yds. at 15 cts 0. 14 

Total $0. 19 



1560 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

. Per cu. yd. 

Wheeling to mixing board and dumping in measuring box: 

Cement (all handling) $0 . 04 

Sand, average haul 30 ft . 02 

Stone, average haul 50 ft . 05 

Total $0.11 

Mixing : 

Sand and cement (2 turnings) $0.12 

Mortar and stone (3 turnings) .27 

Total $0 . 39 

Loading into wheelbarrows $0.17 

Wheeling to place (av. haul 55 f t. ) . . 06 

Dumping, spreading and ramming 0.11 

Supervision (}ri foreman's time) 0.10 

Care for water . 02 

Total $0 . 46 

Grand total 1.15 

Adding cost of mixing boards and divided by number of yards mixed with 
each board gives: 16 X 16 ft. boards 500 ft. B. M. at $40 per M. divided by 
500 equals $0.04. Adding this we get a total cost of $1.19. 

Cost of Stucco Finish for Concrete House (Engineering and Contracting, 
Sept. 25, 1918.) — Data on the stucco finish for the walls of a concrete house 
built in 1917 in Darien, Conn., are given as follows by M. D. Morrill in 
Concrete: 

The stucco jBnish was put on in a single coat about J4 in. thick, applied 
with a plasterer's trowel. The walls were not wet down, but all dry dust was 
removed. The wall surface was left smooth by the steel forms, and it was at 
first questioned if there was not danger that this thin coat of stucco would 
eventually peel off. Experience, however, seems to prove the contrary, and 
on a considerable number of buildings finished in this way six years ago there 
is no sign of the separation of the stucco. It appears to be a permanent as 
well as a rather inexpensive way to finish these steel molded concrete walls. 
After this stucco was troweled on and had been allowed to stand a few minutes, 
the surface was gone over lightly with a cork float. A little water was thrown 
on with a brush, as needed, while the surface was being floated. 

In order to get at the exact cost of this wall finish, the time and material 
used on finishing a surface of 142 sq. yds. was kept, no allowance being made 
for openings. 

Labor and Material, 142 Sq. Yd. of Stucco 

3^ day, 3 masons, at $4.80 for 8 hours. $7 . 20 

3^ day, 2 helpers, at $3.00 for 8 hours 3 . 00 

}4 day, 2 carpenters, at $4.50, scaffolding 4 . 50 

Total labor $14.70 

2bbls. cement at $1.92 $3.82 

1 yd. sifted sand at $3.00. 3 . 00 

Total materials $ 6.82 

Total $21 . 52 

The total cost of finishing these walls was thus between 15 cts. and 16 cts. per 
square yard. 

Relative Cost of Ditferent Slab Designs. — The following studies relate to 
dififerent systems proposed for the floors of the buildings of the Massachusetts 
Institute of Technology, as abstracted in Engineering and Contracting, June 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1561 

9, 1915, from a paper by Sanford E. Thompson presented before the annual 
meeting (1915) of the American Concrete Institute. The long-span concrete 
slab construction proved most economical, when the total cost of concrete, 
steel, and making of forms was considered. Designs and estimates were made 
for the following cases: 

Case I. Panel with no intermediate beam; slab 15 ft. 6 ins., solid concrete 
construction. 

Case II. Panel with one intermediate beam; slab 7 ft. 9 ins. 

Case III. Panel with no intermediate beam; slab 15 ft. 6 ins., with tile. 

In Table XI there is summed up the relative costs for the three cases. It is 
evident that the cost of forms is the important factor, completely upsetting 
the conclusions that would be drawn from the relative costs of materials actu- 
ally used in the slab. 

Economics of Concrete Columns (Engineering and Contracting, June 19, 
1912). — ^Leonard C. Wason, President of the Aberthaw Construction Co., 
Boston, states that in one case the saving of concrete by reducing the size of 
columns on successive floors was $2.30 per column. On the other hand, the 
increase in form cost was $5.70 per column, entailing a loss of $3.40 per column. 
This is a very good example of why it is cheaper to use the same size columns 
on successive floors than to reduce the dimensions. To avoid fre uent changes 
in column sizes the column reinforcement may be varied in successive stories. 

Unit Costs of a Brick and Concrete Building (Engineering and Contracting, 
Nov. 16, 1910). — The Sanitarium at Battle Creek, Mich., was built in 1902 at a 
cost of about $1,000,000. It is a fireproof building with brick walls and rein- 
forced concrete floors. The building is 600 ft. long and 400 ft. deep. It is 
seven stories high at one end, but the slope of the ground makes it only six 
stories at the other end. The accompanying tables of costs were furnished 
by John McMichael, who did the work on a percentage basis. 

The material for construction was hauled in wagons from switch tracks 
about four blocks distant. Teams for this purpose were hired at $4 per day. 

The following table gives the cost per cubic yard of concrete footings. 
The concrete was mixed by hand on a board which was shifted along to save 
wheeling of the mixed concrete. The sand and gravel was bought by the 
load, mixed, and was dumped at various points convenient to the board. 

Per cu. yd. 
Materials: 

Cement, 1.1 bbls $1.40 

Gravel and sand . 07M 

Gravel and sand hauling , . 50 

Total materials $1 . 975 

Labor: 

Carpenters $0.18 

Common labor . 68 

Total cost of labor $0 . 86 

Total cost of labor and material $2. 833'^ 

This does not include superintendence. Carpenters received 35 cts. per 
hour and laborers 20 cts. 

Rubble Stone Masonry. — The foundation walls were laid up with boulder 
stones taken from the old buildings. These are much harder to lay in founda- 
tion walls than any other class of stone masonry. The item $6.42 is the cost 
of wrecking the foundations of the old buildings to get the stone from them. 



1562 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 






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1564 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The costs are given per cord of masonry in place. One cord is equal to 100 

cu. ft. as here considered. 

Per cord 

Materials: 

Stone $ 6 . 42 

Sand . 0. 57K 

Cement, l^ebbls 2.25 

Total material $ 9 . 245 

Labor : 

Masons $ 1 . 82>^ • 

Common 3 . 04 

Total labor , $ 4 . 865 

Total labor and material $14 . 1 1 

Masons received 40 cts. per hour and laborers 20 cts. The amount of stone 
laid per mason per 8 hours was 1% cords. 

Brick Work. — The total amount of brick in the building is about 5,250,000, 
of which about 1,250,000 are pressed brick used for the exterior and for trim- 
mings. About 60 bricklayers were employed during the main part of the 
work. Three of the Thomas Elevator Co.'s double brick hoists were used for 
elevating brick and mortar. The costs given are per thousand of brick laid. 
The number of common brick laid per 8-hour day per man was 2,400. 

Materials : Per M brick 

Common brick f. o. b. Chicago $ 4 . 00 

Freight 2 . 68 

Hauling 0. 78 

Sand . 57M 

Lime (4 bu.) 1 . 06 

Hauling lime 0.16 

Total materials '. $ 9 . 25^ 

Labor: 

Masons $ 1 . 65 

Common labor 1 . 82 

Total labor. $ 3 . 47 

Total labor and material $12. 723^ 

Masons received 50 cts. per hour and common labor 20 cts. 

Shawnee Buff Pressed Brick were used for the exterior. The number of 
pressed brick laid by each mason per 8-hour day was 480. The cost of pressed 
brick work was as follows: 

Materials: Per M brick 

Pressed brick per M f.o.b $11 . 00 

Freight 5. 50 

Hauling 0.95 

Sand 0. 573^ 

Lime (3 bu.) 0.91K 

Mortar color (buff) 1 . 82 

Cement 0.45 

Bonds (wire cloth) . 57 

Total material per M $21 . 78 

Labor: 

Masons ; $ 9 . 43 

Common 6 . 40 

Total labor $15.83 

Total labor and material $37 . 61 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 



1565 



Masons for pressed brick work received 55 cts. per hour and common 
laborers 20 cts. 

For trimmings, Gray pressed brick were used. The cost of this work was as 
follows : 

Material: , Per M brick 

Cost of gray pressed brick f .o.b $14 . 00 

Freight 6 . 50 

Hauling 0.95 

Sand 0. 57M 

Lime (3 bu.).- 0.913^ 

Cement 0.45 

Mortar color (lampblack) 0.18 

Bonds (wire cloth) . 85 



Total material $24 . 42 

Labor: 

Masons $ 9.45" 

Common 6.41 



Total labor $15 . 86 



Total labor and material per M $40. 28 



V 




Concrete 



Columns 



S•^^•-/|->k-- 



10(a) 20-5i''204-8z"- 

150--0-- 

(a)FIoor Plan 



N-< — I- 



—*i*23'-Zs->', 



Galv Iron Louvres- 
S*— - 4" Concrete Slab 




Fig. 8.- 



c'ii djh ct±> ti 

-Reinforced Concrete Footings. 
(b) Half Cross Section (o Half South Elevation 



^tC. 



-Floor plan, half cross section and half south elevation of car storage 
house of Omaha & Council Bluffs Street Railway Co. 



The time required for executing the entire work was about six months. 

Costs of a Reinforced Concrete and Brick Car Storage House. — W. L. 
Fulton in Engineering and Contracting, July 14, 1915, gives following: 

The structure, an extension of the existing car house, was built to provide 
additional storage space required by the Council Bluffs lines. The outside 



1566 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

dimensions of the building are 101 ft. 5 ins. by 250 ft. The offices, lobbies, 
club rooms, repair pit, etc., were provided for in the original building. 

Brick and reinforced concrete were adopted as materials of construction. 
As the building was to be used only for the storage of cars, and therefore the 
usual clear space between cars not required, a row of columns was placed in 
each space between tracks, the resulting short spans effecting a considerable 
saving in cost. Fig. 8 gives the general dimensions and indicates the type of 
construction used. 

Excavation. — The earth excavated from the footing trenches and pits was 
either back-filled or was distributed over the surface of the ground ; no earth 
was hauled away. The total amount excavated was 233 cu. yds., and the 
total cost was $51.70, or 22.2 cts. per cubic yard. Laborers were paid 20 cts. 
per hour. 

Hauling Materials. — The cars of building materials were set on a steam rail- 
way siding about K mile from the building site. Materials were hauled to 
the site in flat-bottom wagons of about 1-cu. yd. capacity. The teams stood 
idle while wagons were being loaded and unloaded, and the drivers helped in 
foading and unloading. At the building, the sand and stone were dumped on 
the ground, the brick was piled, and the cement was carried by hand into the 
storage shed. Table XII gives unit costs of hauling, the quantities of mate- 
rials being as follows: Stone, 393 cu. yds. ; sand, 124 cu. yds. ; brick, 36,000, and 
cement, 470 bbls. 

Table XII. — Unit Costs of Hauling Materials 
Rate per 
Item hour Stone Sand Brick Cement 

Driver and team $0.40 $0.18 $0.20 $0.61 $0.03 

Labor 0.20 0.05 0.03 0.33 0.02 

Totals $0.23 $0.23 $0.94 $0.05 

Laying Brick. — The walls were 13 ins. thick. The pilasters, which were 9 X 
26 ins., were built as indicated on the floor plan.- Common brick, laid in 
mortar composed of "Carney's" bricklayers' cement and sand (mixed 1:2), 
was used. The mortar was mixed by machine, and the brick and mortar 
were conveyed to the masons in wheelbarrows. The costs given in Table XIII 
cover the laying of 42,700 bricks. 

Table XIII. — Unit Costs of Laying Brick 

Rate Cost 

Item per hour per M 

Foreman $0.75 $0.97 

Building scaffolds * 0. 25 0. 36 

Masons 0.675 4.28 

Masons' tenders . 225 . 92 

Mortar mixer 0.225 0.26 

Totals $6.79 

Form Building and Demolition. — (a) Forms for Walls Below Grade. — The 
total length of these walls was 600 ft. and their height 4 ft. 6 ins. Pilasters 
9 X 26 ins. were built, as indicated. 

The forms were built in sections and were used three times. They con- 
tained 5,000 ft. B. M. of lumber. The forms for the pilasters were made of 1- 
in. lumber, and the remainder of these forms was built of 2-in. lumber, cleated 
together into sections. 




BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1567 

The unit costs of the forms for walls below grade are given in Table XIV. 

Table XIV. — Cost Data on Building and Moving Forms for Walls Below 

Grade 

Cost per M ft. Cost per cu. yd 
Item Ft. B. M. B. M. of concrete 

Form building 5,000 $6.20 $0.25 

Moving forms 15,000 8.10 0.98 

Totals...'. $14.30 $1.23 

Form Building and Demolition. — (b) Forms for Columns, Beams and Roof 
Slab. — The column boxes were built of 2-in. planks, set vertically and clamped 
together. In the beam boxes the bottoms were of 2-in. planks, and the sides 
were of 1-in. shiplap. The floor of the slab forms was also of 1 X 8-in. shiplap. 
The forms were supported by the column boxes and by 4 X 4-in. shores set 
below the beam bbxes and about 5 ft. apart. The joists under the slab forms 
were 2X6 ins , 16 ins. center to center, and they extended from beam box to 
beam box. The ends of these joists were supported by 2 X 4-in. cleats 
extending down the sides of the beam boxes to the bottom of the same, from- 
whence the load was carried directly to the shores. 

The forms were used twice, and they contained 50,000 ft. B. M. of lumber. 
The parts were framed (cut and shaped) on the ground.* The forms were built 
in place, and were put together in sections. Each section was about 6 ft. 
long, including the floor of the slab forms between the two-beam boxes, to- 
gether with the adjoining sides of these boxes. A batter of 3^ in. was given 
to the sides of the beam boxes. It was the intention of the contractor to 
remove the forms in sections by lowering them from between the concrete 
beams, on the assumption that the batter given to the sides of the beam boxes 
would be sufficient to allow for their removal in this manner. When it was 
attempted to take down the forms, however, it was found that it was impossi- 
ble to remove them in sections. It was therefore necessary to tear them to 
pieces, and to erect them again in their new location. 

The only labor cost saved, therefore, was the cost of framing the parts a 
second time. 

The costs for this work are given in Table XV. There were 533 cu. yds. of 
concrete enclosed by these forms. Carpenters were paid $0.45 and helpers 
$0.25 per hour. 

Table XV. — Cost Data on Framing, Erecting and Demolishing Forms 
OF Columns, Beams and Roof Slab 
Framing 50,000 ft. B. M. 

Item Carpenters Helpers Total 

PerMft.B.M 6.95 0.24 7.19 

Per cu. yd. of concrete. . 0. 65 0. 02 0. 67 

Erecting 100,000 ft. B. M. 

PerMft.B.M 10.43 1.07 11.50 

Per cu. yd. of concrete 1 . 96 0. 20 2. 16 

Demolishing 100,000 ft. B. M. 

PerMft.B.M 3.35 2.78 6.13 

Per cu. yd. of concrete 0.63 0.52 ' 1. 15 

Assembling and Placing Steel Reinforcement. — ^All of the steel reinforcement 
was shipped to the job already bent and cut to length. Beam reinforcement 
was assembled into units, one per beam, before shipping. Column reinforce- 
ment was assembled on the job. All reinforcement, except the top reinforc- 
ing bars in the roof slab, was put in place and wired before any concrete was 
placed. The top reinforcing bars in the roof slab and the reinforcing bars in 



1568 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

the column footings were placed by the concrete workers, and the cost of same 
is included in the cost of the concrete work. 

The quantity of reinforcing steel in the various portions of the building is 
as follows : 

Pounds 

In column footings 3 , 000 

In columns 12 , 500 

In roof slab, main reinforcement 52 , OOO 

In roof slab, top reinforcement 26 , 000 

In beams 27,000 

The costs of assembling and placing the steel reinforcement (except as 
noted above) are given in Table XVI these costs covering 91,500 lbs. of steel 
and 533 cu. yds. of concrete: 

Table XVI. — Costs of Assembling and Placing Steel Reinforcement 

^ost per cu. yd. 
Rate per hour Cost per 100 lbs. of concrete 

Foreman $0.45 $0,096 $0,166 

Laborers 0.25 0.137 0.235 



Totals $0,233 $0,401 

Mixing and Placing Concrete. — The concrete in the floors and walls up to the 
floor level (including footings) was wheeled from the mixer to the forms in 
wheelbarrows and poured at the floor level. The concrete in the roof and in 
the portion of the columns above the floor level was discharged from the mixer 
into wheelbarrows, which were hoisted to the roof level in a double-cage 
building elevator and wheeled to place over runways laid on the roof forms. 
All concrete was mixed in mixers of the batch type. All stone and sand were 
wheeled to the mixer in wheelbarrows loaded by hand. The costs of this work 
are given in Table XVII. 

Table XVII. — Cost Data on Mixing and Placing Concrete in Various 
Parts of Structure 

Rate per Cost per 

Item hour cu. yd. 
Walls and Footings; 163 Cu. Yds. ; Dist. Wheeled 75 ft. 

Foreman $0.40 $0.04 

Wheeling sand, stone, concrete . 20 . 63 

Placing concrete . 0.25 0.06 

Attending mixer. 9. 25 0. 08 

Totals $0. 81 

Column Footings and Columns Up to Floor Level; 66 Cu. Yds.; A v. Dist. 

Wheeled, 85 ft. 

Foreman $0.40 $0.22 

Wheeling sand, stone, concrete . 20 . 70 

Placing concrete 0. 35 0. 21 

Attending mixer 0. 25 0. 20 

Totals $1.33 

Columns Above Floor Level, Beams and Roof Slab; 467 Cu. Yds.; Av. Dist. 

Wheeled, 90 ft. 

Foreman $0.40 $0.21 

Wheeling sand, stone, concrete 0. 20 0. 67 

Placing concrete 0. 35 0. 17 

Attending mixer 0. 25 0. 12 

Operating elevator . 20 0.10 

Totals $1.27 

Estimating Brick Work. — The following is given by I. P. Hicks in the 
National Builder. 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1569 



w 

^m Brick, as made by different manufacturers, vary in size, and, of course, 
^f there is sure to be more or less variations in the actual quantities required 
for certain jobs; the variations depending upon the size of the brick and the 
size of the mortar joints made in laying the brick. For common brick we 
will assume the average size to measure 83^ X 4 X 23^ inches and that the 
wall is to be laid up with a ^-in. mortar joint. 

For this kind of a wall figure 6 brick to each square foot for every 4-in. 
thickness of wall. Thus, for a wall 4 inches thick, figure 6 brick per square 
foot; for an 8-inch to 9-inch wall, figure 12 brick per square foot; for a 12 to 
13-inch wall, figure 18 brick per square foot; for a 16 to 17-inch wall, figure 
24 brick per square foot and so on, adding 6 brick for each 4-inch thickness 
of wall. 

To be very accurate in the number of brick required, deduct the brick 
required for all openings. In small foundation work, where there are only a' 
few small cellar window openings, it is hardly worth while to deduct the open- 
ings, but for the main windows and doors in a brick building, it becomes 
necessary to deduct the brick for the openings, otherwise the result would be 
far too many brick. 

Brick Footings. — Brick footings, based on steps or offsets of 2 inches, may 
be estimated by the lineal foot, as follows: For a 9-inch wall, 2-course footing, 
lOK brick; 13-inch wall, 3-course footing, 22 >^ brick; 18-inch wall, 4-course 
footing, 39 brick; 22-inch wall, 5-course footing, 60 brick; 26-inch wall, 6- 
course footing, 85 3^^ brick. 

Press Brick. — For a standard size of press brick we will assume the following 
dimensions: S}i X 4 X 23^ inches, and the mortar joint to be 3^ inch. This 
will require 7 brick per square foot for every 4-inch thickness of wall. 

Lump Lime Mortar.— The quantity of material required to lay 1,000 brick 
with a ^^-inch joint, using 1 to 2 lime mortar, composed of 1 part lime putty 
to 2 parts sand, will be 1^ barrels of lump lime and ^^ -cubic yard of sand. 

Hydrated Lime Mortar. — For mortar composed of 1 part hydrated lime and 
2 parts sand, figure 63^ 50-pound sacks of hydrated lime and ^^ -cubic yard 
sand per 1,000 brick. 

Cement Mortar. — For 1 to 3 cement mortar composed of 1 part Portland 
cement and 3 parts sand, figure 5 sacks of cement and ^ -cubic yard of sand 
per 1,000 brick, with a ^^-inch mortar joint. Approximately 23^ bags of 
cement iand 3^ of a cubic yard of sand will be required if laid with about a yi- 
inch joint. 

Cement and Lime Mortar. — Figure 1 sack of Portland cement, %-barrel of 
lump lime and ^i-cubic yard of sand per 1,000 brick laid in the wall with a 
^-inch mortar joint. 

Estimating Brick For Chimneys (The sizes given are inside of flue 
measure.) 

8X8 flue, 24 brick per lineal foot. 

8 X 12 flue, 28 brick per lineal foot. 
12 X 12 flue, 32 brick per lineal foot. 
12 X 16 flue, 36 brick per lineal foot. 
16 X 16 flue, 40 brick per lineal foot. 

8X8 double flue, 40 brick per lineal foot. 

8X8 and 8 X 12, two flues, 44 brick per lineal foot. 

8 X 12 double flue, 48 brick per lineal foot. 

8 X 12 and 12 X 12 two flues, 52 to 56 brick per lineal foot. 

Chimney breasts for fireplaces and mantels require 90 to 110 bricks per 
lineal foot the height of the chimney breast, Where the chimney is reduced 
99 



1570 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

in size above the breast, figure according to the size and number of flues from 
there to the top as given above. These figures should enable one to arrive at 
a very close figure as regards the number of brick required. In the above 
figures no allowance has been made for any waste in brick and it would be 
proper to allow a small percentage for broken and wasted brick. If the brick 
are of good quality, 3 to 5 per cent ought to cover all the waste in handling 
and laying. 

Labor Cost of Laying Brick. — The labor cost of laying brick varies according 
to the wall, the bond and the kind of mortar joint made. Common brick laid 
with common bond and plain cut joints: a bricklayer, with one tender, should 
lay 1,100 brick per 8-hour day, using cement mortar, and 1,350, using hme 
mortar. 

For walls laid in common bond with struck joint one side and plain cut 
joint on the other side, figure 1,000 brick per 8-hour day, using cement mortar, 
and 1,200, using lime mortar. 

For face walls laid up with selected common brick in common bond and 
struck joints, figure 950 brick per 8-hour day, using cement mortar, and 1,000 
for lime mortar. 

For face walls laid with selected common brick in common bond with V- 
shaped mortar joints, or with joints raked out, figure per 8-hour day, 900 brick, 
using cement mortar, and 950, using lime mortar. 

Face walls laid up with press brick or face brick where there are panels and 
pilasters, figure 350 to 400 brick per 8-hour day. 

For plain walls laid up with press or face brick, figure 700 to 800 brick per 
8-hour day. 

Figure laborer's time same as bricklayer's time where there is but one 
bricklayer working; if two bricklayers are working, figure }4 hour laborer's 
time to 1 hour of bricklayer's time. 

Costs of Masonry and Carpenter Work for a Church Building. — Engineer- 
ing and Contracting, Nov. 30, 1910, gives the following costs taken from the 
records of the contractor, John McMichaels. 

The building was a brick masonry and timber structure constructed at Oak 
Park, 111. The work involved rubble masonry foundation walls, concrete 
footings, brick masonry and timber roof, floors and finish. 

Rubble Masonry. — The foundation walls were of rubble masonry about 
one-fifth of the stone from which were taken from the walls of the old church. 
The cost per cord of masonry (100 cu. ft.) was as follows: 

Total per cord 
Materials: 

81 cords ■$ 619.08 

100 bbls. Portland cement 170. 37 

Total material $ 789.45 $ 9.734 

Labor: 

841^ hrs. masons at 50 cts $ 420. 58 

5253^ hrs. helper at 30 cts. 157. 55 

296.hrs. helper at 25 cts 73.97 

103 hrs. helper at 20 cts 20. 60 

16 hrs. helper at 15 cts 2.40 

Foreman 75. 80 

Timekeeper 21 . 69 

Water boy '. 12. 37 

Night watchman . 60 

Total labor $ 785. 56 $ 9. 698 

Grand total.... $1,575.01 $19,432 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1571 

Assuming 5 cu. yds. to the cord of masonry the cost was $3,886 per cu. yd. 
About 1 2-5 bbls. of cement were used per cord and 1 cu. yd. of sand. Sand 
was taken from the excavation and is included in labor. It required 105.25 
man days to lay 81 cords which is a rate of nearly 0.77 cords per man per day. 

Concrete Footings. — A number of small concrete footings in the basement 
cost for mixing and placing as follows : 

395 hrs. labor $103.49 

Foreman 39 . 20 

Water boy 7.16 

Timekeeper 6. 36 

Night watchman 0.15 

Total $156.36 

There were 2,400 cu. ft. or 88.9 cu. yds. of concrete in the footings; this 
gives a cost per cubic yard for mixing and placing of $1.77. 

Brick Walls. — The brick building walls averaged 30 ft. in height. All 
material was carried in hods. The cost of common brick work was as follows 
per 1,000 brick: 

290K M common brick at $5.70 $1,653.30 

340^ bbls. lime at 45 cts 153. 63 

42% bbls. Louisville cement 24 . 95 

23 bbls. Portland cement 40. 00 

200 cu. yds. sand ; . . 100.00 

Total material $1 ,971 . 88 

1 , 328K hrs. masons at 50 cts $ 664. 25 

1,837K hrs. helpers at 30 cts 551.21 

1 , 628K hrs. helpers at 25 cts 407 . 06 

51 hrs. helpers at 20 cts 10. 20 

10 hrs. helpers at 17K cts 1 . 75 

652 hrs. apprentice at $9 per week 122. 40 

Water boy 3 . 34 

Foreman 176.43 

Timekeeper 47.65 

Night watchman 43 . 75 

Total labor $2,028.04 

From these figures the cost per 1,000 brick was as follows: 

Materials $ 6. 99 

Labor . 6.79 

Total $13.78 

The number of bricks laid per man per day was 800 ; the rates of helpers' 
labor to masons' labor was 2% hours to 1 hour; IK bbls. of cement were used 
per 1,000 brick. 

Nailing Strips. — The cost of placing nailing strips in cinder concrete floor 
was as follows : 

2, 915 ft. B. M. 2 X 4 in. by 16 ft. at $15.50 per M $45.74 

423^ hrs. labor at 42^ cts 8. 29 

36 hrs. labor at 25 cts 9 . 12 

Foreman 2.75 

Timekeeper • • • • . 50 . 

Total - $66.40 

Thecostper M. ft B. M. was $22.77. One man laid 149 ft. B. M. per hour. 
The cost per 100 sq. ft. of floor was as follows: 

Material. $1 . 50 

Labor 0.70 

Total $2.25 



1572 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

First Floor Girders. — The costs of the first floor girders was as follows: 

3, 147 ft. B. M. 10 X 10 in. Y. P. at $20 $62. 94 

66 hrs. carpenters at 42>^ cts 28 . 04 

Foreman 1 . 50 

Timelceeper 1 . 50 

Watchman 1.00 

Total $94. 98 

These girders were pitched for an inclined auditorium floor and one man 
laid 48 sq. ft. per hour. The cost per M. ft. B. M. was as follows: 

Material $20. 00 

Labor 10.18 

Total $30. 18 

First Floor Joists. — The cost of laying 2 X 10-in. and 2 X 12-in. joists 
pitched to an incline for an auditorium floor was as follows : 

15, 062 ft. B. M. yellow pine joists $247.49 

239K hrs. carpenters at 42^ cts 101 . 54 

4 hrs. labor at 25 cts 1 . 00 

Foreman 22.92 

Total $372. 95 

One man laid 63 sq. ft. per hour. The cost per M. ft. B. M. was as follows: 

Material $16. 50 

Labor 8.33 

Total $24.83 

Timber Roof. — The timber roof comprised trusses, valley rafters and purlins. 

Lumber: 

15, 428 ft. B. M. lumber $332. 14 

20 hrs. unloading at 45 cts 9 . 00 

34 hrs. unloading at 25 cts 8. 50 

1>^ hrs. unloading at 30 cts 0.45 

Total $350.09 

Framing Trusses: 

333 hrs. carpenters at 42^ cts $141 . 39 

Foreman 62. 40 

Timekeeper 7 . 08 

Night watchman 7.00 

Total $217 . 87 

Raising Trusses: 

132M hrs. at 50 cts $ 66.25 

30 hrs. at 30 cts 9 . 00 

35K hrs. at 25 cts 17.82 

48 hrs. at 42>^ cts 20. 37 

Iron foreman 36 . 00 

Foreman 9 . 00 

Timekeeper 1 .00 

Total $159.44 

Valley Rafters: 

54>^ hrs. labor at 42K cts $ 23. 16 

Waterboy 1.45 

Total $ 24.61 

Purlins: 

136^^ hrs. at 42>^ cts $ 57. 18 

Foreman 4 . 40 

Timekeeper '. 1 . 00 

Watchman : 1.00 

Total $ 63. 58 

Grand total labor $483, 45 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1573 

Summarizing we have the following cost per M ft. B. M.: 

Material $21 . 53 

Labor 31 . 34 

Total $52. 87 

The cost of material and labor for rafters was as follows: 

13, 674 ft. B. M. at $16.85 $229.45 

339K hrs. carpenter at 421^^ cts 143 . 84 

Fpreman 20. 05 

Timekeeper 5. 50 

Night watchman 4 . 60 

62K hrs. labor at 25 cts 15. 62 

Total $419.06 

These totals give the following cost per M ft. B. M. 

Material $16.85 

Labor 13.86 

Total $30.71 

The work amounted to 40 ft. B. M. per man per hour. 
Bridging costs for materials and labor $3 per M ft. B. M. of joists. 
Boarding Roof. — The cost of covering the roof with 1 X 6-in. D. & M. floor- 
ing was as follows: 

15, 400 ft. B. M. lumber $252. 80 

228 hrs. carpenters at 42K cts 97 . 88 

12 hrs. labor at 25 cts 3 . 00 

Fweman 18 . 64 

Timekeeper 4 . 00 

Watchman 3.75 

Total $380. 07 

This gives a cost per M. ft. B. M. as follows: 

Material $16. 00 

Labor 8.26 

Total $24.26 

Ceiling in Rafters. — The cost of beaded out circling securing rafters was as 
follows: 

9 000 sq. ft. ceihng. $315. 00 

235H hrs. carpenters at 42 >^ cts 100 . 07 

35 hrs. labor at 30 cts 10 . 50 

Foreman 13 . 20 

Timekeeper 2 . 00 

Watchman , 2 . 00 

Total $442.77 

These totals give the following costs per M ft. B. M.: 

Material $41 . 00 

Labor 14.20 

Total $55.20 

The amount of ceiling placed was 38 sq. ft. per man per hour. 



1574 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Flooring. — The cost of 2 X 6-in, D. & M. flooring was as follows: 

14, 414 ft. B. M. lumber $227 . 58 

101 K hrs. carpenters at 42>^ cts 43 . 05 

56 hrs. labor at 25 cts 14 . 00 

Foreman 19 . 00 

Timekeeper 2 . 00 

Total $305. 63 

These totals give the following costs per M ft. B. M.: 

Materials $15 . 50 

Labor 5 . 42 

Total $20.92 

About 143 sq. ft. of flooring was laid per man per hour. 

Summarizing the cost of carpenter work per unit we have the following: 

Floor strips in cinder concrete $ 7 . 00 per M. ft. 

First floor girders 10. 18 per M. ft. 

First floor joists 8 . 33 per M. ft. 

Truss timbers and valley rafters 31 . 34 per M. ft. 

Rafters 13.86 per M. ft. 

Roof boarding 8 . 26 per M. ft. 

Flooring 5 . 42 per M. ft. 

Ceiling 14 . 20 per M. ft. 

Cost of Carpenter Work on a Frame Residence. — Engineering and Con- 
tracting, Nov. 30, 1910, publishes the following data furnished by the con- 
tractor John McMichaels. 

The costs are calculated per thousand ft. board measure of lumber used in 
the construction of a residence at Chicago Heights, 111., in 1905. Union 
labor, at 60 cts. per hour for carpenters, was used: 

Frame timber $ 6 . 00 

Bridging (per M. ft. of joists) 3 . 00 

Rough floor and roof boards 6 . 32 

Sheathing 10. 40 

Siding 20. 00 

Floors maple 3-in 14 . 00 

Floors Y. P., 3-in . 12.00 

Ceiling Y. P.. 3-in 14.00 

Erecting the millwork cost 50 per cent of the value of the material. 

Unit Costs of Carpenter Labor on Four Two-Story Frame Flats. — In Engineer- 
ing and Contracting, Dec. 14, 1910, John McMichaels gives the following. 
The costs are for labor per thousand feet board measure of lumber with union 
labor at 60 cts. per hour. The buildings were each two stories in height and 
were 21 ft. 6 ins. wide by 34 ft. in depth: 

Frame timber $10. 90 

Bridging (per M ft. of joists) 3 . 00 

Sheathing 8. 36 

Shingles 2.22 

Siding 14. 57 

Flooring, Y. P 15.00 

Flooring, maple 15. 00 

The millwork was bought by board measurement and was made up on the 
job. The carpenter work for making up and setting the millwork cost 58 
per cent of the cost of the material. 

Labor in Different Types of Work in Constructing Frame Houses. — The 
data given in Table XVIII are derived from a table given by Leroy K. Sher- 
man, President of the U. S. Housing Corporation in Engineering News- 
Record Feb. 5, 1920. 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 



1575 



Unit 
Quantity 


Labor Output 
Unit Quan- 
tities Per 
Hour 


Cu. yd. 
Cu. yd. 
Cu. yd. 
Cu. yd. 
Cu. yd. 
Sq. ft. 


0.50 
0.333 
1.47 
0.625 
0.20 
10.00 


Cu. yd. 
Sq. ft. 
Sq. ft. 
Cu. ft. 
Lin. ft. 
Sq. yd. 


0.167 
31 25 
50.00 

5.00 
12.50 

2.666 


Sq. yd. 
Lin. ft. 
Sq. yd. 


11.3 
28.3 
1.693 


1666 B." M 


25.00 
0.0219 


100 sq. ft. 


2.75 



Table XVIII. — Hourly Labor Output for Building Construction 



Item Kind of labor 

Excavation (general) Common 

Excavation (trench) Common 

Backfill and grading Common 

Cinder fill, no cement Common 

Plain concrete Common 

Forms for concrete 1 . . . . Carpenter and 

Laborer's time IK carpenters / common 

Concrete floor, cellar 

Top dressing Common 

Waterproof painting Mason 

Drainage cellar floor Common 

Flue lining Mason 

Plastering (interior) 1 Mason and 

Laborer's time % plasterers j common 

Lathing Lathers 

Corner beads Lathers 

Plastering (exterior) 1 Mason and 

Laborer's time K plasterers j common 

Plaster board Carpenter. 

Lumber and carpentry 1 . . . Carpenter and 

Laborers time equal carpenters / common 

Roofing, slate 1 Roofer and • 

Laborer's time ^ roofers / common 

The rates given above are based upon the experience gained in construct- 
ing a large number of houses. 

Unit Hour Basis for Estimating Carpenter Work (Engineering and Contract- 
ing, Sept. 28, 1921.) — The Quantity Survey Bureau of the Master Carpenters' 
Association, with the co-operation of several members, has compiled the 
following tables for use in figuring the cost of carpenter work. 

Unit 
Working 
Hours 
Material per M ft. 

Boards 16 

do 14 

Cut betw. Joists. 24 

D & M Floor... 25 

Sheathing 18 

Siding 46 

do 33 

Mitered 50 

Siding 37 

D & M Floor. . . 30 

D & M Floor. . . 25 

D & M Floor. . . 20 

Drop Sidg 28 

Drop Sidg 25 

Face Maple or 

Oak Flooring. . 80 
Face Maple or 

Oak Flooring. . 45 
Face Maple or 

Oak Flooring. 40 

Bridging 60 

Add for Planing 

or Scraping Fig. 

Maple 50% 

Oak 80% 







Unit 








Working 








Hours 




Size 


Material 


per M ft. 


Size 


2 X4" 


Studs 


32 


1 X 6" 


2 X4" 


Rafters 


39 


1X8' 


2 X4" 


Partitions .... 


54 


1X8' 


2 X5" 


Studs 


31 


1 X4" 


2 X5" 


Rafters 


37 


1 X 6" 


2 X 5" 


Partitions 


48 


1 X4" 


2X6' 


Studs 


30 


1 X6" 


2X6" 


Rafters 


36 


1 X4" 


2 X 6" 


Partitions 


.. 46 


1 X 6" 


2 X 6" 


Joists 


26 


1^" 


2 X8" 


do 


. . 24 


2X4' 


2 X 10" 


do 


21 


2 X 6" 


2 X 12" 


do 


19 


1 X 6" 


2 X 14" 


do 


17 


1 X8" 


3 X8" 


do 


. . 19 


W 


3 X 10" 


do 


18 




3 X 12" 


do 


17 


2" 


3 X 14" 


do 


16 




3 X 4" 


Sleepers. . . . . . 


40 


2H' 


Furring 


On wood 


110 






Brick 


240 


W X3 


1 X2" 


Tile 


360 






Concrete. . . 


600 




1 X3' 


Bridging 


75 




4 X 6—8 X ^ 


Timbers 


24 




8 X 10—12 


X 12do 


22 





1576 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



The " unit hours " shown in the third and last columns represent the number 
of working hours which in the opinion of the committee are required to frame, 
put in place and finish 1,000 ft. of the various kinds of lumber shown in other 
columns. By multiplying the actual quantities required for a job by the 
number of "unit hours" the total number of "work hours" are obtained and 
the latter are then multiplied by the current wage rate. 

Relative Cost Types of Deep Foundations. — I am indebted to J. H. Thorn- 
ley for the following matter. 

Where loads are excessively heavy or the bearing value of the surface soil 
unusually low, spread footings must be replaced by one of the following types 
of deep foundation. 

The table indicates the effect of various governing factors on the compara- 
tive economy of the different types. 

The types are given approximately in order of cost per ton of bearing value. 
That is, if the nature of the proposed work is such that the " Conditions indi- 
cating use" would show either type "A" or type "B" to be applicable, then 
type "B" would usually give the cheaper foundation. 



Objections to Use 

1. Extremely high cost. 

2. Slowness. 



Type Conditions Indicating Use 

"A" 1. Very heavy concentrated 

Compressed Air loads. 

Caissons. 2. Water or water bearing 

material to be penetrated. 

3. Rock or material of 
almost equal bearing value 
within 100 feet approximately. 

4. Work sufficiently exten- 
sive to warrant heavy installa- 
tion costs of the necessarily 
elaborate plant. 

Remarks: Load capacity of finished pier calculated on basis of column to rock. 



"B" 
Open Ended Steel 
Pipe Concrete 
Filled Piles. 



1. Rock within 40 pile diam- 
eter (60' for an 18 '' pile). 



1. Danger of occurrence 
of large boulders or other 
obstacles which may make 
blowing out of pile im- 
possible. 



2. Material to be penetrated 
of low bearing value. 

3. Pile to be entirely below 
finished ground level. 

4. Loads fairly heavy and 
concentrated, 50 tons or more 
per column. 

5. Piles to be placed in 
cramped quarters, e.g., between 
shorings. 

6. Material to be penetrated 
easily jetted; sand silt or muck. 

7. Work sufficiently exten- 
sive to warrant the installation 

- of the compressor plant neces- 
sary for blowing out of piles. 

Remarks: Load capacity calculated on basis of supported column to rock. 
Within forty diameters (New York building code allows 500 pounds per square 
inch on concrete section and 7500 pounds per square inch on steel section, less 
He inch steel allowed off for rust). 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 



1577 



Closed Ended 
Steel Pipe Con- 
Crete Filled 
Piles. 



1. Load fairly heavy and 
concentrated 40 tons or more 
per column. 



2. Permissible load per pile 
not arbitrarily restricted by 
local building code. Load al- 
lowed according to test or 
formula. 

3. Material to be penetrated 
of some frictional bearing 
value. 

4. Length of piles uncertain. 

5. Heavy boulders or other 
debris liable to be encountered 
before reaching desired pene- 
tration. 

6. Small number of piles 
only required necessitating low- 
plant installation charge. 

7. Limited headroom for 
driving. 

8. Enclosed quarters in 
which driving must be done 
making blowing dangerous. 



1. Larger sizes of pipe 
only available at a few 
places in the country. 
Pipe is bulky to ship and 
heavy to handle. 



Pre-cast Concrete 
Piles. 



1. Site covered by water. 



2. Ground through which 
piles driven such as to permit 
of jetting, — sand, silt or muck. 



3, Accurate advance knowl- 
edge as to the driven depth of 
piles required to support load. 



1. Difficulty of ascertain- 
ing the lengths of pile which 
will be required to develop 
a given refusal and, there- 
fore, a given load capacity. 
In case of driven piles the 
last piles of a large pier 
will sometimes be only half 
the length of the first piles 
when driven to the same 
refusal. Piles in different 
parts of the foundations of 
the same building often 
vary from one half to 
double the length of the 
average pile. Except 
where borings show a level 
strata of rock or other firm 
bearing material, borings 
form only an approximate 
method of ascertaining the 
probable length of a pile. 
The wastage due to cut off 
of precast piles often makes 
this system of piling ex- 
tremely expensive. 

2. It is necessary to cast 
the pile at least 28 days 
before it is driven which 
means a serious delay in 
starting work on a rush job. 

3. The percentage of 
breakage in handling and 
driving precast piles is 
sometimes high. 

4. Piles fractured in driv- 
ing may not show up until 
they are under load. 



1578 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Open Caissons or 
Caisson Piles. 



1. Large concentrated loads. 



1. Danger of striking 
quicksand or unexpected 
springs. 

2. Slower method 
driven piles. 



than 



Float F o u n d a 
tions. 



2. Little or no water in 
material to be penetrated. 

3. Rock or material of high 
bearing value within thirty 
feet. 

Remarks: Load capacity of finished pier or pile calculated either on basis of 
column to rock or on basis of bearing value of bottom material if not rock. 
"F" 1. No. safe bearing strata 1. Uncertainty, 

within economical reach of 
piHng. 

2. Surface material liable to 
flow but practically non- 
compressible when contained. 

3. No danger of future exca- 
vation occurring in close 
enough proximity to the foun- 
dation to cause flow of the sub 
soil. 

4. No likelihood of change in 
the local water table which 
might result in drying out and 
consequent shrinkage of sub 
soil. 

5. A uniformly distributed 
load. 

6. A surface sub soil of 
homogeneous material giving 
uniform bearing value. 

Note: So called float foundations are often merely cases of a spread footing 
extending under the entire building. The term "float foundation" as here used 
means a foundation on material which would flow under the building load if 
not contained. 



Wooden Piling. 



"H" 
C a s t-i n-p lace 
Concrete Pil- 
ing. 



1 . Piles to be wholly below 
ground water level, or if in open 
water to extend above the 
low water level only to such an 
extent that the part above 
water level will not become 
dried out. (This extension 
above low water level will vary 
according to climatic condi- 
tions.) 

2. Comparatively light loads 
or uniformly distributed loads. 

3. Water conditions such as 
to permit of cut oS at time 
of driving without sheeting 
and pumping. 

4. Assurance that the water 
table will not be lowered either 
by climatic changes over a 
period of years or by artificial 
changes such as sewers, sub- 
ways or canals. 

1. Load sufficiently concen- 
trated to give 20 tons or more 
per pile. 

2. Surface soil of sufficient 
bearing load value to carry a 
land pile driving rig. 

3. Probable length of pile 
under 50'. 

4. Speed required. 

5. Load concentration not in 
excess of 63^ tons per square 
foot. 



1. Where piles are driven 
through strata of small 
bearing value to hard pan 
or rock practically all of the 
load must be taken in end 
bearing which may result in 
end crushing or column 
failure. The liability to 
column failure becomes 
serious in long piles if they 
are not absolutely straight. 

2. In driving in soil con- 
taining boulders or in 
driving to a rock bearing 
there is always danger of 
cracking and end booming. 



1. Cannot be 
through water. 



driven 



BUILDING CONSTR UCTION 1579 

Note: Where the water table coincides closely with the bottom of the column 
bases avoiding either expense for pumping and sheeting or the building of a deep 
cap from cut off to column base, wooden piles will usually be cheaper than cast- 
in-place concrete piles unless the loads are large and concentrated. 

There are numerous other special types of piles and caissons which have been 
designed to meet unusual conditions. Such, for example, are the steel screw 
piles and automatic caissons in which the digging is done by water jets or other 
purely mechanical means. 

It is not intended to be understood that all conditions shown in the "Condi- 
tions Indicating Use" column should be expected in any particular instance. 
Sometimes the importance of one condition may overshadow all others. For 
example, where cast-in-place piles may be otherwise the obvious solution 
a lack of head room for a driver and apparatus may force the use of steel pipe pile. 

Cost of Caisson Foundation for a Building in Chicago. — The following is given 
in Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 22, 1913. 

The foundations were built during the summer of 1913 and consisted of 
40 wells sunk to rock. Owing to the nature of the sub-soil it is unnecessary 
to use compressed air and the small amount of water encountered was 
removed by buckets. 

The usual crew for a 5-ft. well was one digger, one man at the niggerhead, 
one dumper and enough wheelers to remove the excavated material. Usually 
one wheeler could handle the excavation from two wells, where the haul did 
not exceed 100 ft. and the runway was in good condition. 

The first set of lagging placed consisted of 3 X 3-in, pieces, 6 ft. long, three 
rings being used for the initial set. After the caissons were topped, platforms 
were built of 2-in. plank, with a 2-ft. square hole at the center of each caisson, 
and on these platforms the tripods were erected. Each tripod carries a shaft, 
on one end of which was an 18-in. sheave and on the other end an 8 X 10-in. 
niggerhead. Directly over the center of the caisson was placed a block, 
suitable for a 1-in. Manila rope. This rope supported an iron bucket, 22 ins. 
in diameter and 24 ins. deep, which was used for hoisting the excavated mate- 
rial. Power was supplied by a hoisting engine, conveniently located, having 
a bull wheel on a stub shaft. A ^^-in. cable passed over this wheel and also 
over each of the sheaves at the caissons. Ten wells were operated from one 
hoisting engine, and the cable would last on an average for two set-ups. 

Progress of Caisson Work. — The caisson work was carried on continuously 
in three shifts of eight hours each, except for a four weeks' lockout. During 
the lockout, the only men employed were two foremen, two timekeepers, a 
superintendent, an assistant superintendent, and a night watchman. The 
excavated material for a depth of from 50 to 55 ft. below city datum consisted 
of the typical soft blue clay which could be excavated with a spade. For the 
next 10 to 15 ft. the material was dry and required grubbing; the following 15 
ft. was hard-pan, which was removed with some difficulty; while the last 3 
to 5 ft. consisted of water-bearing sand and gravel. In most cases it was nec- 
essary to remove some disintegrated rock from the surface of the bed-rock. 
Large boulders, which required blasting, were often encountered. For about 
the first 56 ft., 3 X 6-in. lagging, 4 ft. long, was used, and for the remaining 
distance, about 26 ft., 2 X 6-in. lagging, 5 ft. 4 ins. long was used. The 
wrought iron rings were 3X3^ ins. in section, made in two parts, with flanges 
for the connecting bolts. 

Arrangements were made with the Chicago Tunnel Co. to receive the exca- 
vated material, which was discharged through its station at Madison St. and 
the river. A chute was dug from the tunnel to the basement level of the site, 
into which the material was dumped, and by it was conveyed by gravity to 
the cars. 



Shift (8 hrs.) 


Ft. 


1 


6 


2 


14 


3 


21 


4 


27 


5 


35 


6 


41 


7 


46 


8 


50 


9 


54 


10 


55 


11 


57 


12 


59 


13 


62 


14 


65 


15 


68 


16 


72 


17 


77 


18 


80 


19 


81 



1580 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Table XIX shows the actual progress made by each eight-hour shift for 
two 5-ft. diameter caissons. It is seen that the progress for each caisson was 
practically the same for each shift. 

Table XIX 

Caisson No. 14. Depth each Caisson No. 15. Depth each 

shift shift 

Ins. • Ft. Ins. 

6 

13 10 

2 20 10 

4 27 4 
7 35 7 

5 41 5 

7 46 7 

10 50 10 

8 53 3 
8 55 4 
8 58 7 
8 58 7 
5 60 4 
5 64 2 
8 66 3 

11 69 10 
4 76 2 
2 80 9 
8 82 3 

Cost Data. — The total excavation for caisson No. 14 was 59.4 cu. yds., the 
total labor cost for excavating and for placing the lagging was $328.70, 
making a cost per cubic yard of $5.53. For caisson No. 15 the excavation 
was 59.8 cu. yds., the total labor cost was $328.70, and the labor cost per cubic 
yard was $5.50. 

The total pay roll for all work done in connection with the excavation of the 
site and the digging and concrete of the wells was $23,468.50. This did not 
include the cost for shoring materials, for electrical work, or for the engineer- 
ing work, which required the services of three men two days out of every three. 
The following scale of wages per hour was paid: Common laborers, 40 cts., 
niggerhead men, 50 cts.; diggers, 57>^ cts.; lagging boss, 60 to 70 cts.; rigging 
foreman, 65 to 75 cts.; foreman, 75 cts.; and engineers, 75 cts. 

With conditions such that the excavating operations consisted of excavating, 
pulling and wheeling, the cost per shift (with the overhead charges properly 
distributed), when ten wells were being excavated at the same time, averaged 
about $17.30 per well. This gives a cost of $51.90 per day per well, or $519.00 
per day for the ten wells. These costs include the necessary labor for unload- 
ing and piling the lagging and rings, and practically all items connected with 
the actual work done on the caissons. It does not, however, include the dis- 
posal of the excavated material (after dumping into the chute), the cost of 
shoring materials, or the concreting of the caissons. 

Concreting of Caissons. — The M-yd. motor-driven mixer was mounted on a 
platform, placed at the level of the street. The concrete materials were stored 
in the street, and the concrete was, in most cases, spouted to the caissons. For 
some of the more distant wells, however, the concrete was wheeled in buggies. 
When it was possible to keep the mixer in continuous operation, a gang of 22 
men could mix and place about 100 cu. yds. per shift of eight hours, at a labor 
cost of shghtly less than $1.00 per cubic yard. The labor cost, even with 
intermittent running seldom reached $1.25 per cubic yard. The concrete was 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1581 

poured in at the top of the caisson and was permitted to fall to the bottom. 
A mixture of one part Portland cement, three parts torpedo sand and five 
parts 1-in. crushed stone was used for the caissons. 

A Comparison of the Cost of Concrete and Wood Piling. — Philip J. Kealy, 
in Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 25, 1911, gives the following: 

In the erection of a large industrial shop in the Chicago district during the 
summer of 1910, a pile foundation was necessary and the question as to the 
kind of piling arose. The building site was on filled ground, near a river, with 
the ground water line approximately 14 ft. below grade, and the piling 
depended largely on skin friction for bearing power. 

A proposal was made to furnish concrete piles at $1 per ft. but wood piles 
were selected because they could be secured at 23 >^ cts. per ft. in place. The 
piles were designed to carry 20 tons each and the number of piles varied from 
4 to 9 under each pier. The contractor was allowed 12 cts. per ft. for each 
foot followed. 

Driving. — The following is the cost data on the pile driving operation: 

Total piles driven, approximately 1 , 250 

Total linear ft. driven, approximately 50,000 

Total linear ft. followed, approximately 6,000 

Actual cost of pile (to company) per foot driven 25. 15 cts. 

Actual cost of one pile (driven) $10. 21 

The piles were driven during July and August. 

Sawing Off Heads. — The piles were cut with a cross cut saw about 4 ft. 
long worked by two men who received 35 cts. per hour each. The heads were 
hoisted out by a three-leg derrick and single block, six men being required to 
hoist up and dispose of them. These laborers received 25 cts. per hour. 
Water existed in many of the holes which varied from 12 to 15 ft. in depth. 
The average cost to cut off each head, get it out of the hole and dispose of it 
was 38 cts. The unit cost varied from 17K cts. to $1.35. 

Excavation. — The cost per cubic yard for excavation was $2, which price 
included backfilling. The pier holes were in many instances full of water, 
entailing pumping, sheeting was necessary to prevent caving, double and triple 
casting of dirt was frequently required and much of the material handled was 
slush, so that the price per yard was not excessive. The amount of excava- 
tion required for various size piers and the cost per pile was as follows: 

4 piles 6 X 6 X 14.5 = 19.3 cu. yds. at $2 = $38.60, or $9.65 per pile. 

5 piles 6.5 X 6.6 X 14.5 = 22.7 cu. yds. at $2 = $45.40, or $9.08 per pile. 
7 piles 7 X 7 X 14.5 = 26.3 cu. yds. at $2 =$52.60, or $7.51 per pile. 

9 piles 7.5 X 7.5 X 14.5 = 30.2 cu. yds. at $2 = $60.40, or $6.71 per pile. 

The majority of the piers rested on the smaller number of piles so that the 
average cost of excavation per pile was $8.61. 

Concrete Caps and Piers. — The coat of the concrete work in the piers was 
$5.40 per cu. yd., the contractor furnishing all materials and forms. From 
the detail drawings the cubical contents of the piers are found to be as follows: 
4 pile, 6.3 cu. yds.; 5 pile, 6.8 cu. yds.; 7 pile, 8.0 cu. yds.; and 9 pile, 8.7 cu. 
yds. At $5.40 per yd. the cost of the concrete work in place was as follows: 



4 pile 6.3 cu. yds. at $5.40 = $34.02 or $8.50 per pile. 

5 pile 6.8 cu. yds. at $5.40 = $36.72 or $7.34 per pile. 
7 pile 8.0 cu. yds. at $5.40 = $43.20 or $6.17 per pile. 
9 pile 8.7 cu. yds. at $5.40 = $46.98 or $5.22 per pile. 



1582 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The average price per pile for the concrete cap and the pier from cap to 
footing grade, was $7.15. 

Recapitulation. — From the foregoing figures the following table smnmarizing 
the cost of a pile in the various size piers is obtained : 

Cost per mile 

Item 4 pile 5 pile 7 pile 9 pile 

Driving and following $10.21 $10.21 $10.21 $10.21 

Sawing heads . 38 . 38 . 38 . 38 

Excavating and backfill 9 . 65 9 . 08 7.51 6.71 

Concrete 8.505 7.34 6.17 .5.22 

$28,745 $ 27.01 $ 24.27 $ 22.52 
4 5 7 9 

Cost of completed pier $114.98 $136.05 $169.89 $202.68 

Concrete Piles. — Numerous tests have shown that where the loading is 
supported by skin friction, a short tapering concrete pile will sustain as great 
or greater a load than a long wood pile and for that reason it was proposed 
to use 24 ft. piles on this work had concrete piles been selected. In tests made 
in just such soil conditions as existed in this case, it was demonstrated that the 
concrete piles could stand from two to three times the loading, without settle- 
ment, that the wood piles could carry, but in order to be conservative 50 per 
cent greater loading is assumed for a comparative basis of cost. The cost of 
a 4 pile cluster (assuming same loading as on wood piles) of concrete piles 
would be: 

Piling, 4 at $24 $ 96. 00 

Excavation for cap at 2 cu. yds. at $1.00 2. 00 

Concrete in cap 2 cu. yds. at $5.40 10. 80 

$108.80 

Assuming 50 per cent greater bearing power, piles to be driven on 2 ft. 
centers, the cost of a 4 pile cluster would have been: 

Piles, 3 at $24.00 $72. 00 

Excavation, 2 en. yds. at $1.00 2 . 00 

Concrete cap, 2 at $5.40 10. 80 

$84.80 

This is a saving of approximately 26.5 per cent of the initial cost of the wood 
piles. Upon the same premises, the cost of the different size piers would have 
been as follows : 

Cost of Concrete Pile Piers 

Number of wood piles 4 5 7 9 

Cost of concrete piles $72.00 $96.00 $120.00 $144.00 

Cost of excavation 2.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 

Cost of cap 10.80 10.80 16.20 16.20 

Total cost $84.80 $108.80 $139.20 $163.20 

A comparison of the cost of the complete wood pile piers necessary to take 
care of the same loading, with the concjete piles and the per cent saving in 
initial cost in favor of the latter is shown in the following table: 




II 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1583 

Size of Wood Pile Piers 

4-pile 5-pile 7-pile 9-pile 

Concrete 84.40 108.80 139.20 163.20 

Wood 114.98 135.05 159.89 202.68 

Per cent saving in initial cost 26.4 19.45 18. 1 19. 5 

It is evident from the above figures that a saving of over 20 per cent of the 
initial cost of the foundation work would have been effected by the use of 
concrete piles, under the conditions which existed on this job. This saving 
is brought about by avoidance of expensive excavation and deep concrete 
piers necessitated by the wood piling and would be approximately the same 
percentage in the nine-pile cluster, as it is in the four-pile. 

On further analysis, it would appear that where the ground-water line is 
8 ft. or more below grade, the initial cost of the foundation work below grade 
would be less if concrete piles were selected in preference to wood, although 
the cost of concrete piles would be $1 per foot and wood piles 25 cts. per foot 
driven. 

Output of Steam Pile Drivers on Foundations of the Field Museum of Natural 
History. — Engineering and Contracting, Nov. 24, 1915, gives the following : 

The concrete piers of this building are supported on clusters of wood piles. 
These piles are 60 ft. long, of Georgia pine, and are almost perfectly straight. 
They are 9 ins. in diameter at the tip, and vary from 15 to 22 ins. in diameter 
at the butt, averaging about 18 ins. The total number of piles required is 
9,320. Pile driving was begun July 29, 1915, and 8,100 piles had been driven 
up to Nov. 10. Three steam drivers, equipped with 70-ft. leads, are being 
used for this work. As the piles are cut off at elevation — 1 ft. 9 ins. (the eleva- 
tion of the pier bases being — 2 ft. 6 ins.) it is necessary to use followers in all 
cases. The piles are driven through from about 16 to 25 ft. of clay fill, 
through a thin stratum of wet sand, then through from 20 to 30 ft. of soft blue 
clay, into strata of stiff to hard blue clay and gravel. All piles are driven 
practically to refusal at these depths. With the exception of about two weeks, 
during which time it was impossible to secure delivery of piles on account of 
floods in the South, pile driving has continued without interruption. 

Each driver has averaged from 30 to 35 piles per day of ten hours, the pile 
driving crew consisting of 7 men, in addition to those whose duty it is to pre- 
pare the piles for driving and to bring them to the driver. 

Cost of Pedestal Concrete Piles. — Fig. 9, and the following explanation, 
describing the method of forming pedestal piles, are given in the official 
Bulletin, Investigating Committees of Architects and Engineers. 

1. A core and cylindrical casing are first driven to the required depth. 

2. The core is now removed and a charge of concrete dumped to the bottom 
of the casing. 

3. The core is now placed on the charge of concrete and the casing is raised 
to permit the forming of the pedestal. 

4. The core is now used as a rammer, to compress this concrete into the 
surrounding soil. The process, is repeated until the base is as large as can be 
formed under the compression caused by the action of a Vulcan steam hammer. 

5. The enlarged base being completed, the casing is fiUed to the top with 
concrete and is then removed with the core and hammer (approximately 6 tons) 
resting on the concrete. 

6. The final step is to withdraw the cylindrical casing from the ground. 
The completed pedestal pile, consisting of a monolithic concrete column 16 



1584 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



inches in diameter surmounting a broad base or pedestal, is thus left in the 
ground. 

The following summaries, of cost and working conditions on two typical 
jobs where pedestal concrete piles were used, were prepared by J. H. Thornley, 
chief engineer, MacArthur Concrete Pile & Foundation Co. 




* 2 3 4 5 6 

Fig. 9. — Sections showing steps in forming pedestal piles. 



1. Location of Job: West Orange N. J. 

2. Owners: Ward Baking Company 

3. Contractors for whom work was done: John W. Ferguson Company, 
Paterson N. J. 

4. Number of piles in job: 463 

5. Average length: 12 feet 

6. Piles in groups of: 7 and 8 

7. Distance between piers: 16 feet one way — 23 feet one way 

8. Pile centres: 3 foot inches 

9. Soil conditions: Sand and large boulders 

10. Remarks: Very hard driving — worst possible conditions 

11. Total footage: 5,563 

12. Total Cost: $9 503.00 

13. Cost per foot of pile: $1.71 

14. Wages paid: Foreman $52. 25 a week 

Engineers 52 . 25 a week 

Pile driver Men 1 . 00 an hour 

Concrete Labor . 72 an hour 

15. Cost of Material: $2.93 per barrel of cement 

2.75 per cu. yd. of sand and gravel aggregate. 

1. Location: of Job: Clifton, Staten Island 

2. Owners: Pouch Terminal Company 

3. Contractors for whom work was done: Turner Construction Company of 
New York 

4. Number of piles in job: 757 

5. Average length: 22.8 feet 

6. Piles in groups of : 10 to 21 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1585 

7. Distance between piers: 20 feet both ways 

8. Pile centres: 2 foot six inches 

9. Soil conditions: Clay and sand 

10. Remarks: Moderate to hard driving. 

11. Total footage: 17,282 

12. Total Cost: $24 140.00 

13. Cost per foot of pile: $1.40 

14. Wages paid: Foreman $52. 25 a week 

Engineers 52 . 25 a week 

Pile driver men 1 . 00 an hour 

Concrete labor . 78 an hour 

15. Cost of Material: $2.85 per barrel of cement 

2.75 per cu. yd. of sand and gravel aggregate 

Mr. Thornley states, that under average conditions and vsrith wage rates 
as shown, the average price per foot, for driving and forming complete approxi- 
mately 500 pedestal piles, would be as follows: 

Wages per 8-hr. day 

Foreman $10.00 

Engineer 9 . 00 

Pile driver men 7 . 00 

Concrete labor 3. 60 

Length of pile, ft. Price per ft. 

• 10 to 20 $1 . 60 

20 to 30 1 . 30 

30 to 42 1 . 20 

42 to 50 1 . 25 

Rapid Driving of Raymond Concrete Foundation Piles. — Engineering 
News-Record, July 12, 1917, gives data regarding the speed developed in 
driving 3776 Raymond Concrete Piles for the footings of the large storage 
building constructed at the beginning of the war at the Brooklyn Navy yard. 
Four pile drivers were used and were operated continuously with the exception 
of Sundays, three 8-hr. shifts being run on week days and three 4-hr. shifts on 
Saturday. 

The average penetration of the piles was 22.85 ft. and the average number of 
piles driven by each driven crew per 8-hr. shift was 21. 

The piledrivers used by the contractor were steel-frame turntable machines, 
equipped with two-drum hoists and No. 1 Raymond steam hammers. They 
travel on a nest of rollers under the base of the turntable. A timber runway 
has to be laid for them. This type of rig is considered the most rapid ever 
developed, and this in spite of the fact that Raymond piles are more difficult 
to drive, on account of the process involved, than wood piles The core on 
which the shells are assembled before driving weighs about 8800 lb. and, fur- 
thermore, must be withdrawn after each pile is driven. A record for the num- 
ber of piles driven in a single shift, which it is thought has never been 
approached under similar conditions, was established in 1916, when one of 
these machines drove 119 twenty-foot piles in 10 hours at the plant of the 
Chevrolet Motor Co. in Flint, Michigan. 

Cost of a Damp-Proof Timber Floor. — In Engineering News, Aug. 27, 
1914, J. Albert Holmes gives the following: 

The floor was laid in the basement of a manufacturing building on the 
natural earth, hardpan and sand, without underdrains, and carrying machin- 
ery, round steel in racks and square steel piled solid in storage. 

The owner, wishing to secure a long-lived floor, purchased kyanized hem- 
lock for the 3-in. underfioor and had two-ply felt and a layer of pitch placed 
100 



1586 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

between the plank and top flooring. The ground was prepared by the con- 
tractor for the building by rolling or puddling, therefore, the costs given in the 
accompanying table are for materials and labor above the ground. 

The soft-coal cinders used for the foundation course were purchased from 
the railroad and delivered in cars on a siding from which they were shoveled 
directly into the basement where used. Materials were delivered and the 
work performed in the winter, so that storage in the basement obviated the 
necessity of heating the cinders when mixed with the tar. Tar was purchased 
from the local gas works and 14 gal. used per cu. yd. of cinders. 

The cinders were spread, rolled and tamped to a thickness of 4 in.; the 
shrinkage from measurement in cars to place was 36%. Sand and tar were 
heated outside the building and mixed in the basement. This mixture, while 
warm, was spread over the cinders and screeded off H in. above the bottom of 
the plank; planks being laid to grade for screeding. Into the sand while 
still warm, the 3-in. planks were firmly bedded by ramming. 

For specially prepared tars, 50 to 60 gal. per yd. of sand are specified. On 
this work the greatest amount of tar that the sand could be made to contain, 
without making a soft, wet mixture, was 35 gal. per cu. yd., the same kind of 
tar being used in both cinders and sand. The writer has knowledge of floors 
where the tar has come up through the joints in both plank and top floor due, 
no doubt, to an excess of tar in the sand. • 

The difference in volume of sand in place and in carts, due to compression 
and to inequalities of surface of cinder layer was 68%. The plank wa3 3-in. 
kyanized hemlock, planed one side to a uniform thickness of 2^ in. and not 
less than 6 in. wide, random lengths, square edged and saw butted; laid to 
break joints and toe nailed but not driven tightly together. There was no 
loss of plank by cutting. 

Over the plank were placed two layers of felt and one of pitch. The felt 
weighed 14 lb. per 100 sq. ft. and was laid to break joints one-half the width 
of the sheet; no pitch was allowed to come in contact with either plank or top 
floor. The loss in area of felt due to lapping was 21%. 

Over the felt and at right angles to the plank was laid a maple-top floor IHe 
in. thick. This flooring was square edge, 3 in. wide, and nailed with 10- 
penny finish nails through the top every 8 in. on alternate sides. 

The waste and shrinkage due partly to laying, but mostly to manufacture, 
was 40%; in other words, while the market price of the flooring was $45 per 
M, the shrinkage in manufacturing that must be paid for, plus a small loss by 
waste in laying, brought the cost up to $63 per M. Builders are familiar with 
shrinkages in manufactured lumber, but engineers, not having occasion to use 
it so frequently, are not so familiar and are surprised when as for instance, 
they purchase 5-in. V-sheathing for building a field office, to find that it covers 
.a width of only 3K in. and that the Western rules for inspection of hard pine 
allow H in. less than the Eastern, which in turn allow an }i-m. or more, less 
than full dimension for square timber and plank. 

Referring to the accompanying table, the quantities are the quantities 
purchased in the market, as for instance, 4 in. of cinders in place amount to 
0.151 cu. yd. measured in cars, or 36% more than the place measurement and 
similarly for sand, felt and top floor, there being no loss in laying the 3-in. 
plank. 

In this work, two distinct classes of labor or trades were employed, roofers 
in this case and carpenters, and though they worked together, their organiza- 
tions were separate. For this reason, the combined items for superintendence 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 



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1588 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

is high and that for superintendence of roofers unnecessarily so. Reducing 
the item for superintendence of roofers and using untreated plank and leaving 
out the felt and pitch between plank and top floor, the cost would be reduced 
as shown in the last column of the table. 

Cost of Granolithic Floor. — John T. Sullivan in Engineering News-Record, 
April 4, 1918, gives the following: 

A unit cost on concrete floor finishing of 58c. for 100 sq. ft. was recently 
attained on the first floor of the new Charles Shannon Building in Cincinnati. 
The entire job, consisting of 3325 sq. ft. was cleaned up by four laborers and 
two finishers within nine hours. Work started at 7 a. m. Two laborers 
mixed the finishing material — one wet batch and another dry batch — using 
iron mortar boxes . Two other laborers roughened the floor with wire brooms, 
the floor having been poured the previous day. As soon as the first batch 
was ready, one of the laborers was used to wheel the finish in on the floor. 

One finisher spread the batch while the second finisher leveled it off with 
a 6-ft. screed. The first finisher then floated the surface with a long home- 
made float and with a hand-float. The second finisher then spread and 
screeded continuously while his partner worked on floating. At 2 o'clock the 
whole floor was spread and screeded, so both finishers worked with the floats 
until the floor was finished at 4: 30 p. m. The laborers used on mixing and 
wheeling were put on other work as soon as their task was completed. Here 
is a summary of the costs: 

Two laborers to mix, 7 a. m. to 2 p. m., 6M hr. each at 30 cts. per hr. = $ 3. 90 

One laborer to wheel finish onto floor, G^^ hr. at 30 cts. per hr. = 1 . 95 

One laborer to broom and use big float, 8M hr. at 30 cts. per hr- = - . . 2 . 55 

Two finishers, 9 hr. each at 60 cts. per hr. =..... 10. 80 

Total labor cost $19 . 20 

Total area = 35 X 95 ft. = 3, 325 sq. ft. 

Unit cost = $19.20 = 58 cts. per 100 sq. ft. 

3, 325 
One-half hour was taken for lunch. 

Cost of Resurfacing Concrete Floors. — C. L. Samson, gives the following 
data in Engineering and Contracting, Nov. 29, 1911. 

Both floors as originally laid consisted of 13/16 in. maple flooring nailed 
to 2 X 4 in. pine nailing strips laid in concrete. Concrete was flush with the 
top of nailing strips. In seven years time the nailing strips rotted out and the 
maple came loose. It was decided to remove the maple flooring and surface 
the underlying concrete. 

The item "cleaning floor," consisted of removing the maple, picking out 
remains of nailing strips and scrubbing surface of old concrete to receive the 
finish. It was the intention to make the finish 1 in. thick but the old fioor 
was uneven so that in some cases the finish was 1^ ins. thick, while in other 
places the old concrete had to be picked out and renewed. The amount of 
crushed stone used will serve as a rough indication of the amount of concrete 
removed and replaced. 

The form work mentioned was over a tunnel and formed a slab 4 X 16 ft. 
which was reinforced by }i in. round rods. 

The first floor was finished with what was sold to us as Wisconsin Granite 
chips. It proved to be little more than sand stone and did not make a satis- 
factory floor. It finished beautifully but the fioor was so soft that the glaze 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1589 

soon wore rough under trucking. The mixture of finish was 1 of Portland 
cement to 1>^ "Wisconsin Granite." 

The same mixture was used on the second floor excepting that common sand 
was used instead of the granite. No trouble was experienced in either case 
in getting the finish to stick to the old concrete. The old concrete was slushed 
with a neat cement grout before applying the finish. 

The first floor was laid in February and the second in June while the weather 
was very warm. The intense heat is largely responsible for higher cost per 
square foot of the second floor. The second floor also contained one reinforced 
concrete slab 13 ft. square and 7 in. thick. The cost of the first floor was as 
follows : 

Labor: 

Cost of cleaning old floor for concrete $ 89 . 93 

Cost of bringing in material 36. 53 

Cost of mixing board, floats and straightedge 1 . 43 

Cost of setting screeds 7.15 

Cost of forms around two tunnel doors 12 . 20 

Cost of finishing 45. 59 

Total cost of labor $192. 73 

82^ barrels Portland cement $ 74 . 47 

15 yds. crushed granite 58. 50 

5 yds. sand 6 . 25 

10 yds. crushed stone 13 . 00 

Cartage. . 21 . 12 

Total cost of material $173 . 34 

Grand total $366. 07 

The rates of wages paid were : Common labor, 25 cts. per hour, and carpenter 
labor, 30 cts. per hour. The area of floor laid was 5,120 sq. ft., and the cost 
per square foot was $0.0710. The .cost of the second floor similar to above 
was as follows: 

Total cost of labor at 25 cts $203. 31 

Cost of material: 

68^ barrels Portland cement 61 . 88 

25 yds. sand 37 . 50 

16 yds. stone 24.00 

1140 lbs. twisted steel 29 . 64 

Total cost of material $153 . 02 

Total cost of floor $356. 33 

The area of floor laid was 4,217 sq. ft. and the cost per square foot was 
$0,084. 

Labor Cost of Laying Concrete Basement Floor, Columbus, Miss. — C. L. 
Wood, in Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 14, 1910, gives the following : 

The floor covered a 12 X 200 ft. hallway and nine side rooms ranging in area 
from 759 to 2,069 sq. ft. the total area being 12,952.2 sq. ft. The total thick- 
ness of the floor was 6 ins., composed of 4-in. base of 1 :3 :5 concrete, and a 2-in. 
surface of 1 :2 mortar. The aggregates were sand and gravel. The founda- 
tion was 4 ins. of screened coal cinders, wet and tamped. The sand and 
gravel was delivered in piles opposite the windows of the basement; cement 
was stored in one room and lumber was delivered in piles opposite the doors. 
The contract for laying included all labor and supervision necessary to the 
flnished floor, with materials purchased and delivered as mentioned, and with 
free use of shovels and wheelbarrows, and of water. 



1590 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The unscreened sand and gravel was shoveled into the rooms through the 
basement windows, screened and moved with wheelbarrows to the mixing 
boards, which were set in the hall at two points of which there were water 
connections. The mixing was done by hand, working 4 men on the mixing 
board and 1 man at the mortar box. Lights were necessary, but as all work 
was under cover, no delays were caused by rain. The gang consisted of 1 
foreman, who was the contractor and form setter, 1 finisher, 1 mortar mixer, 
and from 7 to 12 laborers. A 10-hour day was worked, the finisher requiring 
extra time, since all work was completed the same day that it was begun. 
The job was completed in 5 calendar weeks and 2 days. The work of electric 
wiring, steam piping, laying drain, etc., was in progress at the same time as the 
floor construction, which greatly hindered the progress of the concrete work 
and in the narrow quarters made necessary a small working party. The 
following was the cost of the work: 

2,010>^ hrs, common labor at 10 cts $201 . 05 

276.4 hrs. mortar mixer at 12>^ cts 34 . 95 

296.36 hrs. finisher at 273^ cts 81 . 50 

32 days foreman at $5 160. 00 

Total $477. 50 

Profit $ 50.00 

Contract price $527 . 84 

The cost per square foot of floor was 3.71 cts. and the contract price was 
SH cts. 

Cost of Concrete Arch and I-Beam Power House Floor. — The following 
itemized account of the cost of a floor built in a power house in Lincoln 
Park, Chicago, in 1909 is taken from Engineering and Contracting, March 15, 
1911. 

The floor was 20 X 25 ft. in area and was made of 10-in. I-beams, spaced 5 
ft. on centers. The concrete was 11 ins. thick at the beams and was arched 
between the beams so that the thickness of the concrete was 5 ins. at the crown 
of the arch. The area of the floor was 500 sq. ft., but a stair ^pace reduced 
the area of concrete placed to 475 ft. The total cost was $208. 

Per 
Labor: sq. ft. 

2 days engineering at $3.70 $0. 0156 

1 day superintendent at $3.25 0. 0069 

15 days labor at $2 0.0631 

13K hrs. finishers at 28 cts 0. 0079 

64 hrs. carpenters at 60 cts . 0808 

4 hrs. mason . 0053 

Total $0. 1796 

Materials: 

Lumber $0. 0526 

10-in. I-beams 0. 1053 

17M bbls. cement at $1.35 0.0479 

10 cu. yds. gravel at $1.65 0. 0347 

6 cu. yds. torpedo sand at $1.35 0.0170 

Total $0. 2575 

Grand total $0.4371 

Cost of Concrete Balcony Floors of the Lockport Power House, Chicago 
Drainage Canal. — In Engineering and Contracting, May 25, 1910, L. K. 
Sherman gives the following. 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1591 

The work was done by day labor and consisted of placing the concrete in 
two balconies, one above the other, 359 ft. long by 26.6 wide. The steel 
frame and colmnns of the balcony floors was erected by contract. 

Fig. 10 shows a section of the floor, which is composed of concrete arches 
covering the spans between the 18-in. I-beams and supported by the lower 
flanges of the I-beams. The floor arches were 5 ins. thick at the crown, with 
elliptical intrados. The concrete was mixed in the proportion of 1 part 
Portland cement, 2^ parts limestone screenings under K-in. size, and 4^ 
parts crushed stone ranging from ^ to 13^ ins. The floor surf ace was made 
with a "granolithic" finish of mortar composed of 1 part cement to 2 parts 
torpedo sand, placed from 1 in. to 1^ ins. thick. The granolithic surface was 
invariably placed before the concrete had an initial set, although this required 
night work of the finishers at times. Contraction grooves were cut in the 
floor above each I-beam. 

Grana/ifht5urhce'7 Jot^' 

u s:rA---^^r.;^^f^%u 

Fig. 10. — Section of balcony floor showing forms, Lockport Power House. 

Concrete and Finishing. — The mixed concrete (1-2^-43^) was purchased 
from the general contractor for the power house at $5 per cu. yd. at the mixer. 

The concrete was hauled from the mixer to the elevator in a IH cu. yd. 
Western dump car. The car was hoisted to the balcony floor, run out on a 
short piece of track and dumped on a receiving platform. The empty car 
then returned to the mixer. Concrete was carried from the receiving plat- 
form and placed in the work with wheelbarrows. 

The mortar for granolithic surface was mixed in a box near the receiving 
platform. The cement finishers followed immediately after the concrete 
gang. The expanded metal reinforcement was placed on the forms and cov- 
ered uniformly with about 2 ins. of soft concrete. The expanded metal was 
then pulled up from the form with hooks and shaken slightly, so that the mor- 
tar ran through the mesh and kept the reinforcing about 1 in. away from the 
lower surface. 

The remaining concrete was then tamped in place. Some reinforcing bars 
were used about the floor openings. The work was done in February, March 
and April, 1907. Common labor received 17K cts. per hour in February and 
March and 20 cts. per hour in April. During freezing weather heat was 
supplied with four salamanders burning coke. These fires were placed under 
the section of new concrete floor and canvas curtains were hung around, so 
as to confine the heat to the required section. 

A typical force during the period of placing concrete work was as follows: 

1 Foreman. 

1 Motor man. 

1 Car man. 

1 Carpenter on reinforcing and minor form fitting. 

1 Laborer on reinforcing and minor form fitting. 
12 Laborers, wheeling and placing concrete. 

2 Cement finishers on granolithic surface. 

1 Mortar mixer on granolithic surface. 

2 Mortar wheelers on granolithic surface. 



1592 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cost. — The cost of the work is given in the accompanying itemized tabula- 
tion. The total cost was $7,827.50, or 42f4 cts. per square foot. .The engi- 
neer's estimate was $8,128. The only bid received was $11,000. 

Plant 
Elevator: 

Cage $ 44.00 

Guides, lumber 37 . 62 

400 ft. ^^-in. wire rope and fittings 26. 25 

3 16-in. sheaves 26 . 40 

1 H-in. snatch block 12 . 00 

Labor 43 . 55 

$ 189.82 
Hoisting winch: 

1 Shannon double purchase winch $ 100.00 

1 42-in. wood pulley 8.10 

26 ft. 23^-in. rubber belt 2 . 86 

Freight ; 7 . 00 

Repairs and fittings 8 . 37 

Labor placing 5 . 00 

$ 131.33 

Salvage on winch 75 . 00 

$ 56.33 
Electric motor: 

Rent of motor 2 hp. 220-volt D. C $ 25. 94 

Labor placing. 5.71 

Labor electrician 20 . 00 

$ 51.65 

Electric Current: 6 cts. hp. hour 76. 58 

Track : 

Rent of 300 lin. ft. rail 30-lb $ 25. 00 

Labor on track 28 . 38 

$ 53.38 

Grand total 427.76 

Distribution of plant charge: 

To concrete $427.76 X 85 % = $ 361 . 60 

To granolithic surface $427.76 X 15 % = 66 . 16 

Total. $ 427.76 

Cost of Balcony Floors 
Forms: 
Lumber: 

11,000 B. M. 1 X 6-in.D.&M. lagging at $25.00.. $ 275.00 

2,220 B. M. 2 X 10-in. S. I. S. stringers at $30.00. 66. 60 

1,500 B. M. misc. rough lumber 28 . 19 

316 ribs for 10-ft. span at 66 cts 208 . 56 

99 ribs for 8-ft. span at 62 cts 61 . 38 

48 ribs for 4-ft. span at 50.9 cts 24 . 42 

$ 664.15 

' Bolts, tools etc.: 

1,000 ^-in. hook bolts at 8 cts $ 80.00 

9 kegs nails 24 . 58 

Sheet iron 15. 15 

Tools 9.85 

$ 129.58 

Total form materials $ 793. 73 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1593 

Labor: 

Building and Moving Forms: 

Foreman, 29 days at $4.00 $ 1 16 . 00 

Carpenters, 39.5 days at $4.50 177 . 75 

Carpenters, 51.1 days at $3.50 178.85 

Carpenters, 110.2 days at $3.00 330. 60 

Laborers, 66 days at $1.75 115.49 

Laborers, 17.3 days at $2.00 34 . 60 

Craneman, 1 day at $2.50 2 . 50 

$ 955.79 

Total, Forms $1 , 749 . 52 

Concrete: 

470 cu. yds. concrete mixed material in car at mixer 

at $5.00 $2,350.00 

Tools 56.61 

$2,406.61 
Labor Placing: 

Foreman, 33 days at $4.00 $ 132.00 

Motorman, 45 days at $2.00 90.00 

Laborers, 56.5 days at $1.75 98.83 

Laborers, 180 days at $2.00 360. 00 

$ 680.83 

Plant Charge: 

See "Plant". $ 361.60 

Heating Concrete: 

4 Salamanders $ 11.00 

2,450 lbs. coke 12.24 

6 12 X 30-ft. tarpaulins 54 . 60 

$ 77.84 

Concrete total $3,526.88 

Reinforcing : 

19,734 sq. ft. 3-in. No. 10 expanded metal at 3 cts.. $ 592.02 

330 lbs. ^^-in. cor. bars at 3 cts 10. 51 

585 lbs. %-in. rods at 21-^ cts 14 . 63 

Cutter and sledge 1 . 89 

$ 619.05 
Labor: 

1 day, cement foreman at $5.00 5 . 00 

11 days, cement foreman at $3.50 38. 50 

2 days, motorman at $2.00 4 . 00 

7.6 days, laborer at $2.00 15. 28 



$ 62.78 



Reinforcing total $ 681 . 83 

Granolithic surface: 

260 bbls cement at $1.72 $ 447.20 

Cement hauling 21 . 33 

90 cu. yds. sand torpedo 56 . 90 

Sand freight 149 . 17 

Tools 8.24 

$ 682.84 
Labor : 

Cement finisher, 25.1 days at $5.00 $ 125. 50 

Cement finisher, 38.35 days at $3.50 134 . 22 

Cement finisher, 20.05 days at $3.00 60. 15 

Cement finisher, 33.00 days at $2.25 74 . 25 

Motorman. 11 days at $2.00 22 . 00 

Laborers, 82 days at $2.00 169 . 00 

Laborers, 46.4 days at $1.75 81.1 5 

$ 661.27 



1594 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Plant charge: 

See "Plant" $ 66.16 



Granolithic total $1 ,410.27 

Finishing Ceiling. 
Labor: 

Cement finisher, 49 days at $5.00 $ 245. 00 

Cement finisher; 57 days at $3.50 199. 50 

Cement and brushes 14 . 50 



$ 459.00 



Summary 

Cost in cents 

Total cost per sq. ft. of floor 

Forms, material $ 793 .73 4 . 36 

Forms, labor 955.79 $1,749.52 5.21 9.57 

Concrete, material and mixing 2, 350. 00 12. 82 

Concrete, placing 1,176.88. 3,526.88 6.42 19.24 

Reinforcing... 681.81 3.73 3.73 

Granolithic surface, plant and 

materials 749.00 4.08 

Granolithic surface labor 661.27 1,410.27 3.62 7.70 

Finishing ceiling 459.00 2.51 2.51 

Total, 18,317 sq. ft $7,827.50 *42.75 

* Ceints. 

Cost of 2-In. Solid Metal Lath Partitions. — The following data by A. 
Dixon are given in Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 18, 1911. 

The figures on plastering are the amount of completed three coat work which 
one man can do in one hour and are based on the average of a gang of men and 
the total time required to apply three coats on a given area. 

12-in. 16-in 

stud stud 

centers centers 

Steel channels, weight lb. per sq. yd 4 . 25 3 . 00 

Erecting channels, sq. yds. per hour 6.0 9.0 

Metal lath, applying, sq. yds. per hour 6.5 8. 25 

Plastering, three coats, sq. yds. covered per hour 1 , 25 1 . 25 

Cost of Metal Lathing and Plastering. — The following data are published 
by A. Dixon in Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 1, 1911. 

Applying metal lath on wooden studs : An expert on straight work will put 
on 12.5 to 17.0 sq. yds. per hour. On crooked or complicated work the same 
man will put on 5 to 7 sq. yds. per hour. 

Applying metal lath on steel studding: One man will put on from 5 to 9 
sq. yds. per hour. 

Plastering on metal lath: First coat, from 9 to 14 sq. yds. per hour; second 
or scratch coat, 6 to 9 sq. yds. per hour; finishing coat, 11 to 14 sq. yds. per 
hour. 

Cost of Laying Composition and Gravel Roofs. — H. Lundt, a roofing con- 
tractor ^Engineering and Contracting, Apr. 12, 1911), states that the cheapest 
composition roof is 3-ply tar and gravel, using 45 lbs. of saturated felt, 70 lbs. 
of tar and pitch, H yd. of screened gravel, and lath and nails at a total cost 
for material of $1.50 per square, (10 X 10 ft.). The labor cost of the work 
varied from $0.40 to $1 per square, depending upon the number of squares 
in each job. It requires 4 men to each gang of roofers, common labor receiv- 
ing 25 cts. and skilled labor 50 cts. per hour. This would make the total cost 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1595 

of a 3-ply composition roof with tar and gravel from $1.90 to $2.50 per square. 
This roof, for ordinary uses, will last from 5 to 8 years. 

A better roof is a 4-ply composition roof laid in the same manner as a 3-ply, 
but having one extra ply or 15 lbs. more of saturated felt and 30 lbs. more of 
composition which will make the total cost from $2.50 to $3.00 per square. 
This class of roof will easily last 10 years. 

The next better roof is the solid mopped roof with a cap sheet over the 4-ply, 
laid as follows : Each of the 4 layers of felt is mopped over the entire surface 
and laid 8 ins. to the weather. The entire surface is then covered with a 
cap sheet which is coated with the hot pitch compound. In this way every 
seam of the four layers is covered. Over all, the pitch and tar and screened 
gravel is laid. I have one of these roofs which has been laid 14 years without 
recoating. The cost of labor and material on this class of roof is $4 per square. 
The material used per square is 75 lbs. of saturated felt, 150 lbs. of composition, 
>8 cu. yd. of screened gravel and lath and nails. 

Any of the foregoing roofs can be laid with asphalt in the same way that the 
tar and pitch composition is used. This will increase the cost from $0.75 to 
$1 per square. I put on some of these roofs 10 years ago and they are in good 
condition today. Asphalt retains its life, but the tar and pitch crumble to 
dust and require a recoating after about 5 years. The cost of recoating is 
about $1.50 per square. In recoating, all the loose gravel is swept off and the 
felt is cleaned of dirt and dust. Then the composition is placed with not less 
than 60 lbs. to the square. 

Unit Costs of Factory Buildings. — ^A paper by W. E. King before the Civil 
Engineers Society of St. Paul (Engineering and Contracting, Aug. 5, 1914) 
gives the following : 

One story shop building in fireproof construction will cost from $1.25 to 
$2.00 per sq. ft. depending upon the height of the story, depth of footings, 
length of spans and kinds of exterior finish used. Fireproof buildings of more 
than one story may be built for as little as 50 cts. per sq. ft. of floor area. 

Table XX. — Some Costs of Different Types of Construction 

Approximate cost 
Item Description per sq. ft. in place 

Roofs* 
Fireproof: 

1. 3-in. hollow book-tiles laid on steel T- 
beams, covered with good prepared roof- 
ing; including supports $0.30 

2. Corrugated iron on steel purlins including 

supports. 0.12 

Non Fireproof: 

3. 2-in. matched, and dressed sheathing laid on 

wood or steel purlins, covered with good 

prepared roofing, including supports .... . 20 

Walls 12-in. common brick 0. 38 

12-in. with facing brick and some architectural 

decorations 0. 40-0, 60 

Sash Underwriters, glazed with ^-in. wire glass 1 .00 

Rolled steel sash glazed with double strength 

glass 0.40-0.45 

Double hung wooden sash . 25-0 . 50 

Sprinkler 
Protection 

Cost per sq. ft. of floor area covered. 0. 05-0. 15 

* Types 1 and 3 suitable for heated buildings; type 2 suitable for unheated 
buildings. 



1596 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Formulas for Weights of Steel Roof Trusses. — R. Fleming (Engineering 
News-Record, March 20, 1919) has brought to a common notation many of 
the empiric formulas for determining the weights of steel roof trusses. 
The notations used follow: 
T = weight of truss = WSD; 
W = weight of truss in pounds per square foot of the horizontal projection 

of that portion ol the roof supported by one truss; 
S = span or distance between centers of supports in feet ; 
D = distance between centers of adjacent trusses in feet; 
P = loading of truss in pounds per square feet of horizontal projection of 

roof; 
U = allowable average direct stress in pounds per square inch (found only 

in the Thayer formula) . 
The following list includes the formulas most commonly quoted : 
Cambria Steel Co., "Cambria Steel," 11th edition, 1914, for spans of 75 ft. 
or less. 

T = 5SD 

. Carnegie Steel Co., "Pocket Companion," 19th edition, -1917, for loads of 
40 lb. or more per square foot of ground area: 



P 

40 5 



K^-i) 



Fowler, "Specifications for Steel Roofs and Buildings," 5th edition, 1909, 
for Fink trusses up to 200-ft. span: 

W = 0.06>S + 0.6 for heavy loads 
W = 0.04S + 0.4 for light loads 

Johnson, Bryan and Turnure, "Modern Framed Structures," early 
editions: W = ^/25 + 4.0. In the latest edition, 1916, the Ricker, 1907, 
formula is used for trusses resting on brick walls, and the Ketchum formula 
for trusses of steel-frame buildings. 

Jones & Laughlin, "Standard Steel Construction," 1916: 



_ P/S 12\ 



Ketchum, "Specifications for Steel-Frame Buildings," 3rd edition, 1916 
for trusses up to 150-ft. span: 



TF = - I 1 -f —7=^ I 
45 \ 5Vi>/ 



Maurer, "Cyclopedia of Civil Engineering," 1908: 

W = S/25 + 1 
Merriman, "Roofs and Bridges," 1888, 1911: 



T = -DSl 1 + — I 
4 V ^10^ 



Ricker, "A Study of Roof Trusses," University of Illinois Bulletin, No. 16, 
August, 1907: 

W = h — 

25 6000 



I 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1597 



Ricker, "Design and Construction of Roofs," 1912: 

S S2 

Tf = — + 

25 12,600 

Thayer, "Structural Design," Vol. II, 1914: 

T = A /^(4S2 + 60S) 



VPD 
IT 



Trautwine, "Engineer's Pocket Book," 1911: 
W = (0.05 to 0.08)5 

Tyrrell, "Mill Buildings," 1911, for roof load of 40 lbs. per square foot of 
ground area, bays 10 to 20 ft., rafter slope 6 ins. to 1 ft. and unit stresses of 
12,000 compression, 15,000 tension: 

S 12 

W = — + — 
20 D 

The weights of trusses for other loadings and rafter slopes are obtained from 
a series of curves. 

Conclusions regarding empirical formulas drawn from estimated weights of 
several hundred trusses may prove interesting. Three light Fink trusses 
resting on brick walls of 40-, 60- and 80-ft. spans, bays 16 ft., load equivalent 
to 40 lbs. per square foot of horizontal area uniformly distributed on the top 
chord, roof slope6 ins.per foot, weighed 1,370,2,550 and4,320 lbs., respectively. 
The estimated weights of three trusses of the Warren type, same span and 
loading, but roof slope of 1 in. per foot, were 1,500, 2,900 and 4,800 lbs. The 
weights, according to the formulas quoted, for trusses with same spans and 
loading, are given in Table XXI. 

Table XXI.— Weights of Roof Trusses — 16-foot Bays; Load, 40 Lbs. Per 
Square Foot of Horizontal Area 

W = Weight per square foot of area; T = Weight of truss 

40-ft. span 60-ft. span 80-ft. span ■ 

Formula W T W T W T 

Cambria 5.00 3,200 5.00 4,800 5.00 6,400 

Carnegie 2.26 1,446 3.05 2,928 3.79 4,851 

Fowler 2.00 1,280 2.80 2,688 3.60 4,608 

Johnson B. & T 5.60 3,584 6.40 6,144 7.20 9,216 

Jones & Laughlin 2.75 1,760 3.75 3,600 4.75 6,080 

Ketchum .2.67 1,709 3.56 3,417 4.44 5,683 

Maurer 2.60 1,664 3.40 3,264 4.20 5,376 

Merriman 3.75 2,400 5.25 5,040 6.75 8,640 

Ricker 1907 1.87 1,197 3.00 2,880 4.27 5,466 

Ricker 1912 1.73 1,107 2.68 2.573 3.71 4,749 

Thayer 2.75 1,760 3.75 3,600 4.75 6,080 

Trautwine 2.00 1,280 3.00 2,880 4.00 5,120 

Tyrrell 2.75 1,760 3.75 3,600 4.75 6,080 

Again, three Fink trusses of the same span, spacing and slope as before, but 
with load of 56 lbs. per square foot of horizontal projection, an increase of 40%, 
weighted 1,670, 3,200and5,500 lbs., respectively. Trusses of the Warren type, 
roof slope of 1 in. to 1 ft., weighted 1,900, 3,750 and 6,000 lbs. The formulas 
give weights for this loading as in Table XXII. 

The variation — in some cases more than 100 per cent — of weights obtained 
from the different formulas will at once be noted. The values obtained from 
a number of the formulas depend upon the span length alone, and are the same 
for all loadings. Other formulas make the weight of the truss vary directly 



1598 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

as the load, which actual weights show to be an error. DuBois, in "The 
Strains in Framed Structures," gives a formula taking into account the load, 
span, slope and unit stresses, but it is too cumbersome for use. Moreover, it 
supposes the chords to be of constant section, and neglects the web members, 
assuming that these two errors compensate. 

Table XXII. — Weights of Roof Trusses — 16-foot Bays; Load, 56 Lbs. Per 
Square Foot of Horizontal Area 

W = Weight per square foot of area; T = Weight of truss 

40-ft. span 60-ft, span 80-ft. span 

Formula W T W T W T 

Cambria 5.00 3,200 5.00 4,800 5.00 6,400 

Carnegie 3.16 2,024 4.27 4,100 5.31 6,791 

Fowler 3.00 1,920 4.20 4,032 5.40 6,912 

Johnson. B. & T 5.60 3,584 6.40 6,144 7.20 9,216 

Jones & Laughlin 3.85 2,464 5.25 5,040 6.65 8,512 

Ketchum 3.73 2,393 4.97 4,784 6.21 7,956 

Maurer 2.60 1,664 3.40 3,264 4.20 5,376 

Merriman 3.75 2,400 5.25 5,040 6.75 8,640 

Ricker, 1907 1.87 1,197 3.00 2,880 4.27 5,465 

Ricker, 1912 1.73 1,107 2.68 2,573 3.71 4,749 

Thayer 3.26 2,082 4.44 4,259 5.62 7,193 

Trautwine 2.60 1,664 3.90 3,744 5.20 6,656 

In fact, as stated by Marburg, in "Framed Structures and Girders," the 
variables are so numerous that no formula, for the weights of roof trusses 
which is at once simple, accurate and generally applicable, can be devised. 
Such a formula is not necessary. In calculating stresses the weight of the 
truss is usually so small compared with the weight of the covering, the snow ' 
and the wind, that an error in its assumption is negligible. 

Ordinary steel roof trusses on brick walls with roof slope of 6 in. to 1 ft. 
and an assumed load of 800 lbs. per linear foot of top chord, uniformly distrib- 
uted, weigh from 30 to 75 lbs. per linear foot of span for spans up to 85 ft. 
For less slopes the weight may be from 5 to 25 % more. For different loadings 
the variation in weight is usually from 25 to 75% of the variation in loading. 
It should be noted that the personal equation of the designer and the many 
factors entering into the weights of roof trusses may cause a variation of 5 
to 25% in the same truss. 

Formula and Table of Weights Steel Roof Trusses. — Marshall L. Murray 
gives the following data in Engineering and Contracting, June 25, 1919. 

In the preparation of designs for steel-roof trusses for preliminary estimates 
for factory buildings, after several designs had been prepared and lists of 
material and estimates of cost had been made, the data on hand were used in 
several formulas for giving the weights of steel-roof trusses, in order to find 
one which would give results closely agreeing with the figured weights. If 
such a formula could be found it was intended to use it for purposes of pre- 
liminary estimates instead of taking time to prepare a design. But no one 
formula gave results which were considered satisfactory. It was observed 
that the Ricker formula 

W 



/S S2 \ 
= I - + I SA, 

\25 6,000/ 

ow and the Ketchum 

w= - (i + — 7=^1 SA, 

45 V 5VA/ 



gave results which were too low and the Ketchum formula, 

S 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1599 

gave results too high to agree closely with our design data. In these formulas 
W equals total weight of truss ; S equals span of truss in feet ; A equals distance 
center to center of trusses in feet ; P equals carrying capacity of truss in pounds 
per square foot of horizontal projection of roof. 

After carefully studying the formulas and reading the explanation of the 
Ricker formula in University of Illinois Bulletin No. 16, and that of the Ket- 
chum formula in the author's text book on Steel Mill Buildings, it occurred 
to the writer to combine the two formulas, thereby making use of the span 
factors in the Ricker formula and the center to center of truss factor and the 
variable load factor in the Ketchum formula. From the bulletin it seemed 
the carrying capacity of the trusses upon which the Ricker formula 
was based was about 50. Therefore the results obtained by using the 

P 
data on hand with the Ricker formula were increased in the ratio of — , since 

50 

the Ricker formula does not take into account the variable load P. These 
weights were then averaged with those obtained by the Ketchum formula, 
which considers the variable load P, and the final results agreed quite closely 
with the data on hand. The tentative formula then became 



W = 



50V25 


S2 V 

"^ 6,000/ "^ 


-6 

45 V 


s 


l) 




2 







SA. 



P P 

For trial calculation the two factors — and — were averaged and made the 

50 45 

same for both formulas. Then 

W= - X 1 h + 1 + 7= ISA 

2 47.5 \25 6,000 5VA/ 

P 

After several trials with the slide rule the variable load factor was made — 

92 

P P 

instead of or — , so as to agree with the figured weights. Therefore 

2 X 47.5 95 

the formula finally derived was, 



> 



In order to try out the above formula it was applied to all trusses upon which 
we had the necessary data, and to others used as examples in text books and 
the results were remarkably close to the weights obtained from material lists. 
After finding that the formula was worth while the writer prepared the accom- 
panying table to simplify its use. This was done by making P equal to unity 
and calculating the value of W for a series of values given to S and A. It will 
be noted this reduced to a simple multiplication the calculation necessary to 
find the weight of the steel roof truss, having given the span, distance center 
to center of trusses, and the carrying capacity of truss. The writer has found 
this table to be very useful and quite reliable in preparing preliminary esti- 
mates, and even as a check on weights figured from a design. 



1600 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

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BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1601 

Cost of Private Fire Protection Installations for Industrial Plants. — The 
following data are given by Leonard Metcalf in a paper before the American 
Water Works Ass'n. in 1913, abstracted in Engineering and Contracting, July 
23, 1913. 

A cotton mill having a value in buildings and machinery as follows: 

Buildings, including foundations $ 400,000 

Machinery, engines, boilers, shafting, electrical and steam fittings, 

elevators, etc 900 , 000 

Cost of mill $1 , 300 , 000 

Cost of fire protection equipment for this mill: 

Underground piping 2 , 600 

Indicator post gates, valves, check valves, hydrants, etc 1 , 000 

• Fire pumps (2) 2 , 500 

Suction supplies 1 , 000 

Hose, hose houses, watchman's system and fire alarm 1 ,700 

Automatic sprinklers and all inside piping 16, 000 

$ 24,800 
If suction reservoir has to be built, add 3 , 000 

Total cost of fire protection equipment $ 27 , 800 

This is equivalent to 2. 1 per cent of cost of buildings and machinery. 
2nd : A smaller plant, where cost of protection is of necessity larger in propor- 
tion to cost of mill equipment: 

Buildings, excluding foundations $ 70, 000 

Machinery, etc., same as above 100, 000 

$ 170,000 
Cost of fire protection, as items above 6,200 

This is equivalent to 3.7 per cent of cost of the buildings and machinery. 

In these examples, if elevated tanks or reservoirs had been necessary, the 
fire protection would have been increased in cost correspondingly. They 
represent, however, fairly typical cases, but oftentimes difficult conditions 
add to the estimated cost further amounts from. 15 to 20 per cent. 

In general the cost of the fire protection equipment will be from 3 to 5 per 
cent of cost of the mill property. 

The operating charges upon such an installation as that cited in the first 
illustration given above might be as follows: 

Per cent 

Interest. 6 

Depreciation 2 

Repairs 3 

Supplies and miscellaneous l^i 

Coal for use on Sundays and holidays yi 

Extra labor on Sundays and holidays. >^ 

Total 13>| 

Add administration and overhead charges IH 

Grand total upon the cost of the fire protection system 15 

This would upon the cost of the fire equipment amount to approximately 
$4,170. If now the mutual insurance rate upon this property be added 
amounting to approximately 7 cts. per $100 of risk, or $910 per year, the total 
cost of the fire protection service and insurance, excluding the payment to be 



1602 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



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BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1603 

made to the waterworks for the water service, would amount to $5,080. 
Without the sprinkler service the rate upon such property in the stock insur- 
ance companies might be $1 per $100 of risk, in which case the saving effected 
would amount to approximately $8,000 per year. If the rate given by the 
stock companies were less than $1 per $100 of risk, the saving would be corre- 
spondingly reduced. It is probably safe to say, however, that the equipment 
would be paid for by the saving in insurance in a period of not over five to 
six years, if nominal charge only be made by the waterworks for the service 
rendered by it to the mill. 

Data on Erection of Cantonment Buildings. — The following data on the 
construction of buildings at Camp Meade, Md., are abstracted in Engineering 
and Contracting, June 26, 1918, from a paper presented to Western Society 
of Engineers by N. B. Garver. 

The construction of the buildings for training battalions designated as 
Regiment A A was determined upon Friday, Sept. 21. They consisted of: 

32 2-story barracks, 30 by 60 feet. 

8 1-story mess halls, 20 by 147 feet. 

4 1-story officers' quarters, 20 by 133 feet. 

1 2-story medical building, 20 by 119 feet. 

2 1-stoiy store houses, 20 by 98 feet. 
2 stables, 29 by 40 feet. 

2 wagon sheds, 29 by 18 feet. 

A total of 51 buildings. 

The material required was: 

2,108 posts. 

1,490,000 ft. of yellow pine lumber 

321,000 sq. ft. of building paper. 

152,000 sq. ft. of roofing. 

3,838 window sash. 

304 doors. 

136,400 sq. ft. of wall board. 

782 sq. ft. of brick hearth. 

30,514 pounds of nails. 

2,184 lin. ft. of mess tables with seats were constructed. 

1,600 lin. ft. of fire ladders were erected. 

The hauling of posts, liunber, and other materials was begun on Saturday, 
Sept. 22. Actual construction began on Sunday, Sept. 23. A 10-hour work- 
day was observed. Lumber erection was completed and the buildings were 
finished at 6 p. m., Oct. 2. Ten days, or 100 hours, was required to complete 
the 5 1 buildings of this regiment . Fifteen thousand feet of lumber was erected 
each working hour, and a building was completed every two hours. 

The number of carpenter and labor hours required to complete each stage 
of construction of a 200-man barrack is as follows: 



Foundation posts Carpenters 

Laborers 

Framing complete Carpenters 

Laborers 

Sub-floors and roof Carpenters 

Laborers 





Lumber 




ft. B. M 


20 hrs. 




60 hrs. 


1.000 


75 hrs. 




72 hrs. 


20,700 


90 hrs. 




50 hrs. 


19,400 



1604 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Trim- 
Finished floors. 
Wainscoting. 
Inside and outside stairs. 

Doors Carpenters 530 hrs. 

Sash Laborers 85 hrs. 25,000 

Partitions. 
Tables. 
Counters. 
Screening. 

Outside sheathing Carpenters 450 hrs. 

Laborers 40 hrs. 5,900 

Wall board Carpenters 320 hrs. 

Laborers 40 hrs. 

Roofing felt Carpenters 70 hrs. 

Laborers 20 hrs. 

Undersheathing and ladders Carpenters 60 hrs. 2,000 

Laborers 15 hrs. 

Total 74,000 

Total carpenter hours on lumber erection, 1,825. 

Total labor hours on lumber erection, 322. 

Lumber erected per carpenter per day, 407 ft. B. M. 

Carpenters received 62>^ cts. per hour and laborers 30 cts. per hour. 

Cost of Constructing a Camp to Accommodate Forty Laborers. — In Engi- 
neering and Contracting, July 2, 1913, Clark A. Bryan gives the following. 
The camp was built during the summer of 1912, to accommodate laborers 
employed on the construction of sewerage system and disposal plant at 
Ridgely, Md., and consisted of store and dining room, bunk house, cook shed, 
toilet and well. The following matter is taken from Mr. Bryan's article. 

Store and Dining Room. — The building itself is 36 X 16 ft. in plan and is 
built with a gabled roof. The height from the top of the floor to the top of 
the plates is 7 ft. 3 ins. and the height of the gable is 4 ft.. 6 ins., making the 
total height of the ridge 11 ft. 9 ins. above the floor. This building is divided 
into two rooms sized 11 ft. 6 ins^. and 24 ft. 6 ins. respectively, the former being 
used as a store and the latter for a dining room. The sills were made of 4 X 
6 in. lumber. The four corner posts were made of 3 X 4 in. material and the 
intermediate posts, of which there were two on each of the long sides, were 
spaced 11 ft. 6 ins. from each end of the building and were made of the same 
sized material. These upright 3 X 4 in. posts were all mortised into the plate, 
which was made of 4 X 4 in. material. To further brace the building a piece 
of 2 X 4 in. was run completely around the building between the uprights at 
a height of 3 ft. above the floor. The building was braced in the direction of 
its short dimension by running a piece of 2 X 4 in. material from the top of 
one of the intermediate posts to the top of the opposite post, these braces 
being set flush with the top of the plate. The rafters were nailed to the plate 
and were made of 2 X 4 in. material. There were 19 rafters on each side of 
the ridge and they were 10 ft. long, thereby overhanging the sides of the 
building by about 8 ins. To finish off the exposed ends of the rafters a piece 
of 1 X 5 in. material was nailed over their ends as a sort of trim. The puriins 
were laid at right angles to the rafters and nailed to them. They were spaced 
1 ft. 6 in. on centers and a 1 X 3 in. lathing was used for this purpose; at the 
ridge four of these laths were used. For a roof corrugated iron weighing 115 
lbs. per square was used and this was nailed directly to the purlins. By this 
method of construction a roof was built which provided plenty of ventilation, 
inasmuch as it was not tightly sheathed at the sides of the building, and yet 
rain could not enter the building through this space. The joists were 16 ft. 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1605 

long and were made of 2 X 8 in. material; they were notched 3 ins. on the 
sills and a 1-in. floor was laid on them. The joists were spaced 1 ft. 6 ins. on 
centers. The sides were built of 1-in. rabbeted barn boards 10 ins. wide. 
A solid partition of this same material was built across the building, dividing 
it into two rooms 11 ft. 6 ins. and 25 ft. 6 ins., respectively. There were five 
windows each 2 ft. 6 ins. X 2 ft., and having six lights; four of these windows 
were in the dining-room or larger compartment and one in the store room. 
Three doors, each 2 ft. 9 ins. X 7 ft., were built, one being in the dining room 
and two in the store room. Table XXIV* gives the bill of materials and cost 
of constructing this building. 

Table XXIV. — Bill or Materials and Cost of Constructing Dining and 
Store Building for Workman's Camp 

Items and size Rate Cost 

104 lin. ft. sills, 4X6 ins $0.05 $ 5.70 

100 lin. ft. posts, 3X4 ins 0.0275 2.75 

16 lin. ft. frames for doors, etc., 3X4 ins 0.0275 0.56 

104 lin. ft. plates, 4X4 ins 0.03 3. 12 

104 lin. ft. braces, 2 X 4 ins 0. 015 1 . 56 

32 lin. ft. braces at plate, 2X4 ins 0.015 0.48 

380 lin. ft. rafters, 2X4 ins. 0.015 5.70 

432 lin. ft. purlins, 1X3 ins 0.005 2. 16 

144 lin. ft. ridge, 1 X 3 ins 0. 005 0. 72 

36 lin. ft. ridge pole, 3X4 ins 0.0275 1.00 

416 lin. ft. joists (26 pieces 16-ft.), 2X8 ins 0.028 11.70 

576 sq. ft. flooring, 1-in 0.025 14.40 

782 sq. ft. barn boards in sides, 1 X 10 ins . 025 19 . 55 

72 sq. ft. barn boards in gables, 1 X 10 ins 0. 03 2.16 

150 sq. ft. barn boards in partition, 1 X 10 ins 0, 025 3. 75 

40 lin. ft. tin ridge 0.06 2.40 

5 windows (six 8 X 10-in. lights) , 2 ft. 6 ins. by 2 ft 1.25 6.25 

3 doors, 2 ft. 9 ins. by 7 ft 0.90 2.70 

2 mess tables, 16 ft. by 3 ft 2.50 5.00 

4 benches, 18 ft 0.40 1.60 

720 sq. ft. corrugated iron roof . 046 33 . 85 

90 lbs. wire nails 0.035 3.85 

7 lbs. galvanized nails . 06 . 42 

3 pairs hinges (10-in. strap) . 25 0.75 

3 nooks and staples 0.05 0.15 

2 hasps and staples 0.10 . 20 

1 padlock 0.28 0.28 

112 lin. ft. trim. 1 X 5 ins 0.035 3.92 

Total cost of materials $135. 28 

Labor: 

14 hrs. foreman carpenter $0,275 $ 3.85 

66 hrs. carpenter 0. 22 14 . 52 

41.5 hrs. carpenter's helper 0. 17 7.06 

Total cost of labor $ 25.45 

Total cost of building : 160. 73 

Bunk House. — This building is 50 X 14 ft. in plan and is built with a slop- 
ing roof. The building is placed with the long dimension parallel to the road 
leading to Ridgely and the height of the side facing this road is 9 ft. 6 ins., 
while the height of the rear is 6 ft. 6 ins. The house is divided into five com- 
partments, each of which was designed to accommodate eight men. The sills 
were made out of 4 X 6-in. lumber, the four corner posts were made out of 
3 X 4-in. material. The upright posts along the front and rear of the building 
were spaced 10 ft. on centers and made of the same sized material. The plate, 



1606 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

which consisted of 2 X 4 in. material, was spiked to the tops of these uprights. 
The rafters rested on the plate and were spiked to it and were of 3 X 4-in. 
material. They were 16 ft. long and were spaced 2 ft. on centers, and over- 
hmig the sides of the building about 8 ins. As in the other building 1 X 3-in. 
lathing was used for purlins and spaced 1 ft. 6 ins. on centers. The roof was 
of corrugated iron weighing 115 lbs. per square and was nailed directly to the 
lathing. To finish off the ends of the rafters they were covered on the front 
and rear of the building by 5-in. dressed boards. By this method of construc- 
tion a fresh air inlet 4 ins. high waS provided along both front and rear of the 
building, yet rain could not enter through this space. This building was 
braced in a manner similar to that employed in the construction of the build- 
ing previously described with the exception that the 2 X 4-in. braces running 
from the top of the plates were run level from the top of the rear plate and 
were spiked at the front to a piece of 2 X 4-in. material. The joists, floors 
and sides of this building were constructed as in the other and need no further 
comment. As stated, this building was divided into five compartments, each 
of which was 10 ft. wide, the compartments being separated by partitions 
of barn boards and each partition 6 ft. high. Each compartment was pro- 
vided with a door placed at the front of the building, also with two windows, 
one in front and over the door, and the other at the rear. In this way com- 
plete ventilation of the building was obtained. Against each side of each 
compartment two tiers of bunks were built. The bunks were 3 ft. wide and 
extended the 14-ft. dimension of the building. The bottom tier of bunks 

Table XXV. — Bill of Material and Cost of Constructing Bunk House 

FOR Workman's Camp 

Items and siz Rate Cost 

128 lin. ft. sills, 4X6 ins . S0.05 $ 6.40 

93 lin. ft. posts, 3 X 4 ins 0. 0275 2. 56 

65 lin. ft. frames for doors, etc. 3 X 4 ins 0. 0275 1 . 78 

132 lin. ft. plates, 2X4 ins 0.015 1.93 

128 lin. ft. braces, 2 X 4 ins 0.015 1.92 

224 lin. ft. braces, at plate 2X4 ins 0.015 3.36 

416 lin. ft. rafters, 3 X 4 ins 0. 0275 11 . 44 

650 lin. ft. purlins, 1X3 ins 0.005 3.25 

405 lin. ft. joists (27 pieces 16-ft.), 2 X 8 ins 0. 028 11 . 34 

75 lin. ft. braces foot of posts. 3X4 ins 0. 0275 2.07 

800 sq. ft. flooring, 1-in 0. 025 20. 00 

1,000 sq. ft. barn boards in sides, 1 X 10 ins 0.025 25.00 

336 sq. ft. barn boards in partitions, 1 X 10 ins. 0. 025 8. 40 

500 sq. ft. barn boards in bunks proper, 1 X 10 ins. . . . 0.025 12.50 

60 lin. ft. 2 X 4-in. supports for bunks 0.015 0. 90 

50 lin. ft. braces, 2X4 ins., for bunks 0.015 0.75 

132 lin. ft. trim, 1X5 ins 0.035 4.62 

10 windows (six 8, X 10-in. lights), 2 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft 1 . 25 12 . 50 

5 doors, (2 ft. 9 ins. by 6 ft.) •. . 0.54 2.70 

800 sq. ft. corrugated iron roof 0.046 36.80 

108 lbs. wire nails 0.035 4.46 

7 lbs. galvanized nails . 06 . 42 

6 prs. hinges (8-in. strap) 0.16 1 . 08 

6 prs. hooks and staples 0.05 0.30 

6 prs. hasps and staples. 0. 10 0. 60 

Total cost of materials $177 . 28 

Labor: 

24 hours foreman carpenter $0. 275 $ 6. 60 

95 hours carpenter 0. 22 20. 90 

34 hours carpenter helper 0. 17 5. 95 

Total cost of labor $ 33. 45 

Total cost of building 210. 73 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1607 

was about 1 ft. above the floor, while the upper tier rested on the 2 x 4-m. 
brace that extended around the building. The bunks were supported at the 
center by means of a trestle consisting of two 2 X 4-in. posts 6 ft. long and 
spaced 6 ft. apart. The tops of these posts were connected by a piece of 2 X 
4-in. material running longitudinally of the building, and were further braced 
by running 2 X 4-in. braces from the top of the rear plate over each post and 
spiking this brace to a piece of 2 X 4-in. material that ran across the front of 
the building. Nailed to these 2 X 4-in. posts and at heights of about 1 ft. 
and 3 ft. above the floor, respectively, were two pieces of 2 X 4-in. material 
6 ft. long and upon these the bunks rested. The bunks were made of 1-in. 
barn board. Table XXV gives the bill of material used in the construction of 
this building and the cost of construction. 

Cook Shed. — The shed provided for cooking purposes consisted simply of 
four upright posts about 7 ft. high, supporting a corrugated iron roof 12 ft. 
square. Under this shed the brick ovens used by the men to cook their food 
were prepared. The cost of constructing this shed is shown by Table XXVI. 

Table XXVI. — Cost of Cook Shed 

Items and size Rate Cost 

40 lin. ft. corner posts 4 X 6 ins $0. 05 $ 2 . 00 

Other lumber 1.00 

144 sq. ft. corrugated iron roofing . 046 6 . 63 

Total cost of materials $ 9 . 63 

Labor: 

7 hours carpenter $0. 22 $ 1 . 54 

Total cost of shed $11. 17 

The toilet was built along lines typical of out-of-door toilets. It was 4 ft. 
square and was not roofed over. The total cost of the closet was $2.85. 
The following is a summary of the total cost of camp : 

Combined dining room and store. $160. 73 

Bunk house or sleeping quarters 210. 73 

Cooking shed 11.17 

Toilet 2.85 

Well 10. 55 

Straw for bedding 5 . 00 

Total cost of camp $401 . 03 

After the construction work on the sewer system had been finished the town 
of Ridgely purchased the building used as dining-room and store and remod- 
eled it and made it into a barn. The bunk house and also the well were sold, 
the total amount received from these sales being $312.98 making the net cost 
of building the camp $88.05. As the camp was in use for a period of about eight 
months the net cost per month amounted to about $11. 

The first cost of the camp, including a well for water supply and other acces- 
sories was $10 per man accommodated. The dining and store building cost 
just under 30 cts. and the bunk house just over 30 cts. per square foot of area. 

Data on the Erection of Steel Work of the Shops of the Lima Locomotive 
Corp., Lima, Ohio. — Engineering News, May 7, 1914, gives the following: 

The steelwork conforms in the Manufacturers Standard Specifications. It 
was given two coats of graphite paint, one applied in the shop and the other 
after erection. 



Tons 


Time of erection 


1200 


26 days 


225 


10 days 


260 


8 days 


253 


6 days 


300 


7 days 


20 


10 days 


12 


7 days 



1608 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

All steel erection was done with four traveling stiff-leg derricks of 50 tons 
hoisting capacity, carrying booms 100 ft. long. These were of steel construc- 
tion and the booms were long enough to place the roof trusses and monitor 
roof framing. The book tile for the roof of the erecting shop were handled by 
a platform elevator in the timber tower at the middle of the building. The 
steel gang numbered about 85 men. Work was comimenced on Jan. 12 and 
completed Mar. 8, 1913. The tonnage and time of erection of the several 
steel buildings were as follows: 

Building 

Erecting shop 

Boiler shop 

Smith shop 

Hammer shop 

Tank shop 

Coal-pulverizing plant 

Riveting tower 

Cost of Erecting a Large Steel Dome. — In Engineering News, Mar. 8, 1917, 
M. Van Meter gives the following: 

The 92-ft. dome of the Wealthy St. Baptist Church, Grand Rapids, Mich., 
has a steel frame formed by eight main arch members 35 ft. in span, with 19- 
ft. rise, framing into an octagonal crown diaphragm, 22 ft. wide across the 
points. The arches are tied together at the heel by four trusses and four sets 
of angle ties. This is because that portion of the building under the dome is 
square, and a part of the roof load is carried by the ties in alternate bays. 

The arches are 2 ft. deep at the top and 5 ft. at the outer extremity. Three 
lines of beams parallel to the base ties carry the wooden ceiling and roof 
joists. The lateral bracing consists of a system of rods together with a line 
of struts in the center of each bay at right angles to the roof beams. A steel 
monitor frame 8 ft. high surmounts the structure. 

The erection procedure was as follows: A derrick of the required height was 
raised, and the eight sides of the diaphragm were riveted up around its base. 
With two sets of blocks, the ring was raised to the final elevation, 45 ft. above 
the floor, and light timber falsework placed underneath. The arches were 
raised with a gin pole, bolted in place, and the base ties erected. The roof 
beams, struts and rods were then placed, rivets driven and supports removed. 
The entire job was completed without a mishap, the one anxiety being caused 
by the extraordinarily high winds that prevailed after the diaphragm was 
raised and before the timber falsework was finished. 

The shop cost of this contract was $25 and the erection cost $28 per ton, 
with labor at 50 cts. per hour in each case. 

Cost of Erecting Steelwork for an Armory Having Three-Hinged Arches. — 
The following data, taken from an article in Engineering and Contracting, 
Aug. 6, 1913, refer to the armory building of the University of Illinois. 

When completed, this structure will have a clear drilling space of about 200 
ft. by 390 ft. In 1913 the two end bays were not built, owing to a lack of 
appropriations. The width of the portion built is 206 ft., center to center of 
end pins, the length is 338 ft. center to center of end arches, and the height 
is 94 ft. 3 ins. from center of pin at the crown to a line connecting the end pins. 
The present structure has 13 bays, each 26 ft. long. The two future bays 
are each 26 ft. 6 ins. long. 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1609 

The arches rest on masonry piers, and the horizontal thrust is taken up 
by tie rods which connect the end pins. These tie rods are encased in con- 
crete to prevent corrosion. 

Although the balcony was not provided at the time of erection the balcony 
girders were put in and provision made for connecting the future steelwork to 
them. Lateral bracing is placed in the end panels and in every alternate panel. 
The bracing in the sides of the building consists of 6 X SH X ^^-in. angles, 
this bracing being omitted in the three center bays on account of the entrances. 

The total weight of the steelwork for this armory was 985 tons. The 
weight of one three-hinged arch, complete with pins but exclusive of the eye- 
bar ties and the bases, was 37 tons. Each segment of the arch wa3 shipped in 
four sections, the weights of these sections, beginning at the bottom, being 534 
tons, 43^^ tons, 4 tons, and 5 tons. The arches rested on cast bases, each base 
being anchored to its footing with two l^^^-in. rods 2 ft. long. There are 
15,400 %-in. diameter field rivets and 14,900 ^-in. diameter field rivets in the 
structure. 

Contractor's Equipment. — The contractor's equipment included a large 
traveling derrick, two riveting outfits, an air compressor plant, an office, block- 
and-tackle apparatus and ropes for guiding the arches during erection, etc. 

On account of the size and weight of the arches, a special traveling derrick 
was used. It was formed by mounting parts of two stiff-leg derricks on a steel 
tower, which in turn rested on rollers. One of the legs was taken off of each 
stiff -leg derrick, and the remaining portion was braced together as shown in 
the drawing. Heavy bracing was required to give the required rigidity to 
the tower. The tower was 37 ft. 6H ins. by 38 ft. 4 ins. by 32 ft. high. A 
platform placed on the lower sills of the tower carried the two hoisting engines. 
These engines were placed at the rear to assist in anchoring the tower, although 
considerable additional anchorage was required. One hoisting engine was 
used to operate each boom. The booms could be moved independently, or 
both could be moved at the same time. The height of the masts was 40 ft., 
the length of each stiff -leg was 56 ft., and the length of each boom was 90 ft., 
thus the height and reach of the booms was sufficient to reach any part of an 
erected arch. The boom had a 17-in. sheave and a 2-in. shaft at the top. 
Quadruple blocks were used. The masts were fitted with 13-in. sheaves and 
13'^-in. shafts at both top and bottom. The booms used on this work had 
three 30-ft. sections, although their total lengths could be changed by sub- 
stituting sections of different lengths. The total weight of the traveler was 
about 26 tons, and each hoisting engine had a capacity of about 35 tons. 

Method of Erection. — The footings were first put in place, and trenches were 
dug for the tie rods. The traveler was then shipped to the site and erected. 
As has been previously mentioned, each segment of the arch was shipped in 
four parts. These sections were hauled to the site on wagons. The derrick 
then picked up these parts and placed them on the ground in their proper posi- 
tions. They were then assembled and riveted together. In the meantime, 
the cast bases were set on the footings, and the tie rods were laid in the 
trenches. 

Time Account and Cost Data. — About two weeks were required to erect the 
traveler and to get the equipment in good order. On an average two arches 
were erected per week. Sometimes as many as three arches were erected in 
a week, but it was necessary to assemble a segment and rivet the four parts 
together before it could be erected and this required considerable time. Work 
was started putting up the traveler on Jan. 20, 1913, and about two weeks 



1610 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

later the erection of the steelwork was started. One riveting gang started on 
Feb. 17 and another on Feb. 24. They finished riveting the first panel on 
March 1. The men started to take down the traveler on March 22. 

The superintendent and the two foremen of the riveting gangs, each received 
HOH cts. per hour, the two engineers for the hoisting engines and the engineer 
for the air compressor received 72^^ cts. per hour, the men working on the 
steel erection 68 cts. per hour, several laborers 25 cts. per hour, and one boy 
received 20 cts. per hour. 

Although the greatest number of men at work at any time was 44, about 75 
different ones were employed by the contractor before the work was completed. 

The following is a summary of costs and weights: 

Total cost of erecting traveler (labor) $ 634 . 63 

Total cost of erecting steelwork (labor) 4,379. 84 

Total cost of taking down traveler (labor) 422 . 47 

Total cost of field riveting (labor) 3 , 969 . 38 

Total cost for erecting and field riveting 9 , 406 . 32 

Total weight of steel in structure (tons) 985 

There were 15, 400 J^-in. and 14, 900 f^-in. field rivets driven, a 

total of 30,300 

Cost of erecting steel (per ton) $ 9 . 55 

Cost of driving field rivets (cents each) 13.1 

Prices of Water for Building Purposes. — Engineering and Contracting, 
April 11, 1917, gives the following data. The following schedule of rates is in 
force at Johnstown, N. Y., for water used for construction purposes: 

Plastering per 100 yd 25 cts. 

Brick per 1, 000 4 cts. 

Stone per cu. yd 2 cts. 

The supply must be specially applied for, and permission obtained from City 
Clerk for each separate building, job or piece of work, and paid for at the time 
application is made for the permit. 
The rates at Detroit, Mich., are: 

Brick per 1, 000 $0. 05 

Plaster per 100 sq. yd 07 

Concrete per 100 cu. yd 1 . 00 

. Concrete 6 in. thick or less per 100 sq. yd. . . 20 

.Tile per 100 cu. ft 05 

Each perch stone 01 

Cost of Manufacturing Concrete Roof Tile. — D. Helmuth (Concrete, Oct., 
1919) gives the following: 

The size of the tile is 9-in. by 14^ in. By concentrating efforts on labor 
saving devices the output of the machines was increased from 250 tiles each 
man per day to 600. 

To quote Mr. Helmuth: 

We make our tile on the well-known hand-operated type of machine. We 
figure a profit of 8% on our entire investment, and from June and July, 1919, 
figures, it works out as follows: 

Cement, per bbl., $2.32, at the mixer. 

Washed sand, either river or bank — that is, practically free from loam — at 
$1.33 per ton, at the mixer. 



BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1611 

Pure red and brown color, $0.17 per lb., unmixed. 

Tile made on a piece-work basis, at 1 ct. per tile. 

The operators have the mix brought to the machine, as well as the pallets, 
all ready and oiled, and the tile removed from the pallets, for the tile operator, 
by a laborer that costs us 60 cts. per hour. 

A first-class man to make special pieces, at 70 cts. per hour. 

Figure 8% as a charge on a capital investment of $50,000. 

Water, light, power, heat, factory and office rentals, and every conceivable 
overhead necessary today in the operation of a modern business that requires 
about this amount of capital are charged up. 

Everybody in the unit is an expert man. 

Results — Tile produced and stacked in the yard for 4 cts a piece, or $6.00 per 
square, counting 150 pieces to a square. 

Cost of Concrete Block Manufacture. — S. H. Wightman, in Engineering 
World, Sept., J 920, gives the following cost analysis made by him in March, 
1920. 

Quality of block which will stand 1500 lbs. per sq. in. in 28 days 

Average capacity per day, 1000 8 by 8 by 16 — 300 days = 300,000 per year. 

Average cost of factory building, $5000. Wood. (For modern plant add 
$10,000.) 

Average cost of equipment, $10,000. (See schedule "A.") 

Average cost working capital, $10,000. 

Factory Production Costs 

Cost per 
block 

Cement — 12 blocks to a bag at $2.40 per bbl. net $0. 0505 

Loss on cement bags .06 cts. bbl. 
Sand and gravel — 50 blocks per cu. yd. at $3 yd " 06 

Day 

Productive labor — 1 Machine operator $ 8. 50 

1 Off bearer 8.00 

1 Mixer man 8 . 00 

2 Men stocking, etc 7 . 50 

7.50 

1 Cement and gravel 7 . 00 

$46.50 .0465 
Total per block 01570 

Factory Overhead 

Non-productive (indirect labor) Day 

"Supt. and general overseer $10. 00 

Extra all around man 8 . 00 

Night man....- * 7.00 

$25.00 $0,023 

Coal, 1 ton per week @> $8.40 per ton 0014 

Oil, water and light, $1.70 per day 0017 

Power, $2.50 per day 0025 

Repairs and maintenance, materials $9 per week 0015 

Factory expenses, freight & cartage $6 per week 001 

Depreciation on equipment (15 % on $10,000 = $5 per day) 005 

Depreciation on buildings (5 % on $5,000 = .833 per day) 00083 

Breakage in manufacturing blocks per day at .28 cts. = $5.60 per day .0056 
Workingmen's compensation, 4 % of $72.50 per day = $2.90 0029 

Total per block $0. 04542 



1612 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Delivery and Sales 

Loading blocks $0 . 008 

Freight and cartage out 035 

Extra cartage 
Delivery breakage 
Commission 

Adjustments } 001 

Service 

Estimates 

Advertising 

Net discounts on sales 2 % = $7 per day 007 



Total per block ' $0,051 

Executive Overhead 

General manager (owner) $5000 year = $16.66 per day $0.01666 

Office expense, $1 per day 001 

Taxes 0005 

Insurance, building equipments and materials 0005 

Interest on loans, $5000 at 6 % 001 

Loss on bad accounts , $300 per year 001 

Rent on land, $100 month , 004 



Total per block $0. 02466 

Schedule "A" 

Equipment to Make 300,000 Blocks per Year 

Block machines and attachments $ 3 , 200 . 00 

40 Block cars. 1 , 600. 00 

Tracks, ties and transfers '. 500 . 00 

Pallets 1,000.00 

2 Mixers 500. 00 

Gravity conveyor 100 . 00 

Boiler 400.00 

Piping and heating 200 . 00 

Motor, 10 horsepower 250. 00 

Wiring 200.00 

Millwright installation material 480 . 00 

Office equipment 185 . 00 

Tool and factory supplies 400 . 00 

Bag bundling machine 35 . 00 

Drawings 350 . 00 

General expense. .' 600 . 00 

Total $10,000.00 

From this analysis it may be assumed that good block will cost 29 cts. to 
manufacture and if sold at 35 cts. each will yield a profit of 17% on the gross 
sales. As the quantities of materials are stated and other units of labor given 
any one can substitute local prices for those given, change the total accordingly 
and arrive at what should be the cost prices in any district. Needless to say, 
a fair profit should be added to total manufacturing and selling costs. 

Costs of Upkeep and Repairs* on a Large Building. — Walter R, Metz in 
Engineering News-Record, Aug. 5, 1920, gives the following: 

The costs as given cover a group of ten buildings all connected together but 
not all under one roof. The main building is seven stories high and the other 
buildings are from four to six stories high. All of the buildings were designed 
for heavy loads and heavy machinery and are used for a printing plant. The 
floors in the main building were designed for loads of 300 lb. per sq. ft. and in 
the other buildings 200 lb. per sq. ft. 

Costs have been given for each year from 1912 to 1919 inclusive and indi- 
cates the gradually increased cost of both labor and materials. 




BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1613 

Floors. — ^AU floors were leveled up with concrete and finished with hard 
maple blocks 23^ X 12 X J^ in., cut with interlocking grooves and projec- 
tions on the sides and near the lower faces of the blocks. These blocks were 
dipped so as to coat the under side with hot bituminous mastic and applied 
to the concrete, which had been previously prepared by giving it a coat of 
bituminous varnish. The total area of the floors, in round numbers, is 250,- 
600 sq. ft. 



Year 


Labor 


Material 


Total 


Cost per square 


1919 


$2,387.69 


$267.48 


$2,655.17 


$1.06 


1918 


2,787.91 


132.57 


2,920.48 


1.16 


1917 


2,454.53 


202 . 30 


2,656.83 


1.06 


1916 


1,178.37 


125.31 


1,303.68 


.52 


1915 


1,058.33 


99.01 


1,167.34 


.46 


1914 


1,005.17 


57.86 


1,063.03 


.42 


1913 


1,336.54 


95.87 


1,432.41 


.57 


1912 


1,055.09 


121.59 


1,176.68 


.47 



Roof. — The roof is of reinforced-concrete slabs supported by steel beams. 
It was finished with flat vitrified tiles, laid on a base of Neufchatel asphalt 
mastic. The mastic was applied in two coats with a layer of fine wire netting 
between to serve as a bond. Each tile was stuck fast to the mastic with a 
spoonful of bituminous cement. The inclination of the roof is about 1 to 7. 
This is rather steep for tiles on an asphalt base but the whole roof has stood 
up remarkably well. The total area of the tile roofing is 50,700 sq. ft. 



Year 


Labor 


. Materials 


Total 


Cost per square 


1919 


$ 726.91 


$ 16.20 


$ 743.11 


$1.46 


1918 


2,038.80 


459.96 


2,478.76 


4.88 


1917 


392.38 


12.82 


405 . 20 


.79 


1916 


640.78 


166.03 


809.81 


1.59 


1915 


102.13 


4.95 


107.08 


.21 


1914 


657.96 


89.33 


747.29 


1.47 


1913 


493.70 


36.94 


476.64 


.94 


1912 


239.11 


28.54 


267 . 65 


.52 



Steam Heating. — The total volume of the main building is 7,600,000 cu. ft. 
The system of heating is the direct-indirect, the coils being placed in pockets 
under the windows with dampers for admitting fresh air and baffles for deflect- 
ing the air to the floor, whence it would have to rise through the coils. The 
total radiation is 70,000 sq. ft., consisting of 694 steam coils and 35 cast-iron 
radiators. The ratio of heating surface to the volume of the building is 108. 

In addition to this there is approximately 30,000 sq. ft. of radiation in coils 
in the other buildings, making the total radiation approximately 100,000 sq. ft. 











Cost per 100 sq. 


Year 


Labor 


Material 


Total 


ft. of radiation 


1919 


$3,928.23 


$ 601.46 


$4,529.69 


$4.53 


1918 


2,631.21 


2 , 000 . 38 


4,631.59 


4.63 


1917 


3,823.02 


523.04 


4,346.06 


4.34 


1916 


3,183.45 


694.11 


3,877.56 


3.87 


1915 


2,635.52 


222.35 


2,857.87 


2.85 


1914 


2,643.43 


399.83 


3,043.26 


3.04 


1913 


2,870.56 


480.71 


3,351.27 


3.35 


1912 


2,436.34 


343.97 


2,780.31 


2.78 



Plaster. — Plaster on ceilings was applied to a concrete surface and three 
coats of plaster were applied. The first and second coats were heavily gaged 
with Portland cement, the idea being to secure a hard plaster. Around 
beams the plaster was applied to wire mesh. The plaster was rather thick 



1614 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

and it is believed it would have lasted better if it had been applied thinner, say- 
about K in. thick. The plaster on practically every beam either fell or had 
to be removed after about eight or ten years' use, but that on the ceilings is 
still in good shape although about 18 years old. The total area of plastered 
surface is approximately 360,000 sq. ft. 



Year 


Labor 


Material 


Total 


Cost per sq 


1919 


$ 993.63 


$ 21.83 


$1,015.46 


$0.28 


1918 


62.61 




62.61 


.017 


1917 


9,026.52 


'956! 49 


9,983.01 


2.77 


1916 


2,659.62 


409.81 


3 , 069 . 43 


.85 


1915 


681.68 


51.66 


733.34 


.20 


1914 


466.66 


3.59 


470.25 


.13 


1913 


858.77 


38 . 44 


897.21 


.24 


1912 


578.42 


96.47 


674.89 


.18 



Doors. — There are 223 doors of all sizes and types in the buildings, single- 
acting hinged office doors, double-acting, plain sliding, and automatic sliding 
fire doors. These doors receive very hard usage and need constant attention. 
Practically all of the double-acting doors have wire glass in the upper panels. 

Year Labor 



1919 


$564.58 


1918 


883.44 


1917 


598.88 


1916 


910.38 


1915 


691.04 


1914 


855.72 


1913 


440 . 42 


1912 


435.80 



Material 


Total 


Cost per door 


$109.18 


$ 673.76 


$3.02 


182.91 


1,066.35 


4.78 


185.03 


783.91 


3.51 


224 . 22 


1,134.60 


5 08 


148.46 - 


839.50 


3.76 


143.85 


*1 , 099 . 57 


4.93 


130.28 


570.70 


2 56 


142.81 


578.61 


2 59 



Windows. — There are 2,290 windows in the buildings, most of them of the 
double-hung sliding type with a few of the hinged type. Glass sizes vary from 
12 X 18 in. to 36 X 50 in. 



Year 


Labor 


Material 


Total 


Cost per window 


1919 


$593.67 


$220.26 


$ 713.93 


$0.31 


1918 


794.70 


294.87 


1,089.57 


.47 


1917 


486.97 


161.72 


648 . 69 


.28 


1916 


729.51 


191.99 


921 . 50 


.40 


1915 


421.47 


76.46 


497 . 93 


.21 


1914 


758.72 


168.70 


927.42 


.40 


1913 


474.50 


108.95 


583.45 


.25 


1912 


564.12 


174.40 


738.52 


.32 



Plumbing.— Fixtures in the building consist of 240 water closets, 338 wash- 
basins, 90 urinals, 21 slop sinks, 120 drinking fountains, 80 fire hose and racks. 
The repairs includes, of course, repairs to the necessary piping as well as to 
repairs to fixtures. It is difficult to find any unit basis so total amounts only 
are given. 



Year 


Labor 


1919 


$5,304.63 


1918 


5,309.31 


1917 


4,530.09 


1916 


3,291.66 


1915 


2,974.8^ 


1914 


2,941.40 


1913 


2,738.26 


1912 


2,250.82 



Material 


Total 


$406.08 


$5,810.71 


352.87 


5,662.18 


556 05 


5,086.14 


464 . 96 


3,756.56 


237 93 


3,212.80 


238.95 


3,180.35 


395.26 


3,133 52 


160.36 


2,411.18 




BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1615 

Depreciation of Office Buildings. — (Engineering and Contracting, Dec. 25, 
1918.) After much research work in many leading cities the committee on 
Taxation of the National Association of Building Owners and Managers has 
reached the conclusion that the minimum annual depreciation of normal office 
buildings is 3 per cent of actual building cost for each of the first ten years, 
2.5 per cent for the second 10 years, 2 per cent for the third 10 years, and 
thereafter doubtful. These figures are given by H. J. Burton, chairman of the 
committee, in a report to the Government Advisory Council of Real Estate 
Interests. The report also states: 

"The best authorities consider that there is a steady and inevitable annual 
depreciation ranging from 1.5 to 2 per cent for the structural portion of the 
average modern office building, and from 7 to 10 per cent per annum for the 
mechanical plant and equipment. This makes the annual depreciation of 
the combined structure and plant 3.2 per cent per annum. 

' ' The obsolescence of the ornamental and finishing work and of the archi- 
Jtectural plan, which reduces the competitive earning capacity of the building, 
should also be allowed, and should be differentiated from the obsolescence or 
decadence of the location, which is reflected in the reduced land values." 



CHAPTER XXIV 
ENGINEERING, SURVEYING AND OVERHEAD COSTS 

References. — Further data on cost of surveying are given in Gillette's 
"Handbook of Cost Data." Chapter I of "Mechanical and Electrical Cost 
Data" by Gillette and Dana contains many data on overhead and engineering 
costs. 

Schedule of Charges for Engineering Services. — Engineering and Contract- 
ing, March 13, 1918, gives the following abstract of a paper by Edmund T. 
Perkins presented at the 1918 annual meeting of Illinois Society of 
Engineers. 

The various services rendered are classified as follows, and are generally 
charged for on a percentage basis, except surveying which should be 
per diem. 

1 — Reconnaissance. 

2 — Preliminary reports. 

3 — Surveying. 

4 — Plans and specifications. 

5 — Details. 

6 — Supervision and progress estimates. 

7 — Superintendence. 

8 — Alterations. 

9 — Professional advice. 
10 — Consultation. 
11 — Court work or arbitiration. 

Reconnaissance work is necessary when no data, or Incomplete data, have 
been secured, and is preliminary to general planning of project and securing of 
data. 

Preliminary reports are made when the necessary data on which the report 
is based have been secured of such detail and accuracy as to permit of proper 
advice being given or design made. 

Surveying covers every class of field work which is not a part of reconnais- 
sance work. It includes all location lines for roads, canals, railroads, etc., all 
level lines, all sinking of wells or experiment work, besides all classes of land 
surveying and land subdivision, and compensation therefore should be on a 
salary or per diem basis with expenses paid. 

Plans and specifications are required as the basis for letting of contracts or 
for the information of the owner, employer or consulting engineer, and afford 
a full description of the work. They are implied by the necessities of the work 
even when not required by the owner, and include an estim.ate of the cost of 
the work. Plans, when adopted and approved, must be so endorsed by both 
owner and engineer. 

1616 




ENGINEERING, SURVEYING AND COSTS 1617 



Details are not always an essential of the construction work, and the rate 
charged, therefore, is flexible, varying with the amount of detail work. 

Supervision and the making of progress estimates should always be required, 
that the engineer responsible for the plans and specifications should be satis- 
fied, by personal inspection that the specifications are fully complied with and 
satisfactory progress made. When superintendence is paid for, as defined 
in the next section, there is no additional charge for supervision. 

Superintendence of construction must be had by a superintendent mutually 
acceptable to owner and engineer. The schedule rate for superintendence 
applies when the engineer who has designed and planned the work, or his 
assistant, superintends construction. All other employes than such assistant 
or assistants are to be paid by the owner. 

Alterations may be required at any time by the owner, or become necessary 
by reason of unforeseen conditions or changes in the size of projects. The 
schedule rate applies to such alterations as may be required by the owner — 
alterations becoming necessary by reason of unforeseen condition or acci- 
dents are covered by percentage charges on the aggregate costs. 

Professional advice is always charged for according to interests involved, 
charges being based on value of services rendered, not on time required in 
arriving at conclusions or opinions. 

Consultation with engineers who have made certain branches of professional 
work a specialty may be requested by the engineer having general charge of 
the work, or may be required by the owner. Charges for consultation work 
being based on value of services rendered, not on time required in arriving at 
conclusion or opinion. 

Court work as an expert or as arbitrator in settlement of controversies, 
condemnation proceedings, etc., in the interest of the owner, is entitled to 
additional pay at a rate to be agreed upon. 

Schedule rates cover compensation only for engineering services: that is, 
the services of the engineer and his engineer assistants. 

All expenses incurred for materials, blue prints, or for transportation, hire 
of helpers, rodmen, chainmen, teamsters, conveyances, and living expenses 
when away from regular place of business, are a separate and additional charge 
against the owner, as is a reasonable charge for general office expenses. 

Time of payment is according to agreement ; but usually is arranged on the 
basis of a preliminary payment, or retainer, and an advance for traveling or 
other expenses aside from services; and further payments on account, if the 
commission extends over considerable time. 

Final pay for preliminary reports is due upon presentation of report. 

Final pay for reconnaissance work is due upon completion of same. 

Pay for supervision or superintendence becomes due on progress estimates 
made for payments to contractors, or, if work is done by day labor, on monthly 
appraisements of work done. 

All percentages are computed on the contract price or actual cost of 
work. 

When construction covered by plans and specifications is not carried out, 
pay for these plans and specifications is due upon completion of the estimate 
of cost of work. 

The several items of payment on the percentage basis become due from time 
to time when the class of service has been rendered. 

Per diem rates apply to an 8-hour day. Extra time is charged for on a basis 
of IK time on week days, and twice time on Sundays and legal holidays. 
102 



1618 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Table of Charges — on Percentage Basis 

Suf q^ ^-g -^ ^^ o£i §2 |«^ 

om «o^ r-<^ cq^ io^ ^^ c^^ > 
h5 »& ^ m ^ . ^ m o 

% % % % % % % % 

Reconnaissance 2.0 1.75 1.5 1.0 0.75 0.5 0.4 0.3 

Preliminaries 1.5 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 

Plans and specifications 4.0 3.5 3.02.5 2.0 1.5 1.3 1.2 

♦Supervision 2.0 1.8 1.5 1.3 1.1 1.0 0.8 0.6 

♦Superintendence 5.0 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.5 3.0 2.8 2.4- 

tAlterations 7.0 6.5 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.0 3.5 

Everything from beginning to 

completion of job 12.5 10.75 9.3 7.9 7.4 6.0 5.3 4.2 

♦ Supervision not charged for when superintendence is. 

t Alteration relates only to value of work involved in the alteration. 

Note. — -Percentages are computed upon the entire cost of the completed work, 
exclusive of engineering, or upon the estimated cost pending execution or com- 
pletion of same, "Cost" refers only to such part or parts of the whole work or 
project as the engineer may deal with. 

Table of Charges — on Per Diem Basis 

Chief engineer — $500 retaining fee, $100 per day while absent from office and 
expenses. 

Assistant chief engineer — $50 a day while absent from office and expenses. 

Topographers, assistant engineers and chiefs of parties — $15 to $25 a day while 
absent from office and expenses. 

Designers — $12.50 a day while absent from office and expenses. 

Instrument men, draftsmen, computers — $7.50 a day while absent from office 
and expenses. 

Stenographers, chainmen, axmen — $3.50 a day. 

Note. — Attendance at court or expert testimony for any fraction of a day is 
considered as a full day. 

Charges on Other Bases, — ^A fixed fee for services rendered may be charged 
by agreement where a long engagement for professional services is contem- 
plated ; the engineer may accept such retainers on a yearly basis, at a compen- 
sation not less than that of the permanently employed engineer of the client. 
Except in cases where the compensation of the engineer is in the form of an 
annual retainer, the agreement between the engineer and his client should 
specify the period of time during which the compensation of the engineer, as 
determined by per diem charges, fixed fee, or agreed percentages, shall apply. 
If, through no fault of the engineer, the work should not be completed within 
the time so specified, an additional charge may be made, the basis for which, 
if practicable, should be agreed upon in advance. 

^ Mahoning Valley Engineers' Schedule of Fees. — The Mahoning Valley, 
Ohio, engineers, have a standard fee schedule. The schedule, as given in the 
1918 report of the Committee of Standard Fees of the Iowa Engineering 
Society is abstracted in Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 22, 1918, as follows: 

Per Diem Rate. — Consultation, opinion, testimony, preliminary investi- 
gation, reports, and consulting capacity upon design, minimum, $25 per day. 
(While absent from city, attending court, or similar duties, or traveling, each 
day of 24 hours, or fraction thereof shall be considered as one day irrespective 
of the actual time spent on the case. Otherwise seven hours shall constitute 
one day.) For examination or reports of an extensive nature coyering several 
days, minimum, $15 per day. Engineer in ciiarge of field work, minimum, 



ENGINEERING, SURVEYING AND COSTS 1619 

$10 per day. Assistants, classed as instrumentman of party, minimum, $5 
per day. Assistants, classed as rodmen, chainmen, etc., minimum $3.50 per 
day. Inspector on paving, sewer, etc., minimum, $3.50 per day. Minimum 
charge for field work, $10. To all the above an additional charge will be 
made to cover actual expense, including $10. Residence lot, minimum charge, 
$10. 

Office Work. — Calculating, draughting, etc., $10 per day. Minimum charge, 
$2.50. Minimum charge for one map, $5. Engineer to retain original draw- 
ings, but to furnish one print copy to chent and if plat is for public record one 
copy on tracing cloth in addition. Additional copies to be furnished client 
at cost. 



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C A 6 d 10 IC 14 16 16 to Zt lA £6 £d 30 51 3d 36 35 40 
Confrocf Price in^lOOO 

Fig. 1. 



Percentage of Cost. — Engineering and supervision for sewer district or system, 
or disposal plant, minimum: 

Contracts under $3,000, per diem rate. Contracts under $30,000: First 
$15,000, 8 per cent of estimate. Second $15,000, 7H per cent of estimate. 

For Paving. — Contracts under $3,000, per diem rate. Contracts under 
$30,000: First $15,000, 7 per cent of cost. Second $15,000, 6H per cent of 
cost. Client to pay for one inspector on percentage work. 

The above rates are a base for contracts with a reasonable time limit in the 
contract and all overtime to be based on the per diem rate. 

Cost of Engineering and Inspection on Street and Sewer Construction in 
Spokane, Wash. — Fig. 1, given in Engineering and Contracting, July 9, 1913, 
shows the cost of engineering and inspection on sewer construction and street 
improvement work in Spokane, Wash., during the year 1912. It will be noted 
that four curves are given on the diagram showing, respectively, the cost of 
street engineering, street inspection, sewer engineering and sewer inspection. 



1620 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The cost of the engineering and inspection is stated as a percentage of the 
contract price. 

In Engineering and Contracting, Aug. 20, 1913, a letter from Alexander 
Potter commenting on Fig. 1 and a reply by Morton Macartney, City Engi- 
neer of Spokane, Wash, are given. The following is taken from Mr. Macart- 
ney's reply. 

Relative to the diagram giving engineering costs on sewer and street work 
in Spokane during 1912, 1 beg to state that, while I agree thoroughly with Mr. 
Potter, that no engineer in private practice can afford to do sewer engineering 
and supervision for much less than from 5 to 7 per cent, you will notice that 
(in Fig. 1) we have segregated our inspection from our engineering, and in 
order to get what the ordinary engineer has to do in connection with a sewer 
project, he must add these two together. In this case it would bring the cost 
of our engineering and supervision up to about from 3.8 per cent to 8 or 9 
per cent; or assuming the limits he refers to, namely $15,000 and over, the 
engineering and supervision would cost not to exceed 5.6 per cent to 3.8 per 
cent. These curves are platted from actual costs covering a period of one 
year and tally very closely with a similar curve for the year 191 1. No private 
engineer should be able to do the engineering and supervise the construction 
of a sewer for as low an amount as a municipal department doing this class 
of work, due to the fact that all run off data and other items usually costing 
the engineer considerable to gather, are matters of record resulting from an 
accumulation that comes to an office doing that class of work, usually without 
a very great expense. 

The aggregate work for the year amounted to $598,000 and consisted of 
almost all classes of sewer construction work, varying from an 8-inch, vitrified 
pipe to a large reinforced concrete sewer, totaling slightly over 13 H miles. 

The engineering costs include the cost of actual time spent by field corps, 
inspectors, and designing engineers, with a 10 per cent overhead expense on 
the part of the general office. 

Cost of Engineering in Small Towns in Mississippi. — The following is from 
a tabulation given by C. L. Wood in Engineering and Contracting, May 1, 
1912. 



Type of work Town 

Street grading, storm drains 

and brick gutters Newton 

Macadam and storm sewers 

and sidewalks West Point 

Storm sewers, concrete curb 

and gutter Columbus 

Concrete sidewalk Booneville 

Macadam paving West Point 

Cost of Engineering on Sewage Disposal Plant. — Richard Gould in giving 
the costs of the Dallas Sewage Disposal Plant, Engineering News-Record 
July 5th, 1917, states that the total cost of the plant was $571,575 of which 
$36,962 was for engineering, or about 6.48%. 

Cost of Engineering Supervision in Road Work. — ^Engineering and Con- 
tracting, May 17, 1916, gives the following abstract from a paper before the 
Pan American Road Congress by Lamar Cobb. 



Amount of 
Contract 


Engineer- 
ing Cost, % 


Salary 
Equivalent 

of 
Percentage 


$ 8,000 


6.6 


$125.00 


35,000 


4.0 


166.67 


8,000 

15,000 

6,200 


7.0 
3.5 
7.3 


166.67 
150.00 







ENGINEERING, SURVEYING AND COSTS 1621 



Based on inquiries addressed to state road oflacials the following data were 
amassed relating to cost of engineering supervision: 

Alabama. — Bulletin No. 4 shows that in twenty counties the percentage for 
plans and surveys was about 3 per cent and for engineering during construc- 
tion the percentage was about 5.9 per cent of the total cost of construction. 
The cost of all engineering work would be, therefore, about 8.9 per cent of the 
total cost of construction. The administrative charges are not shown. 

Arizona. — The percentage for plans and surveys is 4.6 per cent and for 
engineering and inspection during construction 4 per cent, or total engineering 
and inspection, 8.6 per cent, based on total cost of construction and engineer- 
ing. The cost of executive and administration is 3.6 per cent, making grand 
total overhead expenses 12.2 per cent. 

Connecticut.— The percentage for surveys, plans, etc., is about 0.88 of 1 
per cent, and for engineering during construction about 4.94 per cent of the 
total cost. The cost of the work done by the state highway commission*n 
connection with roads and bridges amounts to about 0.7 of 1 per cent of the 
total expenditures of the various counties on roads and bridges. 

Kansas. — On bridge construction the percentage for plans, estimates, speci- 
fications, etc., average about 1 per cent, and for engineering supervision and 
inspection from 2 per cent to 5 per cent of the contract price, making the cost 
of all the engineering and supervision about 4.5 per cent of the total cost of the 
work. On road construction the percentage for all engineering and super- 
vision on macadam and concrete roads is about 8 per cent of the contract 
price. 

Maine. — The percentage for surveys, plans, specifications, etc., is about 2.27 
per cent, and for inspection and engineering supervision about 3.58 per cent 
of the total cost of the work. On small work it is estimated this percentage 
will be as high as 10 or 11 per cent. 

Maryland. — On the state aid roads completed between June 1, 1910, and 
December 31, 1913, the percentage for survey, plans, estimates, etc., was about 
0.5 of 1 per cent, and for engineering during construction about 3.2 per cent 
of the total cost of the work. The percentage for other engineering and ad- 
ministration was about 4.7 per cent, making the cost of all engineering and 
administration about 8.4 per cent of the total cost of the work. 

Massachusetts. — The percentage for surveys, plans, etc., is about 1.9 per 
cent, and for engineering during construction about 4.5 per cent of the total 
cost of the work. The cost of administration is about 1.2 per cent, making 
the cost of all engineering and administration about 7.6 per cent of the total 
cost of the work. 

Minnesota. — For the year 1914 all the expenditures for engineering and 
supervision amounted to about 5K per cent of the total cost of the work done. 
Mr. Geo. W. Cooley, state engineer, states that he believes this amount to be 
smaller than is desirable. He believes very nearly 10 per cent is necessary 
for actual close supervision. 

New Jersey. — On twenty pieces of work the average percentage for surveys, 
plans, etc., was 1.8 per cent and.for other engineering was 4.1 per cent, making 
the cost of all engineering about 5.9 per cent of the total cost of the work. The 
cost of administration was not given. 

New Mexico. — On bridge construction the expenditures for engineering and 
inspection amount to about 3 per cent of the total cost. On road construction 
the expenditure for engineering and inspection amount to about 5.2 per cent, 
and for administration and oflice engineering about 7.42 per cent of the total 



1622 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

cost of the work. The cost of all engineering and administration on road 
construction would be about 12.62 per cent of the total cost of the work. 

New York, — The report of the Commissioner of Highways for 1914 shows 
about 11.2 per cent of the total expenditures to be for engineering and inspec- 
tion and about 3 per cent for administration, making the cost of all engineering 
and administration about 14.2 per cent of the total expenditures. 

North Carolina. — The information available covers a few roads only and 
shows that about 4.06 per cent of the total cost of the work was expended for 
engineering and inspection. The administration charges appear to be in 
addition to the above. 

Ohio. — Bulletin No. 22 shows that about 5.71 per cent of the total cost of 
road construction was expended for engineering. The cost of administration 
appears to be in addition to the above. 

jpregon. — Upon various pieces of work reported for year ending November 
30, 1914, the cost of engineering varies from about 4 per cent to about 9.4 
per cent of the total cost of the work. The cost of administration is not shown 
separately. 

Pennsylvania. — The report for the year 19 13-14 shows the expenditures for 
engineering and inspection on completed contracts to be about 5.6 per cent of 
the total cost and for administration about 1.4 per cent, making the cost of all 
engineering and administration about 7 per cent of the total cost of the 
work. 

Rhode Island. — On paved roads the expenditures for surveys, plans, speci- 
fications, etc., amount to about 2 per cent and for engineering and inspection 
about 2 per cent of the total cost of the work. The percentage for adminis- 
tration amounts to about 5 per cent, making the cost of all engineering and 
administration about 9 per cent of the cost of the work. 

Virginia. — The expenditures for all engineering and inspection amounted to 
about 5 per cent of the total cost of construction in 1914. The commissioner 
states, however, that in his opinion a larger percentage would result in a sub- 
stantial saving to the state. 

Wisconsin. — In 1914 all overhead charges, including engineering and admin- 
istration were slightly under 5 per cent on road construction. The inspector 
on the work is, however, charged to construction. The cost of preparing 
plans etc., for bridge construction was about 2.8 per cent of the cost of 
construction. 

Engineering Cost of County Road and Bridge Work, Iowa (Engineering and 
Contracting, Sept. 4, 1918). — The total expenditure for road and bridge work 
in Iowa in 1917, according to County Engineers' reports, was $15,165,476, 
an increase of $828,420 over the amount for the previous year. Of the total, 
$7,466,797 was for bridges, $3,588,338 for county roads and $4,140,340 for 
township roads. The total expenditures for the three previous years were: 
1916, $14,337,056; 1915, $13,525,617; 1914, $11,601,000. The percentage of 
engineering cost for the four years, according to the Service Bulletin of the 
Iowa Highway Commission, was as follows: 



-Per cent- 



1914 1915 1916 1917 

County engineering. 2 . 85 2.75 2 . 53 2 . 58 

Highway commission 64 .60 .63 .59 

Total all engineering 3.49 3.35 3. 10 3.17 



ENGINEERING, SURVEYING AND COSTS 1623 

Cost of Engineering Supervision, Ohio Highway Department (Engineering 
and Contracting, Nov. 18, 1914.) — A publication of tlie Ohio Highway 
Department states that the cost of engineering supervision of road and 
bridge construction work by the department has been as follows : 

Percentage 
Year of total cost 

1914 4.03 

1912 and 1913 5.71 

1911 and 1912 6. 18 

1910 and 1911 6.40 

1909 and 1910 ;.. . 5.39 

1908 and 1909 5.43 

1907 and 1908. 5 . 28 

1906 and 1907 7 . 55 

During the current year the state will have expended $3,150,000 and the 
counties $3,450,000, a total of $6,600,000 in the construction of their system. 

Cost of Engineering on Maine Highway Work (Engineering and Contract- 
ing, Feb. 7, 1917.) — The cost of engineering by the Maine State Highway 
Department for 23 gravel road contracts let in 1914 was 6.10 per cent, accord- 
ing to an article by Irwin W. Barbour, assistant engineer, in the December 
Cornell Civil Engineer. This percentage does not include oflSce administra- 
tion. Itemized the percentage is: 

Per cent 

Surveys 1 . 02 

Plans and computations •. 96 

Advertising. 04 

Engineering during construction 4.11 



The roads were located in 16 towns and aggregated 80.11 miles. The total 
cost was $525,383, the percentages for the various class of work being: 



Per cent 

Grading 33 . 77 

Drainage 10 . 35 

Surfacing 39 . 77 

Culverts : 8.43 

Guard rails 1 • 55 



Division of Costs of $18,000,000 Worth of Highways. — Engineering Record, 
Oct. 28, 1916 gives the following: 

With the expenditure of the last of the $18,000,000 which was authorized in 
California in 1909 for the construction of trunk highways, the highway com- 
mission has been able to show a road system laid out in complete detail with 
finished roads in every part of the state on those routes where the immediate 
need was the most urgent. The aggregate mileage completed includes 966 
miles of o.il-surfaced concrete pavement, 129 miles of oiled macadam and 395 
miles of graded dirt road. 

Costs Summarized. — A review of the costs and notable features of the work 
accomplished by the commission, from which the following has been taken, was 
recently prepared for California Automobile Association by Eric Wold, who 



1624 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

was retained for that purpose. His r4siiin6 of the commission's statement 
of expenses shows the following figures: 

Construction cost: 

Payments on contracts, materials and day labor work $14 , 284 , 552 . 1 1 

. Equipment (1.15 per cent of construction cost): 

Expenditures of all classes of equipment and furniture 164,394.46 

Expenses (16.64 per cent of construction cost): 

Expenditures for engineering, legal accounting, purchasing, 

laboratory, services and expenses incidental thereto 2,372,757.41 



Total expenditure to June 15, 1916 $16,821,703.98 

Total amount available from state highway fund 18,000,000.00 



Unexpended balance June 15, 1916 $ 1,178,296.02 

Since June 15, 1916, at which time the foregoing figures were brought up to 
date, the commission has obligated itself for the expenditure of approximately 
the entire balance remaining out of the original $18,000,000. 

A general survey of 175 contracts under which the commission has let 
highway construction work developed the following average prices, which 
include the cost of material: 

Excavation, including clearing right-of-way, shaping and finishing of 

roadbed, watering and rolling, per cu. yd $0.41 

4-in. concrete pavement, per sq. yd 738 

IK-in. asphalt wearing surface, per sq. yd 45 

^-in. oil top, per sq. yd 054 

A total of 2,350 miles of road was surveyed at a cost of $744,957, or $317 per 
mile. Of this total only 1,490 miles have been constructed, as before stated, 
so that the cost of locating ready for construction about 860 miles of highway 
is included in the expenditures made to date. This mileage of survey on which 
construction was not undertaken was necessary because of the difficulty and 
delay in securing certain necessary rights-of-way which forced the commission 
to construct disconnected lengths of road. 

The handling and delivery of all materials used on construction were under- 
taken by the commission, and the overhead charge of 10 to 20 per cent of the 
net cost of the contract, which is usually allowed for this item, was borne by 
the conunission and is included in the commission's expenses. A summary of 
the equipment which the commission purchased to carry on this work is as 
follows: 

California Road-Building Equipment 

Equipment 

Sand plants $ 27 

Construction equipment 

Engineering equipment 

Furniture 

Stable 

Auto 

Camp 

Laboratory 



Therefore the 17.79 per cent of the total expenditure, which is shown in the 
first table as gross overhead, includes in reality salvable equipment, surveys 
(the advantage of which has not yet been realized), and other minor items, 
such as designs, supervision, etc., given gratis to counties undertaking inde- 
pendent road work. The net overhead chargeable to the construction work 





Per cent 




Cost 


salvage 


Salvage 


$ 27,259.19 


100 


$ 27,259.19 


21,257.49 


100 


21,257.49 


25,716.10 


50 


12,858.05 


21,328.05 


40 


8,531.22 


17,070.99 


100 


17,070.99 


41,380.55 


40 


16,552.22 


6,429.32 


20 


1,285.87 


3,952.74 


50 


1,976.35 


$164,394.43 


$106,791.38 



ENGINEERING, SURVEYING AND COSTS 1625 

on the roads actually built, including allowance for these items, amounts to 
12.75 per cent of the gross construction costs, which is considered a very reas- 
onable allowance for net overhead on public work of this character. 

Cost of Engineering on a Million Dollar Road Project (Engineering and 
Contracting, April 3, 1918). — The building of 178 miles of roads for McClen- 
nan County, Texas, cost $1,075,000 for construction and engineering, of which 
$35,156, or about 4.6 per cent, was for engineering. This is slightly less than 
$200 per mile. There were 110 miles of gravel roads, 63 miles of macadam 
(waterbound) and 5 miles of concrete. The work was done by contract under 
the direction of the county engineer, RoUen J. Windrow, of Waco, Texas. 

The following are the itemized percentages of the total cost of the engineer- 
ing: 

Per cent 

Preliminary surveys . 28 

Office expense 0.61 

Transportation (including first cost of motor cars) 0. 39 

Field engineering and inspection on construction 2 . 04 

Checking gravel and stone 0. 85 

County engineer's salary 0.41 

Total engineering 4 . 58 

The preliminary surveys, inclusive of making plans and estimates, involved 
surveying 20.3 miles of line, which was done at a cost of less than $15 a mile, 
inclusive of expense accounts. The salaries, however, were low, being only 
$90 a month for transitman, $75 for levelman and $50 for the other men. 

The office expense covered office supplies and the salaries of a bridge 
designer at $125, a chief clerk (who was an engineer) at $100, an assistant 
clerk (also an engineer) at $75 and a stenographer at $50. 

More than half a million tons of gravel and stone were used, and, as they 
were furnished by the county to the contractors, the cost of checking the quan- 
tities was treated as an engineering expense, which amounted to 0.85 per cent 
of the total cost, or 1.8 cts. per ton. 

The cost of engineering on this road project was unusually low, perhaps 
half what such costs average in northern states; but the salaries were low and 
the construction was fairly continuous, the project being completed within two 
years. 

The Cost of Measuring Base Lines. — In Engineering News, Mar. 16, 1911, a 
paper by Wm. Bowie, Inspector of Geodetic Work for the Coast and Geodetic 
Survey, and Chief of its Computing Division, read before the Washington 
Philosophical Society, explains the changes which have been made on the 
Coast Survey in the substitution of tapes and wires in place of bars. At the 
1914 annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of 
Science, at Atlanta, a paper was again presented by Mr. Bowie in which he 
more fully covered this subject. The following is from Engineering News, 
Feb. 19, 1914. 

According to Mr. Bowie, not since the beginning of the present centm*y has 
the Survey made use of the old bar method for measuring its base lines. This 
change of practice, however, has not been fully appreciated by the textbook 
writers at least, as treatises on surveying published in recent years describe 
the use of bars as if they were still a practical tool of the engineer. Mr. 
Bowie concludes his paper with the remark that base-line measurement bars 
from now on should be found only in museums and deserve a prominent 
place only in the history of geodetic surveying. 



1626 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Cost. — ^With the modern invar tapes or wires the cost of base-hne measure- 
ments by a survey party averages only about $50 per kilometer. The work is 
of a high degree of accuracy, quite comparable with that obtained by bar 
measurement. This means that in any geodetic triangulation net, base lines 
can be introduced with much greater frequency, so that in order to secure a 
given degree of accuracy it is not necessary to introduce so much refinement 
in measuring the angles of the triangles. 

The invar tapes used by the Coast Survey have proved to be much less 
susceptible to injury in the course of use, resulting in change of length, than 
was at first anticipated. Mr. Bowie gives values for the constancy of length 
of four invar tapes used on the Coast Survey, showing that the total range in 
value during four years for the four tapes varied from one part in 170,000 to 
one part in 410,000. The difference in length between the values resulting 
from the length when first standardized and when last standardized varied 
from one part in 170,000 to one part in 1,110,000. Another great advantage 
in the use of tapes over bars is that they can be handled by comparatively 
unskilled persons. In a party of six assigned to base-line measurements, only 
one or two of its members need to be experts in base-line work, a very different 
condition from that prevailing with the micrometer bars formerly used. 

Cost of Surveys for Federal Aid Roads Project in Kansas. — The following 
figures, given by E. L. Hageman in Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 3, 1919, 
relate to surveys made in the early part of 1918 for a Federal Aid road project 
in Labette county, Kansas. The work covered approximately 44 miles of 
highway, divided into four sections, as follows: Section A, 9.25 miles; B, 
10.1 miles; C, 10.83 miles; D, 13.91 miles. 

The transitman received $100 per month until May 1st, excepting two days 
due to a change of transitmen. From June 12th to June 27th, the transitman 
received $150 per month. The helpers received $2 per day until March 1st. 
when they were paid $3 per day. The time was derived from the actual num- 
ber of days worked, as the helpers were working by the day and the transitman 
worked in the office during inclement weather. 

A cheap cloth tape which had been removed from its case and the free end 
allowed to drag on the ground was used in measuring, it being impractical to 
be continually rolling and unrolling the tape. The tape was much easier to 
handle in this way and being inexpensive the time saved more than offset the 
additional cost. 

Bench levels for Section A were started on Jan. 23 and completed on Feb. 5. 
The following is a summary of the work for the four sections : 



2J 



. O O <U CO 

Section W piq Q 

"A" 0.032 0.0060 1,113 

••B".. 0.036 0.0059 1.532 

"C" 0.026 0.0059 1.196 

"D" 0.047 0.0241 1,677 

0.141 0.0419 5,518 

Average .036 .0105 1 ,380 



H-. ■^ 


>> 


2t? 


«*H 


ji n 


e3 


t*-, ^ 
^-^ 


^'s 




J 


Sj 

r 




324 


2.11 


1.85 


2.31 


513 


2.66 


2.34 


2.90 


352 


2.32 


2.32 


2.17 


331 


2.20 


2.02 


1.60 


1,520 


9.29 


8.53 


8.98 


380 


2.32 


2.15 


2.245 



ENGINEERING, SURVEYING AND COSTS 1627 

The result of inexperienced help is clearly shown in Section "A" under miles 
per day. The effect of rough, hilly country is also shown in Section "D" 
under miles per day, and error of closure. The slower progress made on Sec- 
tion "A" was due in part to disagreeable weather. Sections "B" and "C," 
over which progress was more rapid, are similar in topography to "A." 
Three circuits were re-run, and two additional circuits have poor closures but 
were not rechecked, owing to the limited time in which to finish the survey, 
this being another cause of the poor closures in Section "D." 

Center hne surveys on Section A were started on Feb. 6 and completed Feb. 
15. A summary of this work for the four sections follows: 



No. of Length of 

Section miles/day shots, ft. 

'A" 1.16 1,815 

'B" 1.44 1,624 

C" 1.67 1,518 

'D" 1.46 1,295 



5.73 6,352 

Average 1 . 43 1 , 588 



Section "A" shows the least number of miles per day as in bench levels 
and foi: the same reasons as stated before; the rate would have been propor- 
tionately smaller had it not been for the longer shots. In the same manner 
the shorter shots in Section "D" retarded the work. 

Cross sectioning was started on Section A on Feb. 11 and finished Feb. 28. 
The following is a summary for all the sections : 









Length of 












foresights 


No. of 


No. of 




Error of 


and back- 


miles 


shots 


Section 


closure 


sights 


/ day 


/day 


A" 





033 


272 


1.23 


570 


B" 





066 


327 


1.56 


732 


C" 





027 


302 


1.48 


713 


D" 





063 


298 


1.66 
5.93 


639 







189 


1,199 


2,654 


Average , 





047 


300 


1.48 


664 



As before, Section "A" indicates a slower rate of progress, while Section 
" D" shows the best progress, which can be partly attributed to the fact that 
less shots were taken per distance traveled than upon the other sections. 
Rainy weather retarded progress appreciably on Section "C." The closures 
on Sections "A" and "C" compare very well with the bench level closures 
for the same sections. This would seem to indicate that an accurate line of 
levels can be run in connection with the cross sectioning by using the necessary 
precautions. The larger errors accumulated in Sections "B" and "D" are 
attributed to inaccuracies resulting from too fast work. 



1628 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The labor cost of the surveys was as follows : 



Bench Levels 



No. of 
Section days 

'A" 5 

'B" 4H 

•C" 4.66 

2.0 
3.66 

'D" 2.0 

4.87 
6.87 



No. of 
men 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 



Rate 
$3.85 
2.00 
3.85 
3.00 
3.85 
2.00 
3.00 
3.85 
4.81 
3.00 



Cost per 

Total mile 

$19.25 

10.00 $3.16 

16.68 ..... 
13 . 00 2 . 94 

17 . 94 

4 . 00 

7 . 98 2 . 76 

7.70 

23.42 

20.61 3.00 



Centerline 



No. of 
Section days 

•A" 8 

•B". 7 

'C" 6M 

•D" 9K 



No. of 
men 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 



Rate 

$3.85 



00 

85 
00 
85 
00 
81 
00 



Total 
$30 80 
32.00 
26.95 
42.00 
25.03 
39.00 
45.70 
57.00 



Cost per 
mile 



$7.01 
6.83 



5.91 
7.38 



Cross Sections 



No. of 
Section days 

•A" 7H 

'B" 63-^ 

'c... : rn 

1 

6>^ 
'D" 7.79 



No. of 
men 
1 
2 
1 
2 
2 
1 
1 
1 
2 



Rate 
$3.85 
2.00 
3.85 
3.00 
3.00 
4.81 
3.85 
5.77 
3.00 



Cost per 
Total mile 

$28.88 

3b . 00 $6 . 37 

25.03 

39.00 6.34 

34 . 00 

4.81 

24 . 38 5 . 83 

44 . 93 

46.74 7.08 



An automobile was used on the survey for five months. The total miles 
traveled in the survey was estimated at 2,187. This number was arrived at 
by taliing the distance to the center of the road and multiplying it by twice 
the number of trips, some days there being two trips out and back when the 
party came in at noon. 

The total expense of running^ the car for the five months was $133.89, less 
one-eighth the amount the car was used for other purposes, = $133.89 — 
$16.74 = $116.95. Depreciation = $385 (cost price) - $200 (selling price) 
= $185. The car had been oiit nine months when the survey began, was used 
on the survey five months and had been in use 21 months when sold. The 
amount of the total depreciation charged to the use of the car during the 
survey was one-third, or $61.66. The total expense of car was $178.61 for 
2,187 miles or $0,082 per mile. 



ENGINEERING, SURVEYING AND COSTS 1629 
The instruments and materials used on the surveys were as follows : 



Level and rod 

Field books and pencils. 



Bench Levels 
Cost 
$ 50.00 



Center Lines 

Cost 

Stakes $ 57.15 

Transit 150 . 00 

Axe 1.00 

Tape 5.44 

2 cloth tapes 5.00 

Field books and pencils 2 . 25 

Flag poles 6.00 

Kiel 1.00 

Nails • .25 



Depreciation 

2H% 



Depreciation 



5% 
50% 

15% 
25% 

"5% 



Amount 
$ 1.25 
1.15 

2.40 

Amount 

$57.15 

7.50 

.50 

,82 
25 



1 
2.25 

.25 
1.00 

.25 



$70.97 
Cross Sections 

Cost Depreciation Amount 

Level and rod $ 50. 00 2^ % $ 1 . 25 

Field books and pencils 2 . 25 2 . 25 

4 cloth tapes 4.00 4.00 

$ 7.50 

This gives a total of $80.37 or 3.697 cts. per mile. 

Allowing for one-fourth time of the County Engineer for 5 months at $166.66 
per month gives a cost of $208.33 divided by 2,187 miles or 9.5 cts. per mile. 
Figuring in this cost the totals for the surveys were : 



Bench levels 

Labor $130.58 

Car ^ 47.64 

Instruments and materials 2 . 40 

County engineer 55 . 20 

Totals $235. 82 

Cost per mile $ 5.35 

The labor cost of preparing the plans follows : 



Center lines 

$300.48 

67.24 

70.97 

77.90 



$516.59 
$ 11.72 



Cross sections 

$277.77 

46.50 

7.50 

44.02 



$424 . 44 
$ 9.84 



County engineer, >ith time from Feb. 1 to July 1, 1918 at $833.33. . . $ 208 . 33 

County engineer, Mth time from Jan. 1 to July 1 1919 . . 142 . 86 

County engineer, ^i time from July 1 to Aug. 15 1919 125.00 

Assistant engineer, 45^^ days at $3.80 157 . 64 

Assistant engineer, 2 months at $125 250 .00 

Assistant engineer, 1 month a $125 125 . 00 

Assistant, 7 weeks, at $150 per month 258 . 61 

Assistant, 4 days at $4.17 16 . 88 

Assistant, 6 days at $3.70 33 . 50 

Assistant, 9 days at $5 : 45 . 00 

Assistant, 3 months at $150 450 . 00 

Assistant, J^th time for 3 months at 131 . 25 

Miscellaneous help 55 . 22 

Total $1,999.89 

As the surveys covered 44.09 miles of highway, the labor cost of preparing 
the plans was $45.36 per mile. 



1G30 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The cost of supplies and use of ofiBce equipment for plans was as follows: 

Ink, pencils, erasers, etc ^. . $ 5 . 00 

Value of office fixtures, drawing instruments, etc., $300.30; depreciation 

at 4 % or 12.01 

Total $17.07 

On the basis of 44.09 miles of road this gives a cost of $0.39 per mile. 

The cost of blue print paper was 11 cts. per sheet; the cost of printing, trim- 
ming and binding was 14 cts. , mailing the total cost per sheet 25 cts. Materials 
as follows were used in preparing the plans for the four sections: 

216 sheets blue print paper at 25 cts $ 54 . 00 

90 sq. yds. plain profile cloth at 70 cts 63.00 

90 sq. yds. cross section paper at 20 cts 18.00 

11.7 sq. yds. tracing cloth at 37 cts 43 . 29 

Total 44.09 miles of road at $4.05 $178.29 

This gives a cost of $4.05 per mile of road for the blue prints. 

The cost of the plans was $48.22 per mile, and the cost of the surveys was 
$26.69 per mile, giving a total cost of $74.91 per mile. 

Cost of Road Surveys, Missouri. — In Engineering and Contracting, March 3, 
1920, CO. Sandstrom, in commenting on the law of Missouri fixing the price 
of road surveys and plans at $100 per mile, says that in one instance on a 22- 
mile job an engineering firm broke even at $225 a mile and on another job of 
29 miles a small profit was made at $175 a mile. The high cost in the first 
case was caused by breakage in an organization. In both jobs, the design of 
culverts and bridges up to 20-ft. span were included. 

Cost of Highway Surveys, Pennsylvania. — Engineering and Contracting, 
Aug. 19, 1914 gives the following record of the State Highway Department of 
Pennsylvania. 

Cost of Surveying About 9, 000 Miles of Highway in Pennsylvania 

Item Total Cost per mile 

Surveying main line $442, 597.98 $ 47.87 

Plotting main line 72,432.79 11.36 

Checking and tracing main line 8 , 717 . 79 7 . 97 

Surveying alternate line 15,461 .22 50.45 

Miles surveyed, main line 8 , 827 . 91 

Miles plotted, main Hne 6 , 373 . 81 

Miles checked and traced, main line 1 , 094 . 40 

Miles surveyed, alternate line 306.36 

Cost of Road Surveys and Plans (Engineering and Contracting, March 7, 
1917). — The cost of road surveys and plans made by the forces of theWiscon- 
sin Highway Commission between Aug. 15, 1915, and July 1, 1916, under 
survey contracts with counties averaged $24.79 per mile. The figures in 
more detail, according to the Third Biennial Report of the Commission, are 
as follows: 

Surveys made Plans completed 

Miles 894.27 706.69 

Cost per mile $ 7.98 $ 16.81 

The cost of Isolated Road Surveys (Engineering News-Record, Oct. 4, 
1917). — Since 1913 the State Highway Department of Illinois has made more 
than 400 preliminary surveys of roads under conditions which have made the 
comparative cost rather.high, although the actual cost of $26.40 is but a small 



ENGINEERING, SURVEYING AND COSTS 1631 

item of the final cost of the road and insignificant in comparison to the cost of 
errors that might have resulted from less careful surveys — or no surveys at all. 
This work was done on roads in short and entirely disconnected sectiojis. As 
a result the cost of transporting men to and from the intersections was large 
in proportion to the amount of work accomplished after they had arrived at the 
work. 

All of this work was preliminary in its nature, some of the surveys being 
made in prairie land and some in rough country. Altogether nearly 1,100 
miles of road were surveyed at an average cost of $26.40 per mile. The aver- 
age rate was 0.84 miles per day and the average length surveyed was 2.66 
miles. 

A typical party consisted of two engineers at $4 a day, three helpers at $2.50, 
and a team at $3. Such incidentals as transportation, board, lodging and 
supplies brought the total cost per day to nearly $25, and while this figure is 
less- than the cost for similar work done by a private engineer, it does not 
include such charges as office expenses and profits. 

Cost of Location of Mountain Roads. — Will R. White, Chief Engineer of the 
State Highway Department of Washington, in a paper before the 1912 
American Road Congress, abstracted in Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 
30, 1912, gives the following: 

Costs. — Our location for mountain work should cost us from $150 to $300 
per mile. These prices are for work in charge of competent engineers. Some 
of the work has cost us more, due to inexperienced engineers. Those not 
familiar with our mountains will think this cost excessive, but when you 
stop to consider that it is so brushy that it is necessary to have three or more 
axmen to average a mile of preliminary line a day, the same party averaging 
a half mile of location a day, you can get some idea of the expense. 

Our location parties usually consist of complete transit, level and topo- 
graphical crews. The camp outfit with the cook make 15 men to the party. 
In most cases the provisions can be hauled to them, but in some instances 
pack trains are required. Our final locations are usually made from contours 
taken from preliminary lines. In the settled districts and in the open country 
of Eastern Washington the cost of location will range as low as $50 per mile. 

Methods and Costs of Some Extensive Railroad Surveys. — Early in 1902 
the Little Kanawha Railroad began surveys for extensions eastward from 
Palestine to Belington, W. Va., and westward from Parkersburg, W. Va.,to 
Zanesville, Ohio, and about a year and a half later for a line northward from 
Behngton to the Pennsylvania-West Virginia State line. These surveys 
required the running of 1,400 miles of preliminary and 600 miles of located 
lines, and the methods used and the cost of the work were presented by W. S. 
McFetridge in a paper before the A. S. C. E., on May 19, 1909. The following 
notes are taken from an abstract of the paper in Engineering Record, June 5, 
1909. 

The surveys were conducted under the following charters: Zanesville, 
Marietta & Parkersburg Railroad, in Ohio; Parkersburg Bridge & Terminal 
Railroad, from the Ohio- West Virginia State line to Parkersburg (this division 
included a bridge over the Ohio River a few miles below Parkersburg) ; Little 
Kanawha Railroad, from Parkersburg to Burnsville; Burnsville & Eastern 
Railroad, from Burnsville to Belington; Buckhannon & Northern Railroad 
from Belington to the Pennsylvania- West Virginia State line; in all, some 328 
miles of main-line location, exclusive of branch lines. 

The termini, as usual, were fixed; physical conditions also fixed the Little 



1632 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Kanawha River as the only outlet to the Ohio. Owing to local conditions, it 
was believed that the heavier traffic would be westbound, and therefore that 
every effort should be made to get as low a ruhng grade as possible for this 
traffic. All roads previously built through the adjoining regions have long 
stretches of 1.5 per cent grades, and curves up to 12 and 14 deg. The first 
surveys, therefore, were of a preliminary nature, in order to determine what 
grades and curves could be secured. 

After a number of surveys, locations and explorations had been made, it was 
found that the following grades and curves were possible: In Ohio, 0.5 per cent 
grades, 4 deg. maximum curve; Little Kanawha Division, 0.3 per cent grades, 
8 deg. maximum curve; Burns ville and Eastern Division, 1.0 per cent grades 
against eastbound and 0.5 per cent grades against westbound traffic, 8 deg. 
maximum curves; all grades compensated for curvature at the rate of 0.04 
min. per degree. These results were obtained in each case, and though very 
easy for parts of the country, required some rather long continuous grade lines, 
the longest being on the Burnsville and Eastern division, where there are 1.0 
per cent grades, 7 miles and 7H miles long, respectively, and a 0.6 per cent 
grade 14 miles long, all against eastbound traffic. 

The topographical sheets of the United States Geological Survey were 
found of great value in making a broad, general study of the country. A large 
number of maps of small scale (1 in. to 1 mile or even smaller) were compiled 
and traced from various State, county and road maps, on which the several 
survey lines could be indicated. 

The general direction of the survey, except along the Little Kanawha 
Division, was almost directly across the general drainage of the country. 

In Ohio a direct line between termini was first examined, but was found to be 
impracticable. A systematic examination toward the southwest was then 
made, and a satisfactory hne developed. All the streams here lie in deep, 
narrow valleys, and are exceptionally crooked. The only feasible way to 
traverse much of the country was to get up out of the valleys and stay out.. 
Such a method necessitated crossing about 100 ft. above several streams, and 
running short tunnels between the watersheds ; it also gave the shortest 
line, the easiest grades, and the lightest curvature. 

The main problem on the Parkersburg Bridge &. Terminal Railroad was the 
determination of the location for a bridge over the Ohio River. The Govern- 
ment regulations required 90 ft. clear head-room above low water and no 
piers in the main channel, which necessitated a 700-ft. span. The location 
finally adopted is about 5 miles below Parkersburg, and is believed, Mr. 
McFetridge stated, to be the shortest and cheapest railroad bridge crossing the 
Ohio between Pittsburgh and the Mississippi, the 700-ft. span practically 
clearing the entire channel. 

The Little Kanawha Division, in general, followed the Little Kanawha 
River. The hills rise abruptly from the river banks. The river is very 
crooked, and to follow it gave a long hne with much curvature. Much dis- 
tance could be saved by cutting through the country at various points, but 
the work was very heavy. The line, as finally located, is a combination of 
river and cross country line. It is 31 miles shorter than the river, in a total 
distance of 100 miles. There are eight tunnels, usually short, the longest 
being 4,000 ft. There are seven river crossings, with main spans from 100 to 
300 ft. 

The Burnsville and Eastern Division is in the central mountain part of the 
State. The highest altitude reached is 1 ,725 ft. above sea level. The country 



ENGINEERING, SURVEYING AND COSTS 1633 

was very rough and broken, and supporting ground for grades could not be 
found. The Buckhannon and Northern Division followed the river for about 
two-thirds of its length, the other third being cross-country. 

Field parties were made up as follows: Assistant Engineer in charge, $125 
to $150 per month; transit man, $85 to $100 per month; levelman, $75 per 
month; rodman, $65 per month; head chainman, $50 per month ; rear chain- 
man, $45 per month; rear flagman, $40 per month; stakeman, $35 per month; 
axemen (from two to five), $30 each; topographer, $65 per month; tapemen 
(two), $45 each; draftsman (part time), $60 per month. Camp outfits were 
not used. The parties boarded at houses along the line. Each party was 
given from 40 to 60 miles of line to cover, depending on local conditions. 

After the first route to be examined had been chosen, a preliminary line 
was run through; then the alternate routes were run, all surveys being tied 
together; and finally the lines required for a thorough development of all possi- 
ble routes were run. In locating long grades, it was preferable to start at a 
summit and run down hill. With a little experience, the assistant engineer 
could make a sufficiently close estimate of the amount to allow for compensa- 
tion for curvature, and could run his line accordingly. In the mountainous 
part of the country here described this compensation amounts to about 6 ft. 
per mile, equal to 0.12 per cent grade, and preliminaries, for a 1.0 per cent 
compensated grade, run on an 0.88 per cent straight grade gave the desired 
information 

In following the larger watercourses, it was usual to locate a line on 
either side for purposes of comparison, and in order to determine the advisabil- 
ity of crossing from one side to the other either to get a better line or to block 
the country against rivals. 

It may appaer to some that there was much unnecessary location and run- 
ning of preliminary lines, but in rough country like this, and on work of this 
magnitude (in 220 miles of this line there were twenty-one tunnels, the longest 
being 4,000 ft., five viaducts from 400 to 1,000 ft. long, and more than 100 ft. 
in height, besides numerous other bridges), it is, in Mr. McFetridge's opinion, 
time and money well spent. 

Topography, showing contours, houses, roads, and similar features, was 
taken on practically all lines. This was taken on 12 X 18-in. sheets 
to a scale of 200 ft. to 1 in. The topography was plotted in the field. 
This method was preferred to any other; it is quicker; saves much 
copying and plotting; the work can be plotted better in the field, where 
everything can be seen at the time of plotting; and at night the assistant engi- 
neer has a finished map to look over and study. The topography was taken 
accurately by using a metallic cloth tape for distances and a hand-level for 
elevations. The topography was ordinarily taken for 300 ft. on each side 
of the center line. The sheets were inked in each night. 

To obtain a large general map showing all lines, the lines were carefully 
plotted on tracing cloth, the small sheets were fitted so as to make the center 
line on each sheet fit the center line on the tracing, and then the topography 
was traced. By this method any error in plotting or joining the small sheets 
was eliminated from the large map. The location was projected in pencil on 
sheets in the usual manner. 

In staking out the location, the aim was to get a profile to correspond with 

the projection, and not to get the lines in exactly the same relative positions 

shown by the projections. Also, it was often found desirable to change the 

location at places, giving a corresponding change in the profile. After the 

103 



1634 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

first location had been made, it was studied further in the chief engineer's 
office ; if any changes were desired they were taken up with the assistant 
engineer, usually by the assistant chief engineer and the assistant engineer 
going over the ground together and there studying the question. 

All curves of 3 deg. or more had spiral approaches. These were allowed for 
in cross-sectioning by offsetting the slope stalies the required distance. For 
simplicity and ease, all records, profiles, etc., were kept on simple curve data. 
When spiral curves came in tunnels, a special plan was made for each case, 
showing the offsets from the tangent and the simple curve to every 10 ft. on 
the spiral, the alignment being kept on the tangent and the simple curve, and 
allowing the required offset in giving the widths for the tunnels. Vertical 
curves were inserted at all places when the change of grade was more than 0.1 
ft. in 100 ft. Standard forms were used for all notes, maps, profiles, plans, and 
reports, and were found to save much work and time in the chief engineer's 
office. 

The greatest number of miles of preliminary line run in one day by one 
party was 7, and of location, 4^. The location averaged slightly more than 
one mile per day per party, except on the Burnsville and Eastern and on the 
Buckhannon and Northern lines, where it averaged % mile. Stakes were set 
every 100 ft. on tangents, and every 50 ft. on curves. The speed of location 
parties was usually limited by the amount of clearing that could be done, but 
the number of curves and the rough character of the ground were also large 
factors in limiting the speed. 

Each party cost from $35 to $40 per day, being allowed all expenses in addi- 
tion to salaries. 

Table I gives the total cost per mile of the completed surveys. It includes 
office rent, purchase of instruments and supplies, general expenses, all salaries, 
field expenses, and the preparation of final maps, plans, profiles, and estimates, 
with everything in readiness to make contracts for the line. 



Table I. — 'Total Cost of Sukveys 



Amount 

Company spent 

L. K. R. R $25,076.83 

Z. M. & P 19,812.77 

B. &E. R. R..: . 20,466.68 

P. B. &T. R. R.. 6,651.98 

B. &N. R. R 19,249.94 



-^ Miles of surveys-^ 




Av. cost 










per mile 


Prelimi- 


Loca- 




Av. cost 


of loca- 


nary 


tion 


Total 


per mile 


tion 


428.19 


193.85 


622.04 


$40.31 


$129.36 


509.03 


105.23 


614.26 


32.25 


188.28 


241.75 


113.70 


355.45 


57.58 


180.00 


I 84.56 


38.17 


122.73 


54.20 


174.28 


162.51 


151.29 


313.80 


61.34 


127.23 



Totals $91,258,20 1,426.04 602.24 2,028.28 $45.00 $151.53 

The last column gives the cost per mile of actual location, including pre- 
liminary lines. The third and fourth columns show that there were from 2 to 
5 miles of preliminary lines run for each mile of location, except on the Buck- 
hannon and Northern line. Table I also includes 302 miles of check levels, 
the cost being distributed among the various accounts. The data for the 
Parkersburg Bridge and Terminal line include surveys and soundings for the 
Ohio River Bridge. The cost per mile includes the topography on practically 
all lines, except on the Zanesville, Marietta and Parkersburg line, where it ^\ as 
taken only on the located lines. 



■ 



ENGINEERING, SURVEYING AND COSTS 1635 



The cost shown, being the total charge against engineering from the incep- 
tion of the project to the beginning- of construction, contains a few items which 
might well be charged to other accounts than location. Instruments pur- 
chased could be a credit ; some elaborate property surveys and bridge surveys 
could be charged to construction, but they probably are not large enough to 
have much effect on the cost per mile. The cost on the Little Kanawha and 
on the Burnsville and Eastern Division was increased considerably owing to 
much work being done during a bad winter. The cost on the Parkersburg 
Bridge and Terminal line was increased by a large amount of property survey- 
ing in the city, and by the surveys for the bridge. 

The cost on all the West Virginia lines was increased by the inmiense amount 
of chopping and clearing necessary. When mountain laurel was encountered, 
all the axemen that could be worked could not keep a location party moving. 

The average cost, including all expenses, of one mile of preliminary or loca- 
tion survey, determined from a detailed study of the daily reports of field 
parties, or office work done, and similar data, is shown by Table II. 
Table II. — Average Cost of One Mile of Surveys 



Company 

L. K. R. R 

Z. M. & P. R. R... 

B. & E. R. R 

B. & N. R. R 



Of 
liminary 


Of 
location 


Of location, 

including 
preliminary 


$25 
23 
35 
31 


$ 74 

79 

105 

94 


$ 99 
102 
140 
125 



Table I shows a large variation in the cost of surveys on different divisions, 
the cost varying from $128 to $188 per mile, with an average of $151. On 
the assumption that lines located for comparison or similar purposes should be 
included in the average, one-third should be added in these amounts, as pre- 
viously noted; the cost per mile would then be as follows: Low, $171; high, 
$251; average, $202. 

Throwing out of account abandoned lines, branch lines, etc., and charging 
the entire cost to the main line, terminus to terminus, would give $91,258.20 -i- 
328 = $278.23 per mile, which Mr. McFetridge believes would be rather 
expensive. This, however, is not a fair assumption, because many miles of 
lines not needed to determine the main line were located for other reasons. 
Therefore, the plan of throwing out only duplications, for comparisons, as 
shown in the preceding paragraph, gives the correct average cost per mile, 
including actual comparative locations where needed. A large proportion of 
this duplication was necessary, owing to the laws of West Virginia, which 
require an actual line, located on the ground, and a complete map and profile 
of that line to be filed with the secretary of state, and at the county seat, before 
a railroad company has any rights, or priority or otherwise, to that route or 
line. 

On the basis of Table II, it may be assumed that, where the route has been 
previously determined within such narrow limits that the preliminary and 
location lines are of equal length, the surveys will cost from $100 to $140 per 
mile. This is borne out by the results on the Buckhannon and Northern line 
where the location and preliminary lines were practically equal and the cost 
was $127 per mile. 

These two statements may be combined and put in the following form: 
To locate one mile, including an equal length of preliminary lines, cost from 



1636 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

$100 to $140, or an average of $115; to locate one mile, final location, including 
from two to five times as great a length of preliminary lines, cost from $128 
to $188, or an average of $151; to locate one mile, final location, including 
from two to five times as great a length of preliminary lines, and one-third of 
a mile of location for comparison, cost from $171 to $251, or an average 
of $202. 

A tabulation of the mileage of the Buckhannon and Northern line, with 
reference to the actual length of line to be built, and showing how the results 
agree with the averages deduced from Table I is as follows, the Buckhannon 
and Northern line being used because the conditions there make it the best 
average of "all conditions" encountered on the various lines: Total miles 
located, 151.29; miles of main line contracted for, 80; miles of main line not 
contracted for, 4; miles of connecting line located, but which may or may not 
be built, about 26. This gives 1 10 miles of main and connecting lines, leaving 
41.29 miles of duphcations and comparisons. The cost is then $19,249.94 4- 
110 = $175 per mile. 

Cost of a Triangulation Survey with 48 signals, controUing about 150 square 
miles of the Grand Valley project of the U. S. Reclamation Survey was made 
at a cost of $3.63 per square mile, and a plane table survey of 127 square miles, 
with maps on a 1:12,000 scale with 10-ft. contours, was made at a cost of 
$57.79 per square mile. The cost of the triangulation survey included that 
of measuring base lines and making Polaris observations. 

Cost of Railroad Surveys in Bolivia. — The following data are from an article 
in Engineering Record, June 25, 1910, by C. A. Bock. 

The model organization of a locating party is given in Table III. 

Table III. — Organization of Bolivian Location Party 

Foreigners Natives 

Monthly Monthly 

Title salary Title salary 

Locating engineer $200 . 00 Cook 55 . 00 

Assistant engineer 150 . 00 Assistant cook 22 . 00 

Transitman 125.00 Camp boy 15.00 

Levelman 100 . 00 Corral boy 15 . 00 

Topographer 100.00 Lunch boy 15.00 

Draftsman 100.00 Muleteers, 2, ea 30.00 

Head chainman 60 . 00 General helpers, 2, ea 15 . 00 

Rear chainman 60.00 Rear flag 19.00 

Level rodman 60 . 00 Axeman, 1 to 4, ea 19 . 00 

Topog. rodman 50 . 00 Stake man 26 . 00 

Commissary 80.00 Tape man 26.00 

Doctor 150.00 Inst, carriers, 2, ea 19.00 

Tables IV and V show the cost and time of three different surveys, made by 
different parties in more or less similar country and on the most difficult of the 
work thus far located. It should be noted, however, that while the work is 
located in mountain country, and most of it on difficult ground (an average of 
almost 50 per cent of the entire located line is curves) there is no cutting or 
clearing to be done, since the plateau portion of Bolivia lies above the timber 
line. The cost per kilometer of location as given includes preliminary lines, 
topography and all extra work necessary to accomplish the location, besides 
completed maps, profiles and estimates. The figures are for the total cost, 
and include all office and administration expenses; instruments and supplies. 



I 



B^^lo 



ENGINEERING, SURVEYING AND COSTS 1637 
Table IV. — Data of Thkeb Surveying Parties 



Camp 1 Camp 2 Camp 3 

Total number of days in field 593 . 480 . 240 . 

Number holidays and Sundays. ... 86.0 69.0 . 33.0 

Number days lost, bad weather. . . 23.0 7.0 8.0 

Number days lost, moving camp .. . 16.0 44.0 17.0 

Total number of working days 468 . 360 .0 182 . 

Kiloms. prelim. Hne run 500 . 2 293 .0 181.0 

Kiloms. located line run. 242 . 3 237 . 4 137 . 4 

Kiloms. completed location per day 

(av.) .409 .495 .573 

Total cost lo'tion (incl. all prelim.). $53,389.41 $41,962.90 $20,339.26 

Average cost location, per kilom . . . 220 . 34 176 . 76 148 . 03 

Average cost location, per mile 354 . 62 284 . 48 238 . 24 

Average cost of surveys, per day ... 90 . 03 87.42 84 . 74 



Table V. — Distribution of Expenses, in Percentages 

Camp 1 Camp 2 Camp 3 

Salaries 46.4 47.5 47.1 

Provisions 13.0 13.9 13.1 

Traveling expense 6.7 6.8 6.8 

Instruments and supplies. 5.8 2.2 4.0 

Transportation of contract men 3.6 5.2 4.3 

Maintenance of animals 12.0 11.2 11.8 

Indian labor (not on pay-roll) .3 .3 .3 

Freight on supplies, etc 1.7 3.5 2.7 

General expenses 9.1 7.8 8.3 

Miscellaneous charges 1.4 1.6 1.6 



The record run in a single day, of preliminary line, is 11.5 km; of located 
line, 5 km (containing two curves). The best single day's work is nine curves 
of located line run, including referencing of two points on each tangent. The 
largest amount of work done in one month by a single camp is 59.2 km. prelimi- 
nary line, 25 km. of topography and 35.6 km. of located line, including refer- 
encing. This work was accomplished on a section of the survey where 53 per 
cent of the located line is curves. 

Cost of Location Survey for a Short Railway Line. — Engineering and Con- 
tracting, Feb. 18, 1914, gives the following: 

Location surveys for a railroad were made in 1912, in one of the eastern 
states, during which accurate records were kept for the purpose of producing 
authentic cost data. 

The survey was for a branch 30.75 miles long, from an already established 
line to a manufacturing city; with a branch survey, to another city, 12 miles 
in length. Topographical considerations, aside from large bodies of water and 
high hills, were found to be of minor importance, the chief concern being so 
to approach the intersected streets that grade crossings might be cheaply 
avoided. Most of the distance was through a light growth of timber, requir- 
ing much chopping and trimming. No topography was taken, but all streets 
and water courses along the line were carefully surveyed and the boundaries 
of private lands were run out. 

For three weeks the men were boarded in hotels in the two terminal cities; 
during nine weeks they were carried by team or railroad to the work from head- 
quarters on the main line; and for twenty weeks and two days they lived in 



1638 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

camp. From the camp, which occupied three different sites, about 26 miles 
of location were made, teams being kept with the camp for transportation. 

Table VI. — Distribution of Labor 

Pet. Pet. 
Cost of of 

per labor grand 

Description of work Cost mile total total 

Running the line finally adopted $1 , 500 $35 .10 39 . 7 20 . 8 

Running lines afterwards abandoned 432 10. 10 11.4 6.0 

Surveys of intersected streets 666 15 . 60 17.6 9.3 

Leveling on line finally adopted 156 3 . 65 4.1 2.2 

Leveling on lines afterward abandoned 65 1 . 52 1.7 0.9 

Leveling on intersected streets 20 . 47 0.5 0.3 

Meandering ponds and streailis . 57 1 . 33 1.5 0.8 

Surveying private boundaries 382 8.95 10.0 5.3 

Triangulation and traverse lines 146 3.42 3.9 2.0 

Exploration 10 0.23 0.3 0.15 

Check levels 10 0.23 0.3 0.15 

Office work by field men 61 1 . 43 1.6 0.8 

Holidays, absences and rainy days 279 6 . 55 7.4 3.8 

Totals $3,784 $88.58 100.0 52.50 



Table VI of labor distribution does not include any general oflftcers' salaries 
nor that of the chief engineer. The map drawing was done in the general office 
and does not figure in these tabulations. 

Surveying instruments were supplied from those previously in use by the 
company, and interest on their cost is charged under " Field and Office Equip- 
ment." The camp equipment consisting of seven tents, complete mess outfit, 
cot beds, blankets and quilts, was purchased second-hand at a discount of 50 
percent. 

During the nine weeks above mentioned many days were lost on account of 
rain for which the men, being at home, were not paid. The pay of the party 
was as follows: 



Position Pay per day 

Assistant engineer in charge $ 4 . 50 

Transitman 3 . 33 

Leveler 2 . 50 

Axman and teamster, 7 days per week 2 . 25 

Chainmen • 2.00 

Rodman 1.75 

Axmen 1 . 50 

Cook, per week 15 . 00 



A study of the tables does not suggest much resemblance to similar ones 
previously published, the most marked difference appearing in the matter of 
camp maintenance. Table VIII. Much of the higher cost shown here is 
doubtless due to the high cost of living prevailing. Also much may be due 
to the fact that all the men were accustomed to a pretty good table and an 
effort was made to provide them with home comforts. 

The total cost per mile given, $168.08, Table VII is the cost per mile of final 
location, and will be seen to include the cost of preliminary lines, and all the 
detail surveying necessary for complete land plans. 




ENGINEERING, SURVEYING AND COSTS 1639 

Table VII. — Distribution of Expenses 

Pet. Pet. 

Cost of of 

per exp, grand 

— • Cost mile total total 

Field and office equipment $ 160.49 $ 3.75 4.7 2.2 

Railroad and street car fares and expenses . 453.73 10.60 13.3 6.4 

Board and lodging 167.00 3.90 4.9 2.3 

Team transportation 836.32 19.50 24.6 11.6 

Camp equipment 209.16 4.90 6.2 2.9 

Camp maintenance 1,488.92 34.82 43.9 20.7 

Purchased information 81 . 38 1 . 90 2.4 1.4 

Mail, telegraph and telephone 5.56 0. 13 



Totals $3 , 402 . 56 $ 79 . 50 100 . 47 . 50 



Grand totals $7,186.56 $168.08 100.00 

Table VIII. — Analysis of Camp Maintenance 

Cost Cost 

per per Pet. 

meal — man of 

4 , 047 per total 

Commodity — Cost meals day cost 

Meat, fresh and canned $ 373 .72 $0 . 092 $0 . 239 25 . 1 

Fish, fresh and canned 51.93 0.013 0.033 3.5 

Potatoes 29.84 0.007 0.019 2.0 

Other vegetables 53.93 0.013 0.034 3.6 

Fruit, fresh and canned 120 . 58 . 030 . 077 8 . 1 

Groceries 108.56 0.027 0.069 7.3 

Flour 31.92 0.008 0.020 2.1 

Eggs 59.39 0.015 0.038 4.0 

Sugar 27.49 0.007 0.018 1.9 

Coffee 26.50 0.006 0.017 1.8 

Tea 9.06 0.002 0.006 0.6 

Butter 37.27 0.009 0.024 2.5 

Milk... 73.03 0.018 0.047 4.9 

Ice 18.61 0.005 0.012 1.3 

Fuel 36.23 0.009 0.023 2.4 

Light 6.50 0.002 0.004 0.4 . 

Water — 6 weeks from city main 5 . 00 . 001 . 003 . 3 

Land rentals 10.00 0.002 0.006 0.7 

Cook's wages 305.34 0.076 0.196 20.5 

Labor moving camp 104.02 0.026 0.067 7.0 



Totals $1,488.92 . $0,368 $0,952 100.0 

Cost of Making a Relocation Survey of Underground Pipe Lines, Cincinnati, 
Ohio. — Engineering and Contracting, Aug. 12, 1914, describes in detail the 
methods used in this survey and gives the following costs. 

A typical field party, together with rates of pay, as they were organized in 
1913, is here given: 

Position Rate per month 

Chief of party $90 

Instrumentman 60 

Rodman 50 

Rodman 50 

The number of field parties was gradually increased from one on May 1, 
1912, to five on Aug. 23, 1912, this number was continued until Jan. 16, 1913, 
when the sixth party was put in the field. The number of field parties was 
increased to eight in May, 1913, and with this field force of 32 men working 



1640 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

during the summer, the field work was completed. The last field party was 
disbanded on Nov. 22, 1913. 

The accompanying cost report, see Table IX, shows a decrease in the 
average cost per mile during this time from $77.53 for March to $61.20 for 
November or a decrease of $16.33 in the average cost. There is also a de- 
crease of $8,166.80 in the estimated cost to complete the work. During this 
same time 283.5 miles of sewers were measured at a cost of $13,880.52, which 
gives an average per mile cost for this period of $48.96. The average costs 
are based on payroll charges only. 

Complete information, as called for in Instructions to Field Parties was ob- 
tained on 496 miles of sewers, together with other information pertaining to 
the streets of the city. This includes 42 miles of sewers within the city limits 
for which there were no records. 

The increase in the cost of the field work at the end of the season is due 
wholly to vacation time and the locality in which most of this work was done. 

Field Work. — The work consisted of: Running bench levels, to establish 
elevations; Location of pipes by traverse including the following: Street and 
curb lines, corners, etc. Sewer center lines. Manholes, sewer, electric, tele- 
phone, etc. Inlets and catch basins. Valves, water and gas. Fire hydrants 
and fire cisterns. Culverts (obtain size). Bridges. Electric and steam 
railroad tracks. 

The size and shape and condition of all pipes and appurtenances was also 
determined and reported. 

Sewer Record Plats. — The primary purpose of these plats is to show correctly 
all information regarding the sewers: Their sizes, grades, location, inlets 
and branches. They include all improved portions of the city. These sheets 
also give information regarding all other underground structure. They show, 
therefore, the best location for new sewers or pipes. Formerly, it has been 
necessary to visit the various corporations having pipes or conduits in the 
streets in order to get this information. 

These record plans are 23 X 32 ins. within the border and a binding edge of 
1}4 ins. is left on the left hand end of the sheet. One portion of the city is 
platted on a scale of 40 ft. to the inch; all other parts of the city are platted on 
a scale of 50 ft. to the inch. 

Methods of Making Topographical Surveys and Their Cost. — The follow- 
ing discussion and data by D. L. Reaburn. Division Engineer, Los Angeles 
Aqueduct, are taken from an article in Enerineering News, Aug. 10, 1911. 

Two methods are in common use in this country for making topographic 
surveys. The older one, known as the plane-table method, has been used 
more extensively than any other. It is used either with or without stadia. 
The other, known as the transit stadia method, has been in use about 50 years. 

The plane-table is used by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, the 
U. S. Geological Survey and the U. S. Reclamation Service; while the transit 
stadia has been used exclusively by the U. S. Lake, Mississippi River, Missouri 
River and other surveys conducted by the Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. It 
is also used, more or less, by engineers in general practice. 

The plane-table is indispensable for geographical surveys, especially in 
mountainous regions of large relief. When provided with a micrometer 
eyepiece to the alidade, it can be used to great advantage on reconnaissance 
and exploratory surveys. 

When used with stadia rods the plane-table is adapted to mapping on scales 
up to about 500 ft. to the inch; on larger scales than this the problem becomes 



ENGINEERING, SURVEYING AND COSTS 1641 






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1642 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

a mechanical one of locating points rather than sketching, and compared to 
the more rapid transit stadia method, the plane-table is decidedly at a 
disadvantage. 

The three-point method cannot be used to advantage on large scale work 
with the plane-table. A chained traverse line is generally required for control. 
In rough and brushy country this traverse work is slow, laborious and expen- 
sive. In rough country the hand level method is also very slow and expensive, 
and it is difficult to delineate accurately the character of the ground surface. 
The transit stadia method, on the other hand, is not adapted to small scale 
mapping of extended areas. 

The writer has, however, used the transit to advantage in connection with 
the plane-table on 2,000 ft. to the inch work, where it was desirable to do the 
sketching in the field. The points were located by transit and plotted on the 
plane-table sheet with a small protractor. 

The transit stadia is well adapted to large scale detail surveys. On such 
surveys the location and plotting of the detail points constitutes the major 
portion of the work. The transit in the hands of a skilled observer is capable 
of locating these points with more ease and rapidity than any other instru- 
ment. The transit is better adapted to work in brush than the plane-table, 
and there is not so much lost time from adverse weather conditions. 

The fundamental principles governing the execution of such work along 
economic lines may be stated as follows: There should be a rigid horizontal 
and vertical control, supplemented by a less precise secondary control, upon 
which to base the details of the work. These principles are fully realized by 
the transit stadia method. The rigid control being the triangulation and 
precise levels, and the secondary control the stadia line. In flat country a 
traverse line control will sometimes be found more economical than a triangu- 
lation system. 

The question of economical methods of conducting location surveys does not, 
as a rule, receive much consideration. The writer has observed a number of 
instances where money has been unnecessarily expended by not adopting 
methods suited to the country. In one instance, where the hand level 
method was in use for topography along steep brushy mountain slopes, it 
required the services of a transitman, levelman, topographer and nine men to 
make a progress of 2,000 ft. per day. A transit stadia party of six men was 
substituted and the progress increased to a mile per day. 

During the past six years the writer has given much time and thought to 
the subject and tried out several of the methods in use. The transit stadia 
method has given the best results. A description of the methods employed, 
the results obtained and the cost on several pieces of work is given below. 

Irrigation Canal Location. — During the summer of 1905, about 100 miles of 
canal location surveys on the Klamath Project of the U. S. Reclamation Ser- 
vice were made by the transit stadia method. Before the work of canal 
location was started, topographic maps of all the irrigable lands under the 
project had been made. About 300 square miles of this work was done. This 
survey was based on a triangulation and primary level control and was exe- 
cuted by the plane-table and stadia method on a scale of 2,000 ft. to the inch, 
with a contour interval of 5 ft. The cost of this plane-table work was from 
$15 to $30 per square mile. 

Maps drawn from this survey determined the approximate location and 
grade of the main canals and from these data the transit stadia survey for 
final location was made. 




ENGINEERING, SURVEYING AND COSTS 1643 



Stakes were set along the grade contour from 400 to 800 ft. apart. Azi- 
muths were observed in the forward direction, and distances to feet and differ- 
ences of level to hundredths were read from each end of the line. 

At intervals of every few miles a check in elevation was obtained by a spur 
line of levels to a nearly B. M. of the primary level system. The errors of 
closure were never more than 0.2 or 0.3 ft. for the distance of five or six miles 
between checks. Azimuth checks were obtained by lining in between two 
triangulation stations or by long sights to prominent points. 

The belt of topography developed varied from 200 to 400 ft. in width on 
flat ground to 50 ft. difference of elevation on steep slopes. 

Progress and Cost. — The field party consisted of an observer, recorder and 
four stadia rodmen. The average number of stadia shots was about 250 per 
mile. The maximum day's run was four miles with 1,000 stadia shots. The 
average days run was about three miles. 

In plotting, vertical angle readings were reduced by stadia slide rule and 
the notes were plotted on a scale of 200 ft. to the inch. Stadia readings can 
be plotted fast as they can be called off from a field book. A good 
draftsman can usually do all the drafting, including the inking of the sheets. 
If there are many vertical angles to be reduced an assistant will be required. 

No accurate cost data was kept of the Work, but an approximation can be 
arrived at by taking the average daily progress (3 mi.) and the monthly cost 
of the party, as follows: 

1 Transitman at $150 $150. 00 

1 Draftsman at $125 125. 00 

1 Recorder at $50 50 . 00 

1 Stadia man at $45 45 . 00 

3 Stadia men at $40 120. 00 

1 Teamster at $40 40 . 00 

1 Cook at $40 40 . 00 



Total monthly salaries $570 . 00 

Subsistence 9 men at $20 180 . 00 

Feed for two-horse team 30 . 00 

Total monthly expense exclusive of equipment cost . . . $780 . 00 



Assuming 26 working days in a month, we have a daily expense of $30, or 
$10 per mile for the preliminary line. 

Los Angeles Aqueduct Surveys. — A triangulation system of simple triangles 
having sides from one-half to two miles in length, furnished the horizontal 
control, and a line of precise levels the vertical control for this survey. 

The country surveyed was for the most^part along steep mountain slopes, 
in many places covered with brush. The belt of topography developed had a 
range in elevation of from 50 to 75 ft. The final grade adjustment raised the 
grade elevation in the Little Lake, Grape Vine and Freeman Divisions above 
the limits of the first survey, which necessitated a second one on the higher 
level. 

The field party consisted of a party chief, transit stadia observer, recorder, 
four rodmen, draftsman, assistant draftsman, teamster and cook; a total of 
eleven men. 

The assistant draftsman reduced the vertical angle stadia readings with 
slide rule and called off the notes to the draftsman. The party chief did the 
triangulation and sketched the topography after the shots were plotted. 



1644 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



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The topographic maps were on sheets 22 ins. 
X 30 ins. in size, drawn to a scale of 100 ft. = 1 in. 
Rectangular coordinate lines 10 ins. apart were pro- 
jected on them and the control points plotted by 
coordinates. 

The stadia line was first plotted to a closure 
between tie points, and the closure error distributed 
before any topography was plotted. This error was 
from 1 in 500 to 1 in 1,000 for lines along the grade 
contour, but where vertical angles entered into the 
line the results were not so good. 

Where the ground was badly broken and for 
siphon crossings over deep canyons, the sheets were 
mounted on a plane table, after the transit notes 
were plotted, and the contours sketched in the field. 

Progress and Cost. — The average day's run was 
about 1}4 miles. The number of stadia shots was 
from 500 to 750 per day, or about 400 to 600 per 
mile. The cost, including the tri angulation and 
location 6f section corners was from $30 to $60 per 
mile. 

During the spring of 1910 about 200 miles of 
transit stadia location surveys were made in the San 
Fernando Valley for the Los Angeles Aqueduct 
distribution system by a party in charge of Mr. J. 
G. Morgan. 

The work was plotted on sheets 22 ins. X 30 ins. 
on a scale of 200 ft. to the inch, with a contour in- 
terval of 5 ft. The contours were followed out on 
the ground. (See Table X.) 

The field party was composed of a transit man, 
recorder, ievelman, four rodmen, draftsman and 
teamster. Each rodman carried a Locke hand 
level, for placing his rod on contours above or 
below the range of the transit or level, by sighting 
on another rod. As part of the work of spotting 
the rods was done by the Ievelman and by the 
rodmen themselves, the observer was able to keep 
four rodmen busy. 

A belt^of topography having a vertical width of 
40 ft. was developed from one stadia line which cor- 
responded to a horizontal width of from 100 to 1,500 
ft. In some instances several adjacent 40-ft. belts 
were developed. 

The minimum number of stadia shots per day 

was 240 

The maximum number of stadia shots per day 

was 845 

The average number of stadia shots per day 

was ; • 520 

The average number of stadia shots per mile 

was 300 



i ENGINEERING, SURVEYING AND COSTS 1645 

Level control was obtained from the U. S. Geological Survey B. M.'s. 
Two men were occupied 43 days in building signals and observing the angles 
of the triangulation system, which started from a side of the U. S. Geological 
Survey primary triangulation. Station marks were made of iron pipes 2 ins. 
X 4 ft., spread at bottom, set 2}i ft. in the ground and with a flag pole set in 
them. 

Data and Cost of Triangulation 

No. of stations set and observed . 50 

Approximate area controlled . 400 sq. miles 

Total salaries $463 . 34 

Livery and other expenses 67 . 43 



Total cost including computations $530. 77 

Cost per station 10.61 

Cost per square mile controlled 1 . 33 

Topographical Survey for Industrial Development. — During the spring of 1909 
a topographic survey was made by parties in charge of Mr. A. J. Ford of a 
large tract of land near Riverside, Cal., for the purposes of industrial 
development. The work was plotted on a scale of 100 ft. to the inch with a 
contour interval of 2 ft. The contours were followed out. No stadia read- 
ings for elevations of the contours were taken except to an occasional saddle 
or knoll. The ground was rolling; had a total rise of about 300 ft. ; was mostly 
under cultivation, and the conditions were favorable. All buildings, fences, 
roads, etc., were located. 

This work was executed by both transit and plane-table parties composed 
of five men each as follows: Transit party: observer, recorder and three rod- 
men; Plane-table party; plane-table man, levelman, recorder and two rodmen. 

The rods were placed on the contour by the transitman in the transit 
party, and by the levelman in the plane-table party by sighting the target 
with which the rods were provided. After a contour was followed as far as 
could be reached from the setup, the rodman moved his target up or down 
2 ft. and returned on another contour. 

The control work was done before the writer took charge and no data can 
be given for it. The number of points located by the transit parties was from 
500 to 600 per day, or about 7 or 8 per acre. 

Table XI gives the total costs of the topographic work for each of the three 
parties. This includes the salary of the topographer in charge of parties and 
the cost of supervision. 

Table XI. — Cost of Topographic Surveys, Riverside, Cal. 

(2-ft. contours, plotted 100 ft. to the inch) 

Party No. 1 Party No. 2 Party No, 3 
Transit Transit 

stadia Plane-table stadia Totals 

Eield and office labor $1,644.62 $1,123.73 $ 313.54 $3,081.89 

Subsistence 414.05 285.51 71.44 771.00 

Transportation and supplies. 164.00 134.70 38.00 336.70 

Total cost.. 2,222.67 1,543.94 422.98 4,189.59 

Acres surveyed 7,448.8 1,716.2 1,695.0 10,860.0 

Cost per acre $0,298 $0.90 $0.25. $0,386 

No. days in field 100.0 78.0 18.0 196.0 

Average progress in acres 

per day 74.49 21.95 94.17 55.41 

Cost per day $ 22.23 $ 19.79 $ 23.50 $ 21.38 

Remarks. — The cost of draftsman's work was apportioned between the two 
transit parties. The cost of supervision was apportioned to the three field 
parties. 



1646 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

In comparing the costs in the table it should be noted that it was necessary 
in addition to the main control system to establish two points by triangula- 
tion upon each plane-table shot, the cost of which is not included for Party 
No. 2. 

All men employed in the work except the topographer in charge were inex- 
perienced in topographic work. The increased efficiency of Party No. 1 is 
shown in the table below for a period of three months. 



Month Progress acres per day Cost per acre 

April 40 $0.54 

May 99 0.23 

June 122 0.18 



Stadia Survey for Irrigation Project. — The survey, of the Preston Beck, Jr. 
Grant in New Mexico, formed the basis of a preliminary design and report for 
the reclamation of this property. The survey was made during the period 
from Sept., 1910 to May, 1911. The following is abstracted from an article 
by Mr. Vincent K. Jones in Engineering and Contracting, July 31, 1912. 

Owing to the broken character of the country and the many ridges over 
which the water in the canals must pass a topographical map was necessary 
to determine the controlling points of the canal system and to enable a suffi- 
ciently close preliminary design and estimate of cost to be made. For this 
purpose extreme accuracy is not essential and the extra work necessary to 
obtain a high degree of accuracy would be wasted. The results proved to be 
sufficiently accurate, the errors of traverse by stadia varying from 1 in 400 
to 1 in 600 and the errors in elevation when carried by transit-stadia about 1 
ft. in 6 miles of horizontal distance. 

The general location of the main canal was first obtained by running several 
rough level " fly-lines." These showed the only practical line for a main canal 
to lie somewhere in a strip of land whose outer limits were contours approxi- 
mately 100 ft. apart vertically. 

Starting at one of the controlling points the main canal known as El Paso 
Gap a line of topography was carried towards the Pecos River covering a strip 
lying approximately between the 5,200 and 5,300 ft. contours. About 2 ft. 
per mile of line were allowed for the rise of the canal as the line approached the 
river. This line, afterward used as a base line on which the topography of 
the land under the canal was hung, was run as a stadia traverse with elevations 
carried by an 18-in. wye level and checked by taking vertical angles with the 
transit. 

From this base line the topography of the strip of land mentioned above 
was taken, sufficient side shots being made to enable 5 ft. contours to be 
interpolated on a scale of 600 ft. to the inch. The shots between stations 
varied from 200 ft. to 1,800 ft. in length and the number of side shots frorn 
each station from 2 to 200, depending on the roughness of the country covered 
and the position of the instrument station. The length of this line was 41 
miles. 

When the Pecos River was reached a stadia traverse was carried up the 
river for 12 miles to form a connecting link between the canal topography and 
the survey of a reservoir situated near the town of El Cerrito The river runs 
in precipitous box canon between the reservoir and the point of diversion near 
Tecolotito, which required 2}i days to traverse. Side shots were taken along 



ENGINEERING, SURVEYING AND COSTS 1647 

the sides of the canon to determine the width and general topography of the 
river bed. Elevations throughout the base line and river traverse were carried 
by the wye level. 

The same general methods were followed in the survey of the reservoir, the 
topography being hung on closed stadia traverses and elevations being by 
level. The high water line of the reservoir covers 401 acres, but the topog- 
raphy covered 20 acres. This job required SH days and the topography 
was taken sufficiently close to enable 1 ft. contours to be plotted on a scale of 
200 ft. to the inch. 

The " Borrow Pit " method of reservoir surveying is in general use in South- 
ern Colorado, but the results obtained by the method described above, espe- 
cially in broken country, proved to be as accurate and much better from an 
economical standpoint. 

Cost of Base Line. — The Cost of the 41 miles of stadia base line, topography, 
12 miles of river traverse and the survey of the reservoir is as follows: 

General expense 18 . 33 

Salaries 1 , 107 . 60 

Board (including cook's wages) 467 . 75 

Team feed and shoeing 51 . 53 

Pepreciation of equipment and horses 47. 65 

Office supplies 42 . 35 

Total $1,735.21 

The salaries paid as follows: 

1 Engineer and draftsman $150.00 

1 Transitman and chief of party 90 . 00 

1 Levelman and recorder 60 . 00 

1 Level rodman and head topography rodman 45. 00 

1 Topography rodman 45 . 00 

1 Topography rodman 35 . 00 

1 Cook 45.00 

1 Teamster and camp man , 30 . 00 

Board was in each case included in addition to the above salaries. Interest 
and depreciation were charged on live stock at a rate of IH per cent of value 
at start of survey per month. On the other camp equipment and instruments, 
interest and depreciation charged at a rate. of 3 per cent per month. These 
percentages were figured to pay 10 per cent interest per annum on the outlay 
for equipment and to pay for the equipment in the probable active life of the 
outfit as a whole. 

In the above no overhead expense has been charged to the work. Overhead 
charges vary so greatly on different projects that this expense should not have 
a place in cost data for engineer's use. These costs must be estimated accord- 
ing to the size of the project, office organization, and intricacies of the general 
organization and are generally beyond the control of the engineer. 

The work was carried on at a distance of from 25 to 50 miles from the base 
of supplies and shipping point on the railroad and therefore a great deal of 
hauling was necessary which would not be if operations were carried on near 
the base of supplies. Two teams and one saddle horse were used. The 
teams were driven alternately in the field except when one team was hauling 
supplies or moving camp. 



1648 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Progress of Work. — With three stadia rodmen and a recorder who drove 
the team and also acted as rear flagman, the work progressed rapidly. Six to 
eight miles of traverse line with all side shots were frequently made when in 
fairly open country. When in the breaks near the river or in close proximity 
to the large mesas, 2 to 4 miles of traverse was the general average. As the 
traverse lines were generally a half mile apart the area covered varied from 
640 acres in rough country to 2,560 acres per day in open prairie. 

The stadia- transit notes were worked up in camp every night and generally 
plotted the next day, so that if any errors were picked up they could be cor- 
rected before moving camp. 

The notes were plotted to a scale of 1 in. = 600 ft. on detail paper in the 
camp. The sheets were not traced. 

It was necessary to camp where water was available. The moves between 
water holes or springs averaged about eight miles. The distance from the 
camp to the work was frequently as far as 10 miles, which made the job cost 
more than it would if more camps could have been found. 

The total area covered by topography was approximately 200,000 acres, of 
which 145,000 acres were classed as tillable land and 55,000 acres classed as 
rough. The topography of the rough land was not taken as closely as that of 
the tillable land except in places where a canal will be built or in a prospective 
reservoir site. The total length of traverses averaged one mile for each 300 
acres. 

Cost of the work, exclusive of the first base line, river traverse, and Pecos 
Reservoir survey, the cost of which was given above, was as follows: 

Salaries $3,133.00 

Board expense (including cook's wages) 768. 11 

Corral expense 206 . 04 

General expense 155 . 10 

Depreciation equipment and horses 149 . 40 

Office and field supplies 71 .43 

Total: $4,483.08 

The total cost figured on a unit basis is $.0311 per acre, $9.33 per mile of 
traverse line, including maps and the classification of the land, but not includ- 
ing overhead charges. 

The cost of team feed and shoeing averaged $0,214 per head per day. The 
cost of board, including cook's wages, but not including cartage of supplies, 
averaged $0,247 per meal. This cost varied from 18 cts. in the winter, when 
fresh beef could be kept in camp, to 32 cts. in summer. 

Cost of Making Topographic Resurvey on the Truckee-Carson Project, 
Nevada. — ^L. E. Gale gives the following data in Engineering and Contracting, 
Feb. 25, 1914. 

A portion of the country lying north and west of Fallon being irrigable and 
water for irrigation being available upon the completion of the Lahontan Dam, 
it was found necessary to make a topographic resurvey before deciding on a 
system of irrigation. The country had previously been mapped on a scale 
of 4 ins. to the mile and 5 ft. contour interval by plane table parties in 1907. 
This scale and contour interval was inadequate in detail and the resurvey was 
made on a scale of 400 ft. to the inch with a 2-ft. contours. 

The wages paid were as follows: Instrumentmen $100 per month, rodmen 
$60 to $70 per month, recorders $70 per month, teamster $60 per month, cook 
$60 per month. Each man was deducted 25 cts. per meal and the mess-house 




ENGINEERING, SURVEYING AND COSTS 1649 



was intended to be self-supporting, including the wages of the cook. The 
mess-house was on wheels with walls and roof of heavy canvas stretched over 
a light wooden frame, the whole being easily moved from camp to camp by 
four mules. 

Attached is a detailed cost summary, showing cost per acre of the work in 
both districts, which includes the cost of moving the camps a total distance of 
35 miles. 

Table XIII. — Cost of Topographic Resurvey for District No. 2 Truckee- 
Carson Irrigation Project 

Cost per 

Classification Amount sq. mile 
Horizontal Control: 

Labor.. $ 294.86 $11.84 

Corral expense 36 . 00 1.45 

Supplies 25.98 1.04 

Miscellaneous expense 94 . 90 3.81 

Total for horizontal control $ 451 .74 $18.14 

Vertical Control: 

Labor $ 122.15 $ 4.90 

Corral expense 18 . 50 .74 

Supplies.. 9.77 .39 

Miscellaneous expense 42 . 50 1.71 

Total for vertical control $ 192. 92 $ 7 . 74 

Plane Table Development: 

Labor ; $1,294.77 $ 52.00 

Corral expense 114.0 4 . 58 

Supplies 19 . 14 .77 

Miscellaneous expense , 389 . 83 15 . 65 

Total for plane table development $1 , 817 . 74 $ 73 . 00 

Draughting $ 162 . 05 6 . 50 

General expense 252.71 10. 15 

Summary by Items: 

Labor $1,711.78 $ 68.74 

Corral expense 168 .50 6.76 

Supplies 54 . 89 2 . 20 

Miscellaneous expense 527 .23 21 . 18 

Draughting 162 . 05 6 . 50 

Total field cost $2 , 624 . 45 $105 . 38 

General expense 252.71 10. 15 

Totals $2,877.16 $115.53 

The item " Miscellaneous expense, " consists of idle time for men and teams, 
moving camp, equipment depreciation and miscellaneous labor and supplies 
which could not be charged directly to any of the classes of work shown on sheet. 
Location of work — Townships 19 and 20 N., R. 21 and 28 E., north of Carson 
River, in District 2. Area mapped, 24.9 square miles; rough sandy country; 
scale, 1 in. equals 400 ft.; contour interval, 2 ft. Horizontal control developed 
from geodetic co-ordinates and maps projected from polyconic projection 41 
linear miles of vertical control; 26 triangulation stations calculated and plotted; 
15 permanent triangulation station marks placed 4 P. B. M.'s placed. Mess 
loss of $90.79 is not included in the cost report. Average unit performance in 
square miles per plane table day 24.9, plane table days 94, unit performance 255. 

Flane Table Development. — Relative to the plane table work, Mr. Gale says: 

Two plane tables were operated, the party for each consisting of plane table 

man, recorder and two rodmen. The recorder entered the distances and rod 

readings in the notebook and calculated the elevations, calling the same to the 

104 



1650 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Table XIV. — Cost of Topogeaphic Resukvey for District No. 3 Truckee- 
Carson Irrigation Project 

Cost per 
Classification Amount sq. mile 

Horizontal Control: 

Labor $ 285.51 $6.86 

Corral Expense 44 . 50 1 . 07 

Supplies 23 . 53 .57 

* Miscellaneous expense. . . . , 114 . 00 2 . 74 

Total for horizontal control $ 467 .54 $11 . 24 

Vertical Control: 

Labor $ 124 .89 $ 3 . 00 

Corral expense . 28 . 00 .67 

Supplies 12. 52 .30 

* Miscellaneous expense 53 . 98 1 . 30 

Total for vertical control $ 219 .39 $ 5 . 27 

Plane Table Development: 

Labor $1,643.46 $39.51 

Corral expense 65 . 00 1 . 56 

Supplies 52 . 96 1 . 27 

* Miscellaneous expense 556 .00 13 . 61 

Total for plane table development $2 , 327 . 42 $55 . 95 

Draughting 204 . 14 4 . 90 

General expense . 323 .25 7 . 76 

Summary by Items: 

Labor $2,053.86 $49.37 

Corral expense 137 .50 3 . 30 

Supplies 89 . 01 2.14 

* Miscellaneous expense 733.98 17.65 

Draughting 204 . 14 4 . 90 

Total field cost $3,218.49 $77.36 

General expense 323 . 25 7 . 76 

Total cost. $85. 12 

* The item "Miscellaneous expense" consists of idle time for men and teams, 
moving camp, equipment depreciation and miscellaneous labor and supplies 
which could not be charged directly to any of the classes of work shown. General 
expense is administration Washington D. C, Portland, etc. Corral expense is 
time of teams. Location of work: Townships 18 and 19 N., R. 27 and 28 
south of Carson River, in District 3. Area mapped 41.6 square miles; rough 
sandy country; scale 1 in. equals 400 ft.; contour interval 2 ft. Horizontal 
control developed from geodetic co-ordinates, and maps projected from poly conic 
projection; 61 linear miles of vertical control; 36 trianguljttion stations calculated 
and plotted; 36 permanent triangulation station marks placed; 8 B. M.'s placed 
(bronze); 2 camps. Mess house loss of $106.66 is not included with cost report. 
Average unit performance in square miles per plane table day. 41.6 plane table 
days, 132 unit performance, .315. 

instrumentman who plotted the position of each point and wrote the elevation 
by it. The two rodmen worked out the country in strips about 300 ft. wide, 
the width depending on the roughness of the country and varying in length or 
distance from the table with the visibility of the rod. In this work the con- 
tours were not directly located, but a sort of cross-section of the country 
was taken, the rodmen giving the high and low points, general outlines of 
hills and pot holes, changes in slopes, low points in saddles and breaks in the 
contours in general. Each set-up of the table took in an area approximately 
2,000 ft. square or 1,000 ft. on each side of the table. 

After all shots necessary in each set-up were taken, the plane table man 
walked over the ground and drew in the contours from the plotted elevations 
combined with personal observation; verifying doubtful contours by three- 
pointing at the spot and getting additional elevations where necessary. 



ENGINEERING, SURVEYING AND COSTS 1651 

The rodmen soon became projBcient in their work, after a period of instruc- 
tion, and when they understood just what was desired very excellent results 
were obtained. A great deal depended, of course, upon the topographical 
eye of the topographer. 

The average area covered each day by each party was 0.3 square mile. 
The topographers set a standard for their work of 400 shots per diem and 
always tried to exceed this standard if possible ; 400 shots in one day, in addi- 
tion to sketching all contours in the field, locating section corners and moving 
between set-ups, was usually a pretty fair day's work, but this mark was fre- 
quently exceeded. It can readily be seen that the number of shots taken 
indicates much better than the area covered how hard the parties worked 
during the day. 

Cost of Stadia Surveys of 50,000 Acre Flood-Control Basin. — "L. R. Howson 
gives the following in Engineering News- Record, Sept. 27, 1917. 

Planning the flood-control system for the protection of Columbus, Ohio, 
necessitated the survey of an area of 50,000 acres for three reservoir sites of 
respectively 23,000, 18,000 and 9000 acres. This work is for the Frankhn 
County Conservancy District, of which Alvord & Burdick, of Chicago, are 
the engineers. It was necessary that the survey information should be avail- 
able for office computations as soon as possible, and that the surveys should be 
completed before winter. The stadia method was selected as combining 
speed with accuracy for the class of survey to be made. The methods of 
procedure, with instructions to parties and a system of reports for comparing 
the progress of the three parties, were devised by the writer. The survey was 
in charge of John C. Prior, resident engineer for the district. 

The areas surveyed differ greatly in shape, steepness of slopes, percentage 
of wooded area and regularity of width or freedom from side ravines. The 
Delaware basin is the largest and has the most favorable topography for rapid 
stadia work. The survey covered 23,000 acres on a site about 14 miles long 
and from H to 2^^ miles wide. The maximum difference in elevation is 
about 90 ft. There are only three large side ravines or creek channels. 

The Dublin-basin survey covered 18,000 acres, of which about 20% is 
wooded. The area is 25 miles long, with an average width of about one mile 
and a maximum of about 2}4 miles. The country is somewhat rougher than 
that in the Delaware basin, and has a range of 150 ft. in elevation. More 
numerous side ravines, some of which are virtually gorges, cut into the strati- 
fied limestone to depths of from 50 to 75 ft., with a scarcely greater width. 

The Flint basin, though containing only about 9000 acres, has very rough 
topography and is largely wooded. Steep side ravines enter the river channel 
at frequent intervals, one every 600 ft. on each side of the river not being 
unusual. The basin is about 11 X IH miles. 

Each party consisted of four field men and one office man, with salaries as 
follows: Chief of party, $115 to $125 per month; instrumentman, $75 to $85; 
draftsman (office), $85; two rodmen, $2 per day. All expenses were paid 
for the first three men. The rodmen received all expenses when away from 
home, which averaged about half the time. The work of the instrumentman 
and the draftsman was considered of equal importance. Rodmen were 
picked up locally, being selected for willingness, agility and physique. A 
bright country boy under a good chief or instrumentman soon becomes a 
first-class stadia rodman. For each party there was a Ford automobile with 
special body. 

About nine hours per day were spent in the field. Primary traverse lines 



1652 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

for several days' topography were run and closed before topography was 
started in that area. Primary traverse points were marked with oak stakes, 
and levels were taken on them. Secondary traverses were run as topography 
was taken. All these were closed in each night, so as to catch any errors. 
Two field books were used. The primary traverse line was carried in both 
books. The draftsman each day plotted the notes taken in the field on the 
preceding day. Bench marks were established at about 3^ -mile intervals. 
All available data were gathered as to adequacy of bridge and culvert openings. 

Special rods were made to permit of rapid long-distance reading without 
eye-strain. The rods were of 1 X 4-in. clear poplar, 15 ft. long, painted in 
black and white and could be read for 3000 ft. as easily as the ordinary rod at 
only a fraction of that distance. 

The instrumentman recorded his own notes. For the country surveyed a 
recorder's services were not warranted. For each set-up only about 15 shots 
could be taken. 

The draftsman reduced all stadia notes with the aid of a K. & E. stadia 
computer. The notes were plotted with the use of an 8-in. full-circle paper 
protractor, which carried a scale. Both the elevation of the ground and the 
instrumentman's shot number were marked on the drawing for identification 
by the instrumentman in his daily checking of the map. The scale was 1 in. to 
400 ft. for the Delaware and Flint maps, and 1 in. to 600 ft. for the Dublin map. 

Each chief -of -party made a daily report on a post-card blank form. This 
gave the weather conditions, hours spent in the field, number of transit set- 
ups, number of readings taken and nmnber of acres covered, with notes or 
remarks. These were compiled into weekly reports, as shown. Copies of 
these weekly reports were given to each party. While the figures therein 
were interpreted in the light of the conditions influencing them, they created 
an added impetus to make a good showing. 

The form of the report was so arranged as to indicate the differences in the 
character of the topography of the three areas, which has been noted above. 
It is evident that where few shots per acre are taken, the topography is com- 
paratively uniform. Where few shots per set-up are possible, the country is 
either wooded or rough. 

The greatest area covered in any one week was 2190 acres. The greatest 
number of shots in any week was 1902, or an average of 317 per day. The 
average number of shots per day for all parties was slightly over 200, counting 
all time occupied in running level and traverse lines. 

Table XV shows the summarized performance and costs of the three survey 
parties on this work. Table XVI has been prepared to show the costs of these 
and other stadia surveys where some details of execution, cost and character 
of land surveyed were available. 

Table XV. — Stadia Surveys of Reservoir Areas at Columbus, Ohio 

Dublin Delaware Flint 

Total acres surveyed 18,000 23,000 9,000 

Av. acres surveyed per day 182 274 105 

Av. hours in field per day * 9.1 9.5 9.1 

Transit set-ups per day 11 6^ %}4 

Shots per set-up 13.1 48.5 17.8 

Shots per acre . 78 1.19 1 . 44 

Shots per hour 15.8 34.5 16.8 

Cost, field work per acre 8. 5cts. 6.35cts. 12.95cts. 

Cost, map work per acre 2 . 3cts. 1 . 72cts. 4 . 40cts. 

Total cost, field and map work per acre 10.8cts. 8.07cts. 17.35cts. 

* No deductions for inclement weather. 



ENGINEERING, SURVEYING AND COSTS 1653 






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HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Topographic Surveys. — The accompanying tables, compiled by Franklin & 
Co., Civil Engineers, Philadelphia, Pa., and published in Engineering News, 
May 28, 1914, give cost data for a number of different surveys. Under 
** Remarlis" is briefly stated the character of the country, the method of doing 
work, the time of year, and any notes which affect the cost. 





Table 


XVII. — Cost of Topographical Surveys 






Unit 
day 
in 
5ize hr. 


^Ti 

Field ( 
40 days 




-Cost 

Field Office 


Total 
cost 




^ 


Office 
one man) 


Unit cost 
per acre 


1. 


308 acres 6H 


3 men 


10 days 


$327 


$45 


$ 372 


$1.20 


2. 


190 acres 7 


22 days 


9 days 


$194 


$38 


$ 232 


per acre 
$1.22 


3. 


104 acres 7M 


3 men 
8 days 
3 men 


1 day 


$74 


$ 4 


$ 78 


per acre 
$0.75 


4. 


300 acres 8 


40 days 


22 days 


$480* 


$92 


$ 572 


,per acre 
$1.90 


5. 


99 acres 7H 


3 men 
12 days 


4>^ days 


$ 115 


$23 


$138 


per acre 
$1.20 


6. 


1,464 acres 8H 


3 men 
87 days 


18 days 


$ 1052 


$92 


$1144 


per acre 
$0.78 


7. 


11,264 acres 8 
(259 mi. of 
stadia) 


3 men 
222 days 

4 men 


65 days 


$ 3791* 


$386 


per acre 

$4177 $0.37 per acre 

(Topography 

$14.63 per mi. 

(stadia lines) 



" Field cost includes subsistence. 

Remarks 

1. 95 % = points established on 5-ft. contours with Y-level, and located with, 
plane-table. 5 % = points established on 5-ft. contours by, and located with 
stadia traverse = (woods). Land hilly with rise of 120 ft. Survey made 
Aug. to Oct. Scale of map — 1 in. = 100 ft. 

2. 80 % = points established on 5-ft. contours with Y-level, and located with 
plane-table. 40 % = points established on 2%-ii. contours with Y-level, and 
located with plane table. 20 % = woods = points on 5-ft. contours established 
and located with stadia traverse. Land hilly with rise of 180 ft. Survey made 
in Dec. and Jan. Scale of map — 60 in. = 1 ft. 

3. 70 % = points established on 5-ft. contours with Y-level, and located with 
plane-table. 30 % = woods = points on 5--ft. contours established and located 
with stadia traverse. Land = rolling = rise of 80 ft. Finished plan not made. 
Survey made in June. Scale of map — 1 in. = 100 ft. 

4. 70 % = points established on 6-ft. contours with Y-level, and located with 
plane-table. 40 % = points established on 3-ft. contours with Y-level, and 
located with plane-table. 30 % = woods = elevations obtained by stadia 
and vertical angles-contours interpolated. Extra large number of buildings, 
railroads, etc. were located. Scale — 1 in. = 100 ft. Land = rough and moun- 
tainous = rise of 430 ft. Survey made Nov. and Dec. 

5. Points established on 5-ft. contours with Y-level, and located with plane- 
table. Land = rolling = rise of 60 ft. Survey made in Feb. and March. 
Scale of map — 1 in. = 100 ft. 

6. 90 % = points established on 10-ft. contours with Y-level, and located with 
plane-table. 10 % = woods = points on 10-ft contoure established and located 
with stadia traverse. All roads traversed and chained. 

Land = hilly =rise of 150 ft. Survey made Sept. to Dec. Scale of map — 1 in. 
= 200 ft. 

7. Survey made entirely with stadia. Tape never used. Rough and moun- 
tainous, streams, ridges, and 2 coal outcrop lines traversed and topography taken 
by stadia and vertical angles. Contours interpolated. Levels on transit lines 
carried along by stadia and vertical angles. Survey made Oct. to Feb. Rise in 
elev. =1,150 ft. Stadia lines tied on to outline. Survey made 3 months 
previous. Scale — 1 in. = 500 ft. 

Location: 1 to 6 inclusive — , in Pennsylvania. 7, in West Va. 



ENGINEERING, SURVEYING AND COSTS 1655 

Table XVIII. — Railroad Preliminary Surveys and Estimates 



^. 


Unit 

day 

in 

hrs. 


Tin 

Field 




r*r, 


3t 

Office 


Total 


Unit 
cost 
per 
mile 


■^Size 


Office 
(one man) 


Field 


1. 26 mi. 


SH 


74 days 


24 days 


$1450* 


$144 


$1594 


$66.30 


2. 27.5 mi. 


SH 


4 men 
75 days 


25 days 


$1400* 


$150 


$1550 


$56.40 


3. 12 mi. 


SH 


4 men 
50 days 


35 days 


$1011* 


$165 


$1176 


$98.0 


4. 5.1 mi. 


SH 


4 men 
14 days 


14 days 


$ 236* 


$43 


$279 


$54.60 


5. 34 mi. 


8 


4 men 

43 days 

9 men 

(inc. axemen 


54 days 
) 


$ 848 


$238 


$1086 


$32 


Note. — Field cost 
includes subsistence. 


includes transportation (except to Cuba). * Field cost 








Remarks 




• 







1. Transit line chained. Topography taken with Y-level and cross-sections. 
Land = hilly and wooded. Projected line =21 miles. Survey made June to 
Aug. Scale of map- — 1 in. = 200 ft. 

2. Transit line chained. Topography taken with Y-level and cross-sections. 
Land = 50 % woods and mountainous and 50 % open. Scale of map — 1 in. = 
200 ft. Projected line = 27 3^^ mi. Survey made Aug. to Nov. 

3. Transit line chained. Extra large number of locations of towns, railroads, 
etc., were made. Land = rolling and open. Projected line = 9 mi. Topo- 
graphy with transit (stadia and vertical angles) and plane-table. Made in Feb. 
and Mar. Scale of map — 1 in. = 200 ft. 

4. Transit line chained. Large number of extra locations were made. Topo- 
graphy with transit (stadia and vertical angles) and plane-table. Land = rolling 
and open. Projected line = 3.6 mi. Made in May-June. Scale of map — 
1 in. = 200 ft. 

5. Transit line partly chained and partly stadia. Scale of map — 1 in. = 200 
ft. Topography with Y-level and transit (stadia and vertical angles). Land = 
mountainous and heavily wooded. Survey made Nov. to Jan. No maps of 
country. Cost of reconnaissance therefore was greatly increased. Subsistence 
amounted to $18 per mile; was paid for by owner. 

Location: No. 1 — N. Carolina 
No. 2 — Virginia 
No. 3 & 4 — 'Pennsylvania 
No. 5 — Cuba. 



In taking the Pennsylvania topography each 5-ft. contour was traversed by 
the rodman along points established by the Y-level and located by plane-table. 
The excessive cost of the fourth item was due to the extra large number of 
railroad tracks, buildings, etc., that were located. 

The topography in West Virginia was taken by running stadia and vertical- 
angle transit lines along all streams, ridges and two coal outcrop lines, one of 
which was about one-third and the other two-thirds of the distance up the 
mountainside. Elevations were taken from all these lines (which formed a 
gridiron system) and the ^0-ft. contour lines were interpolated. 

The railroad preliminaries (with the exception of the Cuban work) were all 
tape-measured transit lines, with topography taken either with cross-sections, 
stadia and vertical angles or the plane-table. 

In Cuba, the transit line was partly measured with tape and partly by stadia 
and vertical angles. No maps of the country could be found so that the recon- 
naissance was necessarily much more extensive than usual, thus increasing 
the cost. The owner provided subsistence of the men, which amounted to 
about $18 per mile. 



1656 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



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I ENGINEERING, SURVEYING AND COSTS 1657 

"Financial Costs," Frequently Underestimated. — Engineering and Con- 
tracting, Marcji 6, 1912, gives the following. 

It is rare that an engineer's estimate of the cost of a project contains an 
adequate allowance for what may be called "financial costs." In fact, even 
the most self-evident of these "financial costs," interest during construction, 
is often omitted from cost estimates. Sometimes such omissions are purposely- 
made by engineers, especially when it is known that the owners or promoters 
will themselves make an estimate of the "financial costs." We question, 
however, whether it is ever wise for an engineer to omit any element of cost 
that he is capable of making, unless he is specifically instructed to return an 
estimate of the physical property only. 

What are the "financial costs" of a project? They may be classified as 
follows: 

1. Organization cost; i.e., legal and administrative costs (other than engi- 
neering and superintendence), general office expenses, etc. 

2. Taxes during the construction period. 

3. Brokerage fee or discount involved in marketing securities. 

4. Interest on the capital tied up during the construction period. 

5. Development cost (being the sequel to interest during construction) or 
the accumulated deficit below a "fair return" on the invested capital up to 
the time that a "fair return" begins to be earned. 

This last element of " financial cost " is one whose existence has always been 
recognized by experienced promoters, but one that, until quite recently, has 
never appeared in any engineer's estimate that we have seen. Yet failure to 
provide capital with which to meet the development cost of a project has been the 
cause of innumerable receiverships. 

During the past year we have published several articles discussing the devel- 
opment cost, or "going value," of public utilities, such as railways; and the 
method of deducing the development cost by the aid of the ledgers of a com- 
pany has been illustrated by several examples. It may be added that the 
writer has appraised the property of about a dozen public utility companies 
within the last year, and has deduced the development cost in each case. It 
is rare that the development cost has been less than 25 per cent of the cost of 
the physical plant. 

In Engineering and Contracting Feb. 14, 1912, Norman E. Webster, Jr., 
discusses "Methods of Financing Irrigation Developments." Mr. Webster 
gives estimates of the "financial costs" of irrigation projects, expressed as 
percentages of the cost of the physical plant. The following is a summary of 
his estimate of these cost items: 

Per cent 

Organization and promotion . 10 

General administration • . 10 

Interest and development cost 21 to 30 

Total, exclusive of bond discount 41 to 50 

Mr. Webster does not use the expression development cost, but classes it 
under interest lost on the investment up to the time that the property begins 
to make sufficient net earnings to meet the interest charges. He estimates 6 
per cent per annum on the entire cost of the plant for a period of 3H to 5 
years, making a total of 21 to 30 per cent to cover the interest lost on the 
investment. He also points out that all the bonds must usually be sold in 
advance of the first construction work, which results in a long nonremimera- 



1658 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

tive i)eriod. For the comparative purposes the following percentages used 
by the writer in recent estimates of electric railway properties may be of 
interest. 

Per cent 
Engineering and supt. (5 %) and business administration (5 %) 10 

Legal, taxes and other general expenses IJ^ 

Interest during construction 5 

Brokerage fee (cost of selling bonds) 5 

Development cost 30 

Calling the cost of the physical plant unity (1), we have the following; 

Cost 

Physical plant (incl. 5 % for contingencies) 1 . 000 

Add eng., supt. and adm. (113^ %) 0. 115 

Total 1.115 

Add 5 % of 1.115 for interest 0.056 

Total 1. 171 

Add 5 % of 1.171 for brokerage 0. 059 

Total 1 . 230 

Add 30 % of 1.23 for development cost. 0. 369 

Grand total 1 . 599 

It is difficult for some people to look upon the development cost-r-the accu- 
mulated deficit below a fair return on the investment — as being a real cost. 
They argue that a deficit can not be a source of value, but is the reverse. Yet, 
curiously enough, they concede that interest during construction is an ele- 
ment of the cost of a property. When it is pointed out that the development 
cost is merely a sequel, to interest during construction, it becomes more appar- 
ent that the development cost is an essential element of the cost of the going 
concern. 

Can a deficit be a cause of value? Yes, if it is not a deficit that connotes a 
permanent loss. A deficit arising from a fire or a burglary can not be an asset 
in the absence of insurance. But a deficit arising from a necessary expendi- 
ture, either to create a physical plant or to create the business of a going 
concern, is a wholly different sort of deficit. Such a deficit is, in fact, an 
investment, which, in all probability, will ultimately yield an adequate return 
if the project is one that is well managed and is not begun too far ahead of the 
times. Perhaps no better example can be found to illustrate the confusion that 
a word can cause than is to be found in this word deficit. Since deficit often 
denotes a permanent loss, it impresses the mind that there is an incongruity 
In the argument that any deficit can be the measure of an asset. The word 
deficit is merely a symbol to denote an outlay of cash. If the outlay is irrec- 
overable — as in the case of loss of uninsured property by fire — the deficit 
decreases the assets. But if the outlay is recoverable — as in the case of 
money reasonably spent for advertising an article or promoting an irrigation 
project — the deficit increases the assets. 

Honest promoters never incur temporary deficits in fair return upon their 
investments without belief in the ultimate recovery of the deficits. But many 
an honest promoter is too sanguine as to the short duration of the deficit 
period — the development period. It is clearly the function of the modern 
engineer to study the development cost of all sorts of projects of an engineering 
nature, with a view to estimating development costs with some degree of accur- 



t 



ENGINEERING, SURVEYING AND COSTS 1659 

acy. Protection of his clients, and of the pubUc whom his cHents seek to 
interest in a project, should be the prime consideration of every engineer who 
is called upon to design a plant and estimate the cost. Full protection can 
only be given by a correct and full estimate of cost up to the time that the 
project will begin to yield an adequate return on the invested capital. 

Contractor Analyzes Overhead Costs from Five-Year Records. — The follow- 
ing is given in Engineering News-Record, April 11, 1918. 

Overhead is the deceptive part of a contractor's costs on a sewer contract. 
So stated Stanley D. Moore, president of the Moore-Seig Construction Co., 
Waterloo, la., at the 1918 annual meeting of the Iowa Engineering Society. 
Less than 10% of the contractors of the country are successful or even solvent, 
in his opinion. Further notes from his paper follow: "In this age of pro- 
duction we have kept our eyes only on the lessened cost of the actual operation 
and have forgotten that much of this saving is taken up in overhead charges 
that did not exist formerly. The unit basis for moving earth by hand may be 
25 cents per yard. The same operation by machine may be performed for 
10 cents per yard, but the overhead charges on the machine may equal, if 
not exceed the 15 cents saved. The only advantage of the machine is a gain 
in time and escape from labor shortage." 

An analysis of overhead charges, taken from records of Mr. Moore's com- 
pany over a period of five years, represents $500,000 worth of sewer work. 
It was done in better than average soil, at better than average price, handled 
with better than average efficiency by a well-equipped, well-financed and well- 
organized concern. Figures for 1917 were omitted purposely because of the 
unusual conditions under which the firm sustained a loss. 

Contract prices in this analysis were distributed as follows: Profit, 1.6%; 
overhead, 18.4%; material, 18.0% and labor, 62.0%. 

In the table, job expense includes freight on tools, drayage, transportation, 
straight time men, bunk houses and storage. In the consumed material 
item are such things as lumber, jute, dynamite, coal, gasoline, kerosene, 
cement bags and boots. 

Figured on the basis of net instead of gross cost the 24% becomes 31.7% 
and to yield 10% on one's money the total bid should be 146.4% of the net 
cost made up of net cost 100%, overhead 31.7%; and profit 14.7%. To 
yield 15% the overhead is the same, 31.7%; but profit is raised to 22.8%, 
making the total bid 154.5%. 

Segregated Overhead Charges 

Five-yr. Five-yr. 

average Estimate average Estimate 

Item 1911-16 for 1918 Item 1911-16 for 1918 

Job expense 1.4% 1.7% Dues contractors' 

Maintenance 0.6 0.6 association. 1.8% 1.8% 

Plant repairs 1.5 1.8 Office expense 0.6 0.7 

Small tools 1.1 1.3 Salaries 2.3 2.3 

Depreciation 1.0 2.0 Traveling 1.3 1.5 

Consumed material 2.4 2.4 War tax 0.5 

Bonds 0.7 1.7 Interest on invest- 

Insurance 1.6 1.9 ment 0.5 

Interest 1.1 1.3 

Discount 1.0 2.0 1.8.4% 24.0% 

The items of cost for which money was actually paid out compared with 
those for which the engineer usually allows are listed as follows: Engineer's 
costs usually cover only sewer pipe, bonds, insurance, labor, discount and 



1660 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

association dues, but he forgets, said Mr. Moore, jute, city councils' special 
requests, cement, tools, inefficiency, depreciation, interest, errors, salaries, 
bad work, attorney's fees, taxes, transportation, engineer's errors, engineer's 
delays, engineer's estimate, maintenance, bad weather, freight on tools, 
straight time, storage, lumber, repairs, shipping delays, office expense, man- 
holes, drayage, bad luck, traveling expense, water pipe and gas mains. 

Finally, said Mr. Moore, there has been too much secrecy on the part of the 
contractor, too little information given by the engineer and too much suspicion 
on the part of the communities, also a regrettable lack of consideration of the 
rights of the contractor by engineers. Both engineers and contractors guess 
too much. 

Fixed Plant Charges. — The ordinary "fixed charges" on a plant are (1) 
interest, (2) depreciation (exclusive of current repairs), (3) insurance, and (4) 
taxes. Often to these items should be added the cost of housing the plant 
when idle. 

Depreciation is the loss in value that occurs in spite of current expenditures 
for maintenance. Depreciation may be due to the forces of nature or to the 
"progress of the art" which renders a plant obsolete. Excavating plant is 
commonly estimated to suffer a depreciation of 10 to 20% per annum. Some- 
times the entire first cost of a special plant is charged up against one job, if 
there is not a strong likelihood of using it again. 

Insurance and taxes are usually so small relative to depreciation that they 
are not separately estimated, but a liberal allowance is then made for 
depreciation. 

Repairs should be estimated as an operating expense item entirely separate 
from depreciation, for repair costs depend more upon the activity of the plant 
than upon the lapse of time, whereas depreciation usually progresses with the 
lapse of time even in the absence of any use of the plant. 

The annual "fixed charges" should be divided by the probable number of 
days actually to be worked per annum. As previously stated, the average is 
150 days or less, for most excavating plants in America, 

Fixed charges, repairs, the cost of plant installation and shifting, and time 
lost through delays from breakdowns, etc., are commonly underestimated. 
In addition, the cost of surplus or standby plant is seldom included in estimates 
of cost, yet there are few jobs where it does not pay to have a considerable 
investment in plant that is on hand for emergencies. Extra cars, wagons, 
scrapers, plows, pumps, etc. are nearly always necessary. 

Operating Expense. — Operating expenses may be divided into direct 
expense and joint, general overhead expense, which together embrace all costs 
except the " fixed charges" already discussed. 

Direct expenses are those directly assignable to a given number of yards of 
excavation in a given place. 

Joint, or general, or overhead expenses are those that must be allocated or 
prorated because they are not directly assignable to a given yardage. 

Preparatory expense is the expense incurred in installing the plant, building 
construction trails and roads. 

Dismantling expense is the cost of dismantling and removing the plant and 
outfit. 

Shifting expense is the expense of moving the plant and outfit from one part 
of the job to another part of the same job. 

Idleness expense is the expense incurred when the plant is not engaged in 
excavating, preparing, shifting or dismanthng. 



ENGINEERING, SURVEYING AND COSTS 1661 

Productive expense is the expense incurred when the plant is actually working. 

Although it is not customary to analyze expenses in this manner, it is wise 
to do so at least occasionally on every job, not only to be able to estimate 
costs of future work with greater accuracy but to effect reductions in the 
cost of the work in hand. 

Schedule of Contractors Fees on Government Work. — The following matter, 
given in Engineering and Contracting, April 17, 1918, is a revision of the per- 
centage fees on Government contracts made by the Emergency Construction 
Committee of the Council of National Defense. Under the old schedule the 
fee for work costing under $100,000 was 10 per cent ; 8 per cent for work costing 
over $100,000 and under $125,000, 8 per cent for work over $125,000 and under 
$250,000,. $20,000 for work over $250,000 and under $266,666.67 and 7H per 
cent for work costing more than the latter figure and under $500,000. For 
work costing over $535,714 and under $3,000,000 the old fee was 7 per cent; 
and for work costing over $3,250,000 and under $3,500,000 it was $210,000 
and for work costing over $3,500,000 the old fee was 6 per cent. 

Under the revised schedule no fee is to be in excess of $250,000. The 
revised schedule follows: 

Cost of work New fee 

Under $100,000 7 % 

Over $100,000 and under $125,000 $ 7,000.00 

Over $125,000 and under $250,000 

Over $125,000 and under $450,000 6>^ % 

Over $250,000 and under $266,666 

Over $266,666 and under $500,000 

Over $450,000 and under $500,000 29,250.00 

Over $500,000 and under $535,714 

Over $500,000 and under $1,000,000 6 % 

Over $535,714 and under $3.000,000 

Over $1,000,000 and under $1,100.000 60,000.00 

Over $1,100,000 and under $1,500,000 53-^ % 

Over $1,500,000 and under $1,650,000 82,500.00 

Over $1,650,000 and under $2,200,000 5 % 

Over $2,200,000 and under $2,450,000 110,000.00 

Over $2,450,000 and under $2,850,000 43-^ % 

Over $2,850,000 and under $3,250,000 128,250.00 

Over $3,000,000 and under $3,500,000 

Over $3,250,000 and under $4,000,000 4 % 

Over $3,500,000 

Over $4,000,000 and under $4,250,000 160, 000. 00 

Over $4,250,000 and under $4,775,000 SH % 

Over $4,775,000 and under $5,175,000 179,062.50 

Over $5,175,000 and under $5,725,000 3^ % 

Over $5,725,000 and under $6,225,000 200,375.00 

Over $6,225,000 and under $6,825,000 S}4 % . 

Over $6,825,000 and under $7,400,000 221,812. 50 

Over $7,400,000 and under $7,750,000 3 % 

Over $7,750,000 and under $8,350,000 235,500.00 

Over $8,350,000 and under $8,800,000 2^ % 

Over $8,800,000 and under $9,650,000 . 242,000.00 

Over $9,650,000 and under $10,000,000 . 2^ % 

Over $10,000,000 250,000.00 



CHAPTER XXV 
MISCELLANEOUS COSTS 

References. — Further costs, of a nature similar to those included in this 
chapter, are given in Section XV of Gillette's Handbook of Cost Data. 

Cost of Bath House, Lincoln Park Bathing Beach, Chicago. — Engineering 
and Contracting, May 10, 1911, describes an attractive and economical build- 
ing for the accommodation of the bathers at Lincoln Park, Chicago. The 
Idea of supplying several lockers for each dressing room or booth is unusual 
and in this way less booths are required to serve a given number of persons. 
Clothing is not left in the booths,, but is placed in one of the lockers. 

The space covered by the buildings is 264 ft. long by 54 ft. wide. This 
area is enclosed by a fence about 7 ft. in height. The fence is built of stained 
rough plank laid horizontally on edge, the cracks being closed with battens. 
The low roof of the enclosed houses, projecting somewhat above the fence 
line, gives a pleasing effect. The structures are all frame and are built of 
rough lumber with concrete floors 6 ins. thick. , 

The 4 X 4 in. posts in the buildings were supported on concrete pedestals 
carried down 4 or 5 ft. into the sand. 

The work was done by the Park Commissioners by day labor and the costs 
are given below. These costs include everything except electric wiring and 
lights. 

Labor: 

Engineering $ 158 . 55 

Foreman, 95 hrs 41 . 31 

Teams, 94 hrs 27. 50 

Teamsters, 107 hrs 28. 51 

Common labor, 5,491 hrs 1,384.63 

Carpenter labor, 8,716 hrs 4,986.56 

Plumbers, 240 hrs 68 . 97 

Total labor $ 6,696.03 

Material: 

Lumber $ 4,506.68 

Paint, etc 255. 19 

Hardware 1,262.22 

Plumbing fixtures 1 , 086. 34 

Water system 142 . 57 

Sewer system 994 . 55 

Foundations and concrete floors 264 . 36 

Tools.... 3.69 

Total materials $ 8 , 515. 60 

Grand total $15 , 211 . 63 

Cost per booth $ 48 . 75 

Cost per locker 7.41 

The above labor was paid at various rates of wages. The carpenters and 
helpers rates varied from $2.50 to $5 per 8 hour day. The teamsters were paid 
aboul $60 per month. The common labor rate was 25 and 30 cts. per hour. 
Plumbers received from $2.25 to $2.75 per day. The foremen's time is dis- 

1662 



I 



MISCELLANEOUS COSTS 



1663 



tributed between this work and other work upon 
which they were engaged at the same time. 

Cost of a Reinforced-Concrete Stadium, Brooklyn, 
N. Y. (Engineering News, May 21, 1914).— The 
construction of a large reinforced-concrete baseball 
stadium at the Federal League Grounds, Fourth 
Ave. and 3rd St., Brooklyn, N. Y., was commenced 
Mar. 9, 1914. On Apr. 20, the last concrete was 
placed for the structure. On May 5, all forms were 
stripped and on May 11 the completed stand was 
turned over to an audience of 15,000 people viewing 
the first game of the season. The work cost about 
$275,000*. The rate of erection is shown in the 
accompanying tabulation. 

The plans and specifications for the stadium are 
the same as those prepared for the Federal League 
Baseball Grounds in Chicago. The principal modi- 
fications were as to grades and code regulations. 
The Chicago contract was signed on Feb. 27 and 
completed on Apr. 23 ; the time elapsed being the 
same as on the Brooklyn stands. The work was 
carried out in Brooklyn in accordance with specifi- 
cations, but in Chicago the contractors were obliged 
to substitute steelwork for the reinforced-concrete 
work specified, because the Chicago Building 
Department would not permit such a concrete 
structure to be used until the concrete had set 40 
days. It will be noted that at Brooklyn only 23 days 
elapsed from the last pouring of concrete to the 
loading of the stands. 

The Contract. — The contract comprised all work 
necessary for the erection of a curved-plan grand- 
stand 865 X 119 ft. in area and about 55 ft. high; 
a bleacher, and a 20-ft. brick wall 1100 ft. long, 12 
in. thick, with 20-in. brick piers spaced on 20-ft. 
centers. Each pier of the brick wall was reinforced 
against wind pressure by two 8-in. channel uprights, 
14 ft. high and kneebraced at the bottom. The 
channels were fastened to the wall by connecting 
rods embedded in the brickwork. The grandstand 
is of reinforced concrete from the ground to the top 
seat-steps. It is supported on eight reinforced- 
concrete columns of length decreasing from 29 ft. 
at the rear or outer chord to 3 ft. at the front or 
inner. The seat-steps rest on concrete girders 12 
in. wide spanning these columns. 

The steel roof of the grandstand is carried on two 
lines of steel columns — numbers 1 and 5, counting 
the outer chord as number 1. The roof -slopes 
upward from the outer chord to the other support, 



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1664 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

a distance of about 66 ft. and a slope of about 1:5. From the second point 
of support, it cantilevers out 24 ft. 9H in., the upper chords of the trusses 
declining toward the lower throughout this distance and joining at the end. 
This whole grandstand structure is designed with the idea of eventually- 
adding another tier (steel) of seats. When this is done, the roof, with the 
exception of the /zantilevered portion, will be raised. The cantilevered 
section will form the inside of the new tier which will continue rising to the 
outer chord. 

The Chicago footings were designed to carry 5000 lb. per sq. ft. ; but borings 
in Brooklyn showed that the soil was only good for 2000 lb. per sq. ft. This 
necessitated the enlarging in plan of 380 footings in order to obtain sufficient 
carrying capacity. All footings over 8 X 8 ft. in plan were made reinf orced- 
concrete footings; those larger were made of plain concrete stepped up from 
the base to the column. 

Construction. — In addition to the feature of speed, that of efficient organi- 
zation should be noted. The timber was cut to size by two electric saws. 
The lumber and reinforcing rods were trucked to the field and distributed 
where needed. The plant comprised three 90-ft. towers, equipped with con- 
crete chutes, 96 ft. long; ^-cu. yd. electric-driven mixers, and electric hoists. 
The plant was erected at the exterior chord of the work and all concreting 
materials were delivered at the plant. 

The concrete was mixed steadily and from the tower was conveyed by chute 
to a central wood distributing-hopper of about 5-tons capacity. From this 
hopper, smaller chutes radiated. The hopper acted as a reducing valve. 

The main chutes were set at an inclination of 1 :4 and worked satisfactorily 
at this angle. The wetness of the mix was varied with temperature in order 
to secure uniform flow. The slope of the stand was also about 1 :4 and it was 
feared that the wet concrete would bulge up the lower steps from the upper; 
but by pouring the concrete in the upper-step forms, it had set sufficiently 
when it reached the lower step to prevent the expected bulging. 

The average total number of men engaged in the work was about 875, 
divided as follows: carpenters, 250; carpenter's helpers, 60; metal lathers, 75; 
concrete laborers, 150. In addition to these, there were about 15 timekeepers, 
foremen and draftsmen. The men engaged in concrete work numbered 550. 
The balance, about 325, were bricklayers, structural-steel men, painters, 
plumbers, sheet-metal men, plasterers and laborers. 

Cost of the Concrete Palmer Memorial Stadium, Princeton, N. J. — Engi- 
neering and Contracting, May 26, 1915, gives the following: 

In plan the Princeton stadium is horseshoe-shaped, with two straight paral- 
lel sides, each about 454 ft. long, connected at one end by a three-centered 
curved portion. The total length of the structure is about 652 ft., its width, 
center to center of outside columns, is 520 ft., and its height, to the top of the 
main entrance towers, is 72 ft. At the lower, or inside, face of the stadium 
there is a 3-ft. passageway around the entire structure. The clear playing 
field is about 250 ft. wide by 510 ft. long. The structure is surrounded by a 
high iron picket fence forming an enclosure into which the spectators are 
admitted through turnstiles located opposite to the main entrance at the 
curved end. From this enclosure the people enter the stadium through 26 
runways located at uniform distances around the structure. These runways 
are inclines and extend from the exterior ground level to openings located at 
about mid-height of the stadium. 

Construction Features. — In leveling the field steam shovels and carts were 




MISCELLANEOUS COSTS 1665 

used, about 40,000 cu. yds. of earth being moved in this way. After the area 
was excavated to the proper level, the playing field was covered with a 30-in. 
fill consisting of successive layers of broken stone and cinders, with open- joint, 
drain tiles along the bottom. This base was then surfaced with new turf. 

The concreting work was carried on by two separate gangs, each having ah 
organization complete in itself. The work was started at the open end of the 
stand, one gang operating on each wing. The keen competition which de- 
veloped between the two gangs resulted in exceedingly rapid progress. 

The concrete was hoisted in 160-ft. steel towers and was chuted into place 
through long flexible chutes suspended from a cableway. These towers were 
placed back of the stand, being so located that it was possible to pour about 
two-thirds of one straight side in these positions. They were then moved to 
points near the curved end, and the structure completed. 

The hoisting bucket in each tower was charged from a %-cu. yd. motor- 
driven mixer, the materials being delivered to the mixer in wheelbarrows, from 
storage piles located near by. With the use of a double set of three-bay 
forms for each wing the concreting operations were made continuous, the first 
set of forms being moved and re-erected while the concrete in the second set 
was being poured. 

The first concrete was poured on June 29, 1914, and the two wings were 
joined together on Oct. 3, 1914, the best day's run being 227 cu. yds. of con- 
crete poured by one gang in 10 hours. The entire structure was completed in 
178 working days. 

There were used in the construction of the stadium 78,000 bags of cement, 
6,000 cu. yds. of sand, 11,000 cu. yds. of stone, 450 tons of reinforcing rods, 
375,000 sq. ft. of "Clinton" wire mesh, and 1,670,000 ft. B. M. of lumber. 

The stadium was completed during the latter part of 1914 at a cost of about 
$300,000. This makes the cost per seat about $7.25. This figure compares 
favorably with the cost of other stadia as given in Engineering Record, March 
28, 1914 as follows: 

Cost 
per seat 

Harvard Stadium : $13 

Boston Baseball Club 24 

Cost of a Reinforced Concrete Sand Bin. — G. A. Flink, in Engineering and 
Contracting, March 12, 1913, describes a reinforced concrete sand bin built 
by common labor in the employ of the Lewistown Foundry & Machine Co., 
of Lewistown, Pa., in conjunction with a sand mill erected for the Berkeley 
Springs Sand Co., at Berkeley Springs, W. Va. 

Bids were invited for this work, and ranged from $12,000 to $6,900; this 
being considered too high, the Foundry and Machine company decided to 
build the bin themselves. A good superintendent was employed, material 
ordered and work started, the engineer who prepared the design assuming 
charge of the work, ana keeping in touch with it by means of daily reports, 
and an occasional visit. 

Shoring had to be erected to keep the railroad track in place while exca- 
vating for the footings. These latter were under water at times, and 62 
hours' labor was spent at the pump. The concrete was a 1 :2 :4 mixture turned 
out by a batch mixer, and hoisted to the top on an elevator, from where it was 
wheeled to the place desired in barrows. Careful spading was kept up at all 
times. Work was broken on top of the column-footings while the forms for 
the columns were being placed, and at top of columns while building beam 
105 



1666 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

forms and placing the reinforcement. No surface finish was considered 
needed, the concrete filling the planed forms to perfection, and no objection 
being advanced to the appearance of the grain of the wood on the concrete 
surfaces, or to the ridges caused by the joints between the boards. 

The bin, 100 by 16 ft. in plan, is divided into four compartments, the 
interior dimensions of which were 14 ft. 4 ins. wide, 23 ft. 8.5 ins. long and 17 
ft. deep. The bin is supported on 18 columns 24 by 24 ins. and 26 ft. high. 
The whole structure, with the exception of roof, is of reinforced concrete. 

A reinforced concrete slab roof on steel trusses was designed for the bin, 
but a timber and slate Mansard roof was built in its place. 

The following data show the cost of structure: 

Supervision and labor. $2 , 655. 40 

Material (sand, cement, stone, steel and lumber) .. . 2,568.91 

Freight and express 195. 54 

Electric light 7 . 25 

Hauling, telegrams, telephone, mileage, gasoline, oil 185.18 

Total cost $5,612.28 

This total cost was distributed as follows: 

Supervision (hours) 874 

Carpenters (hours) 3 , 386 

Steel gang (bending and placing) (hours) 1 , 159 

Helpers (hours) 110 

Laborers (hours) 4 , 374 

Broken stone (cu. yds.) 250 

Sand (cu. yds.) 118 

Concrete (cu. yds.) . . . , 415 

Reinforcing steel (lbs.) 45, 135 

Inch lumber (ft. B. M.) 16,700 

Timber, ranging from 2 by 4 to 4 by 6 (ft. B. M.) 16,000 

Molding, }i round, etc. (lin. ft.) 3, 000 

Cost of Concreting Swimming Pool at Riverview Park, Chicago. — Engineer- 
ing and Contracting, Nov. 3, 1915, gives the following: 

The pool has over-all dimensions of 148.25 ft. long by 35 ft. wide with walls 
varying from 5 to 12 ft. in height.. (A large cut showing detailed dimensions 
and type of reinforcement is given in Engineering and Contracting.) The 
capacity of the tank is about 450,000 gals. 

The form work was all done in one week. One 8 hr. shift was worked per 
day, The concrete was all placed in 2H days. No water-proofing compound 
was incorporated in the concrete but as soon as the forms were removed the 
inside surfaces were given three coats of Ironite. These coats were applied in 
2 days' time. One leak developed after the pool was filled. It was located at 
the junction of the sidewall and the floor. The leakage, which amounted to >i 
in. in level per day, was not large enough to warrant emptying the pool for 
making repairs. After two or three weeks' service the leak silted up and the 
flow from this point ceased. The pool is filled with the comparatively clear 
water drawn from the Chicago mains. 

All the concrete was mixed in a ^-cu. yd. batch mixer set about 40 ft. outside 
the building. A runway was built up leading from the mixer to the forms. 
Concrete was conveyed from mixer to forms in Ransome concreting buggies 
holding 6 cu. ft. each. Two extra men were required to help in pushing the 
buggies up the incline. The concrete in the floor was all chuted to place — 



i 



MISCELLANEOUS COSTS 1667 

the buggies discharging into the chute. An 8-ft. wide platform was con- 
structed all around the wall forms and the buggies, running on this platform, 
were dumped directly into the wall forms. 

The forms were made up of panels 2 ft. wide by 15 ft. long. The contrac- 
tor's labor cost for placing the concrete was $1.20 a cubic yard. The form 
labor cost 15 cts. a square foot. Carpenters were paid 70 cts. an hour and 
laborers 40 cts. 

The pool contains 220 cu. yds. of concrete. The contract price, exclusive 
of excavation, was $3,700, or $16.80 per cu. yd. 

♦Cost of Excavating and Concreting a Swimming Pool. — The following is 
given by A. Crane, Sup't. for the contractor, in Engineering and Contracting, 
Nov. 2, 1910. 

A swimming pool recently built in the annex to the Sinai Temple, Chicago, 
was excavated under rather difficult conditions, owing to the water encoun- 
tered and the nature of the soil, which was clean sand. The excavation for 
the basement of the building was carried 8 ft. below the street level and that 
for the pool was carried 14 ft. deeper, 11^^ ft. of which was below the level 
of the ground water. The area containing the pool was enclosed by 3-in. 
tongued and grooved sheeting, the lines of sheeting being 71 X 32 ft. This 
area was 11 ft. greater each way than the inside dimensions of the pool and 
allowed for the walls which were 1 ft., 6 ins. wide at the top and 3 ft., 6 ins.- 
wide at the bottom. The sheeting was driven by hand with a wooden maul, 
two men being kept at this work while the excavation was being carried on. 

In order to keep the site unwatered a point system was used. A 3-in. 
main was laid around the upper edge of the excavation and 13^ -in. points 
about 16 ft. long were placed every 3 ft. along the inside of the sheeting and 
connected by hose to the 3-in. main. The l^i-in. points consist of galvanized 
iron pipes having solid cone-shaped points at the lower ends. From the lower 
ends up for 36 ins. they were perforated with >^-in. holes and screened with 
fine wire mesh. As the excavation proceeded the points were lowered and 
kept just low enough to unwater the site as low as the excavation proceeded. 
It was necessary to have one man looking after the points, giving them a twist 
once in a while to keep the particles of sand from clogging the wire mesh. 
Two Nye pumps, size No. 6, were used, one being set at each end of the work. 
These pumps were attached to the main so that each pump handled the 
water from half of the area. Toward the end of the work, however, the water 
was held back by the concrete floor and only one pump was necessary. A 
gage on each of the pumps showed them to be creating over 30 ins. of vacuum 
at every stroke. 

The work was all done by hand. The material was shoveled to a scaffold 
and on to the bank behind the sheeting and then shoveled back to make space 
for more. The material in the center of the pit had to be thrown toward the 
edge before being shoveled onto the scaffold thus making four handlings for 
that part. When the excavation had reached about 3 ft. depth, 12 X 12-in. 
braces were set in to hold the sheeting. 

They were placed about 8 ft. apart, on centers, and butted against 8 X 18-in 
walling timbers. 

In concreting, a Smith 3^-cu. yd. mixer, operated by steam, was used, and 
plank runways led from the mixer out over the work. Sterling buggies of 
about 7 cu. ft. capacity were used for transporting the concrete. A floor 
12-ins. thick was put in and walls battered on the outside, from 3 ft., 6 ins. at 
the bottom to 1 ft., 6 ins. at the top. The walls varied in height from 4 ft. 



1668 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

to 9 ft., 6 ins. The forms used consisted of 1 X 6-in. sheathing and 2 X 6-in. 
studding placed 16 ins. on centers. 

The number of laborers used on the work varied considerably as this job 
was only a part of the work on a large building and men were put on and taken 
away as necessity required. The largest number used on the excavation at 
any one time, however, was 25 men. Common labor at 37>^ cts. per hour 
was used for excavating and concreting and carpenters at 62 >^ cts. an hour 
built the forms. The costs of all labor was accurately distributed and resulted 
as follows : 

96 points at $1.00 each $ 96.00 

2,500 sq. ft. sheet piling at $0.07 175. 00 

800 cu. yds. excavation at $0.20 160. 00 

70 cu. yds. floor slab at $0.65 45. 50 

150 cu. yds. walls at $0.75 112.50 

3,000 sq. ft. forms at $0.04>^ 135. 00 

Total labor cost $724 . 00 

The pumps were worked continuously in 3 shifts of 8 hours each. The cost 
of the labor and pumping amounted to about $800. 

One foreman at $8 per day was also charged to the work. 

A coat of Hydrolithic waterproofing cement was put on the interior surfaces, 
after which a veneer wall of white enameled brick was laid. 

Cost of Out-Door Swimming Pool. — Engineering and Contracting, Dec. 
10, 1919, gives the following: 

The Clifton Park swimming pool in Baltimore, Md., is one of the largest 
artificial pools in the United States. It was constructed in 1915 under the 
plans of the engineer of the City Plant Department, which has charge of the 
operation of the pool. 

Site of Pool. — The area selected for the pool construction was triangular in 
shape, bounded on two sides by city streets intersecting at right angles, with 
a high railroad embankment, along the other side, containing about 9 acres. 
The construction of the highways was upon filled ground similar to the railway 
embankment, but of much less elevation, so that the area without drainage 
would have formed a natural pond or pool. 

General Features of Pool. — The pool is elliptical in shape, with a maximum 
diameter of 595 ft. and a minimum diameter of 340 ft. 

The deep water section of the pool is also elliptical in shape, with a minimum 
diameter of 170 ft. and a maximum diameter of 356 ft. This deep water 
ellipse is at one side of the pool area, and from the line of this ellipse the depth 
increases at a 10 per cent grade. From the shallow edge of the pool'to the 
deep water elhpse, the grade one-half of the way is 1 per cent and for the bal- 
ance of the way 1^ per cent. 

The maximum depth is 9 ft. and the minimum 3 in. The pool has a capac- 
ity of 4,500,000 gals., with a water area, when filled, of 3Ko acres. 

The water supply is obtained through the city reservoir and filtration plant 
from the Gunpowder River. The water is supplied through one 8-in. inlet 
pipe and through one needle shower with l>^-in. supply pipe. There is one 
outlet or drain pipe 14 ins. in diameter. By regulation of inlet and drain valves 
there is a constant circulation of water, and the pool is emptied and cleaned 
annually. The city filtration is depended on for the purity of the water and 
chemicals are not used. Bacteriological tests of the water have never been 
made. 



MISCELLANEOUS COSTS 1669 

Preliminary Work. — A 48-in. combination storm water sewer line from a 
residential section north of Clifton Park had been carried to and under the 
railroad embankment into the triangular area where the line was partly 
exposed. There was also a considerable wash from the railroad embankment, 
and by way of preparation for the pool construction considerable grading and 
filling was necessary. The cost of this work was as follows: 

4,230 labor hours at 25 cts $1,057 

356 team hire hours at 62^^^ cts 222 

330 ft. 6-in. terra cotta pipe with fittings 69 

11,727 cu. yds. of earth at 10 cts 1 , 172 

Total $2,522 

Plans and specifications were prepared by the Park Engineer and contract 
awarded by the Municipal Board of Awards at an expense of — 

$ 40 . 00 for design 
62 . 45 for printing 
25.65 for advertising 

Total $128. 10 

Contract Work. — The contract work was commenced about the middle of 
April, 1915, and completed in 94 working days. The time allowance in the 
contract was 120 working days, with a bonus of $10 per day for completion in 
less time, so that the bonus earned was $260. 

The items of work, done under contract, cost as follows: 

Excayation, 4,651 cu. yds. at 35 cts $ 1 , 627 

Filling and replacing, 5,888 cu yds. at 25 cts 1 ,472 

Trench excavation and backfill, 1,014 lin. ft. at 45 cts 456 

10-in. vitrified pipe, 1,014 lin. ft. at 33 cts 334 

Lumber placed under drains, 410 B. M. ft. at 3 cts 12 

Concrete drain inlets, 7 at $35 each 245 

Underdrains in place, 483 lin. ft. at 75 cts 362 

Concrete pit and drainage outlet 20 

Changes to sewer line (including manhole) 210 

Manhole for drainage valve 90 

Excavation and backfill, water supply, 510 lin. ft. at 56 cts 285 

8-in. cast iron water pipe with connections, 510 lin. ft. at $1.50 765 

8-in. supply valve 25 

Excavation and backfill for pool drain, 100 lin. ft. at 75 cts 75 

14-in iron drain pipe with connections, 100 lin. ft. at $2.40 240 

14-in. drainage valve in place 55 

Lighting conduit (l^'^-in.) in place, 2,402 lin. ft. at 24 cts ; 576 

Lighting conduit (2-in.) in place, 300 lin. ft. at 27 cts 81 

Light post foundations, 7 at $24 each 158 

Light post foundations, 11 at $8.50 each 93 

Concrete life buoy bases, 23 at $5.40 each 124 

Excavation and backfill for concrete wall alongside of pool at deepest 

point, 539 cu. yds. at 50 cts 269 

Concrete in wall, furnished and placed, 332 cu. yds. at $8 2 , 656 

Steel reinforcement rods for wall and pool bottom, 68,249 lbs. at 2.6 cts. 

per lb. in place 1 , 774 

Wire mesh reinforcement, 15,670 sq. yds. at 8 cts 1 ,253 

Concrete for pool bottom in place, 1,838 cu. yds. at $5.86 10,770 

Concrete walk around pool, 15,473 sq. ft. at 9.6 cts 1 ,485 

Overflow drains and boxes, 6 boxes, 200 lin. ft. of pipe 310 

Springboards in place, 2 at $10 20 

Concrete structure for sliding boards, with two concrete sHdes 1 ,425 

Miscellaneous extra work 280 

$27,564 



1670 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Electric Lighting and Water Supply Pipe. — Electric lighting was installed by 
park electrician on force account, at a cost for material and labor, as follows: 

18 cast iron posts in place, $27 $ 486 

3 , 942 lin. ft. of cable in place at 10 cts. per ft 394 

18 lamps at $4.14 each 74 

18 globes in place at $4 each 72 

18 transformers at $0.2777 95 

18 switches at $4,50 each 81 

$1,202 

The cost of water supply, connection made by the Municipal Water Depart- 
ment, was as follows: 

Labor $109.73 

Material 159. 20 

Total $268.93 

The total cost of the pool, including lighting equipment, but not including 
showers, diving rafts, dressing rooms or other equipment, was $31,946. 

Operation of Pool. — All bathers are required to pass under showers before 
entering the pool, and the use of soap is strictly forbidden. The average daily 
attendance during 100 days of operation in 1918 was 900 persons, and the 
average diiring the first 50 days of operation in 1919, 1,400 persons. The 
maximum daily use of the pool in 1918 was 4,254 persons on August 6th, and 
in 1919, 4,674 persons on July 5th. The pool is opened during the first week 
in June, and is continuously operated for a period of approximately 100 days. 

During the winter months the pool is available for skating when ice freezes 
a sufficient thickness, which is very seldom. 

There is a concrete pool building constructed at a cost of $45,000, in which 
there are four showers and 949 steel lockers of the best grade, with toilet 
facilities, and with ample accommodations for handling bathing suits, etc. 
The building contains a steam laundering and drying plant, with the most 
up-to-date equipment. There are two frame wing additions to the concrete 
building, in which there are dressing compartments and racks, in which boxes 
are used for checking clothing as a substitute for steel lockers. These two 
wings cost $10,000, and will accommodate at one time 2,400 persons or a 
maximum of 24,000 persons on any one day. The operating organization is 
under the Superintendent of Clifton Park, and the employees are classified and 
paid as follows: 

Per week 

1 Manager $20.00 

1 Engineer (laundry machine) 20 . 00 

1 Head life guard 18 . 00 

8 Life guards 16 . 00 

8 Lockermen 16 . 00 

1 Head woman attendant 14 . 00 

1 Ticket cashier 12 . 00 

7 Women helpers , 10 . 00 

The annual cost of operating the pool is something in excess of $12,000 per 
year. The exact cost is not known, owing to the fact that the pool has not 
been in operation under park management long enough to show the deprecia- 
tion cost of towels and bathing suits. The receipts from the Clifton pool in 
1918 (the first year of park operation) were $4,576.96, and the total patrons, 
not counting free entries from charitable institutions, 83,865 persons. 



MISCELLANEOUS COSTS 1671 

Costs of Concrete Work on Three Small Tanks at Lincoln Park, Chicago. — 

Engineering and Contracting, March 22, 1911, gives the following'. 

The work considered is the construction of concrete pits or tanks, two of 
which are used for the animals in the zoo and the other being a wading pool 
for children, with a small wall enclosing a sand court adjacent to one end of the 
pool. 

The work at the sea lion pit consisted in the construction of a new concrete 
floor and small walls. The total amount of concrete in the work was 40 cu. 
yds. The cost follows: 

Per 

Labor Total cu. yd. 

Engineering $ 12.49 $ 0.312 

Foreman, 5 days at $3.25 16.25 0.406 

Teams, 6 days at $4.00 24. 00 0. 600 

Common labor, 61^ days at $2 122 . 50 3 . 062 

Carpenters, 12 days at $4.80 57 . 60 1 . 440 

Total labor $232. 84 $ 5.820 

Material: 

Lumber • $ 15.00 $0,375 

Cement, 57 bbls. at $1.35 76 . 95 1 . 924 

Sand, 22 yds. at $1.65 36.30 0.907 

Gravel, 46 yds. at $1.50 69 . 00 1 . 725 

Expanded metal, 868 sq. ft. at $0.02>^ 18 . 45 0. 461 

Total material $215.70 $ 5.392 

Grand totals $448 .54 $11 . 212 



The concrete work done in the coon pit amounted to 30 cu. yds. and the 
den was faced with granite. The cost of the work follows: 

Per 

Labor Total cu. yd. 

Engineering, 5 days at $2.50 \ « cq on « i ^tq 

Engineering, 11 days at $3.70 / ^ ii6.^v ^ L.U6 

Foreman, 5 days at $3.25 . 16.25 0.542 

Teams, 3 days at $4.00 12.00 0.400 

Common labor, 973^ days at $2 195. 00 6. 500 

Carpenters, 24 days at $4.80 115 . 20 3 . 840 

Mason, 1 day at $4.50 4.50 0.150 

Blacksmith, }4 day at $5.00 2 . 50 . 083 

Total labor $398 . 65 $13 . 288 

Material: 

Cement, 32 bbls. at $1.25 \ « rj nn « o i qq 

Cement, hydrolithic 4 bbls. at $6.00 / $ b4.0U ^ Z.166 

Gravel, 24 cu. yds. at $1.50 36. 00 1 .200 

Torpedo sand, 12 cu. yds. at $1.65. . ; 19.80 0.660 

Granite, 2 cu. yds. at $6.00 : 12 . 00 . 400 

Steel 15. 20 0. 507 

Acid, brushes, etc 5.25 0.175 

Tools 11.02 0.367 

Total material. . ; $163 .27 $ 5 . 442 

Grand total $561.92 $18.73 



The wading pool consisted of a concrete elliptical basin of 62 ft. and 49 ft. 
diameters, with an area of 2,386 sq. ft. The floor was built 6 ins. thick and 
contained 43.2 cu. yds. The floor was sloped to a depth of 2 ft. in the center. 



1672 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The concrete in this work was mixed with a Cube mixer. The costs of the 
work were as follows: 

Per 
Labor Total cu. yd. 

Engineering $ 14 . 20 $0 . 329 

Foreman 3.25 0.075 

Common labor, 39^ days at $2 79.25 1.834 

Total labor .. $96.70 $2,238 

Cement, 52 bbls. at $1.35 $ 70. 20 $1 .625 

Gravel, 27 cu. yds. at $1.65 44.55 1.032 

Sand, 18 cu. yds. at $1.65 29.70 0.688 

Lumber 4.50 0.104 

Expanded metal and pipe 45 . 00 1 . 042 

Tools : 5.80 0.134 

Total material $199.75 $4,625 

Grand total $296.55 $6,863 

Total cost per sq. ft. of area $0. 12424 

Some time later in the season the above wading pool was improved by the 
building of a small irregular shaped wall enclosing a sand court at one end of 
the pool. The wall was built rectangular in cross section (6" X 15") and 
57 ft. in length. Its cost was as follows: 

Per 
Labor: Total lin. ft. 

Foreman, 1 day at $3.00 $3.00 $0,054 

Common labor, 8 days at $2.00 16.00 0.281 

Finisher, 23^ days at $2.25 4.80 0.084 

Carpenters, 2^ days at $4.80 12.00 0.210 

Total labor $35.80 $0,629 

Material: 

Lumber, 250 ft. B. M. at $25 $ 6.25 $0,110 

Cement, 63^ bbls. at $1.35 8.44 0.149 

Sand, 3 yds. at $1.65 4.95 0.087 

Gravel, 5 yds. at $1.60 8.00 0.140 

Tools 1.21 0.021 

Total material $28. 85 $0. 507 

Grand total $1,336 

Costs of Encasing Steel Structures in Concrete to Prevent Corrosion. — 

Two methods of encasing steel structures in concrete, namely encasement by 
pouring and encasement by cement gun, are discussed in one of the appendixes 
of the report of the Committee on Steel Structures of the American Railway 
Engineering Association, of which report, Engineering and Contracting April 
15, 1914 gives the following abstract: 

1. If the floor is protected by concrete encasement poured in place, the 
cost will be approximately 25 cts. per square foot for an envelope 3 ins. thick. 

2. Encasement 3 ins. thick placed by cement gun will cost approximately 
23 cts. per square foot. 

Specific data on concrete encasement work are given by "W. F. Jordan, 
manager Grand Central Terminal Improvements, New York Central & 
Hudson River R. R. and by G. E. Tebbetts, Bridge Engineer, Kansas City 
Terminal Ry., as follows: 

Grand Central Terminal. — The cement gun is being used at the Grand 
Central Terminal for fireproofing and protecting a part of the steel structure. 
The yard is in two stories, the upper tracks being supported on a steel 
structure with concrete jack-arches. It was necessary to get the upper tracks 
in service at an early date, so the fireproofing of the exposed parts of the steel 
below the jack-arches was not done at the time the floor was built. 




MISCELLANEOUS COSTS 1673 

The lower parts of the beams, the girders and columns are now being fire- 
proofed with the cement gun, using a minimum thickness of 2 ins. ; the average 
thickness is from 2K to 3 ins., as in the angles and around the stiffeners there 
is generally more than the minimum thickness. 

The fireproofing is reinforced with a wire mesh, 13^ X IH ins. of No. 12 
wires; this is attached to 3^ -in. rods, which are bent around the steel and fas- 
tened to it. 

The mixture has generally been 1 to 3, but in cool weather, and where the 
steel is subject to vibrations from the trains running on it, a 1 to 2 mixture is 
found to be more economical, as it is not as likely to drop off. It is necessary 
with this machine to use fine sand, as sand with pebbles in it clogs the hose ; all 
of the sand, therefore, has to be carefully screened. 

We find that a cubic foot of 1 to 3 mixture, when weighed in a box of 1 cu. 
ft. capacity after being moderately shaken down, weighs 3 lbs. ; if this mixture 
is wet and applied with a trowel, after setting it will weigh 127 lbs. to the 
cubic foot, when shot through a cement gun onto a steel structure and set up, 
it weighs 144 lbs. per cubic foot. From this one gets an idea of the density 
of the fireproofing made with this apparatus 

In applying the mixture of sand and cement with the cement gun from 20 to 
25 per cent of it is lost. Some bounces off as it strikes the structure, some is 
shot by the steel in working around the angles and to get a smooth surface 
the mason scrapes off the irregularities, and to get a good surface it is floated. 

The labor required to operate one machine is as follows : 1 foreman, 1 opera- 
tor of the machine, 1 nozzleman, 2 masons for floating, 4 laborers screening, 
mixing and charging the machines. Carpenters are used when necessary to 
erect scaffolds. 

One of these machines uses compressed air to the amount of 100 ft. of free 
air per minute at a pressure from 35 to 40 lbs. The hose through which the 
mixture is conveyed wears out quite rapidly and renewals amount to about $1 
per day. We have averaged covering about 500 sq. ft. per day of the thick- 
ness mentioned above. This method would appear to give an excellent pro- 
tection for the steel. The material is very dense and the method of 
application such that every inch of the structure is uniformly protected. The 
great thickness used in this work is due to the municipal laws requiring at 
least 2 ins. of fire protection. 

Kansas City Terminals. — On the new structures, which the Kansas City 
Terminal Railway Co. is building, the encasement is applied in the majority 
of cases by use of the cement gun. This machine consists essentially of a 
hopper into which the cementitous materials, made up of 1 part Portland 
cement to 3 parts dry screened sand, are placed; a hose connected to the bot- 
tom of the hopper, through which the mixture is forced by air pressure; a 
nozzle at the end of the hose, to which another hose supplying water is 
attached for hydrating the materials. At the end of the hose is a cylindrical 
nozzle having an annular ring at its base, to which the hose delivering the 
water is attached. This water is delivered inside the nozzle in the form of a 
fine spray, through which the materials from the gun pass. The nozzle is 
made of brass, and to prevent wear on the nozzle proper a rubber lining is used. 
This lining can be replaced whenever necessary. 

Before adopting the cement gun, the claims of the company selling it were 
investigated and test panels were encased. The conclusion reached was that 
if the cost was not too great, it would solve the problem of encasement. Com- 
parative estimates made are shown below: 



1674 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Encasement by Pouring in Forms. — Encasement to be 3 in. in thickness; 
mixture to be 1:2:4 concrete; reinforcement, wire mesh and bars. 

Stone, 1 cu. yd. at $1.25 $1 . 25 

Unloading 1 cu. yd. at 20 cts 20 

Loss in handling at 5 per cent 07 

Sand, 3^ cu. yd. at 60 cts 30 

Unloading 3^ cu. yd. at 6cts 03 

Loss in handling at 5 per cent . .02 

Cement, 1^ bbls. at $1.25 2 . 19 

Unloading 1^ bbls. at 5 cts 09 

Loss in sacks at 5 per cent 03 

Total $4.18 

1 cu. yd. equal to 108 sq. ft. 3 in. thick. 

Cost of material per sq. ft . . . $0 . 039 

Forms 1.63 ft. B. M. at $0.050 081 

Mixing and placing at $5.40 per cu. yd . 050 

Insurance on payroll at 5 per cent ■. .003 

Overhead and profit at 8 per cent +15 per cent = 23 per $0,173 

cent .040 

Cost per sq. ft. of encasement = $0,216. 

Encasement per sq. ft $0,216 

Mesh No. 3 at $0.06 018 

Bars, No. 5, at $0.03 .015 

Total cost per sq. ft $0 . 249 

Say, 25 cents per square foot. 

Encasement by Use of Cement Gun. — Encasement to be 3 ins. in thickness; 
mixture 1:3 mortar; reinforcement, wire mesh and bars Average number of 
square feet covered in a day of 10 hours, 275 sq. ft. Loss due to gun work, 
20 per cent. Loss due to handling sand, 30 per cent. Quantity of sand used 
in placing 275 sq. ft. 3 ins. thick, 4 cu. yds. 

Sand, 4 cu. yds. at $0.60 $2. 40 

Unloading and screening 4 yds. at $0.25 1 . 00 

Cement, 5K bbls. at $1.25 • 6.88 

Unloading 5K bbls. at $0.15 .83 

Loss in sacks at 5 per cent - 1 1 

Water, per day .15 

Gasoline for compressor, 12 gals, at $0.1 5K 1 . 86 

Oil waste and handling per day .60 

$13.83 

1 foreman, 10 hrs. at 37.5 cts , $ 3. 75 

1 finisher, 10 hrs. at 35 cts 3. 50 

1 nozzleman, 10 hrs. at 32.5 cts 3 . 25 

1 gunman, 10 hrs. at 30 cts 3 . 00 

2 laborers, 10 hours at 22.5 cts 4 . 50 

1 boy, 10 hrs. at 123^ cts 1.25 

$19.25 

Repairs, etc., per day $2 . 00 

Scaffolding for 275 sq. ft. at $0.15 4. 13 

6.13 

Interest on gun, $3,000 at 5 per cent $0. 41 

Insurance on payroll at 5 per cent 97 

1.38 

Total $40. 59 

Overhead and profit 8 per cent and 25 per cent = 33 

per cent 13. 53 

Cost of encasement $54. 12 

Cost per sq. ft $ 0. 1968 

Mesh No. 3 per sq. ft. at $0.06 018 

Bars, No. 5, per sq. ft. at $0.03 .015 

$0.2298 
Say, 23 cents per square foot. 



MISCELLANEOUS COSTS 



1675 



A comparison of the above shows a saving of 2 cts. per square foot in favor 
of the gun work over the poured encasement, and it might be stated that since 
this estimate was made we have received bids on actual work that check very 
closely with the above. 

The steel work to be encased was designed with open holes 11-16 ins. in 
diameter in webs, stiff eners and flanges, so that in placing and attaching the 
reinforcement there would be ample provision for rigid attachment to the 
structure. In attaching reinforcement 
to girder webs and other large surfaces, 
the bars were placed on small V-shaped 
iron saddles and wired through the 
webs to each other. On flanges the 
rods were run through steel eyebolts 
attached to the lower flange, the mesh 
being attached to the bars by wiring. 
At the junction of the concrete en- 
casement with the floor, which is also 
of concrete, a splice was provided by 
use of mesh placed in the floor pre- 
viously cast, this splice being four 
■ inches in width. Fig. 1 shows typical 
method of attaching reinforcement to 
girders. 

The steel girders were shipped from 
the shops with a shop coat of linseed 
oil, which was removed by the use of a 
caustic soda wash before encasement 
was started. All rust spots were re- 
moved with a wire brush. 

Our experience has shown that the 
1 : 3 mixture placed in the gun gives a 
resulting mortar of approximately 
1 : 2yi, this change being due to loss of 
sand. The sand must be nearly dry, 
the dryer the better, a mixture of 
coarse and fine grains giving better 
results with considerably less loss, than 
either the coarse or fine alone. 

The sand must be screened as particles over K in. in diameter clog the gun 
and cause serious delays. 

The compressor should be a machine of very ample capacity and an inter- 
mediate air storage tank is an advantage. 

It was found that it was very difficult to encase the lower flange of a girder, 
especially so the lower face, and in our work we cast this portion in quite a 
few cases. 

It was also a difficult proposition to get a good, clean job around stiffeners 
and sidewalk bracket members. On the brackets V-shaped forms were made 
and used as a backing for the gun work. As to finish, the appearance is fairly 
good, though far from the smooth, even lines of cast work and a great deal 
depends upon the finisher as to the final appearance. 

Cost of Cofferdams at St. Mary's Falls Canal. — The construction of the 
third and fourth ship locks at Sault Ste. Marie, Mich., by the U. S. Govern- 




'Long bars? '-■' 

Fig. 1. — Typical concrete encase- 
ment of deck plate girder, Kansas 
City Terminal Ry. 



1676 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



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1677 




1678 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

ment required the building of a cofferdam inclosing an area of 22.51 acres. 
The cofferdam was commenced in December, 1907, and it was practically 
completed in the summer of 1909. The total length of new cofferdam con- 
struction was 3,150 ft., while 1,074 ft. of existing wall and 671 ft. of old dam 
brought the total length of water-excluding wall to 5,281 ft. The methods 
employed in building the cofferdam are described by W. J. Graves, U. S. 
Assistant Engineer, in the May- June Professional Memoirs. The matter that 
follows is taken from an abstract of Mr. Graves* paper published in Engineer- 
ing and Contracting, June 20, 1917. 

The dam was designed and built in nine different sections. These sections 
were of different types of construction, built by different methods, and at 
various seasons of the year, as seemed most expedient. Some sections were 
built by hired labor, some under small contracts and others by a combination 
of the two methods. One feature common to all sections was the placing of 
backfilling and crib-filling under minor contracts for "lock pit excavation," 
let from time to time as the material was needed. Considerable saving in 
cost was thereby effected, as the material was dumped without cost other than 
for excavation. 

The types of construction are shown in Fig. 2 and varied from timber crib 
rock-filled structure, subject to a direct pressure of 23 ft. head, to land portions 
of clay puddle wall, only a few feet high, to prevent possible seepage through 
existing embankment 60 ft. or more in width. 

Costs. — Table I gives a summary of the costs of constructing the cofferdams. 

Table II. — Disthibution of Costs of Consteucting Cofferdam Inclosing 
• Lock Pit at Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. 

Name of section and kind of con- Labor and 

struction Excav. supplies Materials Total 

Southeast cofferdam: 

a. Clay wall and oak sheet piles $2,676 $2,224 $ 4 ,900 

2. Steel sheet piling 1 , 007 5 , 358 6 , 365 

East crib dam $10, 154a 6,200 4,311 20,665 

North crib dam, timber 5,2866 6,213 5,198 16,697 

North cofferdam — clay wall 8 , 978c 1 , 092d 4 , 326e 14 , 396 

Northwest cofferdam — clay wall 3 , 744 3 , 465 3 , 47 1 10 , 680 

West cofferdam — clay wall 711 572 1 , 924 3 , 207 

Southwest cofferdam — clay wall 1,934/ 1,522 13,456 

a Contract dredging — 15,597 cu. yds. 
b Contract dredging — 10,528 cu. yds. 
c Excavating trench — 2,845 cu. yd. (frozen gravel)s. 

Labor $7,677 

SuppHes 756 

Stripping boulders from 1.15 acres of ground (721 cu. yds.), 
9 men for 1 month $ 545 . 00 

$8,978 
d Labor backfilling, 
e 7,790 cu. yds. clay. 
/603 cu. yds. (frozen embankment.) 

The last column of Table I gives the cost per square foot of vertical face 
area of completed wall. This unit cost seems the best basis of comparing the 
relative cost of the different types. It will be seen that simple* clay puddle 
walls, without sheathing, cost 93 to 97 cts. 

The construction of the north dam demonstrated that certain kinds of 
work could, under existing conditions, be carried out cheaper in winter. For 
example : The amount saved in pumping was greater than the added expense 
of drilling and blasting frozen material. And again, the winter cost of clay 
delivery, when 5 yds. could be hauled at each load across the ice without re- 




MISCELLANEOUS COSTS 1679 

handling and dumped directly into the trench, was but 40 per cent of the cost 
for summer delivery. The saving thus effected more than made up for the 
added winter cost of thawing the clay. 

The southwest dam cost only 66 cts., because considerable work was done 
by bankrupt contractors without cost to the United States. If the United 
States could have been held liable, the cost would have been 96 cts. per square 
foot, the same as for other clay walls. 

The northwest dam cost $1.38 because of the water troubles and burden of 
stockramming leaks, and because of the high cost of summer delivered clay 
and its subsequent rehandling. Could this section have been built in the 
winter time, its cost might have been much less. 

The Short junction dam at $2.78 carries a large burden of overhead expense, 
and it is unfair to draw comparisons of cost. It is possible that steel piling 
could have been used at a saving in cost. 

The southeast dain at $1.62 is high, because of the elaborate sheathing 
employed; no especial difficulties being encountered in its construction. 

The crib dams are relatively expensive, because of the amount of material 
used in their construction and the difficulty in getting the cribs in good contact 
with the rock bottom. The north dam cost $1 .85 per square foot against $2.39 
for the east dam, the difference being due entirely to the larger quantity of 
excavation necessary for the latter section. 

The cost for the heaviest (40 lbs.) steel piling driven through 25 ft. of hard 
driving (boulders, gravel and hardpan) was only 96 cts. per square foot. This 
makes it a formidable rival of the clay puddle wall. Its use at this locality 
was an experiment and, had its possibilities been as well known then as now» 
several other sections of dam might have been built of steel sheet piling at a 
considerable saving in time and probably in cost. 

The efficiency of the different sections of cofferdam has been first class. 
The only leaks were a small one under or through the east crib dam, and 
another, amounting to enough to fill a 3-in. pipe, under the steel piling of the 
southeast dam, where one piece of piling evidently struck a boulder. The 
only money paid out for maintenance by the contractors was in connection 
with the latter leak, when the masonry contractor bore the expense of a few 
days stockramming, amounting to about $346. 

A leak of considerable size developed through a rock seam under the south- 
west dam. This leak probably occasioned 75 per cent of the required pump- 
ing and both the contractor for excavation and the contractor for masonry 
spent considerable money in unsuccessful attempts to stop it. This leak 
is not chargeable to inefficiency of cofferdam, however. 

Cost of Pumping. — Under the contract for excavation there was pumped 
(during 757 days, between Sept. 26, 1909, and Oct. 23, 1911), 1,242,628,000 
gals., at the following cost to contractor: 

Labor . .. $11,428 

Electric power (at 1 ct. per kw. hour) 6 , 975 

Fuel 403 

Supplies , 398 

Repairs 147 

Overhead charges: 

Installing plant $ 314 

Interest and depreciation $2 , 151 

2,465 

Totalcost $21,816 

or $0.0176 per 1,000 gals., or $28.90 per calendar day. 



1680 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Under the contract for lock masonry, the pumping during 858 days (Oct. 
23, 1911, to March 1, 1914), amounted to 1,094,760,000 gals., and cost the 
contractor as follows: 

Labor $12 , 208 

Electric, power (at 1 ct. per kw. hour) • 8,221 

Supplies, fuel and repairs 2 , 052 

Overhead charges: 

Interest and depreciation $1 ,012 

Dismantling (assumed) 300 

1,312 

Total cost $23,793 

or $0.0217 per 1,000 gals., or $27.85 per calendar day. 

The battery of pumps originally installed was as follows: 

One 10-in. centrifugal with 100-h.p. motor 
One 8-in. centrifugal with 85-h.p. motor 
One e-in. centrifugal with 50-h.p. motor 
One 5-ih. centrifugal with 20-h.p. motor and 
One 4-in. centrifugal with 15-h.p. motor 

The maximum battery required at any one time consisted of the four latter 
pumps, the 10-in. being a reserve unit for emergency. 

The volume of pumping varied from a minimum daily average of about 850, 
000 gals, in winter, while the adjoining canal was unwatered, to a maximum 
daily average of about 3,000,000 gals, during the summer. The maximum for 
any one day was about 4,000,000 gals. 

Cost of Steel Cofiferdam of the Pocket Type. — ^A steel cofferdam of the 
pocket type was used in the construction of Lock No. 2, Cape Fear River, N. 
C, for the U. S. Government. Double rows of Lackawanna sheet piling 
connected at intervals by transverse rows, were driven around the lock site^ 

D/rec^n of F/oiV 




f^^M&^^M 




Fig. 3. — Plan and section of cofferdam and lock. 



The pockets thus formed were of such dimensions that when filled with earth 
they could resist the unbalanced pressure on the cofferdam without support. 
As the steel on the land side was driven well back into the river bank where 
the ground was level with the tops of the pockets, no filling was necessary 
on this side. The river pockets were filled with material dredged in the coffer- 
dam enclosure. The following description of the methods employed in the 
construction of the cofferdam is taken from an abstract in Engineering and 
Contracting, Jan. 17, 1917, of an article by Norman M. Chivers, Assistant 
Engineer, in the Sept.-Oct. Professional Memoirs. 

The general arrangement of the cofferdam is shown in Fig. 3. The pockets 
were of two types. Those at the upper end had parallel inside and outside 
walls tied together by walings and steel cables and rods. The other pockets 




MISCELLANEOUS COSTS 1681 

were without ties, the inside wall being curved to reduce distortions in the 
steel piling caused by the filling. Driving requirements and limited space 
for plant dictated the two single wall panels in the upper and lower wings. 
These panels were held by cables to wooden pile anchorages. Arched web 
piling, on account of its greater transverse strength, was used in walls held by 
walings and on the outside of the river pockets; straight web was used in the 
interior curved walls, the cross walls, and on the outside of the land pockets. 
The total length of the coffering was 878 ft. It required 1,871.9 tons of 
piling. 

The cofferdam was designed to provide a protection against floods equiva- 
lent to that which experience showed to be satisfactory with the cofferdam 
at Lock No. 1, 33 miles farther down the river. The elevation of the top 
of the steel was accordingly fixed at 23.4 ft. above the mean low water 
obtaining at the site before the lower pool level was established by the construc- 
tion of the dam at Lock No. 1. This elevation corresponded to an average 
height above the bottom of the river of 28 ft. The lock fioor was laid before 
pumping out so that the coffered enclosure, after pumping out, had a depth 
of 31 ft. 

To make the cofferdam of the height indicated and at the same time secure 
the necessary penetration in the sand and clay bottom of the river, piles 49 ft. 
long were required for the outsfde wall. The piles on the land side of the 
inside wall were of the same length, but on the river side piles 43 ft. long were 
used, making the inside wall 6 ft. lower than the outside. By thus sloping 
the tops of the pockets, the amount of filling required was reduced and dredging 
operations facilitated. All of the piles in the inner wall were spliced just 
above the elevation of the lock floor, the lower portions remaining as a part 
of the permanent construction. 

The driving of the steel in the land cofferwall was done by two traveling 
pile drivers capable of movement parallel and at right angles to the center 
line of the lock. 

The flat on which the tracks were laid was excavated out of the bank and all 
of the piling driven between the two outer tracks. To form the curve on the 
inside of the pockets a cylindrical cage moving in the ordinary driver leads and 
holding one of the hammers at aijy desired horizontal angle was provided. A 
similar cage, without any revolving feature, enabled the other hammer to 
overreach piling already partially driven for making the closure of the pockets. 
Piles were delivered to the drivers from the stockpiles by hand cars running 
on a track immediately in front of the machines. Steam for the hammers 
was supplied from a central boiler plant. 

The two hammers used were Warrington steam hammers with striking 
weights of 3,000 and 1,800 lbs., respectively. Each driver was e'quipped with 
two 2-in. jets, supplied by a pump installed on a scow nearby. Both pumps 
had a rated capacity of 250 gals, per minute at 75 lb. pressure ; one with 80 lbs. 
and the other with 125 lbs. steam pressure. The jets were freely used in both 
land and river driving. 

The penetration of the piles in the land wall varied from 39 to 48 ft. in clay, 
clay and sand, and marl. Considerable difficulty was experienced in driving 
to grade, and in several instances of absolute refusal the tops of the piles had 
to be cut off by the oxy-acetylene flame to permit the travelers to proceed. 
The smaller hammer drove an average of 9 piles per 16-hour day, and the 
other an average of 25.6 piles per 16-hour day. 

When the land driving was completed, sufficient dredging was done at the 
106 



1682 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

upper and lower ends to enable the pile drivers mounted on scows to continue 
the coffer walls out into the river. 

The floating rig being more flexible than that used on the land, and the 
penetration less, varying from 18 to 21 ft., driving was faster. The smaller 
hammer drove an average of 17 piles per 16-hour day, and the large hammer 
20.5 per 16-hour day. 

The curved panels of the river wall were driven to a templet floating on the 
convex side of the arcs and held in place by adjustable bracing to wooden 
guide piles located inside the cofferdam enclosure opposite and in line with 
the cross walls. The bracing was so arranged that the templet could rise and 
fall with varying stages of the river. Alignment of the templet was secured 
by means of points established by triangulation on brackets nailed to the 
wooden piles. 

The closure of all pockets was made by a large hammer. This was work 
which required a great deal of time and care. It was found to be very difficult 
to keep the piling always vertical, as a leaning tendency often developed in 
the direction of the driving. This lean gave trouble in closing. In four 
instances specially fabricated wedge-shape piles had to be used. All of the 
pockets were closed on the outside wall. Driving proceeded alternately on 
the rear and cross walls of a pocket until only the four piles nearest a corner 
remained. These last four piles were then entered, but not driven to grade 
until all were in place. Driving in succession each pile a few feet at a time 
completed the closure. 

Diagonal steel channel walings were provided for all the cross walls, the 
holes for the fastening bolts in the piling being burned through with oxy- 
acetylene flame. The function of these walings was to prevent sliding of one 
Interlock on another, due to the over-turning force on the backs of the pockets. 
In this they were only partly successful, as will be noted later. 

A gap was left at the lower end of the cofferdam for the passage of the 
dredge which excavated the enclosure and the pile drivers which drove the 
foundation piles. The dredging was done principally by the Engineer 
Department Dredge Ajax, with a 5-yd. clam-shell bucket. Approximately half 
of the material removed, sand and clay, was used to fill the pockets at an 
average cost of 263^ cts. per yard. The plans required a level bottom every- 
where. Considerable material immediately next to the steel could not be 
handled by a large clam-shell bucket, and had first to be loosened by jetting, 
and then taken out with a K-yd. orange-peel bucket. Some blasting also was 
required in a small shelf of marl encountered in the lower wing. These opera- 
tions, together with the fact that the over-depth allowance made for shoaling 
during pile driving proved insufficient, necessitating further dredging by 
siphon in tho'se areas where piles had been driven, and by the Ajax in other 
places, greatly increased the cost of excavation. The total average unit cost 
of material removed was 463^ cts. per yard. 

As dredging proceeded in front of the land wall, a serious movement of four 
of the pockets at the upstream end was noted, showing a tendency to turn 
over in the direction of the lockpit. The earth back of these pockets had 
not been disturbed in any way and was not surcharged . No similar movement 
occurred at the lower end of the wall, although here about 2,500 wooden piles 
were stacked immediately back of the steel. An examination of the walings 
on the cross walls of the leaning pockets showed that all of the fastening bolts 
had sheared off. As it was not found practicable to put in enough bolts to 
withstand the stress, it was decided to relieve partially the pressure on the 



MISCELLANEOUS COSTS 1683 

back of the wall by excavation and drainage, and to tie the cross walls affected 
to tree anchorages by means of heavy wire cables. This proved to be a 
satisfactory solution of the difficulty. The maximum movement of the top 
of the steel amounted to 7 ft. 6 in., and no further movement was detected 
when the cofferdam was pumped out. 

After all the foundation piles had been driven, the gap left at the lower end 
of the cofferdam was closed and the bottom sealed with a 5-ft. layer of concrete 
deposited through a tremie. This concrete was allowed a month to set before 
the first pump-out. 

The pumping plant, located at the upper end of the cofferdam, consisted of a 
12-in. Morris direct connected centrifugal designed to discharge 4,200 gals, per 
minute against a 30-ft. head, and a 10-in. Buffalo centrifugal, of the sub- 
merged type, designed to discharge 3,000 gals, per minute against a 32-ft. head. 
The 12-in. pump was mounted on pontoons inside the cofferdam, and had a 
discharge pipe made up of short sections to provide for increased lift as the 
water level fell. The 10-in. pump was rigidly attached to the wall of the cof- 
ferdam, and belt-connected to the driving engine on top of one of the 
pockets. 

The first pump-out was purposely extended over two days in order that the 
coffer walls might be watched. The 12-in. pump alone was used until the 
pontoons grounded on the lock floor, after which the 10-in. pump completed 
the unwatering. 

A movement of the top of the river wall toward the lock pit of 1^ ins. was the 
only movement of the cofferdam detected during pumping operations. After 
the first pump-out the maximum head on the cofferdam was 26 ft. Leakage 
at ordinary stages of the river amounted to about 200 gals, per minute. 

As the Cai)e Fear River is subject to rapid rises, which at times completely 
submerged the cofferdam, provision was made for flooding by means of a 
24-in. pipe through one of the pockets at the lower end, 12 ft. below the top. 
Control was secured by an ordinary gate valve operated from a platform out- 
side the cofferdam. 

Costs for Driving Summarized. — The unit costs of the different operations 
in constructing the cofferdam are summarized in the accompanying table. 
They include payroll, supplies and a charge for repairs to the plant employed. 

Cost of Driving Steel Sheeting 

Per Per Per 
pile ton lin. ft. 

Driving land piling $5. 18 $5. 77 

Driving river piling 2 . 28 2 . 53 

Driving piling, average 3 . 36 3 . 75 

Splicing piles ". .47 

Handling piles 30 

Placing wales $0.79 

Driving wood anchor piles 4 . 57 

In addition, it cost $29.45 each to install the tie cables. As 17.7 per cent 
of the total tonnage of steel in the cofferdam became a part of the permanent 
structure, the cost of driving chargeable to the cofferdam given above should 
be reduced by this amount. 

Annual Cost of Creosoted Wood Structures. — (Engineering Record, Feb. 
7, 1914). 



1684 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

lo o ^ o «^ o The annual cost of structures having a life of from 

§ • ^ ^ • • • " fiv^ to thirty years and a first cost of from 10 to 60 

units (dollars or cents) is given in Table III, from the 

,o I^^^xSoS report of the committee on preservation of timber 

"^ d^c^iMod^' presented at the 1914 convention of the American 

Railway Bridge and Building Association. Utilizing 

this table, which is applicable to structures of various 

types, the committee analyzes the saving in the use of 

treated piles for trestles on the Southern Pacific. 

The Southern Pacific, according to the report, has 

about 105,000 creosoted Douglas-fir piles in trestles. 

They were treated by the boiling process, and range 

d r-I <m' ci Ttl ic ill ^S^ from one to twenty-three years, with probably 

more than two-thirds of them over twelve years old. 

Sblcolo3co Of this number not more than 500 have ever been 

drHC<ico^»c replaced on account of decay, and many of those 

twenty years old are as good as when driven. The 

committee does not doubt that they will be good for 

at least thirty years, and estimates the life of the same 

timber untreated as eight years. 

Assuming these piles to average 40 ft. in length, each 
pile, at 10 cts. per foot, would cost $4. The driving 
t« •^^SoJSSSo would cost $6, making the total of $10 per pile. If 
« ^ d 1-1 (N CO Tjl »c such a pile would last eight years, its cost, as shown 
^ 'oco ocoo5oc^^oo ^^ *^^ table, would be $1.55 per year. Similarly, a 
g ^.-1 o^'-;csiooco 40-ft. creosoted pile, at 30 cts. per foot, costs $12, 
Hg -Hc^co^ioco which, added to the $6 for driving, makes a total of 
^ oi- $18 If the pile will last thirty years, the annual cost 

will be $1.17. The difference is 38 cts. per pile, or 
nearly $40,000 per year for the entire 105,000 piles. 
Costs of Treating Seasoned and Unseasoned Ties. — 
r-^c^n^^t^ F. J. Angler gives the following data in Engineering 
Record, Jan. 20, 1912. 

An unseasoned tie is generally taken to mean one 
freshly cut, or one where the sap wood is so completely 
filled with moisture that it would be impossible to treat 
the tie thoroughly until this moisture had been at 
least partially removed, A seasoned tie is one that 
has been cut for some time and the moisture allowed 
.-^co^dNioi to evaporate to a greater or less degree. The time 
necessary to season a tie so that it can be properly 
treated varies in different localities, as well as in differ- 
ent seasons and with different kinds of wood. At a 
fair average it requires six hours to treat a charge of 
thoroughly seasoned ties and nine hours to treat a 
charge of unseasoned ties. The treatment referred to 



OO<NC0^i0 



o i-i <M CO "^ ":> 



M CO ^ . , ,^.._ 
(^^co^o<©t>- 
T-^(^jcO'!^lod 



i-H(Neo>oot^ 



tH c<j ".^ »0 t> 00 



1-HCOiOOOOO 



rH CO lO l> Oi I— I 



TH(Meo-^iOkO 



"^co«Dosc<iiooo is with a mixture or creosote and zinc-chloride, known 

(N^'ddr^co as the card process. At this rate the cost of treating 

2«ooooco ^^ ^ Pl^^t having a maximum capacity of 1,800,000 

go ^(NcoTt^ioco seasoned ties a year is as given in Table IV, and the 




MISCELLANEOUS COSTS 1685 

cost of treating in the same plant, where the maximum capacity is reduced 
to 1,200,000 unseasoned ties a year, is as given in Table V. 

Table IV. — Cost of Treating Seasoned Ties 
(Capacity of plant 1,800,000 per year) 

Unloading, cars to ground, to season, $0,007 each $ 12,600. 00 

Loading from ground to trams, $0.0055 each 9,900.00 

Switching trams $0,002 per tie 3 , 600 .'00 

Loading treated ties out, $0.0065 each 11 ,700. 00 

Fixed expenses '. 23,268.00 

Preservatives at 15, cts. per tie. 270,000. 00 

Fuel (assumed one-third less for seasoned over unseasoned) 5,600.00 

Insurance on 1,000,000 ties (estimated) 4,000.00 

Interest on 1,000,000 ties 6 months 5 per cent on $250,000.00. . . 12,500.00 

$353,168.00 
600,000 more seasoned ties treated than unseasoned, worth $0,044 

each (See statement Table 3) 26,400.00 

$326,768.00 
$0.1815 per tie 

Table V. — Cost of Treating Unseasoned Ties 
(Capacity of plant 1,200,000 per year) 
Unloading one-fourth cars to ground to enable prompt release of 

cars, $0.007 $ 2, 100.00 

Loading 900,000 ties, cars to trams at platform, and 300,000 ties, 

ground to trams, $0.0055 6,600.00 

Switching 300,000 ties, yard to retorts, $0.002 600. 00 

Loading treated ties . ut $0.0065 each 7,800. 00 

Fixed expenses 23 , 268 . 00 

Preservatives at 15c. per tie 180,000. 00 

Fuel 8,400.00 

Insurance on 300,000 ties (estimated) 1 , 200. 00 

Interest on 300,000 ties, or 5 per cent on $75,000.00 3,750.00 

$233,718.00 
$0.1948 per tie 

Table VI. — Saving in a Treated Tie as Compared to an Untreated Tie 

Untreated tie: 

First cost $0 . 50 

Cost of putting in track 15 

Cost of tie in track $0 . 65 

5 per cent interest on investment for six years 195 

Second renewal, end of six years 65 

5 per cent on first investment for six years, and on second invest- 
ment for six years 39 

Total cost of tie for 12 years $1 . 885 

Average cost per tie per year $0 . 157 

Treated ties: 

First cost. $0. 70 

Cost of putting in track 15 

Cost of tie in track $0.85 

5 per cent on investment for 12 years 51 

Total cost of tie for 12 years $1 . 36 

Average cost per tie per year $0. 113 

Saving per tie per year $0,044 
Untreated ties are assumed to last six years and treated ties twelve years. 

In each case the total cost of handling is shown from the time the ties are 
received until they are loaded for shipment. The fixed expenses include the 



1686 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

salaries of the superintendent, general foreman, office force, engineers and 
firemen, or all labor which would not change, whether treating seasoned or 
unseasoned ties. In the case of seasoned ties, where no steaming is done, it 
is assumed that insurance is carried on 1,000,000 ties for six months and that 
$250,000.00 will be continually invested at 5 per cent. In the case of unsea- 
soned ties at least 300,000 will always be in the yard. 

The figure $0,044 as the annual saving in a treated tie is derived in Table VI. 

In addition to the direct saving at the plant there is a better penetration of 
the preservatives, and a longer life and lessened possibility of injury by steam- 
ing. When steaming there is always a large amount of sewage to dispose of, 
while in non-steaming there is practically none. The disposition of sewage 
is a difficult problem at most plants, often leading to damage suits. 

The Operating Cost of Open-Tank Creosoting Plant. — In Engineering 
News-Record, July 26, 1917, C. G. Benham gives the following. 

Open-tank treatment of timber is desirable for interurban and the smaller 
steam railroads that have a number of timber bridges and other timber struc- 
tures to maintain. Such a plant, as here described, is convenient for treating 
fence posts, paving blocks and the like on very short notice. 

The Virginia Railway and Power Co. has operated an open-tank treating 
plant at Norfolk, Va., since May 1, 1914, using dead oil of coal tar from its 
own gas-works as a preservative. Water-gas tar was tried as an experiment 
for a few months and finally abandoned because of the small saving and its 
doubtful value. 

Yellow pine, mostly of merchantable grade, has been the only species of 
timber treated in the open tank, and has varied in size from 2 X 4-in. to 
14 X 14-in. timber of all lengths. A number of pine poles have also been 
satisfactorily treated. The penetration obtained has been from 12 to 20 lbs. 
per cu. ft. of timber. Well-seasoned timber is desirable for open-tank treat- 
ment ; in the case of green timber it is necessary to keep it in the tanks until 
it becomes well seasoned from the heated oil. 

The method of treatment is, first, to place the timber in the tank and weight 
it to prevent floating, and then cover it with oil. The steam is turned on for 
about eight hours, at approximately 100 lb. pressure, the oil being kept at 
about 200°F. The steam is then cut off and the oil and timber are allowed 
to cool over night. The next day the timber is removed from the tank and 
placed on the storage piles by the derrick boom. 

The following figures give the actual cost of treating at this plant for one 
month. One foreman (who also operates the electric derrick) at $3, one 
fireman at $1.50 and four laborers at $1.50 per day are required, working under 
the bridge supervisor. A total of 39,098 ft. B. M. was treated. The costs 
were as follows: 

Cost per 
Item Total M. Ft. B. M. 

Dead oil of coal tar 7,375 gals, at 6>^ cts $479 .38 $12 . 23 

Coal, 6,800 lbs. at $3 per ton 9.10 .23 

Labor, including foreman , . 83 . 50 2, 14 

Maintenance of plant 20 . 00 .51 

Interest on $3,000 investment 15. 00 .38 

Total expense for one month $605.98 $15.49* 

Average penetration, 19.6 lbs, per cu. ft. of timber. 

* No allowance for depreciation has been included in the charges. 



MISCELLANEOUS COSTS 



1687 



Fig. 4 shows the layout of the treating plant. The smaller tank is used for 
treating only in emergencies. Xhe dead oil of coal tar is brought from the 
gas-works in a 2200-gal. tank-car that is fitted with a section of pipe to allow 
filling the treating tanks directly. 

Cost of Creosoting Car Sills and Roofing (Engineering and Contracting, 
June 25, 1919.) — The average cost of the creosote treatment for car sills at the 
plant of the Marsh Refrigerator Service Co., Milwaukee, Wis., is estimated to 
be $4.50 per 5 in. X 8 in. X 35 ft. sill. Of the total $4 is for creosote oil, 10 



^''Ibrnk Ccrr in PosiHon -fbr Fi/f/ngr 




Fig. 4. — General layout of open-tank treating plant. 



lb. per cu. ft., for 9.7 cu. ft., or 10.8 gals., and 50 cts. is for labor and overhead. 
The average cost per M. ft. B. M. is $38.54. In treating the subflooring and 
roofing two men handle approximately 400 pieces per hour, making the labor 
cost per piece $.0005. Overhead is estimated at $.0005 and the cost of creo- 
sote oil at 8 lbs. per sq. ft. of surface makes a total cost per piece of about $.018 
or $10.65 per M. ft., B. M. 

Cost of Treating Sheet Piles with Avenarius Carbolineum. — W. D. Jones 
gives the following, in Engineering and Contracting, July 26, 1916. 

In the construction of a timber wharf 50 ft. wide and 1,600 ft. long resting on 
creosoted piles, at Los Angeles Harbor, a bulkhead was specified as follows: 

Lumber. — All lumber for sheet piles must be 4 X 12-in. No. 1 merchantable 
Oregon pine (Douglas fir), sound, free from large, loose or rotten knots, 
knot holes, splits, shakes, wain, rot, pitch seams open on both sides of the 
piece, worm holes or other defects which materially impair the strength of the 
piece. Each piece shall have a groove 1 in. wide and 1 in. deep cut in each 



1688 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

edge. In one of the grooves a spline 1 X IM in. shall be spiked to form a 
tongue. 

Treatment. — ^All sheeting shall be dipped such that the upper 15 ft. be 
immersed for at least twenty minutes in Avenarius Carbolineum, which shall 
be kept at a temperature of 212 to 220°F. during the dipping. The heat- 
ing to be accomplished by steam coils. (This was not done.) Manufac- 
turers estimate that the amount of Carbolineum necessary for this treatment 
will be 1^^ lbs. per cubic foot of lumber treated. The Carbolineum must be 
brought to the dipping station in the original containers and must give the 
following analysis and qualities: 

Specific gravity at 17°C 1 . 128 

Viscosity (water-l ) 10.0 

Flashing point °C 145. 

Burning point °C 210.0 

Distillate below 235°C., per cent 0. 44 

Distillate between 235 °C. and 300 °C., per cent 7 . 50 

Residue above 300^C. (clear red brown), per cent 92 . 01 

Mineral matter (ash), per cent 0. 10 

Naphthalene (210-230°C.) Trace 

Phenols (carbolic acid according to Seubert) No separation 



To accomplish the treatment the contractor erected a plant consisting of 
an old boiler shell with upper end open and set in a brick oven in such a man- 
ner as to permit fire reaching the bottom and considerably up the sides. An 
arrangement was made on the side of the boiler for taking temperatures, which 
were kept reasonably well within the prescribed limits. An A frame arrange- 
ment was erected over the tank and a single-drum hoisting engine used to 
hoist the lumber to be treated. A sufficient depth of oil was maintained to 
give the desired length of treatment to each piece, the pieces being lowered 
into the treating basin end first. 

The following cost includes picking the lumber up from storage piles near 
the treating plant, treating it, and piling it nearby after treatment. 

Treated portion of pieces ft. B. M 144,222 

Treated portion of pieces sq. ft. surface area 107,984 

Cost of treatment — Labor, $1,227.57; equipment service, $66.65; material, 
$1,136.20. 

Cost of treatment per 100 sq. ft. $1.14; equipment service, $0.06; material, 
$1.05. 

Cost of treatment per 1,000 ft. B. M. — Labor, $8.51; equipm.ent service, 
$0.46; material, $7.88. 



A total of 1,196 gals, of carbolineum was used. This amounts to approxi- 
mately 11,300 lbs., being slightly less than 1 lb. per cubic foot of lumber treated. 
The cost of this amount of material was, as given above, $1,136.20. Some 
difficulty was experienced in keeping the shorter lengths of lumber immersed, 
due to its floating up in the liquid. 

Cost and Serviceability of Wood Fence Posts on Railways. — Some discus- 
sion of the life and cost of wood fence posts based on the experience of some 
44 American railways, are brought out by report of a special committee of 
the American Railway Engineering Association. Engineering and Contract- 
ing, March 19, 1913, summarizes part of this report, as follows: 



I 



MISCELLANEOUS COSTS 1689 

Wood Posts. — From the data collected the life of wood posts of various 
kinds actually in use is as follows: 

Life of Posts 

Average 

Years years 

Red cedar 7 to 25 18 

Cedar 10 to 30 — 

White cedar 12 to 17 15 

Chestnut 10 to 15 12 

Locust 7 to 20 — 

Yehow locust 15 to 30 20 

Black locust 10 to 25 20 

White oak 7 to 15 10 

Bois D'Arc 12 to 45 25 

Catalpa. 10 to 25 15 

Juniper 15 15 

Mulberry 15 to 20 15 

Doubtless some give little heed to the particular species of the timber that 
they use, and assume that any species of that genus has about the same life. 
This is manifestly incorrect as is demonstrated by the oak family. The infer- 
ior grades of oak have a life only of from 2 to 4 years, w^hile a good white 
oak has a life in our northern climates of from 10 to 12 years at least. Certain 
classes of oak last much longer in their native regions than in other localities 
to which they are transported for use. This principle applies with equal force 
to every other class of timber. 

Climatic influences have an important effect and may lengthen or shorten 
the life of a particular kind of wood, dependent upon locality in which used* 
It is not feasible in most cases to recommend any particular kind of timber 
for a given territory, as the source of supply may be so distant as to preclude 
its use economically. It is the prevailing practice to use such timber as is 
native to the country and thus most easily obtainable. According to informa- 
tion received, the cost of the various kinds of wood posts is: 

Range Average 

Red cedar 15 cts. to 25 cts. 22 cts. 

White cedar 7 cts. to 20 cts. 14 cts. 

Chestnut 10 cts. to 27 cts. 27 cts. 

Locust 15 cts. to 40 cts. 25 cts. 

Yellow locust 20 cts. to 38 cts. 30 cts. 

Black locust 15 cts. to 25 cts. 20 cts. 

White oak 11 cts. to 40 cts. 20 cts. 

Bois D'Arc 13 cts. to 17 cts. 15 cts. 

Catalpa . 15 cts. to 25 cts. 20 cts. 

Juniper 6. cts to 10 cts. 8 cts. 

Mulberry 13 cts. to 17 cts. 15 cts. 

It will be observed that the relative cost to life of post ranges from H ct. to 
2 cts. per year of life, the Bois D'Arc and the Juniper being the cheapest 
posts, but so rare that a more general use is impossible. 

It was of interest to know to what extent wooden posts were subject to 
destruction by fire. Replies received indicated that this varied by from 1 per 
cent to 5 per cent, with the exception of one road which reported a loss of 30 
per cent from this cause. We think it fair to assume that the average loss by 
fire is around 3 per cent. 

Costs of Three Types of Board Fences,— Engineerisg and Opptraetinpi 
May 19, 1915, gives the following: 



1690 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Figs. 5 and 16, show types of board fences built under the supervision of 
John H. Gardinier of Lake Charles, La. Fairly close cost records were kept 
excepting for gates, the labor cost for which was included in the placing of 
boards. In the corral fence there were two 8-ft. gates and in the town fence 
two 12-ft. and two 8-ft. and one 4-ft. gates. 

The holes for the posts were dug with a 6-in. post hole digger, the ground was 
moist and would have been fairly easy digging if it had not been for the num- 
erous small roots encountered for the first foot under the surface, as these 
fences were built in the pine woods. The posts for the corral fence were set 
by contract at 15 cts. apiece, costing the same as for the town fence by day 
labor. But the three men by contract made $3 a day. The only difference 
in price of having the posts set by contract and day labor was that the posts 
set by the day men were a little more carefully set. 










m 



mZ 



IM 






>|:y;^i;W/!y.>^:^^w>^.^^^^^ 



Fig. 5. — Corral fence. 




Fig. 6. — Town fence. 



84.96 

97.65 

3.52 

54.00 

50.54 

2.09 

8.50 



Itemized Cost of Corral Fence 

360 posts, 4-in. X 6-in. X 8-ft., 5,760 ft. B. M. at $14.75 

Lumber, 1-in. X 6-in. X 14-ft. plank, 6,300 ft. B. M. at $15.50 

160 lbs. nails at $2.20 

Labor setting posts 

Labor placing boards 

Two per cent use of tools on labor 

Distributing material 

Total cost $301.26 

Cost per lineal foot labor 0.04148 

Cost per lineal foot, material .07806 

Total cost per lineal foot 0. 11954 

Posts set by contract at 15 cts. each. 

Boards placed by day labor: One man, at $2.50; 2 men at $2.00 each. 

Itemized Cost of Town Fence 

570 posts, 4-in. X 6-in. X 8-ft., 9 120 ft. B. M. at $14.75 

Lumber, 1-in. X 6-in. X 14-ft., 11,466 ft. B. M. at $15.50 

248 lbs. nails at $2.20 

Labor setting posts 

Labor placing boards 

Distributing material 

Use of tools 

Total cost ; 

Posts set by day labor; One man, at $2.50; 2 men at $1.75 each. 

Boards placed by day labor; One man, at $2.50; 2 men, at $2.00 

Cost per lin. ft. for labor 

Cost per lin. ft. for material 

Total cost per lin. ft 

Cost setting posts 15 cts. each, 



$134, 

177, 

5, 

85. 

119. 

31. 

• 4. 



52 
72 
46 
50 
81 
50 
11 



$558.62 



each. 
$ 0. 



05371 
09244 



$ 0.14615 



MISCELLANEOUS COSTS 



1691 



Itemized Cost of Park Fence 



173 posts, 4-in. X 4-in. X 5-ft 
Lumber, 1-in. X 4-in., 809 ft. 

Nails 30 lbs 

Labor setting posts and placing boards 

Distributing material 

Use of tools on labor 



1,153 ft. B. M. at $15.25 
B. M. at $15.00 



$ 


17 


58 




12 


.13 
66 




40 


00 




2 


50 
80 



Total cost. . $ 73 . 67 

Labor: One man, at $2.50; 2 men, at $1.75 each. 

Labor cost per lin. ft $ . 03252 

Material cost per lin. ft . 02737 

Total cost $ 0. 05989 




Park fence. 



SmaU Pile Driver for Putting Down Fence Posts (Engineering and Contract- 
ing Sept. 4, 1918). — Posts for the 17-mile board fence at the American Lake 
(Washington) cantonment were put down at the rate of about 180 per 8-hour 
day by means of a small pile driver mounted on a 2-horse truck. The posts 
were pointed, were 5 ins. to 10 in. ins diameter, and 9 ft. long, of which 3 ft. 
was below ground. They were spaced 8 ft. apart. The pile driver had a 
4-h.p. Fairbanks gasoline engine operating a small drum by means of a 
friction clutch. The crew consisted of an engineman, a teamster and two 
men handling posts. The actual driving time per post was 60 to 90 seconds. 
The hammer weighed 600 lb. and had a 6-ft. drop when beginning driving. 

Cost of wooden and concrete guard rails are given in the report of Hubert 
K. Bishop embodied in the 1910 report of the New York State Highway 
Commission and abstracted in Engineering and Contracting, Nov. 15, 1911, 
as follows: 

The proper maintenance and repair of guard-rail is a rather serious proposi- 
tion. A large amount of money was expended during 1910 in rebuilding and 
repainting guard-rail. In order to serve its purpose and protect the traveling 
public from danger, the guard-rail should be in sound condition. It is also 
necessary for the looks of the road that it should present a neat and uniform 
appearance. 

The weakest part of the guard-rail as built under the present standard is 
the posts which rot off below the ground line, causing the guard-rail to become 
insecure and to lose its alignment, thus presenting a very bad appearance. 

Assuming that a wooden guard-rail will last eight years, the depreciation 
charge is approximately 3 cts. per foot per year. Adding to this the necessary 
cost of painting and straightening of 3 cts. per year, we would have an annual 
cost of 6 cts. per foot per year for wooden guard-rail. On Jan. 1, 1910, there 
was 1,383,220 ft. of guard-rail in the State. The annual cost of maintenance 
of this guard-rail at the above hgure would be $82,993 per year. It must be 



1692 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

borne in mind that this item is constantly increasing with every new road 
which is being built. 

Assuming that the above figure of 6 cts. per foot per year is correct for the 
annual cost of such guard-rail, $1.25 per foot could be expended in eliminating 
this guard-rail and the cost to the State eventually would be less. If some 
form of concrete or pipe rail or even the guard-rail with concrete posts could 
be substituted for the present standard form of guard-rail, the annual cost 
of this item could be materially lessened. 

During 1910 experimental work was carried on under the direction of Frank 
W. Bristow, Superintendent of Repairs in Division 5, and John Y. McClintock, 
county engineer, Monroe County, with a view to devising some form of guard- 
rail to take the place of the standard wooden type. With this end in view 
1,233 lin. ft. of steel-concrete guard-rail, with necessary steel-concrete posts, 
were constructed. The cost of manufacture was as follows: 

Per 
lin. ft. 

Lumber $ 32.46 $0,026 

Steel 139. 64 0. 114 

Cement 57.62 0.046 

Gravel 10.00 0.008 

Metal cores 77 . 00 . 063 

Labor 231.83 0.188 

Miscellaneous 5. 35 0. 004 

$553.90 $0,449 

The engineer in charge of this work estimated the following as the fair cost 
when making not less than 128 lin. ft. of rail and 16 posts per day, wath metal 
cores and wooden forms already paid for: 

Per lin. ft. 

including 
rail and one 

post for 

each 8 ft. 

Foreman $0.03 

Steel .08 

Cement .05 

Gravel .01 

Labor .09 

Tools, etc .01 

Total $0.27 

For this guard-rail the bars were made 8 ft. long, except end bars, which 
were 8K ft. long. They were 9 ins. wide by 7 ins. high, and were cored out 
from below to leave concrete 2 ins. thick, and 3 cross diaphragms connecting 
the sides and top, placed one at center and one 4 ins. back from each end. 
The steel reinforcement consisted of 4 bars ^-in. square placed horizontal at 
each corner, and a loop of same size at and in each diaphragm. It was 
expected to sustain without breaking 6 tons pressure concentrated at center, 
acting either vertically or horizontally. The bars rested on top of the posts 
without any fastening, while the sides and diaphragms formed sockets inclos- 
ing th3 head of the posts, which prevented their being shoved off either side- 
ways or endways, and the weight of the bar, about 300 lbs., held it firmly on 
the posts. 

The posts were 6K ft. long by 5 ins. by 7 ins. square, with four ^^-in. square 
bars, one in each corner. The posts were set SH ft. in the ground, making 
the finished guard-rail 3 ft. 2 ins. high. 



w 

■ H^ Some da 
■ ■ Six men 



MISCELLANEOUS COSTS 1693 



Some data on the cost of setting this guard-rail were : 

Six men working 4 hours dug and set 11 posts, without post augur, and fitted 
and put up 12 rails, which figures 6 cts. per lin. ft. 

Six men working 9 hours dug and set 21 posts, without post augur, and set 
on 20 rails, which figures 7H cts. per lin. ft. 

It was estimated that under ordinary conditions, this guard-rail could be 
made and erected for 50 cts. per lin. ft. 

Cost of Washed Sand and Gravel (Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 21, 
1917). — Some interesting figures on the cost of producing sand and gravel 
were given by B. E. Neal, in a paper presented before the joint meeting of the 
Indiana and Illinois Sand and Gravel Producers' Associations, Dec. 28, 1916. 
In submitting the figures Mr. Neal pointed out that the gravel business is 
a spasmodic one, that in a year there are only about 4 months of good business 
and that there are heavy expenses for repairs, replacements and for carrying 
the organization through the winter. 

A summary of Mr. Neal's figures shows the following: 

Per ton, 
Cts. 

Plant cost — Operating 123^ 

Stripping 

Repairs and replacements 

Office and selling expense 

Taxes and insurance 

Plant depreciation 

Depletion of gravel deposit 

Interest on investment 5 per cent 

' Total 31 

These figures Mr. Neal believes are about the average cost of producing 
commercial material under average conditions. By average conditions is 
meant a bank of gravel 30 to 40 ft. thick covered with about 3 ft. of stripping 
and running about 40 per cent above the >^-in. and 60 per cent below. The 
above conditions are believed to be at least as good as are found in the average 
pit in Indiana. 

The item operating cost includes the cost of loading and washing gravel, 
the cost of power and labor to transport the gravel from the bank to the plant 
and the cost of the monthly men while not actually engaged in repairs; also 
the cost of fuel or electric power, as the case may be. Mr. Neal stated that the 
experience of his company showed the cost of producing salable material, not 
considering the material wasted in a production, to be not far from 123^ cts. 
per ton. 

The cost of stripping item varies more or less with local conditions. To 
move the stripping and get it clear away from the scenes of operation, Mr. 
Neal believes, would cost on an average 30 cts. per cubic yard of stripping 
moved. This in the case of the bank mentioned above would make the aver- 
age stripping cost 2 cts. per ton of gravel. Regarding the item repairs and 
replacements Mr. Neal calls attention to the fact that producing gravel is 
heavy and hard work and is the hardest usage that machinery of all kinds 
can be put to. He believes the average repairs for plants, including repair 
labor, will average 6 cts. per ton on the year's output. 

Plant depreciation is figured on the basis of 15 per cent per year. In giving 
this figure Mr. Neal states that plants of the cable excavator type must be 
moved every 3 or 4 years, and that plants of the elevator type with shovels 
and donkey engines have expensive machinery which does not last for many 



1694 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

years. Mr. Neal doubts very much if this amount of depreciation would have 
covered the cost during the past 6 or 8 years, owing to the changes in gravel 
specifications which have necessitated rebuilding the plants. As a result of 
figuring over several plants, their costs and their capacities, Mr. Neal believes 
that it takes an average plant investment of at least 20 cts. per ton of yearly 
output. In other words, a plant which will produce 100,000 tons of commer- 
cial material could be be erected and made ready for business with a plant 
investment of less than $20,000. On the basis of 15 per cent depreciation this 
would mean a cost of 3 cts. per ton for gravel produced. 

The item " depletion of gravel deposit" is figured on the basis of there being 
65,000 tons of gravel per acre. 

Cost of Operating Gravel Washing Plant at Wayne County, Michigan.-^ 
Engineering and Contracting, Dec. 3, 1919, gives the following: 

A washing plant with a capacity of 200 cu. yds. per day was erected at the 
gravel pit, leased by the County Road Commissioners to furnish material for 
two concrete roads. The entrance was graded and an industrial railway laid 
right up to the chutes from the washing plant bins. 

The location of the pit was central to the roads being built, thereby shorten- 
ing the haul about K mile over the distance from the railroad siding if com- 
mercial material had been used. The lay-out of the gravel pit was such that 
it was much cheaper to arrange a yard at the pit than it would have been to 
unload from railroad cars. 

A small stream fed by local springs furnished an abundant supply of water, 
which was pumped 1,000 ft. through two lines of 3-in. pipe to the washing 
plant by electric motor. A single line of 4-in. pipe would have been sufficient,, 
but two 3-in. lines were used because this pipe was in stock. The plant was 
operated by a small electric motor, making it comparatively simple in 
operation. 

The cost of operation, exclusive of interest and depreciation, according to 
the last annual report of the Commissioners was approximately as follows : 

Total 
per day 

4 teams loading hopper at $8 $32 . 00 

2 scraper holders at $5 10 . 00 

1 foreman at $6.50 6. 50 

1 operator at $6 6 . 00 

2 car loaders at $5 10. 00 

Motor rental at $1.50 1.50 

Electric current estimated 10. 00 

Total (200 cu. yds. at 38 cts) $76.00 

On the basis of an average daily output of 200 cu. yds. the cost amounts to 
38 cts. per cubic yard, plus 15 cts. for the cost of the material in the pit, making 
a total of 53 cts. per cubic yard for the material loaded in the industrial cars 
ready to haul. It will be noted in the above cost that the largest item is the 
teams loading the hopper which feeds the belt. This item could have been 
reduced by the installation of a drag line bucket and hoisting engine, but owing 
to the short run which this plant had it was not considered advisable to invest 
in so large an equipment. 

The plant cost approximately $7,200 erected, and supplied about 10,000 
cu. yds. of material, from the pit. It is expected to operate the plant next 
year for furnishing gravel and sand for maintenance work. 



MISCELLANEOUS COSTS 



1695 



Cost of Excavating, with Drag Line, Aggregates for Concrete Road Work.— 
Stanley E. Bates in Engineering and Contracting Sept. 22, 1915, gives the 
following : 

The plant is located in Elkhart County, Indiana, and was erected by the 
contractor for supplying the aggregates for constructing some 3 miles of con- 
crete road. 

Fig. 8 shows the general layout of the plant, the essential features of 
which are a bucket and carriage mounted on a slack line cable running between 
a mast on one side of the river and an anchor on the other, a hoist to operate 
the bucket, and a screen, crusher and loading bin. Three-phase, 60-cycle 
alternating current from a 2, 200- volt power line, stepped down by three trans- 
formers to 440 volts, is used throughout the plant. 



Catriage Carriage 




Fig. 8, — Dragline gravel excavating plant at Elkhart, Ind. 



From Fig. 8 the operation of the dragline in digging the gravel from the 
river bed and elevating it to the top of the screening and loading plant, can 
be followed. The power to operate the cables is supplied by a 50-h.p. two- 
drum electric hoist, equipped with a friction clutch of the band type which 
operates the drum at two speeds, high speed being three times as great as 
low. This two-speed arrangement is particularly adapted to dragline exca- 
vation as it furnishes great power at slow speed for digging and then, when the 
bucket is full, the drum can immediately be thrown into high by means of a 
single lever clutch, bringing the bucket rapidly to the dumping point. 

To the forward drum of the hoist is attached the load cable which passes 
over a sheave attached to the top of the mast and thence to the bucket. The 
rear drum operates the tension cable which, through a set of fall blocks also 
at the mast top, furnishes the means of slackening and tightening the track 
cable. Both the tension and load cables are ^-in. diam. Details of the 



1696 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

bucket, which has a capacity of 1 cu. yd. and of the carriage and chain mount- 
ings, are shown in Fig. 8. 

The mast is 65 ft. high, of an A-frame type, the legs 14 ft. apart at the 
bottom. Each leg is built up of 6 X 10-in. timbers spliced through the middle 
portion to give added resistance to bending. In addition to this, they are 
trussed on each side with ^-in. wire rope. Three guy lines of 1-in. cable 
run from top of the mast to anchors about 100 ft. back of the base and 75 ft. 
apart. Two auxiliary guys of ^^-in. cable lead to anchors close to the river 
bank. The track cable running across the river is 1}^ ins. in diam. and nearly 
500 ft. long. 

The bucket drops its contents against a dump board built at an angle of 
nearly 45° at the top of the structure. The material then slides down into 
a small hopper, passing out through the I'^i X 2-in. opening in the bottom 
directly onto a grizzly. The grizzly is made of diamond shaped steel bars 
set IM ins. apart and held in place by ^^-in. rods and cast iron spacers. It 
is placed at an angle of about 30° with the horizontal and is 10 ft. long and 3 
ft. wide. 

A stone crusher of the jaw type, run by a 20-h.p. motor, is located at the 
bottom of the grizzly and receives all over size material which, after being 
crushed, rejoins at the entrance of the screen, the material which passed the 
bars of the grizzly. 

The screen is designed to separate the material into two sizes. The 
main cylinder is 32 ins. in diam. and 10 ft. long made of >^-in. steel plates and 
reinforced by four channels bolted to the end castings. The perforations 
are 1 in. in diam. Outside of this there is another cylinder, sometimes called 
a dust jacket, made of heavy wire mesh 42 ins. in diameter and 9 ft. 4 ins. long. 
The openings in the dust jacket are }i in. in size. 

This combination of screens, together with the grizzly and crusher, separates 
the material into sand ranging from 3<4 in. down and gravel from IK ins. to 
K in. According to the contractor, the reason for the use of a double screen 
is not only to insure a good separation, but to allow the use of a heavier and 
more durable inner cylinder than would be possible if the perforations had to 
be 3^ in. instead of 1 in. in diameter. 

The screen is driven by a 5-h.p. electric motor through belt and gears at the 
discharge end. This end is supported on a shaft with an adjustable thrust 
bearing to keep the driving gears in proper mesh. The head end revolves on 
two wide faced rollers. 

To aid in the separation of the sand and gravel, water is pumped into the 
cyhnder through a 2-in. pipe line from the river by a centrifugal pump driven 
by a 5-h.p. motor. This pipe runs inside and along the axis of the screen and 
is perforated, thus delivering the water uniformly over the material. 

Below the screen are the loading bins, two for sand and one for gravel. 
Each holds about 15 cu. yds. of material and has two discharge chutes, one 
on each side. The bottoms of the bins are built in the shape of an inverted 
V, with a slope of about 30°. 

The amount of material excavated and screened per day has averaged about 
125 cu. yds., though if necessary this could be increased nearly 100 per cent. 
Three men are needed to operate the plant, an engineer and two laborers. 
One of the latter is located at the grizzly and keeps the material moving freely, 
seeing that it doesn't clog at any point. The other assists in loading the motor 
trucks. 

The gravel from the river runs about two parts of fine material to one of 




MISCELLANEOUS COSTS 1697 

coarse and as the specifications for the road call for concrete of a 1 :2 :3 mix, 
there is a large excess of sand. At present this is stored in piles around the 
plant and sold locally as there is demand for it. It is clean and sharp, an 
excellent material for concrete work, and brings about $1 per cu. yd. delivered. 
Cost of Producing Gravel and Sand. — Owing to rain delaying the progress of 
the concrete work, the material plant has not been in continuous operation. 
Cost figures, therefore, are not representative but the tabulation below is 
based on the work done so far and will give a fairly good idea of what may be 
expected of a plant of this type, working under unfavorable conditions. In 
computing interest, etc., it was assumed that the plant was in operation only 
150 days out of the year, and was producing each day only 125 cu. yds. of 
sand and gravel. 

Cost of Excavating Gravel with Dragline and Screening to Two Sizes 
FOR Concrete Road Work 

Per 10- 
Item hr. day 

Labor: 

Engineer $ 3 . 25 

Two laborers at $2.00 4 . 00 

$ 7.25 
Interest on Investment, etc.: 

Interest on cost of plant, $6,500 at 6 per cent $ 2. 60 

Depreciation $6,500 at 10 per cent 4 . 33 

$ 6.93 
Running expenses: 

Current for four motors at 2 3^ cts. to 3 cts. per kw. hour $ 4 . 00 

Repairs, renewing cables, etc 1 . 20 

$ 5.20 

Total daily cost $19 . 38 

Average amount produced in one day, 125 cu. yds. 

Cost per cu. yd $ 0. 155 

Operating Costs of Dragline Cableway Excavator in Gravel Dipping (Engi- 
neering and Contracting, Jan. 17, 1917.) — The plant was erected by J. W. 
Gwinn near Cambridge City, Ind. for furnishing 100,000 cu. yds. of gravel 
ballast and aggregate for a concrete road. The plant was equipped with a 
1-yd. bucket, 8 X 10 in. double drum, two-speed hoist, 500-ft. cableway and 
other equipment from a portable outfit. It has a capacity of about 300 cu. 
yd. per 10-hr. day and the total investment in the plant approximates $7,000. 

The daily operating costs of the plant are as follows : 

Engineer $ 4. 00 

Fireman 3 . 00 

Laborers 4 . 00 

Coal , 3.00 

Oil and miscellaneous 1 . 50 

Total $15.50 

This shows a cost of 5 cts. per yard. But the yearly overhead charges 
should also be taken into consideration, as follows: 

Per year 

Interest on $7,000 at 6 per cent $ 420 

Renewal of cables, blocks and sheaves 400 

Depreciation of engine and bucket 450 

Total $1,270 

107 



1698 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Counting on 200 working days, the daily fixed charges will be $6.30, which, 
added to the pay roll, gives a total daily expense of $21.80. This means that 
when the plant is working to capacity, gravel which sells for 25 cts. a yard 
costs only 7 cts. to produce. 

The chief difficulty is that conditions constantly intrude to prevent opera- 
ing the plant at capacity, Mr. Gwinn suffered from the car shortage and was 
compelled to cut the daily operating hours more than one-half. 

Cost of Crushing Rock at the Pocoima Quarry, Los Angeles, Cal. — W. A. 
Gillette gives the following in Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 4, 1911. 

The quarry is operated under the direction of the Los Angeles County High- 
way Commission, under the direct supervision of Wm. Davidson. The data 
and segregations have been recqnciled with the ledger and payrolls each 
month as shown on the books of the Los Angeles Highway Commission, 
beginning Jan., 1911, and running six months, inclusive. 

The plant consists of one No. 4 and one No. 6 Austin gyratory crusher, 
loading bins 1,700 tons capacity; one Bucyrus steam shovel, Type C, Model 
60, 23'^-yd. bucket, quarry cars, track, electric locomotive, scale house, bunk 
and boarding houses, and all the equipment necessary for a complete plant. 
The cost of the plant is approximately $90,000. For the six-month period — 
Jan.-Jime, 1911 — the cost of producing crushed rock was as shown in Table 
VII- 



Table VII. — Cost of Rock Crushing at the Pocoima Quarry 



Totals Per ton 



Supt. and office $ 2 

Stripping — labor. 8 



-labor. 



Drilling and blasting- 
Powder*. 

Other material 

Loading and transporting quarry to crusher 

Material 

Hauling muck — labor 

Plant operation — labor 

Loading and shipping — labor 

Maintenance — labor 

Material 

General labor 

Power cost 

Items of improvement 

Interest on plant investment 



27 



292.10 
,804.67 
041.46 
789.14 
124.83 
, 094 . 24 
549 . 28 
,148.60 
,000.77 
752.94 
,703.89 
784.93 
493 . 52 
,134.51 
,130.00 
,750.00 



Grand total.. $61,594.88 

Credits — boarding house profits 4,217. 66 



$0.0224 
.0860 
.0199 
. 0077 
.0012 
.2646 
.0054 
.0796 
.0195 
.0074 
.0166 
.0077 
.0048 
.0208 
.038 



$0.6016 
$0.0412 



Per 
cent, of 
total 
cost 
3.97 
15.26 
3.54 
1.37 
.22 
46.95 
.95 
14.12 
3.47 



30 
95 
36 

86 



3.70 



100.02 



$57,377.22 $0.5604 . . 

Note. — The average number of men employed per day was 92, and per night 
58, making a total of 150. The live stock amounted to 31. The total number of 
shifts was 227, and total tonnage produced was 102,377, making the average per 
shift 372 tons. 

*6,928 lbs. of powder used or .0067 lb. per ton. 



The county is buying crushed rock from various other plants at from 5S}i 
cts. to $1.10 per ton f . o. b. at plant, the prevailing price being around 70 cts. 
per ton. 

As far as management is concerned the showing made is very much out of 
the ordinary, particularly in view of the fact that to a large extent Mexican 
labor, at $2 per 8-hr. day, has been used. 



I . MISCELLANEOUS COSTS 1699 

As will be noted in the table, 15.26 per cent of the total cost is for stripping, 
and 14.12 per cent of the total cost is for handling muck. This is 29.38 per 
cent of the total cost, and is equivalent to 16.56 cts. per ton. This is an extra 
expense which could have readily been saved, had proper judgment been 
used in selecting the quarry location. There appears to be no logical reason 
for not having selected a proper site as there are numerous good ledges of 
suitable rock available. 

It will be noted that I have not given the item of depreciation which of 
course must be taken into account.' Part of this, however, is covered in the 
items maintenance, material and items of plant improvement. We could add 
5 cts. a ton for plant depreciation, and still have a good showing. The rock is 
a disintegrated granite. 

The Cost of Unloading Crushed Rock from Railroad Cars by Slip-Scraper. — ■ 
In Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 22, 1910, H. R. Postle gives the following : 

The writer, aided by some experiments and suggestions, has recently 
constructed and operated a device that is, he believes, the solution of the 
problem for the ordinary contractor who must have a plant adapted to small . 
jobs, movable from place to place and adapted for all kinds of railroad cars. 
Unloading crushed rock ordinarily costs from 20 to 25 cts. per ton, but, by 
means of this apparatus, rock is being unloaded for about one-third to one- 
half of this amount. 

The method is to draw the rock over the end of the car, through a chute 
hung to the end of the car, and into the wagon by means of an ordinary slip- 
scraper (largest size), to which is attached a ^^-in. wire cable connected to a 
hoisting drum operated by a gasoline engine. 

The chute is built of 2-in. lumber and is 6 ft. wide at one end, 5 ft. at the 
other end, and 5 ft. long, and is supported by two legs, so that it just clears 
the wagons, allowing them to be driven under or moved ahead. A roller 3 or 
4 ins. in diameter is mounted on the outer end, over which runs the cable 
drawing the scraper and against which the scraper falls when dumping. 

The hoist drum and gas engine are mounted on a low truck so as to be 
easily moved. The engine is a 10 h.p. gas engine, belted to the hoist drum with 
an 8-in. belt. The hoist drum is 12 ins. in diameter and 10 ins. wide. 

The method of procedure is to place the loaded railroad cars in one end of 
the switch, move each car in turn into the same position for unloading, and, 
when unloaded, move it to the other end of the switch. An extra length of 
rope is provided so that a hitch can be made to the cars to move them into 
position. The cars are thus moved more quickly thgin the apparatus can be 
moved from car to car. 

Six or seven men are needed to unload from 200 to 250 tons of rock per day. 
One acts as foreman, two handle the scraper, one is engineer and the others 
shovel up the surplus rock which the scraper can not reach. The two men 
handling the scraper drag it to the farthest end of the car, signal the engineer, 
who throws in the clutch, when immediately the scraper starts toward the 
chute, gathering a full load of rock and pushing some ahead of itself, 
is drawn through the chute and dumps its load at the end thereof into the 
wagon. 

The writer in loading 5 yds. (6 ton) dump wagons, found that they could 
be loaded in an average of 10 minutes by 12 scraper loads. About seven- 
eighths of a car can be unloaded by the scraper by having the two or three 
shovelers shovel the rock away from the sides and farther end of the car when 
the rock is getting low in the car. 



1700 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION -COST 

From 200 to 250 tons per 8-hr. day can be unloaded for the following costs : 

One foreman $ 3.50 

One engine man 3 . 00 

Two scraper men 5 . 00 

Three shovelers 6 . 00 

Gasoline, oil, repairs, etc 2. 50 

Total $ 20 . 00 

If only 200 tons are unloaded, the cost is 10 cts. per ton. The cost of the 
apparatus is: 

Gas engine, ten horse-power $350. 00 

Hoist drum 125.00 

Truck 50.00 

Large scraper 10 . 00 

One hundred and twenty-five feet cable 9 . 00 

Pulley block. 3 . 00 

Total $547.00 

The irregularity with which cars of rock are received, makes such an 
apparatus especially valuable to any contractor, inasmuch as when no cars, 
or less than a day's run, are received, he need not have a gang of shovelers to 
lay off or provide for. 

Cost of Handling Stone from Cars by Slot, Elevator and Bin Method. — 
Duripg the road construction season (1919) the County of Brant, Ontario, 
unloaded broken stone from cars and into an elevated bin by the slot, elevator 
and bin method, at a cost of about 3 cts. per ton. The following information 
on this method is from an abstract in Engineering and Contracting, April 7, 
1920, of a paper presented at the 6th annual conference of Ontario Road 
Superintendents and Engineers by Alan Mair Jackson. 

A slot 4 ft. deep across the track is excavated 16 ins. wide between ties and 
is lined with ties one on top of the other. A plate some 9 ft. long and 16 ins. 
wide is set in this slot at a slope on which stone runs freely, i. e., 30 degrees 
from the horizontal. The plate should be set so that the largest material will 
pass under the rail at the upper end and the lower end so that it will discharge 
on the buckets of an elevator. The elevator is set in a pit at one side of the 
track with the center of the lower tumbler about 5 ft. below base of rail. With 
this setting, a 30-ft. elevator standing at 60 degrees from horizontal will have 
sufficient length to fill a 55 -ton bin. The motor, consisting in this case of a 
9 h.p. oil engine, is set under the elevator in a small portable house and provided 
with a clutch drive, by 6 in. belt, onto the jack shaft of the elevator. The 
elevator is of standard construction 14 ins. wide and delivering about 120 
buckets per minute. 

The flow of stone to the elevator is controlled by an ordinary slide door 
operated by a lever and is set between angles fastened to two plates lining the 
sides of the 16 in. slots at the lower end. The pit in which the elevator is set 
is made large enough for the operator to get down to the lower tumbler and 
is timbered on the track side and decked over. A trap door is left in the deck 
so that the lever operating the stone feed may be got at and cover boards are 
provided for the slot across the tracks so that the whole may be left safe when 
not in operation. The usual spacing of ties is about 20 in. centers, which 
leaves approximately 11 in. space between ties. 

Two of these outfits were installed by the County of Brant last year and 
operated during the construction season. The total kerosene purchased at 
20M cts. for unloading 1,854 tons was 33 gals., giving a cost for fuel Of about Ho 



MISCELLANEOUS COSTS 1701 

ct. per ton A 50-ton car can be unloaded in 23^ hours, though allowing for 
oiling round and starting up, Mr. Jackson figures 3 hours about a fair allow- 
ance. The operator in each case has been an unskilled man paid 40 ct. per 
hour. The bin used discharges through four 12 in. X 12 in. openings in the 
bottom by means of any one of which a 1>^ yd. wagon can be filled in 30 
seconds. The height from the ground to bottom of bin is 6 ft. 8 in., though 
this can be increased by lowering the roadway. The cost of unloading 50 
tons may be taken as follows : 

3 hours' time at 40 cts , $1 . 20 

50 tons at Ho ct. for fuel 20 

Oil and waste and grease .10 

Total $1.50 

The outfits cost approximately $1,800, made up as follows: 

Engine and clutch $ 545 

Elevator 650 

Lumber for bin and pit 215 

Ironwork for bin and slot 225 

Construction 165 

Total $1,800 

Mr. Jackson estimates that the unloaders can be taken down and re-erected 
for about $200. 

A bin of this capacity is not portable in the strict sense of the word but the 
bins used in Brant "county last year were made so that the whole structure 
could be readily taken apart. No nailed parts would have to be torn out 
except the lining boards of the end of the bin, each of which requires two 4-in. 
nails, so that no loss should occur in knocking down the bin. 

Cost of Loading Gravel by Mechanical Loaders and by Hand. — Compara- 
tive figures on the cost of loading road gravel by various methods were given 
by P. Philips, District Engineer of the Department of Public Works of British 
Columbia, in a paper presented at the recent convention of the Provincial 
District Engineers. The matter following, given in Engineering and Contract- 
ing, June 2, 1920, is taken from his paper. 

A "Haiss" mechanical loader was introduced to Delta district this past 
summer and has been in continuous operation up to the present time. This 
machine has given results which have more than justified its introduction. 
With a few exceptions the pits in Delta district are not .ideally situated for 
loading gravel, having shallow faces. The naachine has reduced the cost of 
loading gravel by at least 50 per cent, for it will easily load 160 cu. yds. per day 
at a cost of 12.3 cts. per cubic yard and under more favorable conditions has 
loaded for 6.6 cts. per cubic yard. 

Where the gravel is to be hauled a long distance it is absolutely essential 
that the loader be kept in constant operation either by having portable bunk- 
ers in conjunction with it or by increasing the number of trucks. 

The loader is self-propelling, simple to operate, requires only an intelligent 
skilled laborer to run it. The crew consists of three men, one to operate the 
machine (this man is paid 50 cts. per hour more than the ordinary laborer) , 
two men stripping the face of pit, loosening the gravel, cleaning away roots 
and debris. With the above crew the loader can be fed to its full capacity. 
If the pit has a high face one man can be dispensed with. 

A clamshell was used on Nicomen slough for loading rock tailings into scows. 
The cost of loading 2,000 cu. yds. of material was 6 cts. per cubic yard; 2,000 
cu. yds. cost 16 cts. per yard to load on account of an insufficiency of scows. 



1702 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

The capacity of bucket is J4 cu. yd. and the daily capacity is 300 cu. yds. 
The daily cost of operation is : 

Engineer, fireman and helper $15. 00 

Fuel, oil, upkeep, depreciation 5. 50 

$29 . 50 
Cost per cubic yard 6.8 cts. 

Where the material is suitable for scraper work this method compares favor- 
ably with the mechanical loader. The cost of loading 90 cu. yds. of fine 
rock with team and scraper was 14 cts. per cubic yard. It must be considered 
whether the ataount of material available will justify the expense of erecting 
bunkers. 

A man will shovel loose gravel at the rate of 15 cu. yds. per day. The cost is 
27 cts. per cubic yard. 

The following tabulation shows costs for loading truck, assuming the truck 
makes 8 trips per day with a load of 2 cu. yds., taking into consideration the 
cost due to delay in loading: 

Loading by Hand — 16 Cu. Yds. 

3 men for 2.8 hours $ 4 . 20 

2.8 hours delay of auto truck at $30 per day 10.50 

Total cost $14.70 

Mechanical Loader — 16 Cu. Yds. 

16 cu. yds. at 12.3 cts $ 1.97 

^ hours delay of truck 3.00 

Total cost $4.97 

Ration List for Construction Camps (Engineering and Contracting, March 
19, 1919). — As the result of an analysis of mess practice in the lumbering 
industry, made by the engineers of the Spruce Board of the U. S. Army, the 
following was suggested as a satisfactory ration list for camp messes : 

Pounds per Pounds per 

man per man per 

day 90 meals 

Meats, fish 1.25 37.50 

Eggs 0.156 4.68 

Lard, etc 0.08 2.4 

Butter and substitutes 0.15 7.5 

Cheese . 05 1.5 

Milk, canned 0.25 7.5 

Milk, fresh 1.00 30.00 

Beans 0.125 3.75 

Potatoes 1 . 00 30-00 

Peas 0.10 3.00 

Corn 0.10 3.00 

Tomatoes 10 3 . 00 

Onions, carrots, parsnips, etc 0. 125 3.75 

String beans, asparagus, etc 0. 062 1 . 86 

Sugar (all purposes, baking, cooking, table, etc.) 0. 20 6.00 

Syrup and molasses . 25 7 . 50 

Jams and jellies 0.031 0.93 

Flour (ah kinds) 0.90 27.00 

Oatmeal 0.10 3.00 

Cornmeal 0.02 0.60 

Cornstarch 0.02 0.60 

Rice and barley 0.02 0. 60 

Dried and canned fruits . 25 7 . 50 

Fresh fruits, etc 0.25 7. 50 

Tea 0.01 0.30 

Coffee • 0.071 213 

Total 6.670 203.10 



MISCELLANEOUS COSTS 1703 

Commissary Supplies on a Canadian Survey. — Engineering News, Nov. 5, 
1914, publishes the following data from a paper by H. T. Routly in the Annual 
Report of the Ass'n. of Ontario Land Surveyors. 

The average number of men boarded was 18, including the cook. 

In a brief comment upon this list Mr. Routly says: 

"We have always believed in feeding our men what they liked, within 
reasonable limits, and it is interesting to note the difference in requisitions of 
different parties. 

Consumption of Food and Supplies by a Canadian Survey Party 
(The figures are the amount per man per day) 

Quantity Quantity 

Supplies per day Supplies per day 

Apples 035 1b. Matches 006 box 

Apricots 025 lb. Onions 005 lb. 

Bacon Br 215 1b. Peaches 025 1b. 

Bacon L. C 475 lb. Peas 049 lb. 

Bacon pickled 022 lb. Pepper 007 lb. 

Baking powder 010 lb. Pickles 002 gal. 

Barley 005 lb. Potatoes 525 lb. 

Beans 120 lb. Potatoes, desic 028 can 

Butter 154 lb. Prunes 050 lb. 

Beef 813 1b. Raisins . .077 1b. 

Candles 378 candle Rice 037 lb. 

Cheese 062 lb. Rolled oats 055 lb. 

Coal oil 003 gal. Salt 021 lb. 

Cocoanut . 002 lb. Soap 041 cake 

Coffee 017 1b. Spice 

Corn 064 can Sugar, brown 178 lb. 

Corn flakes 098 lb. Sugar, gran 265 lb. 

Cornstarch 004 pkg. Syrup 007 gal. 

Cream 200 can Tea 036 lb. 

Currants 052 lb. Tomatoes . 073 can 

Flavoring Turnips 075 lb. 

Flour 825 lb. Yeast cakes 007 box 

Jam -.015 lb. 

Lard 092 1b. 

Macaroni 115 lb. 



The above table is simply an analysis of actual quantities and costs on this 
particular contract. A change of cooks will often make a great difference in 
the comparative amounts of various items used. 

"In most of our northern work we used desiccated potatoes, but on this 
contract some of the ordinary tubers were used. These were frozen solid 
coming in, and it may be of interest to note that the best method of preparing 
frozen potatoes is not to thaw them with cold water, as is usually done, but to 
brush them clean, give them a quick rinse with hot water, plunge them at once 
into a pot of boiling water, and cook them with jackets on." 

A Tropical Ration List. — R. C. Hardman, gives the following in Engineering 
and Contracting, May 3, 1916. In going over some old papers recently the 
writer found a list of rations used some ten years ago in the Philippine Islands 
by the Bureau of Engineering, or Bureau of Public Works, as it is nov^^ called. 
The rations were for the use of reconnaissance parties, survey parties and 
construction camps. It will be noted that all the articles are such as can be 
well preserved under the extreme climatic conditions encountered in the 
tropics. 



1704 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



Provision Quantity 

Pork sausage 6 

Beefsteak and onions 1 

Corned beef hash 7 

Compressed ham 2 

Beef stew 2 

Corned beef 2 

Mock turtle soup 2 

Bacon 4 

Flour 17 

Corn meal 5 

Rolled oats 5 

Crackers, soda 4 

Bread, Boston brown 4 

Pork and beans 2 

Corn 4 

Succotash 4 

Potatoes 15 

Onions 5 

Peaches, evaporated 2 

Apples, evaporated. 2 

Prunes 2 

Jam, blackberry -. . . 4 

Jam, strawberry 2 

Coffee Sy- 

Tea, Early Breakfast H lb 

Sugar, granulated 10 lbs 

Cream, Highland con 8 

Lard 5 

Baking powder 1 

Pickles 1 

Vinegar 1 

Mustard, French }4 bot- 

Salt H bot. 

Pepper }4 box 

Tomato catsup 2 pts. 



-Cost- 



cans 

can 

cans 

cans 

cans 

cans 

cans 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

cans 

cans 

cans 

cans 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

cans 

cans 

lbs. 



cans 

lbs. 

lb. 

qt. 

qt. 



Unit 
$0,225 
.325 
.185 
.26 
.28 
.275 
.27 
.20 
.0405 
.095 
.155 
.14 
.13 
.18 
.165 
.18 
.0235 
.0295 
.145 
.17 
. 105 
.15 
.15 
.27 
.40 
.079 
.11 
.16 
1.07 
.425 
.065 
.205 
.18 
.60 
.375 



Total 
$1.35 
.325 

1.295 
.52 
.56 
.55 
.54 
.80 
.69 
.475 
.775 
.56 
.52 
.36 
.66 
.72 
.355 
.15 
.29 
.34 
.21 
.60 
.30 
.945 
.135 
.79 
.88 
.80 

1.07 
.425 
.065 
.07 
.06 
.20 
.75 



Total $18. 60 

The above rations were for one American for 30 days, and were ample for 
the time. In most localities it was possible to supplement this fare with 
chickens, eggs, fish, shrimps, crabs, frogs, and various native vegetables and 
fruits. 

For Filipino "surveymen" the ration was three condensed milk cans full 
of rice per day with an occasional can of salmon when fresh fish could not be ' 
obtained. 

Cost of Reforesting, Wachusett Reservoir, Boston, Mass. — The following 
matter is taken from an abstract (Engineering and Contracting, March 23, 
1910) of a paper by E. R. B. Allardice published in the Jour. Assoc. Eng. 
Soc, Jan. 1910. 

An outline of the general policy adopted in the reforestation of the marginal 
lands of the Wachusett Reservoir, comprising as they did 1,090 acres of arable, 
pasture and light sprout land, 280 acres of thick sprouts and young, thin 
timber land and 1,475 acres of heavy timber or forest land, was as follows: 
1st, to establish two forest nurseries, one on each side of the reservoir, for the 
raising from seed of coniferous trees, mostly native white pines, to form the ulti- 
mate o," final forest, and of deciduous trees to act as fillers and aid in the 
final development of the conifers; 2d, to plant all of the first mentioned class 
of land with a mixture of white pines and hardwoods; 3d, to underplant the 
second class with white pines, making what are hereafter termed "Improve- 
ment Thinnings in Young Pine Stands," as the growth of the pines demanded; 



MISCELLANEOUS COSTS 1705 

4th, to make " Improvement Thinnings in Original Timber Stands," as oppor- 
tunity permitted; 5th, to clear and maintain a fire guard 40 ft. wide around 
the outside limit of the reservation, to serve as a protection against fires 
having their origin on abutting land; 6th, to maintain some of the present and 
build necessary additional internal forest roads 15 ft. wide, making accessible 
all areas and acting as secondary fire lines, dividing the entire reservation into 
I©ts containing from 15 to 30 acres; and 7th, to clear and maintain a 50-ft. 
margin along the forested portion of the fiow line of the reservoir, and to 
plant the inside half of it with white pine and arbor vitse closely spaced, form- 
ing an effectual screen or hedge to keep the greater part of the foliage from 
adjoining forests from being blown into the reservoir. 

Table VIII shows that it costs about $15.40 per 1,000 trees, or $19.20 per 
acre (1,390 trees per acre), to raise the trees from seed, prepare, plant and 

Table VIII. — Statistics Relating to Reforesting Wachusett Reservoir 

Lands 
Work accomplished to Dec. 31, 1908 

Total area of nurseries 8.0 acres 

Total area planted 1 , 330 acres 

Total number of trees planted: coniferous 948 , 000 

deciduous 902 , 000 

Total length of reservoir margin planted. .;.... 32. miles 

Total length of fire guard cleared and maintained 20. 8 miles 

Total length of forest roads cleared and maintained 30. miles 

Planted area thinned 488 acres 

Original timber stands thinned 209.0 acres 

Table of Costs 
(Wage rate, $1.75 per 8-hr. day) 

Nurseries: 

Clearing nursery on south shore $200 per acre 

Maintenance of nursery, first-year seedlings $1.50 per 1, 000 trees 

Maintenance of nursery, second and third year 

seedlings $1.75 per 1,000 trees per year 

Plantings: 

Clearing areas preparatory to planting $ 4 per acre 

Transplanting seedlings from nursery to field 5.25 per 1, 000 trees 

Transplanting seedlings from nursery to 

field $5.50 per acre (6X6 ft. planting) 

Improvement thinnings: 

Among planted trees $6 per acre 

In original timber stands $20 per acre 

Fire protection: 

Clearing marginal fire guard 40 ft. wide $150 per mile 

Maintaining marginal fire guard $27 per mile per year 

Clearing and grading forest roads 15 ft. wide $120 per mile 

Maintaining forest roads $8 per mile per year 

Maintaining fire parol $100 per year 

Reforestation — Summary of costs on planted pine stands 
(Wage rate, $1.75 per 8-hr. day) 

Item 

Preparing nurseries 

Seedlings (1 year) 

Transplants (2 years) 

Preparatory clearing 

Field planting 

Clearing 40-ft. fire guard . . : 

Clearing 15-ft. forest roads 

Maintaining 40-ft. fire guard (per year) 

Maintaining 15-ft. forest roads (per year) 

Maintaining fire patrol ., . . . 

Improvement clearing 



Per 


Per 


trees 


acre 


anted 


planted 


50.40 


$0.60 


1.50 


2.25 


3.50 


4.50 


3.00 


4.00 


5.25 


5.50 


0.75 


1.00 


1.00 


1.35 


0.14 


0.19 


0.06 


0.09 


0.02 


0.03 


4.25 


6.00 



1706 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

protect the lands planted, through the time of the final planting in the field; 
that it costs about 22 cts. and 31 cts. per year respectively to maintain efficient 
fire protection; that in sprout and scrub land it costs about $4.25 and $6 
respectively for an improvement thinning, which will probably have to be 
made twice during the first ten years, after which time the trees should care 
for themselves. 

Comparative Costs of Wood and Steel Trestles for Stocking Ore. — Stuart R. 
Elliott, in a paper before the Lake Superior Mining Institute, gives the follow- 
ing, an abstract of which was published in Engineering and Contracting, 
Sept. 1, 1915. 

From the figures obtained from several "mines it has been found that in five 
years the total cost of repairs and renewals on wooden stocking trestles amounts 
to the original cost of the trestle. Breakage in legs is exceedingly high, often 
amounting to as much as 33 per cent per year. If, for any reason, ore is not 
shipped and the legs are allowed to remain in the pile for several seasons it 
has been observed that they rot rapidly. Weather conditions have consider- 
able to do with the percentage of broken legs. If ore is dumped on a frozen 
face of the stock pile, and this new ore freezes rapidly, it will often move in a 
mass down on the frozen face and break the legs. Large masses of frozen ore 
also shift in this way during loading with the steam shovel. 

The cost for erecting and dismantling was accurately kept at two large 
mines for a period of years, and was found to amount to $1.20 per foot. 
Under unusual conditions this cost has run as high as $1.60 per foot. The 
portion of the trestle between the shaft and the point where the ore is stocked 
is usually called the permanent trestle, the other part being the stocking trestle. 
The permanent trestle is put up in a very substantial way and is very expensive, 
costing as much at $15 per foot. After a period of 10 years this perma- 
nent trestle is sure to be in bad repair. A few of the stringers not directly 
below the tracks will probably last for a short additional time, but for the 
sake of an estimate it can be assumed that the permanent trestle will have to 
be entirely rebuilt in 10 years. In making the following comparative state- 
ment of the cost of wood and steel trestles, the expenditure each year at 6 per 
cent compound interest has been used. This yearly expenditure has been 
capitalized and figured at compound interest for a period of 20 years. It is 
found that at 6^^ years the costs for wooden and steel trestles of the same 
length are practically identical. As the length of time increases the capital- 
ized amount for repairs, renewals, erecting and dismantling, figured at 6 per 
cent compound interest, increases very rapidly. At the end of 20 years the 
saving in favor of the steel stocking trestle is $117,000. It is impossible to 
estimate the saving due to better tracks and operating conditions, and conse- 
quently the minimizing of delays on the surface. With a wooden trestle a 
certain number of carpenters and extra laborers must be employed. Only a 
part of their time can be charged against the stocking trestle, but it is neces- 
sary to have them so that they can be used when repairs are needed. At the 
Negaunee mine we have only one carpenter, whose entire time is spent in the 
shop. 

Table IX gives the total and unit costs of the concrete and steel permanent 
stocking trestle built at the Negaunee Mine. The columns, spaced 114 ft. 
centers, are 4-ft. in diam. for the upper 28.5 ft. and are belled out to a 6-ft. 
diam. in the lower 10-ft. There is only one column in each bend. 

The plate shells of the columns are ^'^-in. thick. They rest on and are 
bolted to pyramid-shaped reinforced concrete bases, which are 12 ft. wide, 



MISCELLANEOUS COSTS 1707 

Table IX. — Total and Unit Costs of Piers and Trestle • 

Piers — — 

Total cost Cost per yd. 

Excavation, 1,800 cu. yds $ 994. 65 $ . 553 

Concreting, 1,352 cu. yds 5,142.70 3.80 

Bolts, washers and forms 2,167.94 2.185 

Reinforcing steel 1 ,423 .89 1 . 053 

Total $9,729.18 $ 7.197 

Average cost per pier 540. 41 



-Trestle (2, 594 lin. ft.)- 



Cost per 

Total cost lin. ft. 

Steel erected, 2,594 lin. ft $35,100.00 $13.53 

Columns (18), covering 2,094 lin. ft 9,729.18 4.65 

Small piers for curved trestle (20), 500 lin. ft 641 . 93 1 . 28 

Decking 500 lin. ft 1,870.07 3.74 

Ties and fastenings, covering 2,094 lin. ft 1 , 627 . 59 0.78 

Walk and railings, 500 lin. ft 358 .78 0. 72 

Temporary tracks for unloading 2,594 lin. ft 355.89 0. 14 

Rails and laying 2,594 lin. ft 1 , 545 . 48 . 60 

Total $51,228.92 $19.71 



26 ft. long and 6 ft. deep. Each base is reinforced with 52%-in. round rods, 
which radiate in all directions through the base and extend up into the shells 
for a distance of 20 ft. In the bottom of each pyramid the rods are tied to 
seven old rails, which extend across the long dimension of the base. At a 
point about 20 ft. above the base the rods are attached and properly dis- 
tributed around two horizontal rings in the shells. Above these rings other 
rods are spliced so that the reinforced bars extend to within a few inches of the 
top of the columns. The height of the trestle from rail to soUar is 42 ft. 

When the excavation for the base of a column was made and the form con- 
structed filled the carpenters were busy constructing the form for the next 
base. In a short time after one base was completed the forms could be moved 
to the next excavation. In this way only a small amount of lumber was 
used. Before the bases were completed the bridge builders were on the 
ground and were ready to begin placing the steel shells in position. For 
handling the heavy shells a railroad track was laid along the entire length 
of the trestle. 

The length of span between columns is 114 ft. -Extending 19 ft. each way 
from the center of each column there are two short plate girders, each 38 ft. 
in length. Between these girders there are two other girders 76 ft. long. 

At each column the girders rest on horizontal 8-in. I-beams supported by 
four braces which are firmly connected to the columns and which extend down 
at an angle of 45°. The plate girders are made up of angles and two 42 X }i- 
in. plates. The distance from center to center of girders, or center to center 
of tracks, is 20 ft. The entire length of the part of the trestle from which ore 
can be stocked is 2,094 ft. In addition, there are 500 ft. of curved trestle 
extending frorn ihe shaft and connecting with the trestle. The legs of the 
curved part are built up of angles and channels, and the stringers are channels 
and I-beams. On top of the I-beams holes are provided for bolting 5-in. 
nailing strips. On top of these nailing strips are spiked a 5 X 7-in. soUar to 
serve as ties. The 40-lb. rails on the plate girders are spiked to 5-in. sawed 



1708 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

ties 4 ft. in length. The gage of the track is 30 ins. On the outside of the 
girders the ties are bolted to 4 X 4-in. timbers placed snugly against the 
girders. These timbers prevent any shifting of the track at right angles to 
the length of the trestles. To prevent the ties from creeping they were 
attached at intervals, by hooked bolts, to the small angles inside of the girders. 
Since the tracks were completed, about two years ago, not a cent has been 
spent on them. They are now in as good alignment as when first put in. 

Table X gives the comparative costs of wood and steel trestles, taking the 
life at 63^ and at 20 years. 



Table X. — Comparative Costs of Wood and Steel Stocking Trestles 

^H years 20 years 

Permanent wood trestle : 

Original cost, 500 ft. at $15 $ 7 , 500 . 00 $ 7 , 500. 00 

Repairs and renewals, 10 per cent per year 4,875.00 15,000.00 

Six per cent compound interest 4 , 692 .29 30 , 798 . 02 

Total $17,067.29 $ 53,298.02 

Temporary wood trestles — - — 

Original cost, 2,094 ft. at $6 $12 , 564 . 00 $ 12 , 564 . 00 

Repairs and renewals, 20 per cent per year 16 , 333 .20 50 , 256 . 00 

Erecting and dismantling $1 .20 per foot per year. . . 16 , 333 .20 50 , 256 . 00 

Six per cent compound interest 14,063.33 122,822.09 

Total $59,293.73 $235,898.09 

Total cost wooden trestles $76,361.02 $289,196. 11 

2,594-ft. steel stocking trestle ■ 

Original cost $51,228.92 $ 51,228.92 

Estimated maintenance cost 1 , 300 .00 4 , 000 . 00 

Six per cent compound interest .' 23 , 949 .51 116, 867 . 78 

Total ^76,478.43 $172,096.70 

Net saving of steel trestle 117.41 117,099.41 



Cost of Cantilever Type of Reinforced Concrete Retaining Wall. — Engineer- 
ing and Contracting, March 22, 1911, gives the following costs of a retaining 
wall some 16 ft. deep and 250 ft. long built under contract for the Saco-Pette 
Co. at Newton Upper Falls, Mass. The two types of retaining wall shown in 
Fig. 9 were considered by the engineers Lockwood, Greene & Co. who esti- 
mated a saving of some $700 by using the cantilever type with an estimated 
cost of $3,542.50. This type of wall was therefore built by contract. 

The gravel and sand, which were of excellent quality, where hauled from a 
bank about one-half mile from the site of the work. Because of the large 
percentage of sand in the gravel, it was necessary to screen all of the latter, 
which resulted in a rather high cost for this material of $1.70 per cu. yd. The 
number of yards of concrete placed is based on the actual number of bags of 
cement used, the figure obtained being slightly greater than that figured for 
the wall itself, because of excess concrete placed in the footings over and above 
the actual cross sections. This yardage was allowed as follows: Actual yards 
of wall, 272.27; bags of cement used, 1,525; yards concrete, based on cement 
used, 277.27. 



MISCELLANEOUS COSTS 



1709 



The actual costs of labor and material include a sand floated surface which 
was applied to the wall after the forms had been removed. 
Materials : 

1,525 bags cement at $1.70 per bbl .' $ 647. 13 

249.54 yds. of gravel at $1.70 per yd 424 . 22 

124.77 yds. sand at $0.50 per yd 62 . 39 

16.5 tons reinforcing steel at $33 per ton 544 . 50 

12,894 ft. B.M. lumber at $25 per M. ft 322. 35 

600 lbs. wire at $4 per 100 lbs 24 . 00 

Labor: 

Superintendent, 14 days at $5.33 $ 74. 67 

Foreman, 10 days at $4.00 40. 00 

Steel helper, 4K days at $2.50 11 . 25 

Steel man, 2 days at $3.00 6 . 00 

Engineer, 11 days at $3.50 38 . 50 

Carpenters, 200 days at $3.82 764 . 00 

Laborers, 1713^ days at $2.00 343.00 

Masons, 7 days at $4.80 33 . 60 

Total cost $3,336. 61 

Cost per yard 3336.61= $12.03 

277.27 



■',/Zr-- 



r-f/7-->i 




Fig. 9. — Comparative sections of plain and reinforced concrete 
retaining walls. 



Comparative Cost of Plain and Reinforced Concrete Retaining Wall. — 
J. I. Oberlander, in Engineering and Contracting, May 19, 1915, gives the 
following data relative to the construction of retaining walls along the banks 
of the Sandusky River, Tiffin, Ohio. 

The city asked for bids on the two types of wall shown in section in Fig. 9, 
the total length of wall being 2,600 ft. There were 23 bids submitted. The 
lowest complete bid on the plain concrete design made the cost of this type 
of wall $5.75 per cubic yard, the total bid being $46,718.75; while the lowest 
bid received for constructing the reinforced concrete wall was $6,12 per 



1710 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 



cubic yard, plus 2H cts. per pound for the steel reinforcement, or a total of 
$31,476.00. The contract was awarded for reinforced walls. The total bid 
for constructing the plain concrete wall was thus 48 per cent more than 
for the reinforced, wall. 

Considering 17 of the bids received for both types of wall, the average price 
for plain concrete was $6,117 per cubic yard, while the average prices for the 
reinforced type were $7,456 per cubic yard for concrete and 2.77 cts. per pound 
for reinforced steel. The average bid for constructing the plain concrete wall 
was thus about 32 per cent more than for the reinforced wall, although the 





r-fl- 




1 Grade Line "^ 




^^ 


• 


1 


j 




i- 


• 


If 


1*'**''*:*^ 




1 — 




1 


1 ^*'***=*!S!^,j^^ 




"? 




I 
1 




1 






wm^mm^ 










-2! 








S5*j^ 



r<-7?-Y-flT 






I 



he Bod5 



H- Expansion Joint Every 50 



Fig. 10. — Plans of retaining wall with rear anchorage. 

reinforced wall is theoretically more stable, both as to overturning and as to 
sliding. Moreover, a higher grade of concrete is used in the reinforced wall, 
and if. the proportion of cement had been the same in both walls the difference 
in cost in favor of the reinforced concrete type would have been at least 7 per 
cent greater. 

Cost of Reinforced Concrete Retaining Wall with Rear Anchorage. — R. A. 
Boothe gives the following costs in Engineering and Contracting, May 20, 
1912, for constructing 900 ft. of retaining wall of the type illustrated in Fig. 10. 

The wall was built around an island about 10 ft. from the bank. The space 
between the bank and wall was afterwards filled up with dirt taken out of the 
beach about 50 ft. from the face of the wall. Normally the water in the lake 
is about 18 ins. below the top of the wall, but to do this work the lake was 
drained down until it left a beach in front of the wall about 200 ft. wide. 

When the walls were built two openings 10 ft. wide were left in each section 
so that the dirt could be hauled through. The backfill was a sandy clay and 



MISCELLANEOUS COSTS 1711 

amounted to about 2,000 cu. yds. It was ploughed and hauled in No. 00 slip 
scrapers. The average haul was 150 ft. and cost 21 cts. per cubic yard includ- 
ing plowing, teams being paid 50 cts. per hour. 

The concrete plant consisted of a 3^ cu. yd. Chicago mixer mounted on skids. 
The material was hauled about 1 mile from the railroad and dumped in piles 
near the mixer; from there it was wheeled up runways to the mixer which 
was fitted with a batch hopper, and from the mixer it was wheeled to the job 
and placed. As two setups of the plant were made, one in the center of each 
section the longest haul was about 125 ft. 

In placing the concrete the trench was dug for the foundations and the 
concrete and steel placed, then the forms were placed. These were built in 
sheets 12 ft. 6 ins. long and 5 ft. high, and were made of J4-m. tongue and 
grooved stuff with 2 X 4-in. uprights on 2-ft. centers. The forms were held 
together with wiring and two rows of 4 X 4-in. walling on each side. The 
concrete was poured in 50-ft. sections, and forms enough were built for two 
sections, so that while one section was being poured the carpenters could be 
working on the next. As the forms were wrecked on the second day after 
pouring it was necessary to put the laborers to digging foundation or filling 
it ahead on every third day until forms could be built. 

This work was started Nov. 15, 1910, and was finished on Jan. 3, 1911, 
during fairly cold weather. At first the green concrete was covered with 
tarpaulins and heated with steam from the mixer. Two rows of 1-in. pipe 
were used on each side of the wall for radiation, but this was not found to be 
very satisfactory as about 450 ft. of wall froze for a depth of an inch. On 
nights when the wind was blowing it was impossible to keep the heat under the 
tarpaulins. On the rest of the wall salt was used and no trouble was exper- 
ienced. About a quart of salt to a sack of cement was used. The salt was 
thrown into the mixer and mixed with the concrete. 

The costs were as follows : 

Concreting (281 cu. yds.): 

1 engineer, 190 hours at 30 cts $ 57 . 00 

1 foreman, 200 hours at 35 cts 70 . 00 

8 laborers, 190 hours at 20 cts 304 . 00 

Setting mixer resetting and removing from job 21 . 00 

Coal and oil 8 .00 

Total $460. 00 

Cost per cubic yard SI . 64 + 

Forms : 

1 carpenter, 190 hours at 30 cts $ 57 .00 

2 carpenters, 190 hours at 25 cts 95 . 00 

2 laborers, 100 hours at 20 cts 40. 00 

Total $192. 00 

Cost per square foot of forms $ 0. 024 

Cost per cubic yard $ 1.15 

Digging the foundation ditch cost G cts. per foot. 

Cost of Oxy-acetylene Welding. — Engineering and Contracting, May 24, 
1911, publishes the following information taken from Bulletin No. 45 of the 
Engineering Experiment Station of the University of Illinois. 

Fig. 11 shows the welding rate and cost in terms of length of weld, section 
of plate, and volume of filler for blowpipes of various sizes. The cost of opera- 
tion rises rapidly with the thickness of plate, reaching possibly $4 per hour for 
labor and gas on H in. plates. The oxy-acetylene blowpipe is best adapted 



1712 HANDBOOK OFUONSTRUCTION COST 

to plates up to H in. thickness. The welding rate is nearly constant at 17.5 
sq. ins. of weld section per hour. The cost of welding beveled plates may be 
estimated also at 25 cts. per cu. in. of filler assuming oxygen at 3 cts. per cu. ft. 
acetylene at 1 ct. per cu. ft. and labor at 30 cts. per hour. It should also be 
noticed that, provided this rate holds for any type of grooved joint, if the 
plates were grooved from both sides, the cost per foot of weld would be only 
half that for plates grooved from one side only, because the required amount 
of filler would be reduced one-half. 




i§t 



4 S 6 7 

3/oi^/O/pe /dumber 



/Q 



Fig. 11. — Diagram of cost of oxy-acetylene welding. 

Diagram for Computing Paint Values.— E. O. Johnson gives the following 
in Engineering News-Record, April 7, 1921. 

In Engineering News-Record of Jan. 6, Prof. A. H. Sabin discussed the ques- 
tioji of how much a paint user can afford to pay for paint which will last, say 
four years and costs $6 per gallon to apply, when he has available at $3.50 
per gallon another paint, which also costs $6 to apply, but which lasts five 
years. The chart reproduced herewith enables such cost calculations to be 
made more rapidly. It includes the three factors of paint cost, labor cost to 
apply the paint (both in dollars per gallon) , and years of life. Three explana- 
tory diagrams below the main diagram show the method of using it in three 
different calculations. 

In the first example, the case calculated by Prof. Sabin is shown. One paint 
is worth $3.50 per gallon, costs $6 per gallon to apply, and will last five years; 
then how much is a gallon of paint worth that lasts only four years, the cost 
of application being the same? At the intersection of the horizontal for $3.50 



MISCELLANEOUS COSTS 



1713 



paint cost with the vertical through $6 labor cost (upper scale), the diagonal 
(which represents cost of a gallon of paint applied) is followed down to where 
it meets the sloping line representing five years of life. From here, following 
back the horizontal to intersect the line for four years of life, the total-cost 
diagonal is followed down to intersect the labor-cost vertical, giving the hori- 
zontal line $1.60, which is the value per gallon of the second paint. 

In the second small diagram the problem is worked out of determining how 
long a given paint must last in order to be as economical as another paint, for 
which cost and length of life are known. Following through the lines shown 
on the diagram, it will be found that a life of 3.47 years should be expected of 
the cheaper paint. 

Cost in Cerrte per Hour +b opply On© 6ollon of Painf 
K) eO 30 40 "^ 50 eO '^^^70 60 90 \00 110 




Labor Co£>+, Dollars per" 6oiUon 

12 345^ ! ^■ 3 4. 5 




'^cH^Ycj-L, 




yvnenYs=Yc vise Ii+L&-R5=l.c 
Fig. 12. — Chart for determining paint values. 



Sometimes computations of justifiable labor cost to apply paint may have 
to be made. The third of the small diagrams shows such a calculation. A 
$3.50 paint is used whose spreading rate requires a man to spend $6 worth 
of labor. time to apply it, and it is customary practice to repaint every five 
years. If instead a cheaper paint, bought for $1.60 per gallon is used, which, 
however, requires repainting every three years, it may not pay to spend as 
much labor in applying it. The calculation, carried out as indicated on the 
diagram, shows that not over $4.10 labor cost per gallon should be spent. 

The formulas by which the calculations may be carried out are noted on 
the diagrams. Ordinarily, however, the diagrams themselves will be found 
much more rapid than numerical computation. 
108 



1714 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

Comparative Tests of Applying Paint by Spraying Machines and by Hand. — 
The following data are taken from Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 25, 
1920. 

The information which appeared in Paint, Oil and Drug Review was ob- 
tained from a private source and is considered as fair and accurate as any 
individual statement can be. Everything possible was done to make the 
test thorough and indicative of the results that are to be expected from spray- 
making machines. The tests were made in government buildings. 

The machines used at the United States Naval Hospital, Sept. 17, 1919, 
consisted of a 4 h.p. motor with a large air tank and a 5-gal. paint tank. The 
apparatus operated with a 220-volt direct current. 

An experienced spray brush operator started the spray on one side of the 
building, and two experienced journeymen painters with 4>^-in. brushes 
started on the other side of the building, which was an exact duplicate in shape, 
size and form of the side selected for the spray tests. After the cylindrical 
end of the building was completed, which was about one-fifth of the area of the 
whole building, a painter entirely unfamiliar with the use of the spray gun was 
shown how to operate it, and he completed the tests, including all walls and 
roof area. In this connection, it is apparent that a very short period of time 
is required to instruct a man unfamiliar with the use of the spray gun with its 
working. Following is a summary of the data obtained from the tests. 

Wall Tests (Exterior) « 

Area of Paint Time, Spreading Time to 

surface, used, 1 man, rate per coat 100 sq. 

Method of Application sq. ft. gal. hours gal., sq. ft. ft., min. 
First coat: 

Machine 4,182 6.5 9K 570 13.5 

Brush. ; 4,094 5.97 20 648 29.0 

Second coat: 

Machine 4,182 4.3 103^ 863 15.0 

Brush 4,094 3.9 21 992 30.7 

In addition to the wall tests, data were obtained on the coating of a large 
area of the roof with the paint spray machine. Nearly 9,000 sq. ft. of area 
was coated with 22 ^^ gals, of paint in 14 hours by one man. This included the 
time of mixing the paint, placing it in the containers, raising the machine to 
the roof, etc. It should be noted that the average journeyman painter, work- 
ing on wall work, will do about 200 sq. ft. an hour and about 250 sq. ft. an hour 
on roof work. It will be seen from the preceding table that the journeyman 
painters apparently speeded up their hand brush work, as they were very 
much interested in the test, and they accordingly made very much higher 
averages than the figures just given. The results for the roof test follow: 











Time re- 










quired to 




Area of 


Paint 


Time, 


Spreading coat 100 sq 




surface, 


used, 


1 man. 


rate per ft., 


Method of Application 


sq. ft. 


gals. 


hours 


gal., sq. ft. min. 


Machine 


578 


1.49 


3^ 


386 5.2 


Brush 


578 


1.35 


IH 


428 15.5 



The paint used on the work was a white lead paint, the materials for which 
were furnished by the Government and mixed by the men. It was tinted with 
ochre. The first coat weighed 17.6 lbs. per gallon and the second coat, 20 lbs. 
Both of these paints were easily handled by the spray gun. From observa- 



MISCELLANEOUS COSTS 



1715 



tions, it is apparent that the spray gun will successfully handle paint of prac- 
tically any weight per gallon. 

On the first coat all cornices and trim were cut in with the spray gun on the 
side of the building where the spray gun was used. On the second coat, 
however, the cornices and trim were cut in with the brush to be sure of a neat 
job, and the time for this brush work was counted in as spray gun time. 

Observation of the character of finish given by the spray versus the hand 
brush work on the completed first coat showed a slightly more uniform film 
for hand brush work. On the second coat there was no apparent difference in 
the appearance. Both coats dried in about the same period of time, whether 
applied by spray or brush. 

In the roof work the paint tank was hoisted to the roof and two hose leaders 
carried from the spray machine located on the ground. Two operators could 
work at the same time with the paint tank, which was fitted with two spray 
guns. The paint used for the roof work was a red oxide of iron paint. Only 
one coat was applied, which gave very good hiding power. Even in this work, 
which was done on the roof of the building, subjected to strong currents of. air, 
there was apparently not very much loss of paint, the pebbled roofing showing 
probably less paint loss by dropping than where hand brush work was used. 
It was observed, however, that the overalls of the painters using the spray 
gun became somewhat more soiled than where hand brush work was done. 
- Another test was made at General Pershing's Headquarters, U, S. Land 
Office, on Oct. 3, 1919. 

This test was conducted with a modern interior lithopone flat paint of 
cream color for the ceilings and light buff for the side walls of a series of rooms 
in the Land Office building. Both paints weighed 14 lbs. per gallon. In the 
tests upon which data was obtained, one room was done by two painters with 
brushes, and two rooms were done with the spray gun by one operator. The 
rooms were on the second floor of the building. The machine was placed in 
an interior court yard, with hose leaders running up to the rooms. The 
following is a summary of the data obtained: 

Time re- 
quired to 
coat 100 
sq. ft. 



Spreading 

Method of Area of Paint Time rate per 

application surface used (1 man) gal. 
Ceiling: 

Machine 660 sq. ft. 1 . 64 gals. 1 hr. 50 mins. 402 sq. ft. 

Brush 250 sq. ft. . 50 gals. 2 hr. 30 mins. 500 sq. ft. 

Walls: 

Machine 1 ,490 sq. ft. 4.75 gals. 3 hr. 30 mins. 408 sq. ft. 

Brush 750 sq. ft. 1 . 25 gals. 2 hr. 50 mins. 600 sq. ft. 



16.5 mins. 
60.0 mins. 



10.8 mins. 
22 . 6 mins. 



It will be noted from the above chart that especially good results were 
obtained on the ceilings with the spray brush. This method of painting 
seemed to be very much preferred over the ordinary method of application 
by hand brush. The ceilings were all arched, four arches meeting in the cen- 
ter of the room. The side walls had four projecting columns, one at each 
corner, and between the tops of these columns and the arches of the ceiling 
there was over a foot of school cornice. Each room also had a chimney pro- 
jection and large recessed combination windows. The surface, therefore, 
was not of the ordinary type. 

The hand brush work was marred by streaks and in places the covering was 
poor. The spray gun work was much better, as a heavier coat of paint could 
be applied. 



1716 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

During both the work on the naval hospital and on General Pershing's 
headquarters, it was found that the journeymen painters did not seem at all 
hostile to the use of the spray gun. In fact, after they had become accustomed 
to it some of them became very enthusiastic about its use, stating that they 
were less fatigued at night than when they used hand brushes, especially on 
certain types of work. It would appear, therefore, that journeyinen painters, 
after they have had a little experience with the gun would become enthusiastic 
regarding its use on certain forms of their work. 

Cost of Painting Highway Bridges. — Charles D. Snead, in Engineering and 
Contracting, March 26, 1919, gives the following: 

Estimating Amount of Paint Required. — Knowing the weight, or by esti- 
mating the weight of a structure, we may approximate the amount of paint 
required. The old rule, namely, K gal. of mixed paint for the first coat and 
% gal. for the second and third coats per ton of steel give fair approximations. 
The weight of light steel bridges may be calculated approximately from the 
' following formula by Kunz : 

W = (0.12 L + 12) (1.6 - 0.03B) BL. 

W = weight of steel in pounds. 

L = length of span in feet. 

B = width of roadway in feet. 

Cost of Painting. — The cost of applying the paint will vary due to different 
prices paid the labor and the same is true with regard to cleaning. This cost 
may be approximated by assuming a painter to cover 600 sq. ft. of surface 
per day. Applied to gallons of paint it means that a painter will apply 
about IK gals, of paint in an 8-hour day or if applied to tons of steel, one 
painter should cover about three tons per day. This approximation will be 
found to agree fairly closely to the actual cost if much scaffolding is to be done. 
The cost of cleaning will vary still more. It may be estimated if the steel is in 
bad condition that it will require one man one day to clean a }i ton of steel, 
while if there are places which may be skipped, one may clean a ton within 
the same period of time. With the data expressed in hours, it can at once be 
referred to any scale of wages. 

Cost of Painting the St. Louis Municipal Bridge. — R. D. Spradling gives 
the following in Engineering and Contracting, July 15, 1914. 

The Municipal Bridge, which spans the Mississippi River at St. Louis, Mo., 
consists of three main double-deck river spans and a long approach at each 
end of the structure. Each of the three main spans has a length, center to 
center of end pins, of 668 ft. 

The trusses are spaced 35 ft. c. to c. The lower or railway deck carries two 
tracks 13 ft c. to c. supported by four stringers connected to the main floor 
beams which are plate girders 7 ft. 9 ins. deep. The upper or highway deck 
consists of a 30 ft. roadway between the trusses with side walks 6 ft. wide 
cantilevered on the outside of each truss. There is a clearance of 22 ft. 
between the base of rail of the bottom of the main floorbeam of the upper deck 
and the base of rail of the lower deck. 

Paint and Painting. — The specifications required that the shop coat of 
red lead should be retouched where necessary, and that in doing this all rust 
and dirt, should be removed by scraping thoroughly and brushing with wire 
brushes. After the retouching was finished a coat of graphite paint was 
applied, and after about three days another coat was applied. At first, no drier 
(except that used in mixing the paint) was allowed. Later, however, when on 
two or three occasions sudden rains had washed off the fresh paint, the con- 



MISCELLANEOUS COSTS 1717 

tractor was permitted to use a small amount of Japan drier. The specifica- 
tions required that the red lead should be 94 per cent pure and that 30 lbs. of 
red lead should be used to each gallon of linseed oil. This made a very thick 
paint, and it proved to be excellent for retouching rusty places. The first 
coat was of brown graphite and the second was black, which make it easy 
to determine whether the structure had been thoroughly covered with two 
coats. The paint was received at the work ready mixed,, and required only 
a small amount of stirring before its application. 

Very little difficulty was experienced in reaching all parts of the structure. 
In all cases where scaffolds were swung two men worked on a scaffold, and 
these men were able to move it without assistance. One man was detailed 
to keep the men supplied with paint, although at times two men were required 
for this work. The most difficult part of the work consisted of painting about 
12,000 sq. ft. of cast-iron grating on the sidewalk. As the apertures in this 
grating were about 1-in. square, the use of brushes proved unsatisfactory and 
small swabs were substituted for the brushes. . In general the weather condi- 
tions were excellent. 

Cost of Labor and Materials. — Table XI gives the length of time required, 
and the labor and material costs for painting each of the three river spans. 

By referring to Table XI it will be noted that the cost of labor and of paint 
materials is not far from the same — $5,989.90 for labor and $5,812.60 for 
paint materials, a total of $11,802.50 for the 13,775 tons of steel in the three 
spans. This cost does not include any overhead expense, nor does it include 
the cost of paint brushes and miscellaneous items. The contractor used 450 
paint brushes, at $1.60 each, the total expense for this item being $720. The 
estimated cost of miscellaneous items was $100. 

The great variation in the quantity of materials used and in the cost of 
painting span No. 1 and spans Nos. 2 and 3 was due to the fact that span No. 1 
was erected first and had been subjected to wear incident to the erection of the 
other two spans. On spans Nos. 2 and 3 the painters were all Greeks, and 
they proved to be very efficient workmen. They were cautioned to brush the 
paint out thoroughly, both to obtain a good surface and to insure economy of 
paint. 

The total amount of materials used and the average amount per ton are 
shown in following tabulation. 

Item Material Total quantity Quantity per ton 

R^+m,Phin^ /red lead 15,300.0 lbs. 1.11 lbs. 

Retouching < Unseed oil 629 . gals. 0. 0457 gal. 

i?,Vo+ «^o+ / graphite paint 1 ,833. 5 gals. 0. 133 gal. 

tirstcoat \ linseed oil 50.0 gals. 0.00363 gal. 

Second coat graphite paint 1,497.83 gals. 0. 1088 gal. 

Cost of Wrecking Buildings of the Panama -Pacific Exposition. Wrecking 
hy Dynamite. — Engineering Record, Aug. 12, 1916, gives the following: 

In removing the structural frames of the several buildings it was first 
intended to pull them down section by section and bent by bent, by means of 
donkey engines and the necessary winches and lines. This plan was aban- 
doned after it had been employed to some extent, and the frames are now being 
razed by dynamite, as it was found possible to do this with but little more loss 
of material. In many cases, such as in taking down the domes of the main 
palaces, the cost of dynamiting is less than 1 per cent of what it would have 
been if the structures were dismembered and dismantled by hand. 



1718 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 






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MISCELLANEOUS COSTS 1719 

The usual procedure of bringing down the domes, which stand 162 ft. high 
and cover an area of 102 ft. square, is to cut the dome and its supporting col- 
umns entirely free from other portions of the structure and dynamite the two 
corners on the side toward which the dome should fall. Previous to the fall- 
ing, all of the walls, studding and braces are stripped from the skeleton, leaving 
only the heavy timber columns which carry the weight of the dome proper. 
The dome itself consists of segmental timbers supported on a circular girder, 
which in turn rests on four trusses each carried by two columns. At each 
corner of the dome there are thus two columns, each consisting of four 12 X 
12-in. timbers. The method of dynamiting is to bore each timber and insert 
a stick of dynamite about 6 ft. from the base, connecting all eight sticks by 
wire for simultaneous firing by battery. Bringing down the domes this way 
costs, for labor and powder, about $6.50 for each dome. From the dynamited 
domes about 60 per cent of the timber in the trusses is salvaged and about 70 
per cent of the timber in the columns. 

The average cost of salvaged lumber, in the yard was $5.50 per thousand; 
the value of this lumber varied from $5 to $20 per thousand. 

The cost of recovering steel f. o. b. cars exposition grounds was $10 per ton; 
this steel could be sold for about $16.25 per ton. 

The proportion of iron and steel to wood salvaged was as follows: 

In domes — 1 lb. of metal to 1 ft. B. M. 

In other than domes — ^4 lb. of metal to 1 ft. B. M. 

Wrecking with Oxy acetylene Torches. — The following matter is from Engi- 
neering Record, Dec. 16 and Dec. 23, 1916. 

In wrecking the Palace of Horticulture, the General Welding & Cutting 
Works, which purchased the structure for $5,000, stripped off the glass and 
woodwork, and when nothing remained but the steel skeleton used oxyacetyl- 
ene torches to cut it down. 

The dome proper was 150 ft. in diameter and 100 ft. high above the support- 
ing arches, or 175 ft. from floor level to top of dome. When the structure was 
stripped down to the steel skeleton, four men equipped with life-belts and 
oxy acetylene torches were put to work, starting at the top of the dome. In ten 
days they had entirely dismembered the dome proper. The removal of the 
entire steel frame, which was accomplished by a crew of only eight men, was 
completed in about three weeks. The steel totaled about 600 tons in weight, 
of which 350 tons was included in the skeleton of the dome proper. 

The plan first proposed for the wrecking involved the cutting off of vertical 
members so that the circumferential bands would fall in a single piece. The 
Department of Safety of the California Accident Commission, however, 
suggested that it would be better to cut out sections of the circumferential 
bands between uprights, taking one section at a time. They insisted further 
that the workmen should be provided with the safety belts. It was pointed 
out that the dismantling of the structure in this way would not only be a 
safer procedure but would probably involve the loss of less material due to 
breakage. 

This proved to be the case, as the short sections which were allowed to fall 
were comparatively light, and it is estimated that not more than 2 per cent of 
the steel was damaged in falling. This was in large measure owing to the fact 
that the area into which the pieces fell from the dome was a soft earthfill, and 
the fallen pieces were removed promptly so that sections falling later would 
not strike them. Of course, the members of the supporting frame which 
could be handled by tackle after being cut free were taken down that way. As 



1720 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION COST 

a result of the precautions to safeguard workmen not a single accident was 
reported on the work, although it was considered an unusually high risk. 

Wrecking the Tower of Jewels is said to have cost $25,000 including insur- 
ance and overhead. This structure contained 1800 tons of structural steel 
and about 2,000,000 ft. B. M. of lumber, but its 435 ft. of height considerably 
complicated the problem of economical dismantling in a way that would not 
damage the salvable material. The safety of workmen was also considered 
an Important item. During erection of the structure there were three fatal 
and a number of minor accidents, and it was believed that the work of dis- 
mantling would be more dangerous. 

Wrecking operations were started April 2, 1916, and the last standing col- 
umn was taken down Nov. 23. During this time, in which the crew on the 
job ranged from 12 to 20 men, neither serious nor fatal accidents were reported. 

The wreckers began at the top, lowering most of the material from derrick 
booms. The steel frame was unbolted or cut with acetylene torch where 
necessary. The columns which supported the arch 125 ft. high in the base 
of the structure were stripped and their upper parts removed so that the height 
of the columns which it was finally necessary to "fall" was only 90 ft. 

The work was done in such a way that less than 2 per cent of the structural 
steel shapes were damaged in handling, and thus the major portion of the steel 
commanded a high price. The resale of the structural-steel members netted 
$65,000, in addition to which the major portion of the lumber in the structure 
was disposed of at from $10 to $12 per 1,000 ft. B. M. Most of the steel was 
sold to a local rolling mill which manufactures structural shapes. 

Comparative Cost of Wood and Coal for Construction Plant Fuel. — J. R. 
Sherman gives the following comparative data in Engineering and Contract- 
ing, April 8, 1914. 

Kachess Dam, which was built in 1911-12 by the United States Reclama- 
tion Service, is located at the lower end of Lake Kachess, near Easton, Wash. 
During the construction of this dam both coal and wood was used extensively 
as fuel on practically all of the dirt handling machinery. The work being 
located in a heavily timbered forest reserve, wood appeared to be without 
question the cheapest fuel to use, since no charge was made by the Forest 
Service for the timber so used. Twelve miles from Easton, however the Ros- 
lyn coal mines are located, from which a large part of the bituminous coal 
burned in the northwest is mined. 

The wood used was cut by contractors on individual contracts for $1 for 
16 in., $1.25 for 36 in. and $1.40 for 42 in. wood per rick, a rick being 4 ft. 
high by 8 ft. long; the only requirements being that the wood should be cut as 
near to the work as possible and piled so as to admit of easy access for the wood 
wagons. 

The wood was distributed to the various machines by Government forces, 
the average amount hauled with a team, wagon, driver and one extra man 
being 23^ ricks of 16 in. wood, 2 ricks of 36 in. wood and IH ricks of 42 in. 
wood. The length of haul varied from a few hundred feet to approximately 
one-half mile, the roads for the greater part of the season being in good 
condition. 

Mine run coal was purchased from the Roslyn Fuel Co., Roslyn, Wash., 
the contract price being $2.75 per ton f. o. b. Roslyn. At Easton the coal 
was sacked by hand and hauled by team and wagon from Easton to the works, 
a distance of thr^e miles. The average load for a four-horse team was three 
tons. 



MISCELLANEOUS COSTS 



1721 



The itemized cost of the coal deUvered at the machines is given below: 

Item Per ton 

Purchase price . $2.75 

Ry. freight: Roslyn to Easton . 37 

Freighting ifrom Easton to camp . 00 

Sacking and storehouse expense , 38 

Distributing at camp . 52 

Total $4. 92 

The unit cost of distributing at camp as shown above was obtained by 
dividing the total cost of distribution by the total tons used. There was a 
large amount of coal used that did not have to be distributed, the coal being 
unloaded near the tracks so that the dinkey engines used to haul the dirt trains 
could coal up from the storage bins. 

A comparison of the costs of fuel used on some of the machines during the 
season of 1912 is given in Table XII. 

Table XII 

Cu. yds. 
exca- 
vated 
Total or Cost per 

Machine Fuel used cost hauled cu. yd. 

Steam shovel Wood, 16-in., 36-in., $1,275.45 58,799 $0,022 

42-in. 

Steam shovel Coal 1,023.36 82,918 0.012 

Lidgerwood drag-line excava- 
tor Wood, 36-in. 902.40 38,709 0.023 

Lidgerwood drag-line excava- 
tor Coal 324.72 19,596 0.016 

Dinkey engine shovel run. .. Wood, 16-in. 494.77 57,719 0.0086 

Dinkey engine shovel run Coal 423 .12 72 , 221 . 0059 

Dinkey engine excavator run . Wood, 16-in. 182.20 11,610 0.0157 

Dinkey engine excavator run . Coal ' 393 .60 44 , 544 . 0088 

Steam roller Wood, 16-in.. 36-in. 275. 14 31,750 0.0087 

Steamroller .Coal 300.12 77,673 0.0039 

It should be stated that while the machines were using wood it was necessary 
to keep an extra man employed for splitting. On the dinkeys and steam roller 
this wood splitter was not used all the time, as one man was able to split wood 
enough in 8 hours to run the machines 16 hours. On the steam shovel and 
drag line excavator a wood splitter was employed for each shift, the wages 
being $2.20 for 8 hours' work. 

The steam shovel used was a 45-ton Bucyrus with a IH cu. yd. dipper and 
was used to excavate the finer material for the embankment, working in a pit 
approximately 1,300 ft. long and with an average depth of cut of 20 ft. 

The drag line excavator was manufactured by the Lidgerwood-Crawford 
Co., and was used to excavate gravel for the embankment. It was a 65-ton 
machine with a 70 ft. boom and a IK cu. yd. Page bucket. 

The dinkey engines were made by the Vulcan Iron Works and were operated 
on a 24-in. gage track and weighed 9 tons each. The average length of haul 
for the dinkeys operating on the steam shovel pit was 1,000 ft. and the average 
train was 15 IK cu. yd. cars. The length of the haul for the dinkeys on the 
gravel run was about 3,000 ft. and the average train consisted of 12 IK cu. yd. 
cars. 

Approximately 12,000 cu. yds. of the steam shovel excavation was hauled 
by teams, which accounts for the difference in yardage excavated by the steam 
shovel and that hauled by the dinkeys on the steam shovel run. 



INDEX 



Abutment masonry, cost of, 

bridge foundations 1053 

Abutments, track elevation 

work cost of 1128 

viaduct, labor cost of 1131 

Aggregate, determining void 

percentages in 208 

Aggregates, excavating with 

dragline, cost of 1695 

Air pressures used in tunneling . . 1366 
Aqueduct, concrete sections, 

cost of 369 

Asphalt paving repairs, cost of . . 948 
plant, cost of operating 950 

B 



BackfilHng trench by machine, 

cost of 

Ballast, loading cars by steam 

shovel. . . 

Bank and shore protection 

board mat and brush mat- 
tresses 

concrete slab for 

revetment, cost of concrete . . . 
Base lines, cost of measuring .... 

Bath house, cost of, 

Beams, prices of 

Bonus system of tunnel work. . . 
Breakwater construction and 

costs 

Brick, prices of common 

work, estimating 

Bridge, 105 ft. bascule, cost of . . 
113 ft. concrete girder, cost of. 
double leaf trunnion bascule, 

cost of substructure 

track railway, erection costs 

of..... 

erecting, cost of 

floors, economic panel lengths 

of slabs 

highway, cost of dismantling. 

McKinley Ford, cost of 

pin connected, cost of convert- 
ing into riveted 

Richelieu River, cost of 

St. Louis municipal, cost of 

painting 

span formula • . 

steel, cost of reinforcing with 

concrete 

steel quantities, curves for 
estimating 



385 

1196 
1428 

1443 
1446 
1443 
1625 
1662 
102 
1330 

1462 
90 
1568 
1069 
1072 

1034 

1135 
1058 

1096 
1056 
1083 

1153 
1139 

1716 
1111 

1158 



1031 

1723 



Bridge, superstructure, formula 

for erection cost 1127 

work, engineering cost of . . . . 1622 
Bridges, concrete, economy of 
slab, deck and through 

girder types 1071 

concrete, cost of single-track 

arch 1160 

highway, cost of painting. ... 1716 

railway , 1111 

Brush mattresses, cost of 1428 

Building, brick and concrete, 

unit costs of 1561 

church, cost of masonry and 

carpenter work 1569 

concrete, items making up 

cost of 1546 

construction 1510 

component costs of 1518 

fireproof loft, cost of 1524 

lumber, wholesale prices 72 

materials, 1921, cost of 1526 

prices of, method of obtain- 
ing average increase 106 

wholesale price index of, 60, 65, 66 
trades, output and cost of 

labor in 1533 

upkeep and repairs, costs of. . 1612 
Buildings, cantonment, data on 

erection of 1603 

college, cost of from 1851 to 

1916 1520 

cost estimating, reinforced 

concrete 1533 

depreciation of office 1615 

factory, unit costs of 1595 

hospital, cost of 1523 

Panama-Pacific Exposition, 

cost per sq. ft 1526 

railway, concrete and brick. . . 1525 
rapid methods of estimating 

costs of 1510 

school, cost of 1521, 1522 



Caisson foundation for building, 

cost of 1579 

Camp, laborers, cost of con- 
structing 1604 

Canal, irrigation, cost of lining 

with concrete 

537, 539, 541, 542, 544 
Car loading by steam shovel .... 1 196 
sills and roofing, creosoting, 

cost of 1687 



1724 



INDEX 



Carpenter and masonry work, 

church, cost of 1569 

Carpenter and masonry work, 
estimating unit hour basis 

for 1575 

frame residence, cost of . . . . 1574 

Cast iron pipe prices 77 to 83 

Hf e of 378 

water mains, cost of construct- 
ing by day labor 393 

cost of laying 16 miles 392 

laying in Chicago 389 

Caulking, hand and pneumatic, 

efficiency of 402 

Cement bags, cost of 214 

bags, cost of cleaning 214 

gun, cost of repbinting sea 

wall 1454 

Charges, engineering services, 

schedule of 1616 

fixed plant 1660 

Chlorine tests for water treat- 
ment 433, 436 

Cisterns, reinforced concrete, 

cost of 267 

underground concrete, cost of 269 
hours of labor required on con- 
crete 273 

Cleaning water mains, cost of. . 425 
weeds and grass from track, 

cost of 1233 

Coagulation, costs of 439 

Cofferdam for small bridge pier, 

co^ of 1133 

Cofferdams, cost of . 1675 

steel, pocket type, cost of . . . . 1680 
weight of steel sheetings for 

round or box 1109 

Columns, concrete, economics 

of 1561 

Commissary supplies on a 

Canadian survey 1703 

Commodities, wholesale price 

index of 36, 59, 64, 65 

Compressed air, placing concrete 

in wall and dam by 220 

Concrete aqueduct, cost of sec- 
tions 369 

block, manufacturing cost of. 1611 
bridge, arch, single track, cost 

of constructing. 1160 

bridges, slab, through girder, 

deck girder, economy of. 1071 
building, items making up cost 

of 1546 

car house and substation, cost 

of 1549 

construction 208 

cubic yards per foot of dam . . 242 
delivered wet in road job. . . . 983 
depositing in bags under water 225 
floors, cost of resurfacing. . . . 1588 
heating in mixer drum with oil 

burner 215 

house, cost of stucco finish for 1560 
mixer, operating cost reduced 

with electric motor 218 

mixing and placing by hand, 

cost of 1556 

piles, cost of cutting off 1509 



Concrete piles, premoulded, cost 

of making and sinking 1507 

placing by compressed air ... . 220 
Concrete, placing by compressed 
air, instalUng equipment for, 

cost of 1556 

reservoir, cost of , 262 

roof tile, cost of manufactur- 
ing 1610 

standpipes, cost of 300 

surfaces, finishing by various 

methods, cost of 232 

viaduct, cost of 1086 

void percentages in coarse 

aggregate, determining. . 208 

watertower, cost of 300 

wear of pipe and conveyors for 224 
work on three small tanks, 

cost of 1671 

Concreting a swimming pool, 

cost of 1666 

winter, additional cost of . . . . 216 
Conduit, water, economic loca- 
tion of 516 

Construction, building 1510 

camps, ration list for 1702 

concrete 208 

Contract work, cost estimating 

for 12 

Contractors fees, on government 

work, schedule of 1661 

Conveyors, pipe and trough, 
wear of for concrete ma- 
terials 224 

Copper, prices of 94 

Core wall, concrete, cost of . . . . 255 
Corrosion, preventing by encas- 
ing steel structures in con- 
crete 1672 

Cost and prices, definition of . . . 2 

data, usefulness of old 2 

estimate, complete 18 

estimating for contract work. 12 
estimates, making rapid pre- 
liminary 6 

Cranes, locomotive, laying rail 

with 1206 

Creosote and zinc chloride for 

cross ties 1201 

piles, life of 1504 

Creosoted wood structures, An- 
nual cost of 1683 

Creosoting car sills and roofing, 

cost of 1687 

plant, open tank, operating 

cost of 1686 

Crib pier and breakwater, cost 

estimates for 1458 

Crushing rock, cost of 1698 

Culvert, box, reinforced con- 
crete 1102 

combination corrugated pipe 

and concrete, cost of . . . . 1106 
concrete and vitrified pipe, 

cost of 1107 

Culverts and highway bridges, 

economic 1027 

concrete arch and pipe, cost 

of 1101 

under canal, cost of 1103 



INDEX 



1725 



Culverts and highway bridges, 

economic design of 1099 

Curb and gutter, concrete, cost 

of constructing 1020 

granite, cost of laying 1024 

Curves for estimating steel 

bridge quantities 1031 

Cutting off concrete piles, cost 

of 1509 

submerged piles, cost of 1506 

Cyclopean masonry, cost of. . . . 246 



D 



Dam, Corbett Diversion, Sho- 
shone Irrigation Project .... 254 
cubic yards of concrete per 

foot of 242 

East Park, Portland Project, 

U. S. Rec'l. Service 251 

gravity, unit cost of concrete 

on 247 

hollow concrete, cost of 253 

Las Vegas arched masonry, 

cost of 249 

life of equipment used - in 

building by hydrauhc fill . 260 
Lost River multiple-arch 

curved, cost of 249 

Moline Pool, cost of concrete 

core wall 255 

small concrete, cost of con- 
structing 258 

Dams, earth, cost of concrete 

wave protection 292 

estimates of 242 

reservoirs and standpipes .... 236 
Damp-proof timber floor, cost 

of 1585 

Depreciation of office buildings. 1615 
Designs, municipal engineering, 

economic considerations. . . 29 
Disintegration of concrete sur- 
faces, cost of prevention .... 234 
Dismantling highway bridge, 

cost of 1056 

Ditcher used for grading and 

track-laying 1218 

loading rails 1211 

Ditches, cost of excavating with 

dynamite 630 

drainage, cost of maintaining. 632 
irrigation, cost of cleaning. . . . 546 

cost of maintaining 549 

Ditching, railway, costs of 

various methods 1195 

Docks and wharves 1469 

Dome, large steel, cost of erect- 
ing 1608 

Dragline cableway excavator in 

gravel dipping 1697 

excavating for aggregates, 

cost of 1695 

Drainage, ditch excavation with 

templet excavators 623 

ditch excavation with straddle 

ditch excavator 625 

ditches, cost of dredge excava- 
tion 617 



Drainage ditches, cost of main- 
taining 632 

excavating with dynamite 630 
ditching, cost of operating 

wheel-type excavators . . . 623 
dragline work, cost of . . . 

627, 629, 630 

dredging of main canals 622 

land, types of equipment best 

adapted for 616 

pumping plants for 652 

economy of steam and 

electric 656 

tile, cement 652 

drains 636, 648, 651 

underdrains 633 

Drains, tile, cost of 636, 648, 651 

Drawbridge, cable-life, cost of . . 1153 
Dredge excavation for drainage 

ditches 617 

Drill holes in tunnels, depth and 

number of . 1362 

Drills used in tunnehng, cost of 

repairs 1366 

Dust prevention by calcium 

chloride, cost of .• 877 

E 

Economic considerations in 
municipal engineering de- 
signs 29 

Economics, comparative, of 

trucking 152 

concrete columns 1561 

engineering 1, 3 

excavation 180 

Efficiency engineering, appHca- 

tion to shovehng 183 

Embankment, cost of raising 

using a steam shovel 1193 

cost of riprapping with wire 

bags 1448 

Encasing steel structures in con- 
crete, costs of 1672 

Engineering and inspection, 

street and sewer, cost of ... . 1619 
country road and bridge work, 

cost of. . 1622 

Maine highway work, cost of. 1623 
Ohio Highway Department, 

cost of 1623 

road project, cost of, ... . 1620, 1625 
services, schedule of charges 

for 1616 

sewage disposal plant, cost of. 1620 

small towns, cost of 1620 

surveying, and overhead costs 1616 

Engineers' schedule of fees 1618 

Erecting bridge, cost of 1058 

highway bridge, new truss and 

girder spans, cost of . . . . . 1056 

steel dome, cost of "... 1608 

steelwork, cost of . 1608 

structural steel, elevated rail- 
way improvements 1156 

Erection, cantonment buildings, 

data on 1603 

costs, double track railway 

bridge 1135 



1726 



INDEX 



Erection steel work, data on. . 1607 
Equipment, construction, rental 

charges for 132 

life of, used in building dam by 

hydraulic fill 260 

Estimates, cost, making rapid 

preliminary 6 

crib pier and breakwater con- 
struction 1458 

brick work 1568 

dams , . . . 242 

Estimating carpenter work, unit 

hour basis 1575 

costs of buildings, rapid 

methods 1510 

concrete buildings 1533 

data 1515 

diagrams for materials in 

standard spans 1029 

Estimating carpenter work fac- 
tors a contractor should 

consider 25 

how to estimate by the square 1510 

main features of 15 

steel bridg,e quantities, curves 

'for . 1031 

water main extension costs, 

table for 388 

Excavators, cost of straddle 

ditch excavator's work. . . . 625 
dragHne on ditch work, 627, 629, 630 
sewer, cost of trenching with. 665 
templet, cost of ditch excava- 
tion with 623 

wheel type, cost of drainage 

ditching '. 623 

Excavating, aggregates, with 

dragline, cost of 1695 

and backfilling trench by 

machines, cost of .385 

swimming pool, cost of 1667 

Excavation economics 180 

pick and shovel, rating table 

for 180 



Fence posts, wood, on railways, 

cost and serviceabiHty 1688 

Fences, board, three types of, 

costs of 1689 

Filter beds, cost of rebuilding. . 485 

economic size of 440 

sand, cost of cleaning 498 

Filters, operation for sewage 

treatment, cost of 765 

pressure type, operating costs 

of 461 

required sizes in water works 322 
Filtration plant, cost estimate of 23 

plants, cost of 

449, 450, 452, 454, 455, 457, 458 
cost of concrete construc- 
tion 481 

constructing 463, 481 

and operating. 441 

operating costs of 489 

Finishing concrete surfaces by 

various methods, cost of . . . 232 



Fire mains, high pressure, con- 

^ struction costs of 399 

protection installations, in- 
dustrial plants, cost of. . . 1601 
percent of waterworks plant 

chargeable to ........ . 340 

service system, cost of high 

pressure . • 347 

Fixed plant charges 1660 

Floor, concrete basement, labor 

cost of laying 1588 

slab, inexpensive method of 

testing strength 217 

granolithic, cost of 1588 

power house, concrete arch 

and I beam, cost of 1590 

timber, cost of damp-proof. . . 1585 
Floors, concrete, cost of re- 
surfacing 1588 

balcony, cost of 1590 

Flume, leaky, cost of repairing 562 
trestle for irrigation, cost of. . 561 
Form work, wooden, cost of for 

reservoir 283 

Forms, movable wall 230 

reinforced concrete construc- 
tion, labor cost of 226 

sliding, design and costs of, 

grain storehouse 227 

steel, reinforced concrete 

watertower 304 

Formula, bridge span 1111 

erection cost of bridge super- 
structure 1127 

timber trestle spans. 1116 

Formulas, steel roof truss 

weights 1598 

Foundation, caisson, for build^ 

ing 1579 

work, labor cost using port- 
able plant 223 

Foundations, dam, cost of grout- 
ing 281 

deep, relative costs of various 

types 1576 

output of steam pile drivers 

on 1583 

Frame houses, labor cost of con- 
structing 1574 

residence, cost of carpenter 

work 1574 

Freight cars, life and cost of 

maintenance 1255 

cars, natural and functional 

life of 1258 

handing wharves, costs of 

various types 1469 

Fuel, construction plant, wood 

and coal 1720 



Galvanized sheets, prices of . . . . 96 

Garbage, {See Refuse.) 

disposal 809 

Grading and tracklaying with a 

ditcher 1218 

equipment, rental charges. . . . 136 

railroad, cost of 1185 

street, with steam shovel. . . . 897 



INDEX 



1727 



Granolithic floor, cost of 1588 

Gravel and sand, washed, cost 

of 1693 

dipping, operating costs of 

dragline excavator 1697 

road maintenance 913 

washing plant, operating, cost 

of 1694 

Gravity type mixers, output of. 247 
Groined arch roof for reservoir, 

cost of 282 

Grout required for typical aque- 
duct tunnel 1360 

Grouting dam foundations, cost 

of 281 

Guard rails, wooden and con- 
crete, cost of 1691 

Gutter, brick, cost of laying. . . . 965 
cobble, cost of 1025 

H 

Handling stone from cars by slot, 

elevator and bin method . . . 1700 

Hauling 139 

gravel, motor trucks cheaper 

than teams 160 

Hauling, materials, road con- 
struction, portable rail- 
ways for 178 

with mules 144 

mules versus steam tractor, 

road work 159 

stone, cost with traction en- 
gine and spreading cars. . 174 
High pressure fire mains, cost of . 399 

service system, cost of 347 

Highway bridges and culverts . . . 1027 
bridge, small, cost of moving . . 1068 

steel, cost of 1064, 1091 

department, Ohio, cost of 

engineering 1623 

improvements, estimating 

costs of, pavements 890 

surveys, cost of 1630 

work, Maine, cost of engineer- 
ing 1623 

Highways, $18,000,000 worth, 

divisions of cost 1623 

Hollow concrete dam, cost of ... . 253 

Horses, health efficiency of 144 

Horse trucking 148 

House, concrete, cost of stucco 

finish for 1560 

Houses, small, comparative costs 

for 1914, 1920 and 1921. . . 1530 
Hydrants, "Cost of repairing by 

welding 404 

Hydraulic fill method of dam 

building, life of equipment. 260 

I 

Incasing steel pipe with con- 
crete, cost of 407 

Incinerators, high temperature, 

operating cost 838 

Indexes, price 34 

Industrial railway, roadbuilding, 

cost of 177 _ 



Inspection and engineering on 
street and sewer construc- 
tion, cost of 1619 

Iron and steel, prices of 98 

Irrigation , . . . 508 

canal, cost of lining with con- 
crete. . 537, 539, 541, 542, 544 

cost of enlargement 525 

check delivery structure, con- 
crete, cost of 578 

construction, cost of 582 

ditches, cost of cleaning 

546, 547, 548 

cost of maintaining 549 

scarifier used to loosen dirt. 524 
drops, reinforced concrete, 

cost of 575 

earth reservoirs, small, cost of 613 

flume, cost of repairing 562 

trestle, cost of 561 

pipe lines, cost of laying and 

construction 555 

concrete, cost of manufac- 
turing 557 

pipes for farms, cost of . . . . 551 

project, cost of reporting on. . 511 

pumping plants, cost of 610 

small, selection and cost. . . 593 

Irrigation, spray, cost of 587 

structures, cost of wooden and 

concrete 564 

Hf e of 570 

wells, cost of drilling equip- 
ment 614 

wooden pipes and flumes, cost 

of 559 

works, cost of 508 

cost of constructing. .... 514 

J 

Jacketing bridge substructure 

with concrete, cost of 1069 

Jetties, cost of rebuilding 1449 

Joints, cast iron mains, cost of 

cement 402 

poured and lead wool, effi- 
ciency of 402 

L 

Labor in building trades, output 

and cost of 1533 

saving devices in maintenance 

of way work 1229 

Land drainage 616 

reclamation, cost of sea wall. . 1466 

Lead, pig, prices of 87, 94 

Loaders, mechanical, cost of 

loading gravel by 1701 

Loading rail from road bed to 

cars, cost of 1211 

ditcher used for 1211 

time tests of 1210 

Location of mountain roads, cost 

of 1631 ,1637 

Locomotive repairs, renewals 

and depreciation, cost of . . . 1251 
Locomotives and freight cars, 

cost of in 1918 1253 

Lumber, wholesale prices of . . . . 72 



1728 



INDEX 



M 

Macadam, asphaltic, cost of con- 
struction 917, 923, 929 

pavement, cost of construct- 
ing 904 

removing, reworking and re- 
laying, cost of 925 

renewing surface 909 

roads, cost of maintenance. . . 910 
shaping up and rolling, cost 

of 909 

walks, cost of resurfacing 1008 

Maintenance, anchored and un- 

anchored track, cost of 1227 
city owned teams, cost of . . . . 139 
freight cars, life and cost of . . . 1255 
railway, increased by fast 

passenger trains 1228 

track, dragline bucket used 

for 1195 

treated ties 1201 

of way work, labor saving 

devices for 1229 

work, equation of track values 

for .... 1171 

Masonry and carpenter work, 
for church building, costs 

of 1569 

Material, determination of unit 

prices of 107 

Materials, building, 1921 costs of 1526 
Mattresses, brush, cost of for 

river bank protection 

1428, 1443 

plank, cost of 1441 

Measuring base lines, cost of . . . 1625 
Metal lathing and plastering, 

cost of 1594 

Metals, wholesale prices of 69 

Meter installations, outdoor, 

cost of 353 

reading, cost of 355 

repairs, cost of 356 

Meters, effect of on consumption 

of water 357 

number read per man per day 354 
Mixer, asphalt, cost of operating 921 
Mixers, pneumatic, operation of 218 
Mixing and placing concrete by 

hand, cost of 1556 

concrete, batch, continuous 

and hand 995 

reducing labor cost, 982 
Motor trailers for contractors' 

use 171 

trucking 147 

truck operation, economics 

and costs of 160 

trucks, distribution of operat- 
ing costs 174 

Moving small highway bridge, 

cost of 1068 

Mules, hauHng materials with. . 144 
Multiple-arch curved dam, cost 

of 249 

N 
Nails, wire, prices of 102 



O 

Oil burner for heating concrete 

in drum 215 

Operating expense 1660 

Ore, stocking, 'comparative costs 

of wood and steel trestles. . 1706 

Overhead costs, contractor's 
analysis from five year 

records 1659 

surveying and engineering 

costs 1616 

P 

Paint, applying, spray and hand 

tests 1714 

values, computing diagram for 1712 
Painting highway bridges, cost 

of .. 1716 

St. Louis Municipal bridge, 

cost of 1716 

Partitions, metal lath, cost of. . 1594 

Pavement, asphalt block, cost of 936 

brick paving, cost of toothing 968 

concrete bonus system for . , . 982 

crew organization for 975 

reinforced, cost of 986 

grouting granite block, cost of 999 

macadam, cost of constructing 904 

monolithic brick, labor cost on 958 
output of gang laying concrete 

base 993 

Pavement, removing, cost of . . . 998 

sheet asphalt, cost of 940 

cost of removing 1006 

wood block, cost of 1001 

Pavements, brick, cost of tearing 

up for trench 965 

cost of grouting 962 

cutting, cost of 1007 

estimating cost of highway 

i niprovements 890 

granite block, cost of redress- 
ing 998 

Paving brick, cost of cleaning . . 966 

labor hour requirements 953 

repairs, asphalt, cost of 948 

Pedestal concrete piles, cost of.. 1585 
Pier, bridge, cost of building 

cofferdam for 1133 

timber, cost of pile bents for. 1491 
Piers and abutments, viaduct, 

labor cost of • • 1131 

pile, timber and concrete 
decks, Hfe, cost and 

maintenance of 1484 

steamship, cost of 1477 

terminal, cost of 1472 

Pile driving, high records of . . . 1505 
drivers, steam, output of on 

foundations 1583 

small, for putting down 

fence posts 1691 

Piles, concrete, cost of cutting 

off 1509 

pedestal, cost of 1583 

creosoted, life of 1504 

Panama-Pacific Exposition, 

cost of driving 1504 



INDEX 



; 1729 



Piles, premoulded concrete, cost 

of making and sinking.. . 1507 
Raymond, rapid driving of . . . 1585 
sheet and bearing for dock, 

cost of 1494 

foundation and marine, cost 

of driving 1499 

treating with arenorius car- 

bolineum, cost of 1687 

submerged, cost of cutting off 1506 
Piling, concrete and wood, cost 

of 1581 

durability of untreated above 

water . 1503 

Pipe bending, cost of by machine 405 
cast iron, diagrams of cost per 

f oot 380 

concrete for irrigation, cost of 

manufacturing 557 

irrigation, cost of 551 

line, steel, maintenance of . . . 377 

wood stave 409 

cost of repairing 423 

lines, underground, cost of re- 
location survey 1639 

sewers, cost of 687 

steel, cost of incasing with 

concrete 407 

weight and miscellaneous 

data on 375 

wooden, cost of for irrigation . 559 

Pipes, service life of 424 

Placing concrete with tower and 

chute, labor costs of 1556 

Plans and road surveys, cost of . . 1630 
portable, foundation work, 

labor costs 223 

valuation, determination of 

unit prices of materials . . . 107 
Plastering and metal lathing, 

cost of 1594 

Plate-girder bridge, unit cost of 

constructing 1066 

Plow, snow, cost of snow 

removal 885 

Portland cement, prices of 90 

Power house, reinforced concrete 

of 1546 

Price indexes 34 

levels, past and future 34 

Prices and wages 34 

beams 102 



cast iron pipe, 
common brick . 



77 
90 
94 



copper 

galvanized sheets 

iron and steel . . ! 98 

lead 87, 94 

Portland cement 90 

reinforcing bars 88 

spelter 94 

steel and wrought iron pipe ... 84 

bars 100 

structural shapes 89 

tank plates 102 

tin plate 96 

vitrified sewer title 91 

water for building purposes. . 1610 
wholesale, important commo- 
dities 68 to 112 



Prices, wholesale lumber and 

building materials 72 

metals 69 

wire nails 102 

Protection, bank and shore 1428 

Pumping, cost of with gasoline 

engines 607 

plants, drainage 652 

economy of steam and 

electric for drainage 656 

irrigation, cost of selection 

of 593, 610 

Pumps, brake horse power 

required for 602 

centrifugal, capacities of 596 

double acting, single piston, 

capacities of 598 

small, cost of 603 

R 

Rail, relaying, time tests of . . . . 1221 

renewing, cost of 1220 

weights, economic 1168 

Railroad signal protection, cost 

of 1241 

surveys in Bolivia, cost of ... . 1636 
extensive, methods and 

costs 1631 

water softening for 1258 

Rails, handUng cost in relaying 

cut by turntable 1223 

Railway bridges 1111 

buildings of concrete and 

brick, cost of 1525 

ditching by various methods, 

cost of 1195 

Railway bridges, location sur- 
vey for short line, cost of . . . 1637 
maintenance cost increased by 

fast passenger trains. . . . 1228 
rails, cost of unloading. ..... 1207 

switches, unit costs for 1224 

track reconstruction, cost of . . 1172 
Rapid transit lines, approximate 

costs of 1166 

valuation, prices used in, 1173, 1184 

Ration list, a tropical 1703 

for construction camp 1702 

Raymond concrete foundation 

piles, rapid driving of 1585 

Reduction plants, cost of oper- 
ating 848 

Reforesting Wachusett reser- 
voir, cost of 1704 

Refuse, collecting and incinerat- 

i ng, cost of 843 

collection cost of motor truck 

operation 813 

and reduction, cost of 850 

and removal, city 817 

collecting, hauling and trans- 
porting 809 

destructor, operating with 

steam 846 

disposal by incineration, re- 
duction and feeding to 

swine 823 

annual operating record. . . 845 
economic methods for vari- 
ous sized cities 821 



1730 



INDEX 



Refuse, incinerators, high tem- 
perature, cost of opera- 
ting 838 

piggery, garbage, operation of 833 
reduction plants, cost of 

operating 848 

Reinforced concrete buildings, 

estimating for, cost of ... . 1533 

cistern, cost of 267 

forms for, cost of labor 226 

girder bridge, 113ft., cost of . . 1072 

power house, cost of 1546 

reservoir, small cost of ... . 263, 266 
standpipe, 300,000 gal., cost 

of 310 

storage house, cost of with 

sliding forms 227 

storehouse, cost of construct- 
ing 1547 

tanks, storm water, labor 

costs 277 

water tower, cost with steel 

forms 304 

wharf 1485 

Reinforcing a steel bridge with 

concrete, cost of 1158 

bars, prices of 88 

Relining brick lined reservoir 

with concrete, cost of .... . 289 
Relocation survey of under- 
ground pipe hues, cost of. . 1639 
Rental charges for construction 

equipment 132 

Repairing, wood stave pipe line, 

cost of •. 423 

Repairs and upkeep, large 

building, cost of 1612 

Repointing sea-wall with cement 

gun, cost of 1454 

Reservoir and conduits, filtra- 
tion works, cost of forms for 283 
brick lined, cost of relining 

with concrete 289 

concrete covered, cost of 262 

groined arch roof, cost of . . . . 282 
removing and renewing 

wooden roof, cost of 291 

small, reinforced concrete, 

cost of 266 

Reservoirs, approximate cost 
per 1,000,000 gal. water 

stored 242 

concrete lined oil storage, cost 

of 263 

large concrete lined water 

works, cost of 242 

small for irrigation, cost of . . . 613 
reinforced concrete, cost of . 263 
storage tanks, dimensions of 

for economical design. . . 260 

standpipes and drains 236 

Resurfacing concrete floors, cost 

of 1588 

Resurvey, topographic, cost of. . 1648 
Retaining wall, cantilever type 
of reinforced concrete, cost 

of 1708 

with rear anchorage, rein- 
forced concrete, cost of. . 1710 
walls, economic height-limit of 1091 



Retaining wall, plain and reinforced, 

costs of 1709 

Riprapping embankment with 

wire bags, cost of 1448 

River bank protection, cost with 

mattresses and mats 1443 

Road building equipment, de- 
preciation charges on 893 

building industrial railway 

used in, cost of 177 

outfits, cost of hiaintenance 893 
construction, grading, cost of. 895 
macadam, using industrial 

railway for hauHng 903 

concrete, cost with bituminous 

wearing surface 987 

county, cost of bridge work 

and engineering 1622 

isolated, cost of surveys 1630 

macadam, rate of scarifying. . 912 
maintenance, cost with trac- 
tor, trucks and screen . . . 1004 
materials, cost of mixing 

bituminous 928 

oiUng, cost of 914, 916, 917 

project, milHon dollar, cost of 

engineering 1625 

rollers, steam and gasoline, 

cost of operating 908 

sand-clay, methods and cost 

of constructing 898 

surfacing, effect of length of 

haul on cost of 905 

surveys, cost of 1 630 

and plans, cost of 1630 

work, engineering supervision, 

cost of 1620 

Roads and pavements 890 

asphalt macadam, cost of con- 
struction 917 

surface drive, cost of con- 
structing 942 

brick output of paving 

gang 958 

labor cost on 959 

cost of 957 

gravel, estimating quantity 

and cost of hauling 912 

maintenance of 913 

macadam, maintenance, cost 

of 910 

renewing surfacing, cost of . 909 
repairing ruts, cost of. ... . 910 
mountain, cost of location. . . 1631 
plant for iDuilding bituminous, 

cost of 933 

Rock, crushing, cost of 1698 

Rollers, road, cost of operating 

steam and gasoline 908 

Rolling stock, railway, hfe of . . . 1252 
Roof, reservoir, groined arch, 

cost of 282 

Roofing and car sills, cost of 

creosoting 1687 

Roofs, composition and gravel, 

cost of laying 1594 

Rubble mound breakwater, per- 
centage of voids, settlement 
of 1457 



INDEX 



1731 



s 

^M and gravel, washed, cost of 1693 
bin, reinforced concrete, cost 

of a 1665 

Scarifying macadam road, rate 

of 912 

Scraper for backfilling trenches. 386 
Sea-wall for land reclamation, 

cost of 1466 

repointing with cement gun, 

cost of 1454 

Service pipes, life of 424 

Settling tanks, cost of cleaning . . 

503, 506 
Sewage, activated sludge and 
Imhoflf process, costs of ... . 

779, 781, 784 

power costs 781 

cleaning catch basins 805 

disposal plant, cost estimate of 21 

cost of engineering on 1620 

filters, economics of 758 

operating trickling, cost of. 763 

treatment 753 

disinfection, cost of 754 

operating contact beds, cost 

of 769 

placing ashes for filtering 

material 770 

plant, cost estimating for . . 777 

plants, cost of 753 

cost of earthwork, filter 

and drains 776 

sand filtration, cost of 768 

works, cost of 772, 778 

Sewer, brick and concrete, cost 

of canstruction 733 

cost of constructing under 

compressed air in tunnel 1307 

cleaning, cost of 746 

concrete, labor cost of 716 

8 ft., cost of 701 

construction, cost of 678 

concrete, miscellaneous 

costs 723 

deep trenching with Carson 

machine, cost of 668 

large concrete 709 

mixing and placing concrete 

by hand 719 

maintenance cost of 746 

outlet, cost of tunnel in clay . . 1335 

iJipe, concrete, cost of 700 

storm, 3 ft. labor costs on 732 

6 ft., cost of 704 

tile and concrete, cost of 722 

trench excavation, progress 

with machines 672 

trenching, cranes and buckets, 

cost with 673 

deep, cost of 671 

excavator, cost with 665 

machine, progress and time 

of force 673 

tunnel in hard rock, cost of . . . 1306 

Sewers 665 

average cost of 676 

brick and concrete, cost of . . . 737 

bricklaying, cost of 724 



Sewers, concrete, labor costs on.' 701 

pipe, cost of 687 

reinforced concrete, cost of . . . 720 

valuation and depreciation of 748 
Shafts in rock and earth, labor 

costs of 1280 

Shed, cotton storage, cost of . . . 1526 
Sheet piles, treating with arenar- 

ius carbolineum 1687 

Sheeting, sewer trench ." 676 

steel, weight of for cofferdams, 1109 

trench . 1499 

Shoveling, application of effi- 
ciency engineering in 183 

Shovels, economic choice of for 

construction work 192 

Sidewalk, cement tile, cost of. . . 1010 

cost of constructing 1017 

cutting edge of, cost of 1019 

grading and constructing, cost 

of 1013 

Sidewalks, output of gang con- 
structing 1016 

Signal, protection, railroad, cost 

of 1241 

Signals, interlocking, when to 

install. 1238 

Siphon, concrete, cost of, Los 

Angeles aqueduct 360 

Siphons, concrete, cost of, U. S. 

Reclamation Service 364 

Slab designs, relative cost of 

different 1560 

Slip scraper, cost of unloading 

crushed rock by 1699 

Snow removal 879 

cost of 882 

motor trucks for 887 

operating costs of tractor. . . . 885 

rotary plow for, cost of 885 

rollers, costs of breaking 

country roads 889 

Snowsheds, timber, life and cost 

of 1251 

Spelter, prices of 94 

Stadia surveys of 50,000 acre 

flood control basin, cost of. 1651 
Stadium, concrete. Palmer Mem- 
orial, cost of the 1664 

reinforced concrete, cost of . . . 1663 
Standpipe, concrete, 300,000 gal. , 

cost of 310 

steel, 2,500,000 gal., cost of. . 313 

Youngstown, Ohio, cost of . . . 312 

Standpipes, concrete, cost of ... . 300 

reservoirs and dams 236 

steel, Massachusetts, cost of. . 311 

Steam railways 1166 

Steam shovel, analysis of costs 

and methods of work 199 

shovel car loading with 1196 

street grading, with cost of. . 897 
shovels, number of wagons 

required for hauling from . . . 145 
Steamship piers, Philadelphia, 

Pa. , costs of 1477 

Steel and iron, prices of 98 

and wrought iron pipe, prices 

of 84 

bars, prices of 100 



1732 



INDEX 



Steel and iron, cofferdam, pocket 

type, cost of 1680 

reinforcement, diagram for 

cost of placing 212 

Steelwork, cost of erecting 1608 

data on erection of 1607 

Sterilization plants, operating 

cost of 436 

Stock piles, crushed stone. ..... 28 

Storage dams, large, cost per 

acre-foot 237 

house, car, reinforced concrete 

and brick, cost of 1565 

reinforced concrete, cost of 

constructing 1547 

reservoirs, cost per million cu. 

f t 236 

shed, cotton, cost of 1526 

tanks or reservoirs, economical 

dimensions of 260 

Street asphalt, cost of 946 

cleaning by motor driven 

squeegees 863 

cost of 855 

machine flushers, cost of . . . "864 

practice in cities 859 

time studies, factors and 

standards 851 

vacuum cleaners, cost of . . . 864 
dust prevention by calcium 

chloride 877 

flushing and scrubbing, cost of 874 

cost of at Chicago 728 

costs, equipment and prin- 
ciples developed. . . . 868 

of motor flushers 873 

trolley flushers 875 

sprinkling, costs with motor 

and horse tanks 876 

clearing and snow removal. 851 
treatment, comparative costs 
of bituminous applica- 
tions and water sprinkling 876 
Streets, cost of snow removal, 879, 883 

Structural shapes, prices of 89 

steel prices 104 

Structures, creosoted wood, an- 
nual cost of 1683 

Stucco finish for concrete houses, 

cost of 1560 

Surfacing and smoothing track, 

records of work 1233 

Survey, location for short line 

railroad, cost of 1637 

relocation, underground pipe 

lines, cost of 1639 

triangulation, cost of a 1636 

Surveying, engineering and over- 
head costs 1616 

Surveys, federal aid roads pro- 
jects, Kansas, cost of 1626 

highway, cost of 1630 

isolated road, cost of 1630 

railroad, cost of 1636 

extensive, methods and cost 1631 
stadia, 50,000 acre flood- 
control basin, cost of . . . . 1651 

topographic. : 1640, 1654 

Swimming pool, concreting and 

excavating, cost of . . . 1666-1667 
out-door, cost of 1668 



Tank, data on life and cost of 

steel and iron water 317 

plates, prices of 102 

steel tower 314 

wooden gravity sprinkler, 

30,000 gal 314 

life of in railway service. . . 315 
Tanks, concrete storm water, 

labor costs on 277 

work on three small, cost of. . 1671 

setthng, cost of cleaning 503 

Tarvia, macadam, cost of ..... . 932 

Terminal piers, Norfolk, Va., 

cost of 1472 

Thawing ground, steam, cost of. 380 
water mains and services, 

methods and costs 425 

Ties, seasoned and unseasoned, 

costs of treating 1684 

treated, effect on maintenance 

expense ., . 1201 

Tile, concrete roof, cost of 

manufacturing 1610 

vitrified sewer, prices of 91 

Tin plate, prices of 96 

Topographic resurvey, cost of. . 1648 

surveys 1654 

Topographical surveys and tjieir 

costs, methods of marking. . 1640 

Tower, steel, 75 ft. water 314 

Track, anchored and unan- 
chored, cost of maintain- 
ing 1227 

cleaning grass and weeds from, 

cost of 1233 

elevation work, cost of con- 
crete abutments and 

pedestals 1128 

laying and grading with a 

ditcher 1218 

lift, 2 in., cost of making. . . . 1219 
narrow gage, cost of changing. 

miles to standard gage 1247 
reconstruction, railway, cost 

of 1172 

values, equation of for main- 
tenance work 1171 

Tracklaying with machine cost 

of 1212, 1214 

Traction engine, cost of hauling 

stone with 174 

Tractor for snow removal, 

operating costs for 885 

Trailers for use with contractors' 

motor trucks 171 

Trench excavation and back- 
filling by machines, cost of. 385 

sheeting 1499 

sewer 676 

work, cost of thawing ground 

for 380 

cost of hand drilling granite 675 
Trenches, backfilling with 

scraper 386 

Trenching, application of scien- 
tific management to 194 

average daily progress with 

sewer trenching machines 672 



i 



INDEX 



1733 



Ik 



Trenching, deep sewer, cost of . . 671 
cost with Carson machine. . 668 
machine, cost of for water 

mains 383 

machines 381 

projgress and time of force on' 

sewer work with machine 673 
IT sewer, cost with cranes and 

buckets 673 

cost of in granite 675 

Trestle for irrigation flume 561 

timber, span formula 1116 

Trestles, cost of filling using 

steam shovel 1193 

wood and steel, for stocking 

ore, comparative costs of 1706 
Triangulation survey, cost of . . . 1636 
Trucking, comparative econom- 
ics 152 

horse 148 

motor 147 

Trusses, steel roof, formulas 

for weights of 1596 

Tunnel and shaft progress, 
effect of adequate ventila- 
tion 1367 

aqueduct, quantity of grout 

required for 1360 

brick lined for water main, 

cost of 1341 

circular bricklined for water 

works 1336 

comparative cost of lining 
with and without com- 
pressed air 1414 

Copper Mountain, cost of ... . 1302 
driving by station men, cost 

of 1295 

economy effected by Rogers 

Pass 1424 

in clay, cost of 1335 

lining by pneumatic mixer. . . 

1359, 1399 
concrete and brick, cost of. 1415 

cost of 1396 

output with pneumatic 

mixer 1406 

special car plant 1403 

Los Angeles Aqueduct, cost of 1327 
organization and progress, St. 

Louis Water Works 1324 

pneumatic concreting of 1407 

relining brick with concrete. . 1408 
Tunnel and shaft progress, 
small, for sewer in hard 

rock, cost of 1306 

Tallulah Falls hydro-electric de- 
velopment, cost of 1290 

water-pipe, cost of 1346 

Tunnels, Beckwith Pass 1368 

Catskill Aqueduct, overbreak- 

age in 1360 

cost of twenty ^ . . 1261 

depth and number of m-ill 

holes 1362 

land sections of North River, 

cost of 1391 

large 1368 

Mount Royal 1370 

rock, cost of 1280 



Tunnels, rock and earth, labor 

cost.. 1280 

Rogers Pass 1377 

St. Paul Pass 1386 

small . 1261 

waterworks, cost of 1310 

Tunnehng, air pressures used in . 1366 

excess yardage, cost of 1362 

repairs of drills, cost of 1366 

soft earth, using poling board 

and shield methods 1392 

Turntable, small, cuts cost of 

handhng rails 1223 

Turntables, cost of 1238 

U 

Underdrains, tile, cost of 633 

Unloading crushed rock by sHp 

scraper, cost of 1699 

railway rails, cost of 1207 

stone of rubble mound break- 
water, cost of 1457 

Upkeep and repairs on large 

building, costs of 1612 



Ventilation, tunnel, effect on 

progress 1367 

Viaduct, concrete, cost of 1086 

construction for hillside road. 1091 
pier and abutments for, labor 

cost of 1131 

Void percentages, value of 
determining in coarse 

aggregate 208 

Voids and settlement in rubble 
mound breakwater, per- 
centage of 1457 

W 

Wage levels, past and future. . . 1.13 

Wages, average building 124 

common labor 124, 128 

Warehouses, Navy Yard, cost 

of 1522 

Waste, (see Refuse). 

Water conduit location, 

economic 516 

building purposes, price of 1610 

distribution system, mainte- 
nance costs, Chicago 380 

leakage survey, cost of 357 

main, 8 in., cost of laying. ... 397 

cleaning, cost of 425 

extension costs, table for 

estimating 388 

mains, cast iron, 18 in., cost 

of constructing day labor 393 

cost of at Los Angeles 390 

Water conduit, location; cost of 

at Hartford, Conn 391 

methods and costs of thaw- 
ing 425 

meters, maintaining and 

operating costs of. ... . 356 

setting 25,000, cost of 350 

pipe, cast iron, cost of laying 

389, 392, 395 



1734 



INDEX 



Water conduit, cast iron, life 

of 378 

extensions, cost of laying. . . 398 

purification, cost of 490 

plants 447 

softening for railroads, cost of 1258 
tank, iron and steel, life and 

cost of 317 

steel, condition after 30 

years' service 316 

cost and weight, 350, 000 

gal. capacity 312 

tower, concrete, cost of 300 

construction using steel 

forms 304 

treatment by copper sul- 
phate 436, 487 

plants . 433 

^ works 318 

construction and operating 

costs 318 

cost in cities of from 9,000 

to 10,000 population 331 

data for small towns and 

villages 324 

filters, required sizes of . . . . 322 
plant, per cent chargeable 

to fire protection 340 

small, cost and operating 

data for 329, 332 

subdivision of cost in per 
cent of tunnel, brick 
lined, cost of 1335 



Water conduit, subdivision, 

total cost 343 

organization and progress 

on 1324 

tunnels, cost of 1310 

Waterproofing concrete surfaces 234 
Wave protection for earthen 

dams, concrete, cost of . . . . 292 
Welding, cost of repairing fire 

hydrants by 404 

oxy-acetylene, cost of 1711 

Wells, cost of water supply 431 

dug and driven, merits and 

costs of 429 

Wharf, reinforced concrete 1485 

Wharves and docks 1469 

freight handling, costs of 

various types 1469 

Wood and concrete piling, 

comparative cost of 1581 

stave pipe, cost of 409 

cost of repairing 423 

Wooden water tank, life of in 

railway service 315 

Wrecking buildings, cost of . . . . 1717 
Wrought iron and steel pipe, 

prices of 48 



Yardage excess in tunneling, cost 

of 1362 



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